ACECE 4 Circuits 1, Lecture

Module 1: Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

This module tackles the Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, which includes the System of
Units, Basic Electrical Quantities, the Ohm’s Law and Wire Resistance, Series and Parallel
Circuits as well as Kirchhoff’s Laws and Divider Circuits. The topics covered involves their
definitions, concepts and sample solved problems as exercise.

Definition of Electric Circuits

An electrical circuit is a path in which electrons from a voltage or current source flow. The
point where those electrons enter an electrical circuit is called the "source" of electrons. The
point where the electrons leave an electrical circuit is called the "return" or "earth ground".

Discipline wise, electric circuits is a course subject wherein the fundamentals, definitions,
concepts and analysis of each interconnected components are being discussed. This is
included in the syllabus of most engineering courses due that the systems developed in
everyday lives includes technologies which requires to be integrated with electric circuits.

Part 1: System of Units

System of Units (also called SI, from the French Système International des Unités) are units
commonly adhered by all engineering professional societies which are based on seven
fundamental quantities as shown on Table 1. Other units that will be used on the whole
extent of this course is also enumerated on Table 4.
Table 1: SI Units
Base Units Name Symbol
Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Current Ampere A
Amount of Substance Mole mol
Luminous Intensity Candela cd

Usually, these units are being expressed in large quantities and therefore needed to be
denoted into notations represented by prefixes in powers of 10 (Table 3). Take note that
power-of-10 notation, as shown on Table 2, is the use of 10 as base in writing numbers with
leading or trailing zeros. It is different to scientific notation wherein it is described as the
power-of-10 notation with one non-zero digit to the left of the decimal point.

Table 2: Power of 10 Notation

Positive Negative
1 100 0.1 10-1
10 101 0.01 10-2
100 102 0.001 10-3
1000 103 0.0001 10-4
10000 104 0.00001 10-5

Note:
1. The power-of-10 notation with value of 1 or greater has exponent equal to the
number of zeros.
2. The power-of-10 notation with less than 1 value has an exponent equal to negative
number of zeros including the zero to the left of the decimal point.

Example of Scientific Notation:

The scientific notation of 720,000,000,000 is 7.2 x 1011
The scientific notation of 0.000000000012 is 1.2 x 10-11

Table 3: Metric Prefixes

Power-of-10 Name Symbol
10-24 yocto y
10-21 zepto z
10-18 atto a
10-15 fempto f
10-12 pico p
10-9 nano n
10-6 micro µ
10-3 milli m
 10-2 centi c
10-1 deci d
101 deka da
102 hecto h
103 kilo k
106 mega M
109 giga G
1012 tera T
1015 peta P
1018 exo E
1021 zetta Z
1024 yotta Y

Table 4: Commonly Used Quantities in Electric Circuit Analysis

Quantity Symbol SI Unit Abbreviation
Electrical Charge Q, q Coulomb C
Electric Potential V, v Volt V
Resistance R Ohm Ω
Conductance G Siemens S
Inductance L Henry H
Capacitance C Farad F
Frequency f Hertz H
Force F, f Newton N
Energy, work W, w Joule J
Power P, p Watt W
Magnetic Flux Φ Weber Wb
Magnetic Flux Density B Tesla T
Sample Problem:
Given that a cubic meter of copper wire has 8.5x1028 free electrons, find the
number of free electrons in 1000 ft of no. 12 AWG (American Wire Gauge) copper
wire. The size wire has diameter of 80.81 mils (a mil is one thousandth of an
inch).

Given:

Solution:
For the conversion,
1 𝑚𝑖𝑙 = 0.001 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
1 𝑖𝑛 = 1000 𝑚𝑖𝑙
With the concept of density,
𝑚
𝐷=
𝑣
Synonymously,
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝐷𝑒 =
𝑣
Note that,
1 𝑚 = 3.28 𝑓𝑡
1 𝑖𝑛 = 2.54 𝑐𝑚
1 𝑐𝑚 = 0.01 𝑚
Hence,
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝐷𝑒 =
𝐴ℎ

Note: The cross-sectional area of a wire is usually expressed in square inches,

square millimeters and sometimes circular mils which is the square of the
diameter in milli-inches. A circular mil is about .785 square milli inches. (Pi/4)

Therefore,
4(𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠)
𝐷𝑒 =
𝜋𝑑 2 ℎ
𝜋𝑑 2 ℎ𝐷𝑒
# 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 =
4
𝑒 1 𝑖𝑛2
2.54 𝑐𝑚 2 1 𝑚 2 1 𝑚 1
= 𝜋(80.81 𝑚𝑖𝑙)2 (1000 𝑓𝑡) (8.5 × 1028 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )
𝑚3 1000 𝑚𝑖𝑙 1 𝑖𝑛 100 𝑐𝑚 3.28 𝑓𝑡 4
# 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒔 = 𝟖. 𝟓𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝒐𝒓 𝟖𝟓. 𝟕𝟓 𝒀𝒆
Part 2: Basic Electrical Quantities

Electric Charge
Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when
placed in an electromagnetic field.

