GENERAL

CHEMISTRY 2
MODULE 1
Intermolecular Forces of
Liquids and Solids

Specialized Subject - Science, Technology, Engineering & Mathematics (STEM)

Subject Teacher: Ms. Janine Faye B. Tagarda
Term: 1st Semester, SY 2021 - 2022
What Is This Module About?
As identified in General Chemistry 1, matter exists in three different phases – solid, liquid,
and gas. Some matter can also exist in all three states. One example is water. At room
temperature, water is a liquid, and the molecules in it move slowly. When water is heated, its
liquid state will change to gas; the molecules will be moving very fast and taking up space
everywhere. When heat is reduced, the vapor molecules slow down and gradually turn back into
liquid. When frozen, the molecules will be extremely slow and move very little. They will hold on
‘to each other, turning the water into solid. Lastly, placing the ice at room temperature will make
the ice a liquid.
You have also previously learned that matter has different characteristics. Ice melts easier
than salt; ethanol evaporates faster than water; hexane has a higher boiling point than methane;
and salt is soluble in water but not in nonpolar liquids.
In this module, you will go beyond these and discuss the various intermolecular forces of
attraction in association to these properties of liquids and solids. Furthermore, you will also be
able to explain the nature of transition of matter from one state to another.

1 | General Chemistry 2 Module 1 –Intermolecular Forces of Liquids and Solids

 What Will You Learn?
The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course. The
module is divided into four lessons, namely:
• Lesson 1 – Intermolecular Forces of Attraction
• Lesson 2 – Properties of Liquids
• Lesson 3 – Types and Properties of Solids
• Lesson 4 – Phase Changes

After going through this module, you are expected to:

 use the kinetic molecular model to explain properties of liquids and solids;
 describe and differentiate the types of intermolecular forces;
 describe the following properties of liquids, and explain the effect of intermolecular
forces on these properties: surface tension, viscosity, vapor pressure, boiling point, and
molar heat of vaporization;
 explain the properties of water with its molecular structure and intermolecular forces;
 describe the difference in structure of crystalline and amorphous solids;
 interpret the phase diagram of water and carbon dioxide; and
 determine and explain the heating and cooling curve of a substance.

Flow of Instruction
Lesson Focus Topics
1. Intermolecular • use the kinetic molecular model to explain • Kinetic Molecular
Forces of properties of liquids and solids Theorem of Liquids
Attraction • describe and differentiate the types of and Solids
intermolecular forces • Intermolecular
Forces
2. Properties of • describe the following properties of liquids, and • Properties of Liquids
Liquids explain the effect of intermolecular forces on • Structure and
these properties: surface tension, viscosity, Properties of Water
vapor pressure, boiling point, and molar heat of
vaporization
• explain the properties of water with its
molecular structure and intermolecular forces
3. Types and • describe the difference in structure of • Types and Properties
Properties of crystalline and amorphous solids of Solids
Solids
4. Phase Changes • interpret the phase diagram of water and • Phase Changes
carbon dioxide • Phase Diagram

2 | General Chemistry 2 Module 1 –Intermolecular Forces of Liquids and Solids

 What Do You Already Know?
Make sure that you have answered the Pretest posted in your Google classroom before going
through the lessons here in this module.

Feedback

If you got a perfect score, that’s great! You are already familiar with the contents of this
module. However, you may still need to study this module to refresh your memory and learn new
concepts. If your score is from 20 to 29, you already have an idea with the content of this module.
If your score is below 20, please read the module carefully. This way, you can familiarize yourself
with the topics to be discussed.

3 | General Chemistry 2 Module 1 –Intermolecular Forces of Liquids and Solids

 How Do You Rate Yourself?

