Electricity 

is a general term encompassing a variety of phenomena resulting from the

presence and flow of electric charge. These include many easily recognizable
phenomena, such as lightning, static electricity, and the flow of electrical current in an
electrical wire. In addition, electricity encompasses less familiar concepts such as
the electromagnetic field and electromagnetic induction.

The word is from the New Latin ēlectricus, "amber-like", coined in the year 1600 from
the Greek ήλεκτρον (electron) meaning amber (hardened plant resin), because static
electricity effects were produced classically by rubbing amber.

History

Thales, the earliest researcher into electricity

Long before any knowledge of electricity existed people were
aware of shocks from electric fish. Ancient Egyptian texts
dating from 2750 BC referred to these fish as the "Thunderer of
the Nile", and described them as the "protectors" of all other
fish. Electric fish were again reported millennia later by ancient
Greek, Roman andArabic naturalists and physicians. Several
ancient writers, such as Pliny the Elder and Scribonius Largus, attested to the numbing
effect of electric shocks delivered by catfish and torpedo rays, and knew that such
shocks could travel along conducting objects. Patients suffering from ailments such
as gout or headache were directed to touch electric fish in the hope that the powerful jolt
might cure them. Possibly the earliest and nearest approach to the discovery of the
identity oflightning, and electricity from any other source, is to be attributed to the Arabs,
who before the 15th century had the Arabic word for lightning (raad) applied to
theelectric ray

Ancient cultures around the Mediterranean knew that certain objects, such as rods

of amber, could be rubbed with cat's fur to attract light objects like feathers. Thales of
Miletos made a series of observations on static electricity around 600 BC, from which
he believed that friction rendered amber magnetic, in contrast to minerals such
as magnetite, which needed no rubbing.[6][7] Thales was incorrect in believing the
attraction was due to a magnetic effect, but later science would prove a link between
magnetism and electricity. According to a controversial theory, the Parthians may have
had knowledge of electroplating, based on the 1936 discovery of theBaghdad Battery,
which resembles a galvanic cell, though it is uncertain whether the artifact was electrical
in nature.

Benjamin Franklin conducted extensive research on electricity

in the 18th century

Electricity would remain little more than an intellectual curiosity

for millennia until 1600, when the English scientist William
Gilbert made a careful study of electricity and magnetism,
distinguishing the lodestone effect from static electricity
produced by rubbing amber. He coined the New
Latin word electricus ("of amber" or "like amber",
from ήλεκτρον [elektron], the Greek word for "amber") to refer
to the property of attracting small objects after being
rubbed. This association gave rise to the English words "electric" and "electricity", which
made their first appearance in print in Thomas Browne's Pseudodoxia Epidemica of
1646.

Further work was conducted by Otto von Guericke, Robert Boyle, Stephen Gray and C.

F. du Fay. In the 18th century, Benjamin Franklin conducted extensive research in
electricity, selling his possessions to fund his work. In June 1752 he is reputed to have
attached a metal key to the bottom of a dampened kite string and flown the kite in a
storm-threatened sky.[11] A succession of sparks jumping from the key to the back of the
hand showed that lightning was indeed electrical in nature.
 Michael Faraday formed the foundation of electric motor
technology

In 1791, Luigi Galvani published his discovery of bioelectricity,

demonstrating that electricity was the medium by which nerve
cellspassed signals to the muscles. Alessandro Volta's battery,
or voltaic pile, of 1800, made from alternating layers of zinc and
copper, provided scientists with a more reliable source of
electrical energy than the electrostatic machines previously used.
[13]
 The recognition of electromagnetism, the unity of electric and
magnetic phenomena, is due to Hans Christian Ørsted and André-Marie Ampère in
1819-1820; Michael Faraday invented the electric motor in 1821, and Georg
Ohm mathematically analysed the electrical circuit in 1827.[13]Electricity and magnetism
(and light) were definitively linked by James Clerk Maxwell, in particular in his "On
Physical Lines of Force" in 1861 and 1862.

While it had been the early 19th century that had seen rapid progress in electrical
science, the late 19th century would see the greatest progress in electrical engineering.
Through such people as Nikola Tesla, Thomas Edison, Ottó Bláthy, Ányos Jedlik, Sir
Charles Parsons, Joseph Swan, George Westinghouse, Ernst Werner von
Siemens, Alexander Graham Bell and Lord Kelvin, electricity was turned from a
scientific curiosity into an essential tool for modern life, becoming a driving force for
the Second Industrial Revolution.

 Electric charge: a property of some subatomic particles, which determines

their electromagnetic interactions. Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and
produces, electromagnetic fields.
 Electric current: a movement or flow of electrically charged particles, typically
measured in amperes.
 Electric field: an influence produced by an electric charge on other charges in its
vicinity.
 Electric potential: the capacity of an electric field to do work on an electric
charge, typically measured in volts.
 Electromagnetism: a fundamental interaction between the magnetic field and the
presence and motion of an electric charge.
Static electricity refers to the build up of electric charge on the surface of objects. The
static charges remain on an object until they either bleed off to ground or are quickly
neutralized by a discharge. Static electricity can be contrasted with current (or dynamic)
electricity, which can be delivered through wires as a power source.[1] Although charge
exchange can happen whenever any two surfaces come into contact and separate, a
static charge only remains when at least one of the surfaces has a high resistance to
electrical flow (an electrical insulator). The effects of static electricity are familiar to most
people because we can feel, hear, and even see the spark as the excess charge is
neutralized when brought close to a large electrical conductor (for example, a path to
ground), or a region with an excess charge of the opposite polarity (positive or
negative). The familiar phenomenon of a static 'shock' is caused by the neutralization of
charge.