Two Types of Charge:

1. Proton (p) is the positively charged subatomic particle.
1𝑝 = 1.602 × 10−19 𝐶
2. Electron (e) is the negatively charged subatomic particle.
1𝑒 = −1.602 × 10−19

The SI unit of charge is the Coulomb (C).

The quantity symbol is Q for constant charge and q for time-varying charge.

Sample Problem:
Find the charge in Coulombs of the ff.
a. 5.3x1020 e
b. 2.9x1022
Solution:
Therefore, for a,
−1.602 × 10−19
𝑄 = 5.3 × 1020 𝑒 ( )
1𝑒
𝑸 = −𝟖𝟒. 𝟗𝟎𝟔 𝑪
And for b,
22
1.602 × 10−19
𝑄 = 2.9 × 10 𝑝 ( )
1𝑝
𝑸 = 𝟒. 𝟔𝟒𝟔 𝒌𝑪

Electric Current
Electric current is the resulting movement of charge. The current present in a discrete path,
such as a metallic wire, has both a numerical value and a direction associated with it; it is a
measure of the rate at which a charge is moving past a given reference point in a specified
direction.

The SI unit of current is the ampere (A).

The quantity symbol is I for constant current and i for time-varying current.

If 1 C of charge passes on a given point in a conductor, in 1 second, the reality current is 1 A.

In general,

𝑄 (𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏)
1 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 =
𝑡 (𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑)
So that,
𝐶
1𝐴 = 1
𝑠

Note:
1. Current has an associated direction. The direction of current flow is in direction of the
positive charge movement and against the direction of the negative charge.
2. The arrow specifies the direction of the positive current flow, but not necessarily the
actual flow. If after calculation, I is found positive, the actual flow is in the direction of
arrow. If it is negative after calculation, the actual flow is the opposite direction.

Two Kinds of Current

1. Direct current is constant current that flows in direction all the time. It has the ability
“to jump” and its jump is to its final value.

2. Alternating current is a current that varies sinusoidally with time.

Current source – an electrical device that cause a specified amount of current to flow from it.

Current Source Symbol

 Sample Problem:
Find the current flow through a light bulb from a steady movement of (a) 60 C in
4 s (b) 15 C in 2 min and (c) 1022 electrons in 1 h.

Solution:
For a,
𝑄 60
𝐼= =
𝑡 4
𝑰 = 𝟏𝟓 𝑨
For b,
𝑄 15 𝐶 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐼= = ( )
𝑡 2 𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠
𝑰 = 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝑨
For c,
𝑄 1 × 1022 𝑒 −1.602 × 10−19 1ℎ
𝐼= = ( )( )
𝑡 1ℎ 1𝑒 3600𝑠
𝑰 = −𝟒𝟒𝟓 𝒎𝑨

Voltage (Potential Difference)

Assuming on the figure below, a direct current is sent into terminal A, through the general
element, and back out of terminal B. Assuming also that pushing the charge through the
component requires an expenditure of energy. There exists voltage across the element which
is the work between two points in Joules required to move 1 C of charge from one point to
another.

The SI unit of voltage is the volt (V).

The quantity symbol is V for constant voltage and v for time-varying voltage.
Voltage source, such as a generator or battery, is an electrical component that produces a
voltage that ideally does not depend on the current from a source.
 Voltage Source Symbol

Also,
𝑊 (𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠)
𝑉 (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠) =
𝑄 (𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏)

So that,
𝐽
1𝑉 =1
𝐶

Sample Problem:
In an electric circuit, an energy of 9.25 μJ is required to transport 0.5 μC from
point a to point b. What electric potential difference exists between the two
points?