SELF-RATING COMPETENCY CHECKLIST

I can do this,
I cannot
I can do this but I need to I am learning
do this
LEARNING COMPETENCY very well learn more and how to do this
yet
(Expert) improve (Apprentice)
(Novice)
(Practitioner)
Use the kinetic molecular
model to explain properties
of liquids and solids
Describe and differentiate the
types of intermolecular forces
Describe the following
properties of liquids, and
explain the effect of
intermolecular forces on
these properties: surface
tension, viscosity, vapor
pressure, boiling point, and
molar heat of vaporization
Explain the properties of
water with its molecular
structure and intermolecular
forces
Describe the difference in
structure of crystalline and
amorphous solids
Interpret the phase diagram
of water and carbon dioxide
Determine and explain the
heating and cooling curve of
a substance

4 | General Chemistry 2 Module 1 –Intermolecular Forces of Liquids and Solids

 Lesson Intermolecular Forces
1 of Attraction
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this
lesson, you should be
able to:
1. use the kinetic
molecular model to
explain properties
of liquids and
solids;
2. describe and
differentiate the
types of
intermolecular
forces

The various properties of solids and liquids highly depend on the intermolecular forces
that hold their particles together. The interaction of these substances is also influenced by
intermolecular forces. A solute can interact with a solvent, forming a solution with different
properties compared to those of the starting substances. Solutions can undergo chemical
reactions that may involve the production or absorption of heat. These concepts are among the
topics of this module.
In this lesson, the kinetic molecular theory is used as the concept of intermolecular forces
of attraction to explain the different properties and interactions of solids and liquids.

5 | General Chemistry 2 Module 1 –Intermolecular Forces of Liquids and Solids

 Let’s Read

The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Liquids and Solids

The kinetic molecular theory of gases points out that particles of gas are far apart from
each other and are arranged in a random way. There is a weak force between the gas molecules;
hence a gas can fill up any container of any shape and size. It is also the most compressible of the
three states of matter, has a lower density than solids and liquids, and has a high molecular
velocity.
These properties of gases differ from those of liquids and solids. Unlike in gases, the
molecules of solids and liquids are nearer to each other. For liquids, the molecules are not freely
moving and, thus, are bound by an intermolecular force of attraction. This makes liquids only
slightly compressible, have higher density than gases, and have a definite volume.
On the other hand, solids behave differently from liquids and gases because the
molecules in solids are closely packed to one another. The molecules in solids are held together
by different intermolecular forces of attraction and electrostatic attraction. Because the distance
between the molecules is very small, solids cannot be compressed. The particles cannot move
freely from place to place; hence, they have a fixed shape and volume.

Figure 1. The three states of matter.

6 | General Chemistry 2 Module 1 –Intermolecular Forces of Liquids and Solids

 Let’s Study

Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

The attractive forces between neighboring particles (including molecules, atoms, and
ions) are called intermolecular forces. Intermolecular forces can be Van der Waals forces,
interactions between neutral molecules, namely dipole-dipole interaction, dipole-induced
dipole, and dispersion forces. It can also be ion-dipole, ion-induced dipole, and hydrogen
bonding.

7 | General Chemistry 2 Module 1 –Intermolecular Forces of Liquids and Solids

 1. Dipole-dipole Interaction
This type of attraction exists between two polar molecules. As discussed in
chemical bonding, polar molecules are formed when electrons are shared unequally,
resulting in one atom being partially negative (𝛿 −) and the other being partially positive
(𝛿+). The electronegativity property of an element determines to which atom the shared
electrons are closer. Electronegativity is a property of an atom to attract shared electrons.
A partial negative charge is given to a more electronegative atom since the shared
electrons are pulled towards this atom.
Examples: 𝐻2 𝑂 (H is 𝛿 + and O 𝛿 −)
𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻 (C and H are 𝛿 + and is 𝛿 −)
Dipole-dipole interaction exists when a partially positive atom of one polar
molecule is attracted to partially negative atom of the second molecule.

2. Dipole-Induced Dipole Interaction

For polar and nonpolar molecules, an interaction called dipole-induced dipole
exists. In the presence of a polar molecule, a nonpolar molecule is forced to become a
dipole. The polar molecule in a nearby nonpolar molecule causes the electrons of the
latter to be distributed on one side allowing the other side to be positive (or to be
distorted), forming an induced dipole.