Electric charge is a physical property of matter which causes it to experience

a force when near other electrically charged matter. Electric charge comes in two types,
called positive and negative. Two positively charged substances, or objects, experience
a mutual repulsive force, as do two negatively charged objects. Positively charged
objects and negatively charged objects experience an attractive force. The SI unit of
electric charge is the coulomb (C), although in electrical engineering it is also common
to use the ampere-hour (Ah). The study of how charged substances interact isclassical
electrodynamics, which is accurate insofar as quantum effects can be ignored.

The electric charge is a fundamental conserved property of some subatomic particles,

which determines their electromagnetic interaction. Electrically charged matter is
influenced by, and produces, electromagnetic fields. The interaction between a moving
charge and an electromagnetic field is the source of the electromagnetic force, which is
one of the four fundamental forces (See also: magnetic field).

Twentieth-century experiments demonstrated that electric charge is quantized; that is, it

comes in multiples of individual small units called the elementary charge, e,
approximately equal to 1.602×10−19
 coulombs (except for particles called quarks which have charges that are multiples of
⅓e). The proton has a charge of e, and the electron has a charge of −e. The study of
charged particles, and how their interactions are mediated by photons, is quantum 
Conservation of electric charge

The total electric charge of an isolated system remains constant regardless of changes

within the system itself. This law is inherent to all processes known to physics and can
be derived in a local form from gauge invariance of the wave function. The conservation
of charge results in the charge-current continuity equation. More generally, the net
change in charge density ρ within a volume of integration V is equal to the area integral
over the current density J through the closed surface S = ∂V, which is in turn equal to
the net current I:

Thus, the conservation of electric charge, as expressed by the continuity equation,

gives the result:

The charge transferred between times ti and tf is obtained by integrating both

sides:

where I is the net outward current through a closed surface and Q is the
electric charge contained within the volume defined by the surface.

Electrostatics is the branch of science that deals with the phenomena arising from

stationary or slow-moving electric charges.

Since classical antiquity it was known that some materials such as amber attract

lightweight particles after rubbing. The Greek word for amber, ήλεκτρον(electron), was
the source of the word 'electricity'. Electrostatic phenomena arise from the forces that
electric charges exert on each other. Such forces are described by Coulomb's law. Even
though electrostatically induced forces seem to be rather weak, the electrostatic force
between e.g. an electron and aproton, that together make up a hydrogen atom, is about
40 orders of magnitude stronger than the gravitational force acting between them.
Electrostatic phenomena include many examples as simple as the attraction of the
plastic wrap to your hand after you remove it from a package, to the apparently
spontaneous explosion of grain silos, to damage of electronic components during
manufacturing, to the operation of photocopiers. Electrostatics involves the buildup of
charge on the surface of objects due to contact with other surfaces. Although charge
exchange happens whenever any two surfaces contact and separate, the effects of
charge exchange are usually only noticed when at least one of the surfaces has a
high resistance to electrical flow. This is because the charges that transfer to or from the
highly resistive surface are more or less trapped there for a long enough time for their
effects to be observed. These charges then remain on the object until they either bleed
off to ground or are quickly neutralized by a discharge: e.g., the familiar phenomenon of
a static 'shock' is caused by the neutralization of charge built up in the body from
contact with nonconductive surfaces.

Fundamental concepts

[edit]Coulomb's law
The fundamental equation of electrostatics is Coulomb's law, which describes the force
between two point charges. The magnitude of the electrostatic force between two point
electric charges Q1 andQ2 is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of
each charge and inversely proportional to the surface area of a sphere whose radius is
equal to the distance between the charges:

where ε0 is a constant called the permittivity of free space, a defined value:

  in  A2s4 kg-
1
m−3 or C2N−1m−2 or F m−1.
[edit]The electric field
The electric field (in units of volts per meter) at a point is defined as the force
(in newtons) per unit charge (in coulombs) on a charge at that point:
From this definition and Coulomb's law, it follows that the magnitude of the
electric field E created by a single point charge Q is:

The electric field produced by a distribution of charges given by the

volume charge density   is obtained by a triple integral of a vector
function:

[edit]Gauss's law
Gauss' law states that "the total electric flux through a closed
surface is proportional to the total electric charge enclosed within
the surface".

Mathematically, Gauss's law takes the form of an integral

equation:

Alternatively, in differential form, the equation becomes

where   is the divergence operator.

[edit]Poisson's equation
The definition of electrostatic potential, combined with
the differential form of Gauss's law (above), provides a
relationship between the potential φ and the charge
density ρ:

This relationship is a form of Poisson's equation.

Where   is vacuum permittivity.
[edit]Laplace's equation
In the absence of unpaired electric charge, the
equation becomes
 which is Laplace's equation.

The ampacity of a conductor, that is, the amount of current it can carry, is related to its
electrical resistance: a lower-resistance conductor can carry more current. The
resistance, in turn, is determined by the material the conductor is made from (as
described above) and the conductor's size. For a given material, conductors with a
larger cross-sectional area have less resistance than conductors with a smaller cross-
sectional area.

For bare conductors, the ultimate limit is the point at which power lost to resistance
causes the conductor to melt. Aside from fuses, most conductors in the real world are
operated far below this limit, however. For example, household wiring is usually
insulated with PVC insulation that is only rated to operate to about 60 °C, therefore, the
current flowing in such wires must be limited so that it never heats the copper conductor
above 60 °C, causing a risk of fire. Other, more expensive insulations such
as Teflon or fiberglass may allow operation at much higher temperatures.

The American wire gauge article contains a table showing allowable ampacities for a

variety of copper wire sizes.
 Far Eastern university
Institute of Architecture and Fine Arts

ASSIGNMENT NO. 1

ELECTRICITY

Bryan Kenette E. Padilla

2008966661