Solution:
Solving for the voltage,
𝑊 9.25 × 10−6 𝐽
𝑉= =
𝑄 0.5 × 10−6 𝐶
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟓 𝑽

Work
Work is required to move an object against the force that opposes the motion.
The SI unit of work is the Joule (J).
The quantity symbol of work is W.
In general,
𝑊 (𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠) = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛) × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠)

So that,
1𝑊 =1𝑁∙𝑚

Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work and one of its form is potential energy which is that energy
possessed by a body by virtue of its position.
 Sample Problems:
1. Find the work required to lift 4500 kg elevator with a vertical distance of 50
meters.
Solution:
Solving for the work,
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑 = 𝑚𝑔𝑑
𝑚
𝑊 = (4500 𝑘𝑔) (9.81 2 ) (50 𝑚)
𝑠
𝑾 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟎𝟔 𝑴𝑱
2. Find the potential energy in joules gained by a 180-lb man in climbing a 6-foot
ladder.
Solution:
Since,
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
1 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 1𝑚
= 180 𝑙𝑏 ( ) (9.81 2 ) (6 𝑓𝑡) ( )
2.2 𝑙𝑏 𝑠 3.24 𝑓𝑡
𝑷𝑬 = 𝑾 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟔𝟖 𝒌𝑱
3. How much chemical energy must a 12 V car battery expend in moving a
8.93x1020 e from its positive terminal to its negative terminal.
Solution:
Since,
𝑊 𝐶𝐸
𝑉= =
𝑄 𝑄
Hence,
𝐶𝐸 = 𝑄𝑉
−1.602 × 10−9
= −(12 𝑉)(8.93 × 1020 𝑒) ( )
1𝑒
𝑪𝑬 = 𝑾 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟏𝟕 𝒌𝑱

Electrical Power
The rate, in joules per second, at which energy is transferred is electric power in watts. Put
another way, it is the amount of energy produced or absorbed at a given time.
The SI unit of power is the watt (W).
The quantity symbol is P for constant power and p for time-varying power.

Note: A source of energy produces or delivers power and a load absorbs it.

If 1 Joule of work is either deliver or absorb at a constant rate, in 1 second, the corresponding
power is 1 watt. In general,
𝑊 (𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠)
𝑃 (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠) =
𝑡 (𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠)
So that,
𝐽
1𝑊 =1
𝑠
The power absorbed by an electrical component is the product of the voltage and the current.
If the current is into the positively reference terminal of the voltage,

In general,
𝑃 (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠) = + 𝑉 (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠) 𝐼 (𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠)
So that,
1 𝑊 = 1 𝑉𝐴

However, if the current is into the negatively reference terminal of the voltage, we have,

𝑃 = −𝑉𝐼

Sample Problem:
The figure below shows a circuit diagram of voltage source of V volts connected
to a current source of I amperes. Find the power absorbed by the voltage source.
(a) V = 2V, I = 4A
(b) V = 3V, I = -2A
(c) V = -6V, I = -8A

Solution:
For a,
𝑃 = −𝑉𝐼 = −(2)(4)
𝑷 = −𝟖 𝑾
For b,
𝑃 = −𝑉𝐼 = −(3)(−2)
𝑷= 𝟔𝑾
For c,
𝑃 = −𝑉𝐼 = −(−6)(−8)
𝑷 = −𝟒𝟖 𝑾
Note:
1. If the calculated power, P, is positive, with either formula, the component actually
absorbs power. However, if it is negative, the component delivers energy, it is a source
of energy/power.
2. The power output rating of motors is usually given or expressed in power rating called
the “horsepower’” though it is not SI unit. The relation between horsepower and watt
is
1 ℎ𝑝 = 745.7 𝑊

Efficiency (η)
The efficiency of motors and other systems is given by
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂= × 100%
𝑃𝑖𝑛

Note: Efficiency can also be based as the work output divided by work input. In calculation
of efficiency, it is usually expressed in decimal fraction, that is percentage divided by 100.

Efficiency of a Cascaded System

The overall efficiency of a cascaded system is

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
= 𝜂 = 𝜂1 𝜂2 𝜂3 … 𝜂𝑛
𝑃𝑖𝑛

Sample Problem:
Find the current drawn from a 115 V line by a DC motor that delivers 1 hp.
Assume a 90% efficiency of operation.

Solution:
Since,
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂= = 90%
𝑃𝑖𝑛
1 ℎ𝑝
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = = 1.11 ℎ𝑝
0.9
Hence,
𝑃𝑖𝑛 1.11 ℎ𝑝 745.7 𝑊
𝐼= = ( )
𝑉 115 𝑉 1 ℎ𝑝
𝑰 = 𝟕. 𝟐 𝑨
 Sample Problem:
What is the operating efficiency of a fully loaded 2-hp DC electric motor that
draws 19 A at 100 V?