3. Dispersion Forces
Dispersion forces, also known as London forces, exist in both polar and nonpolar
molecules or in molecular compounds formed via equal sharing of electron (i.e.
𝐻2 , 𝐹2 , 𝐶𝑙2 , 𝐵𝑟2 , 𝑂2 , 𝑁2 , 𝐶𝐻4 , 𝐶2 𝐻6 , 𝐶𝐶𝑙4). Therefore, dispersion forces exist between all
species. These forces arise temporarily when the electrons move in a direction away from

8 | General Chemistry 2 Module 1 –Intermolecular Forces of Liquids and Solids

 the nucleus, resulting in an induced dipole within the molecule. The creation of induced
dipole allows attraction between two molecules.
4. Ion-dipole Attraction
The ion-dipole attraction exists between an ion and a polar molecule. However,
the strength of the interaction depends on the charge and the size of the ion, the
magnitude of the dipole moment, and the size of the molecule. Huge ions and molecules
exhibit low interaction to dipole because of the distance separating them, while an ion
with high charge value shows greater attractive force.
Polar molecules can dissolve ionic compounds such as NaCl as a result of ion-
dipole interaction. The 𝑁𝑎+ ions are attracted to 𝛿 − oxygen, and 𝐶𝑙 − ions are attracted
to 𝛿 + hydrogen.

5. Ion-Induced Dipole Interaction

The formation of induced dipole can also be caused by an approach of ions in the
nonpolar molecule. This attractive interaction between ion and the induced dipole
(nonpolar) is called ion-induced dipole.

9 | General Chemistry 2 Module 1 –Intermolecular Forces of Liquids and Solids

 6. Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrogen bonding is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction. It exists in polar
molecules that contain an H atom covalently bonded to highly electronegative atoms such
as F, O, and N. Being attached to N, O, and F, hydrogen becomes positive because of the
pull of the adjacent atom for the shared electrons. An example of molecule exhibiting
hydrogen bonding is methanol (𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻), as illustrated in Figure 1.2.

Overall, H-bonding is stronger than dipole-dipole forces and dispersion forces.

Example:

Identify the types of intermolecular forces of attraction that exist between the following pairs:
a. H2O only
b. CH4 (methane) only
c. HCl and HI
d. CH4 and CCl4
e. Na+ ion and H2O

Answers:
a. In water, more than one H2O molecule exists. Each molecule contains hydrogen atom
bonded to an electronegative oxygen atom; hence, hydrogen bonding exists with
dispersion forces.
b. Methane is a nonpolar molecule. Thus, only dispersion forces will predominate between
CH4 molecules.
c. Both HCl and HI are polar molecules, so diploe-dipole interactions and dispersion forces
exist between the two. The hydrogen in each molecule is not bonded to a small highly
electronegative atom. Therefore, hydrogen bonding does not exist.
d. CH4 and CCl4 are both nonpolar, so only dispersion forces exist between molecules.
e. H2O is a polar molecule, while Na+ is an ion, therefore, two intermolecular forces of
attraction are possible – the ion-dipole attraction and dispersion forces.

10 | General Chemistry 2 Module 1 –Intermolecular Forces of Liquids and

Solids
 Let’s Try This

Activity 1.
Determine the type/s of intermolecular forces that exist in each of the following systems:
1. K+ and H2O
2. C6H14
3. C6H14 and H2O
4. CH3CH2OH
5. H2S and HBr
6. H2 and Br2
7. SO2
8. Na2SO4 and H2O
9. CH3COOH and H2O
10. Cl- and C6H14

Let’s Remember!

 The phase of a substance is determined by the balance between the kinetic energy of
its particles and the intermolecular forces of attraction that hold the particles together.
 The intermolecular forces of attraction are dipole-dipole (between polar particles), ion-
dipole (between an ion and a polar particle), London dispersion (all substances), and
hydrogen bonding (between particles that contain H bonded to a highly electronegative
atom).