Solution:
Since,
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂=
𝑃𝑖𝑛
2 ℎ𝑝 745.7 𝑊
𝜂= ( ) × 100%
(100 𝑉)(19 𝐴) 1 ℎ𝑝
Hence,
𝜼 = 𝟕𝟖. 𝟒𝟗𝟓%

Sample Problem:
Two systems are in cascade. One operates in 75% and the other of 85%. If the
input power is 5 kW, what is the output power?

Solution:
Since,
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂 = 𝜂1 𝜂2 =
𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝜂1 𝜂2 𝑃𝑖𝑛
Hence,
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (0.75)(0.85)(5 𝑘𝑊)
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑾

Energy in Kilowatt-hours (kWh)

The number of kilowatt-hours consumed is equal to the product of the power in kilowatts
and the time in hours (h). Mathematically, we have
𝐸 (𝑘𝑊ℎ) = 𝑃(𝑘𝑊) 𝑡(ℎ)
Sample Problem:
For an electric rate of 7 cents per kWh, what does it cost to 60-W light bulb on
for 8 hours?
Solution:
Since,
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 (𝐶) = 𝐸𝑟 = 𝑃𝑡𝑟
= (0.06 𝑘𝑊)(8 ℎ)(7 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠)
𝑪 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟔 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔
Part 3: Ohm’s Law and Wire Resistance

Resistance
At the instance that when an electric current flow through a metal wire or through other
circuit elements, it encounters a certain amount of resistance, which is the property of
material that opposes or resist the flow of electrons and make it necessary to apply a voltage
to cause current to flow.

The SI unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω).

The quantity symbol of resistance is R.

An ideal resistor is a device that exhibits linear resistance properties according to Ohm’s law
which states that in metallic and some other conductors, the current is directly proportional
to the applied voltage, such that
𝐼∝𝑉
𝑉∝𝑅
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹; Ohm’s Law Resistance Concept

So that,
𝑉
1Ω=1
𝐴

Circuit Symbol and Current-Voltage Characteristics

The resistance of a material depends on a property called resistivity, denoted by the symbol
ρ. For a conductor of uniform cross-section, we have

𝑙
𝑅 ∝
𝐴
𝜌𝑙
𝑅=
𝐴
where
ρ is the constant of proportionality of resistance in ohm-meter (Ω-m)
l is the length of the conductor in meter (m)
A is the cross-sectional area in square meter (m2)
Table 5: Resistivity at 20°C
Materials Resistivity (Ω-m)
Silver 1.645x10-8
Copper (annealed) 1.723x10-8
Aluminum 2.825x10-8
Iron 12.299x10-8
Constantan 49x10-8
Nichrome 100x10-8
Silicon 2500
Paper 1010
Mica 5x1011
Quartz 1017
Gold 2.443x10-8
Nickel 7.811x10-8
Platinum 10.8x10-8
Carbon 3.5x10-5

Note:
1. A good conductor has resistivity close to 1x10-8 Ω-m. Silver is the best conductor but too
expensive for most uses. Copper is a common conductor as is aluminum.
2. Materials with resistivity greater that 1010 are called insulators. They provide physical
support without significant current losses.
3. Materials with resistivities in the range of 103 to 107 are called semiconductors from which
transistors are made.

Sample Problem:
If an oven has a 240 V heating element with a resistance of 29 Ω, what is the
minimum rating of a fuse that can be used in the lines to the heating element?

Solution:
By using Ohm’s Law, we have
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
So that,
𝑉 240
𝐼= =
𝑅 24
𝑰𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑨
Conductance is the property of a material that aids the flow of electrons. Put another way,
it is the inverse of resistance. In general,
1
𝐺=
𝑅
The SI unit of conductance is the Siemens (S).
The quantity symbol for conductance is G.

The conductance of a material depends on a property called conductivity, denoted by the

symbol σ. For a conductor of uniform cross-section, we have
1 𝜌𝑙
=𝑅=
𝐺 𝐴
𝐴
𝐺=
𝜌𝑙
𝝈𝑨
𝑮=
𝒍
Also,
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
1
𝑉 = 𝐼( )
𝐺
𝑰 = 𝑮𝑽; Ohm’s Law Conductance Concept

Sample Problem:
1. Find the resistance of an aluminum wire that has a length of 1000 m and a
diameter of 1.626 mm. The wire is at 20°C.

Solution:
Since,
𝜌𝑙 4𝜌𝑙
𝑅= =
𝐴 𝜋𝑑 2
4(2.83 × 10−8 )(1000)
=
𝜋(1.626 × 10−3 )
𝑹 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔𝟐𝟖 Ω
2. Find the conductance of 100 ft. no. 14 AWG iron wire which has a diameter of
64 mils. The temperature is at 20°C.
 Sample Problem: (cont.)
2. Find the conductance of 100 ft. no. 14 AWG iron wire which has a diameter of
64 mils. The temperature is at 20°C.
Solution:
Since,
𝐴 𝜋𝑑 2
𝐺= =
𝜌𝑙 4𝜌𝑙
2
0.001 𝑖𝑛 2.54 𝑐𝑚 0.01 𝑚
𝜋 ((64) ( ) ( 1 𝑖𝑛 ) ( 1 𝑐𝑚 ))
1 𝑚𝑖𝑙
=
1
4(12.3 × 10−8 )(100) (3.28)
𝑮 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟑 𝑺

Temperature Effects
The resistances of most good conducting material increase almost linearly over the range
of normal operating temperature.

where
T0 is the inferred zero resistance (the actual zero resistance temperature is at -273°C)
Using theorems on Similar Triangle, we have,
𝑅1 𝑅2
=
𝑇1 − 𝑇0 𝑇2 − 𝑇0
So that,
𝑹𝟏 (𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟎 )
𝑹𝟐 =
𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟎
Also,
𝑅2 − 𝑅1 𝑅1
=
𝑇2 − 𝑇1 𝑇1 − 𝑇0
𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝑅2 = 𝑅1 (1 + )
𝑇1 − 𝑇0
But,
1
𝛼1 =
𝑇1 − 𝑇0

where α1 is called temperature coefficient of resistance at T1.

Then,
𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹𝟏 [𝟏 + 𝜶𝟏 (𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 )]

Table 6: Temperature Properties of Various Materials

Inferred Zero Resistance Temperature Coefficient
Materials
Temperature (°C) at 20°C (/°C)
Tungsten -202 0.0045
Copper -234.5 0.00393
Aluminum -236 0.00391
Silver -243 0.0038
Constantan -125 000 0.000 008
Carbon -0.0005

Sample Problem:
1. The resistance of a certain copper power line is 100 Ω at 20°C. What is the
resistance when the sun heats the line up to 38°C?
Solution:
Since,
𝑅1 (𝑇2 − 𝑇0 ) 100(38 + 234.5)
𝑅2 = =
𝑇1 − 𝑇0 20 + 234.5
𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟕. 𝟎𝟕𝟑 Ω
Also,
𝑅2 = 𝑅1 [1 + 𝛼(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )]
= 100[1 + 0.00393(38 − 20)]
𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟕. 𝟎𝟕𝟒 Ω

2. A certain unenergized copper transformer has a resistance of 30 Ω at 20°C.

Under rated operation, however, the resistance increases to 35 Ω. Find the
temperature of the unenergized winding.
Solution:
Since,
𝑅1 (𝑇2 − 𝑇0 )
𝑅2 =
𝑇1 − 𝑇0
 Sample Problem: (cont.)
2. A certain unenergized copper transformer has a resistance of 30 Ω at 20°C.
Under rated operation, however, the resistance increases to 35 Ω. Find the
temperature of the unenergized winding.
Solution:
𝑅2 (𝑇1 − 𝑇0 )
𝑇2 = + 𝑇0
𝑅1
35(20 + 234.5)
= − 234.5
30
𝑻𝟐 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟒𝟏𝟔 °𝑪
Also,
𝑅2 = 𝑅1 [1 + 𝛼(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )]
𝑅2
𝑅1 − 1
𝑇2 = + 𝑇1
𝛼1
35
−1
= 30 + 20
0.00393
𝑻𝟐 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟒𝟎𝟖 °𝑪

Nominal Value – refers to the manufacturer’s print resistance value on resistor casing either
in numerical form or color coding.
Tolerance – is the possible percentage variation of resistance about the nominal value.

Color Code
The most popular resistance color coding has a nominal resistance values and tolerances
indicated by the color of either three or four bonds around the resistor casings.

Note:
1. Each color has a corresponding numerical value as shown in the table below.
Table 7: Resistor Color Coding
Color Value Color Value
Black 0 Blue 6
Brown 1 Violet 7
 Red 2 Gray 8
Orange 3 White 9
Yellow 4 Gold 0.1
Green 5 Silver 0.01

2. The color of the first and second bands correspond to the first and second digit of the
nominal value of resistance.
3. Because the first digit is never zero, the first band is never black.
4. The color of the third band corresponds to the number of zeros that follows the first two
digits of the resistance nominal value.
5. A third band of silver corresponds to the multiplier of 10-2 and a third band of gold
corresponds to 10-1.
6. The fourth band indicates the tolerance and is either gold or silver colored or missing.
7. Gold corresponds to a tolerance of 5%, silver to a tolerance of 10% and a missing color to
20%.