11 | General Chemistry 2 Module 1 –Intermolecular Forces of Liquids and

Solids
 Lesson
2
Properties of Liquids
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this lesson,
you should be able to:
1. describe the following
properties of liquids,
and explain the effect
of intermolecular
forces on these
properties: surface
tension, viscosity,
vapor pressure, boiling
point, and molar heat
of vaporization
2. explain the properties
of water with its
molecular structure
and intermolecular
forces

As defined earlier, molecules are held together by various intermolecular forces of

attraction that give rise to unique properties of liquid.
In this lesson, you will learn more about the properties of liquids.

1 | General Chemistry 2 Module 1 –Intermolecular Forces of Liquids and Solids

 Experiment at Home!

Laboratory Activity 1. VISCOSITY OF LIQUIDS

Objective: Determine the viscosity of some liquids
Materials: plastic straw, paper clip, cardboard, water, oil, liquid soap, acetone, alcohol, small
measuring cup (for medicine)
Procedure:
1. Take a plastic straw and seal one end by folding over a 1.5 cm portion. Insert a paper clip
over the folded end.
2. Pour 10 mL water through the open end of the straw.
3. Seal the open end, using a paper clip. There must be a 1 cm column of air trapped within
the straw.
4. Repeat steps 1-3 with oil, liquid soap, acetone, and alcohol.
5. Tape the straws horizontally and side by side on a piece of cardboard.
6. Label the liquids
7. Starting with the air bubbles at one end of the tubes, quickly turn the setup so that the
straws are held vertically. Compare the rates that the bubbles rise. The easier the bubbles
rise, the lower the viscosity. Rank the viscosity.
Data and Results:

Liquid Rank Describe the intermolecular forces exhibited by the liquid

Water
Oil
Liquid soap
Acetone
Alcohol

Guide Questions:
1. Which among the liquids has the highest viscosity? Why?
2. Which among the liquids has the lowest viscosity? Why?

Conclusion:

2 | General Chemistry 2 Module 1 –Intermolecular Forces of Liquids and Solids

 Let’s Study

Properties of Liquids
Surface Tension
One of the consequences of the intermolecular
forces of attraction is that it minimizes the number of
molecules at the surface of the liquid. Take a look at
Figure 1.6. The water molecules in the mass of a liquid
are pulled in all directions by intermolecular forces,
while molecules at the surface of the liquid are pulled
only downward and sideways but not upward. The
intermolecular forces cause the surface to tighten,
Figure 1.6. Intermolecular forces within and at the
giving rise to a term called surface tension. surface of water

Surface tension is the amount of energy needed to conquer the force between molecules
at the liquid’s surface for it to be stretched. Therefore, if the liquid has strong intermolecular
forces, its surface tension will be high.
One application of surface tension is observed when one cleans the floor with wax, and
then suddenly, a little amount of water drips. Water forms spherical drops. What do you think is
the reason behind this?
The hydrogen bonding between water molecules is very strong that it makes the surface
tension high. Thus, this causes the water to “bead up”. Remember that, a spherical shape
encloses the greatest volume with the least amount of surface.
The liquid molecules interact with each
other; however they also interact with the
molecules in the solid. The attraction between
liquid-liquid (like molecules) is called cohesion
while the attraction between solid-liquid (unlike
molecules) is called adhesion. The relative
strengths of the two explain a variety of
apparent phenomena. For example, as shown in
Figure 1.7, when a capillary tube (has numerous
polar bonds on its surface) has been dipped in
Figure 2.7. Capillary action
mercury, the height of the mercury in the

3 | General Chemistry 2 Module 1 –Intermolecular Forces of Liquids and Solids

capillary tube is below the surface. However, replacing the mercury with water will result in
elevation, causing the water to move upward.
This occurs because the interaction between mercury and the capillary tube (adhesion) is
lower than the interaction between the mercury atoms (cohesion). On the other hand, the
interaction between water and the capillary tube (adhesion) is greater than the interaction
between the water molecules (cohesion).