Value of Resistance based on Circuit Types

Open Circuit – has an infinite resistance which means that it has zero current flowing through
it but with finite voltage value across it.

Short Circuit – has a zero voltage across it but with finite value of current flowing through it.

Two Types of Resistor

1. Linear Resistor – is a resistor that follows Ohm’s Law and has a current voltage relation
given by V=IR.
Schematic Symbol:

2. Non-linear Resistor is a resistor that does not follow Ohm’s Law and has voltage and
current relation such as V=4I2+7.
Schematic Symbol:
 Sample Problem:
At 20°C a pn-junction silicon diode has a current voltage relation of I = 10-14(e40V-
1). What is the diode voltage when the current is 50 mA?

Solution:
50 × 10−3 = 𝐼 = 10−14 (𝑒 40𝑉 − 1)
ln(50 × 1011 + 1 = 𝑒 40𝑉 )
So that,
ln(50 × 1011 + 1)
𝑉=
40
𝑽 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟑𝟏 𝑽

Internal Resistance
Every practical voltage and current source have an internal resistance that adversely affects
its operation.

Practical Voltage and Current Source

Note:
1. Except for an open circuit load, a voltage source has a loss voltage across its internal
resistance. That is,
2. Except for a short circuit load, a current source has a loss of current across its internal
resistance. That is,

Resistance Power Absorption

Substituting, V=IR and I=V/R to P=VI, we have
𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅
𝑉2
𝑃=
𝑅

Note: Every resistor has a ‘power rating’ or ‘wattage rating’ that the resistor can absorb
without overheating to a destructive temperature.

Sample Problem:
If a 12 V car battery has a 0.04 Ω internal resistance, what is the battery terminal
voltage when the battery delivers 40 A?

Solution:
Since,
12 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑡 + 𝑉
𝑉 = 12 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑉 = 12 − (0.04)(40)
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟒 𝑽
Part 4: Series and Parallel Circuits

Branch
Branch of a circuit is any electrical component such as a battery or a resistor.

Node
Node is a connection point between two or more branches.

Note:
1. On a circuit diagram, a node is sometimes represented by a dot that may be a solder point
in an actual circuit.
2. The node also includes all the wires connected to it. In other words, it includes all the
wires of same potential.
3. If a short circuit connect two or more nodes, those nodes are considered as one node.

Sample Problem:
Determine the number of nodes and branches in the circuit below.

Answer:
# 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒔: 𝟖
# 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆𝒔: 𝟓

Series Circuit
Series circuit is an interconnection of circuit elements such that only one current is flowing
through the different components of the circuit.

But,
𝑰𝑻 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑
Parallel Circuit
Parallel circuit is an interconnection of circuit elements so that only one voltage is across the
different components of the circuit.

But,
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3

Part 5: Kirchhoff’s Laws and Divider Rules

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

Three versions:
1. The algebraic sum of the voltage drops around any close path is zero.
2. The algebraic sum of the voltage rises around any close path is zero.
3. The algebraic sum of the voltage drops and rises around any close path is zero.

For the given circuit below,

By using KVL, we have

𝑉 − 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 − 𝑉3 − ⋯ − 𝑉𝑛 = 0

The equation above is the called the KVL equation.

Hence, with the KVL principle, the total resistance in a series circuit can be obtained by using
Ohm’s Law, and we have,
𝑉 − 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 − 𝑉3 − ⋯ − 𝑉𝑛 = 0
𝐼𝑅𝑇 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝐼2 𝑅2 + 𝐼3 𝑅3 + ⋯ + 𝐼𝑛 𝑅𝑛
𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹 𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑹𝒏

Sample Problem:
Find the unknown voltages in the circuit below.

Solution:
By applying KVL, we have to draw the flow of current on closed loops.

Therefore, on loop 2,
10 − 𝑉2 − 8 = 0
𝑽𝟐 = 𝟐 𝑽
On loop 3,
−𝑉3 − 9 + 8 = 0
𝑽𝟑 = −𝟏 𝑽
Solving for V, we have,
𝑉 − 10 + 𝑉3 = 0
𝑉 − 10 − 1 = 0
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟏 𝑽
To check, refer on the green loop,
𝑉 − 10 + 8 − 9 = 0
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟏 𝑽
Voltage Division or Voltage Divider Rule (VD or VDR)
This is the fastest method of getting the voltage across any component of a series circuit.
Basically, the rule states that the voltage across each resistor in a series circuit divides in
direct proportion to the individual series resistances.

From the above figure, solving for V1 via Ohm’s Law, we have,

𝑉1 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 = 𝐼𝑅1 (1)

But,
𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉
𝐼=𝑅 = 𝑅𝑇 (2)
1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3 +⋯+𝑅𝑛 𝑇

Using equation 1 and 2, we will obtain the VDR/VD equation,

𝑹𝟏 𝑽𝑻
𝑽𝟏 =
𝑹𝑻

Likewise,
𝑹𝟐 𝑽𝑻
𝑽𝟐 =
𝑹𝑻

𝑹𝟑 𝑽𝑻
𝑽𝟑 =
𝑹𝑻

𝑹𝒏 𝑽𝑻
𝑽𝒏 =
𝑹𝑻
 Sample Problem:
Use voltage division to determine the unknown voltage in the circuit below.

Summing all voltages and resistances on the given circuit,

𝑉𝑇 = 12 − 5 + 8
𝑽𝑻 = 𝟏𝟓 𝑽
𝑅𝑇 = 10 + 15 + 6 + 8 + 11
𝑹𝑻 = 𝟓𝟎 Ω
The results correspond to the given circuit below,

Hence,
𝑅1 𝑉𝑇 (10)(15)
𝑉1 = = ; 𝑽𝟏 = 𝟑 𝑽
𝑅𝑇 50
𝑅2 𝑉𝑇 (15)(15)
𝑉2 = = ; 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟒. 𝟓 𝑽
𝑅𝑇 50
−𝑅3 𝑉𝑇 −(6)(15)
𝑉3 = = ; 𝑽𝟑 = −𝟏. 𝟖 𝑽
𝑅𝑇 50
𝑅4 𝑉𝑇 (8)(15)
𝑉4 = = ; 𝑽𝟒 = 𝟐. 𝟒 𝑽
𝑅𝑇 50
−𝑅5 𝑉𝑇 −(11)(15)
𝑉5 = = ; 𝑽𝟏 = −𝟑. 𝟑 𝑽
𝑅𝑇 50

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

Three versions:
1. The algebraic sum of the currents entering a given node or closed surface is zero.
2. The algebraic sum of the currents leaving a given node or closed surface is zero.
3. The algebraic sum of the currents entering and leaving a given node or closed surface is
zero.
For the given circuit below,

By applying KCL at node X, we have,

𝐼 − 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 − ⋯ − 𝐼𝑛 = 0

The equation above is the called the KCL equation.

Hence, with the KCL principle, the total resistance and conductance in a parallel circuit can
be obtained by using Ohm’s Law Conductance concept, and we have,

𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + ⋯ + 𝐼𝑛
𝐺𝑇 = 𝐺1 𝑉1 + 𝐺2 𝑉2 + 𝐺3 𝑉3 + ⋯ + 𝐺𝑛 𝑉𝑛
𝑮𝑻 = 𝑮𝟏 + 𝑮𝟐 + 𝑮𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑮𝒏

And,

𝐺𝑇 = 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + 𝐺3 + ⋯ + 𝐺𝑛
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯+
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛
𝟏
𝑹𝑻 =
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ + + ⋯+
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹 𝟑 𝑹𝒏

For two resistors connected in parallel,

1 1
𝑅𝑇 = =
1 1 𝑅2 + 𝑅1
+ 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑹𝟏 𝑹 𝟐
𝑹𝑻 =
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
 Sample Problem:
Find the unknown currents in the circuit below.

Solution:
By applying KCL (at node x), we have,
10 + 8 − 𝐼2 = 0; 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟏𝟖 𝑨

By applying KCL (at node w), we have,

−𝐼3 − 8 + 9 = 0; 𝑰𝟑 = 𝟏 𝑨

By applying KCL (at node y), we have,

𝐼3 − 10 + 𝐼1 ; 𝑰𝟏 = 𝟗 𝑨

Using the closed surface (z) on the figure below, we have,

10 + 8 − 𝐼1 − 9 = 0; 𝑰𝟏 = 𝟗 𝑨

Current Division or Current Divider Rule (CD or CDR)

This is the fastest method of getting the current flowing through any component of a parallel
circuit. Basically, the rule states that the current flowing through each resistor in a parallel
circuit divides in direct proportion to the individual parallel resistances.
From the figure above, solving for I1 via Ohm’s Law conductance concept, we have,
𝐼1 = 𝐺1 𝑉1 = 𝐺1 𝑉𝑇 (1)
But,
𝐼
𝑉𝑇 = 𝐺𝑇 (2)
𝑇