Viscosity
Volcanoes are known for their tendency to spew lava and magma which cause serious
and life-threatening disasters, but what determines whether a volcano extrudes magma mildly
or violently?
This can be determined by the magma’s viscosity. The more viscous the substance is, the
greater is its resistance to flow. If the magma is less viscous, it will be extruded with ease.
However, a highly viscous magma is more difficult to force through a vent. The vent may become
plugged with viscous magma, which results in a build-up of gases. A great pressure increases;
hence, a potentially explosive eruption may occur.
The viscosity of a substance depends on the intermolecular force that holds its molecules
together. Table 1.1 shows the viscosity of some common liquids at 20℃.
TABLE 1.1 – Viscosity and intermolecular forces of some common liquids at 20°C

Liquid Intermolecular Forces Viscosity

Acetone (𝐶3 𝐻6 𝑂) Dipole-Dipole and Dispersion 3.16 𝑥 10−4
Benzene (𝐶6 𝐻6 ) Dispersion 6.25 𝑥 10−4
Carbon tetrachloride (𝐶𝐶𝑙4 ) Dispersion 9.65 𝑥 10−4
Ethanol (𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻) Hydrogen Bonding and Dispersion 1.20 𝑥 10−4
Glycerol (𝐶8 𝐻8 𝑂3 ) Hydrogen Bonding and Dispersion 1.49
Water (𝐻2 𝑂) Hydrogen Bonding and Dispersion 1.01 𝑥 10−3

With the use of these data, it is therefore possible to predict the strength of the
intermolecular forces that exist in the substance – the higher the viscosity, the stronger the
intermolecular forces. As mentioned earlier, H-bonding is stronger than dipole-dipole forces and
dispersion forces. Carbon tetrachloride and benzene, which are held by dispersion forces, also
have lower viscosity than acetone which is bounded by dipole-dipole forces. Ethanol, water, and
glycerol have high viscosity attribute to the hydrogen bonding.

4 | General Chemistry 2 Module 1 –Intermolecular Forces of Liquids and Solids

 However, as noted, glycerol is marked with the highest viscosity. Each glycerol has the
following structure:

Therefore, each molecule has 3 hydrogens capable of H-bonding.

Vapor Pressure
Imagine water and acetone simultaneously spilling to the floor. Which of the two will dry
up first?
This may be answered by considering the intermolecular forces of attraction that exist in
a substance. The molecules need to conquer first these intermolecular forces to escape from a
liquid phase and be converted to gaseous phase. This can be done by increasing the temperature.
As the temperature increases, the number of molecules with high kinetic energy increases. Thus,
more molecules will be capable of conquering the attractive forces of intermolecular attraction.
When liquid evaporates, the gaseous molecules exert a vapor pressure, the gas phase pressure
of a substance in equilibrium with the pure liquid; hence, it is expected that the vapor pressure
of a liquid will increase with temperature. Simply, stated, a liquid with high vapor pressure
evaporates and is volatile.
In the situation stated earlier, the intermolecular Vapor pressure Vapor pressure
attractive forces in acetone and water are different from is low is high
each other. Acetone exhibits dipole-dipole forces while
water exhibits hydrogen bonding. Dipole-dipole forces
are weaker than H-bonding; thus, less amount of energy
(or heat) is needed to break the intermolecular
attraction. Since it will be easier to convert acetone to
gaseous phase, its vapor pressure is high. Table 1.2 gives
the vapor pressure for some liquids near room Figure 3.8. Vapor pressure of volatile and
temperature. nonvolatile liquids

TABLE 1.2 – Vapor pressure at 22°C of some substances

Liquid Vapor Pressure (torr)
Acetone 200
Benzene 75
Carbon tetrachloride 99
Ethane 29 380
Ethanol 44
Propane 6 586
Water 23.76