Using equation 1 and 2, we will obtain the CDR/CD equation conductance concept,
𝑮𝟏 𝑰𝑻
𝑰𝟏 =
𝑮𝑻
𝑮𝟐 𝑰𝑻
𝑰𝟐 =
𝑮𝑻
𝑮𝟑 𝑰𝑻
𝑰𝟑 =
𝑮𝑻
𝑮𝒏 𝑰𝑻
𝑰𝒏 =
𝑮𝑻

For two parallel resistors, we have,

1
𝐺1 𝐼𝑇 (𝑅1 ) 𝐼𝑇
𝐼1 = =
𝐺𝑇 1 1
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
1
(𝑅 ) 𝐼𝑇
1
𝐼1 =
𝑅2 + 𝑅1
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑹𝟐 𝑰 𝑻
𝑰𝟏 =
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝟏 𝑰 𝑻
𝑰𝟐 =
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
 Sample Problem:
Find the voltage and unknown currents for the circuit below.

Summing all currents and conductances on the given circuit,

𝐼𝑇 = 190 − 50 + 60
𝑰𝑻 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑨
𝐺𝑇 = 6 + 12 + 24 + 8
𝑮𝑻 = 𝟓𝟎 𝑺
The results correspond to the given circuit below,

Hence,
𝐺1 𝐼𝑇 (6)(200)
𝐼1 = = ; 𝑰𝟏 = 𝟐𝟒 𝑨
𝐺𝑇 50
−𝐺2 𝐼𝑇 −(12)(200)
𝐼2 = = ; 𝑰𝟐 = −𝟒𝟖 𝑨
𝐺𝑇 50
𝐺3 𝐼𝑇 (24)(200)
𝐼3 = = ; 𝑰𝟑 = 𝟗𝟔 𝑨
𝐺𝑇 50
−𝐺4 𝐼𝑇 (8)(200)
𝐼4 = = ; 𝑰𝟒 = −𝟑𝟐 𝑨
𝐺𝑇 50
𝐼𝑇 200
𝑉= = ; 𝑽𝑻 = 𝟓 𝑽
𝐺𝑇 40

Sources:
• Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering 1st ed. by Giorgio Rizzoni
• Engineering Circuit Analysis 7th ed. by W. Hayt, J. Kemmerly and S. Durbin
Other references:
Basic SI Units and Conversion/Dimensional Analysis (Tagalog Physics)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ydd2o5kIAIM

Basic Electrical Quantities (Full Lecture)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cQYyLt8pPf0

Electrical Voltage and Current EP.1(Tagalog/English Electronics)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GGuGNhVIufI&list=PLy8CVak7-Br6atMM75FWTjb9zDSzIEi16

Electrical Power EP.7 (Tagalog/English Electronics)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x4VIWYJRYeg&list=PLy8CVak7-
Br6atMM75FWTjb9zDSzIEi16&index=7

Resistors EP.2 (Tagalog/English Electronics)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LGGbSyD8YMQ&list=PLy8CVak7-
Br6atMM75FWTjb9zDSzIEi16&index=2

Ohm’s Law EP.3 (Tagalog/English Electronics)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mGS_BIO7yg4&list=PLy8CVak7-
Br6atMM75FWTjb9zDSzIEi16&index=3

Series Resistors EP.4 (Tagalog/English Electronics)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q-8cZhP2hgQ&list=PLy8CVak7-
Br6atMM75FWTjb9zDSzIEi16&index=4

Parallel Resistors EP.5 (Tagalog/English Electronics)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e_5sdeugYBE&list=PLy8CVak7-
Br6atMM75FWTjb9zDSzIEi16&index=5

Series-Parallel Resistors EP.6 (Tagalog/English Electronics)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2K8-ck-6gM4&list=PLy8CVak7-
Br6atMM75FWTjb9zDSzIEi16&index=6

Kirchhoff’s Laws Part 1 EP.13 (Tagalog/English Electronics)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=acC6Wkk5MfU&list=PLy8CVak7-
Br6atMM75FWTjb9zDSzIEi16&index=13

Kirchhoff’s Laws Example Part 2 EP.14 (Tagalog/English Electronics)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wwnozd0xuyw&list=PLy8CVak7-
Br6atMM75FWTjb9zDSzIEi16&index=14

Voltage Divider Rule EP.8 (Tagalog/English Electronics)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NRI7jQh5aG8&list=PLy8CVak7-
Br6atMM75FWTjb9zDSzIEi16&index=8

Current Divider Rule EP.9 (Tagalog/English Electronics)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sgbmQRbpzCw&list=PLy8CVak7-
Br6atMM75FWTjb9zDSzIEi16&index=9