5 | General Chemistry 2 Module 1 –Intermolecular Forces of Liquids and Solids

Molar Heat of Vaporization and Boiling Point
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapor pressure is equal to the
external atmospheric pressure. This is directly related to molar heat of vaporization (∆𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝 ),
which is defined as the amount of energy required to vaporize one mole of a liquid.
These two are associated with vapor pressure in a sense that liquids with high vapor
pressures will have low molar heat of vaporization and low boiling point. Again, with the water
and the acetone as examples, the vapor pressure of acetone is higher as it is considered volatile.
This also indicates that acetone has a lower molar heat of vaporization since it does not require
a lot of energy to vaporize. Furthermore, because it is volatile, it will be easier for its vapor
pressure to equalize the external vapor pressure or to attain the boiling point.
Simply stated, molar heat of vaporization and boiling point also depend on the strength
of the intermolecular forces. Specifically, those liquids with strong intermolecular forces have
high molar heats of vaporization and boiling points. Table 1.3 shows the molar heats of
vaporization and boiling points of some liquids.
TABLE 1.3 – Intermolecular forces, boiling points, and molar heats of vaporization for some liquids
Intermolecular Boiling Point at 1 𝒌𝑱
Liquid ∆𝑯𝒗𝒂𝒑 ( )
Forces atm (℃) 𝒎𝒐𝒍
Dipole-dipole
Acetone 56.2 30.3
Dispersion
Ethane Dispersion -88.63 14.69
Methane Dispersion -164 9.2
Propane Dispersion -42.07 15.7
Hydrogen Bonding
Water 100 40.79
and Dispersion

As can be seen in the table, liquids with weak dispersion forces such as ethane, methane,
and propane have low boiling points and molar heat of vaporization. Acetone has a dipole
moment, and the dipole-dipole forces cause it to have moderately high boiling point and molar
heat of vaporization. Lastly, water with strong hydrogen bonding has high boiling point and molar
heat of vaporization.

6 | General Chemistry 2 Module 1 –Intermolecular Forces of Liquids and Solids

Structure and Properties of Water
Water exhibits hydrogen bonding which is considered
the strongest intermolecular force of attraction. This accounts
for why water has a high surface tension, viscosity, molar heat
of vaporization, and boiling point.
Aside from these, the most unique property of water is
density. The freezing of water will make it expand and, thus,
will make it buoyant. Why do you think does this happen?
Each water molecule is held to four neighboring
molecules in a tetrahedral arrangement by hydrogen bonds.
For each water molecule, every hydrogen interacts with the
oxygen of a neighboring molecule; each of the two lone pairs
on the oxygen interacts with a hydrogen of a neighboring
molecule. Therefore, water can have four hydrogen bonds
with its neighbors. Through this condition, the water
molecules in ice combine to form a three-dimensional
framework that prevents the molecules from getting too close
to each other.
On the other hand, when ice melts, some of the water
molecules will break free from the hydrogen bonds, but will
be trapped within the structure. This makes the density of
liquid water become higher compared with the density of ice.
However, above 4℃, thermal expansion will occur; causing
the density of water to decrease. Remember that for the
same mass, an increase in the volume will mean a decrease in
density. Hence, in comparing cold water and hot water both
with the same mass, the latter can be considered as less
dense.

7 | General Chemistry 2 Module 1 –Intermolecular Forces of Liquids and Solids

 Let’s Try This

Activity 2.
Answer the following question:
How do intermolecular force influence the properties of liquids?

Let’s Remember!

 Surface tension is the amount of energy needed to conquer the force between molecules
at the liquid’s surface for it to be stretched.
 The attraction between liquid-liquid (like molecules) is called cohesion, while the
attraction between solid-liquid (unlike molecules) is called adhesion.
 The more viscous the substance is, the greater is its resistance to flow.
 Liquid with high vapor pressure evaporates rapidly and is volatile.
 The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapor pressure is equal to the
external atmospheric pressure. This is directly related to the molar heat of vaporization
(∆Hvap), which is defined as the amount of energy required to vaporize one mole of a
liquid. Liquids with strong intermolecular forces have high molar heats of vaporization
and boiling points.
 Each water molecule is held to four neighboring molecules by hydrogen bonds to form a
tetrahedral arrangement.

8 | General Chemistry 2 Module 1 –Intermolecular Forces of Liquids and Solids