Circular Economy Plastics India Roadmap - 0

Circular Economy
for Plastics in India:

A Roadmap
Circular Economy for Plastics in India: A Roadmap
© THE ENERGY AND RESOURCES INSTITUTE, 2021

This is a revised version of the publication. The material in this publication is copyrighted. Content from this Roadmap
document may be used for non-commercial purposes, provided it is attributed to the source. This publication does
not advocate or criticize any aspect of the plastic industry.
Authors
Shilpi Kapur Bakshi, Senior Fellow, Environment & Waste Management Division, TERI
Mehar Kaur, Research Associate, Environment & Waste Management Division, TERI
Shweta Gautam, Project Associate, Environment & Waste Management Division, TERI
Advisor
Suneel Pandey, Senior Fellow and Director, Environment & Waste Management Division, TERI
Suggested Format for Citation

Kapur-Bakshi, S., Kaur, M., and Gautam, S., 2021. Circular Economy for Plastics in India: A Roadmap. New Delhi:
The Energy and Resources Institute
TERI Press
Sushmita Ghosh
Sudeep Pawar
Vijay Nipane
Published by
The Energy and Resources Institute, New Delhi, India
For more information

Project Monitoring Cell
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India | Tel.: +91 11 2468 2100 or 2468 2111 | Fax: +91 11 2468 2144 or 2468 2145 Email: [email protected]
| Web: www.teriin.org
ii
Foreword
Plastics are used in variety of applications including healthcare, automobiles, clean energy from wind
turbines to solar panels, and most importantly as packaging material for food and non-food applications.
Their benefits range from being lightweight, flexible, durable, to providing long shelf-life and many more,
and their use has increased twenty-fold in the past half-century, and is expected to double again in the
next 20 years. Further, with the advent of consumerism, growing purchasing power, and higher standard
of living, the convenience that plastic-based consumer goods and the packaging provides for both food
and non-food applications is invaluable.
However, these benefits are handicapped by the mismanagement of plastic waste which results in the
clogging of drains, flooding and breeding of diseases, as well as adversely impacting our river and marine
resources. Plastic packaging, much of which is single use and thrown within minutes after unpacking,
accounts for nearly half of all the plastic waste globally. These call for a fundamental change in the way
plastic products, including packaging, are designed, used, and disposed.
One key solution is to manage plastic waste in an efficient and responsible manner and foster circularity
in use of plastics. Circular economy measures/models retain the added value of goods as long as
possible, reducing waste and keeping the value of plastics in the economy, without leakage into the
natural environment. However, the manner in which most of the plastic products are made, used, and
disposed at present does not capture the economic advantages of a more circular approach, and end up
with drastic harming of the environment. Also, almost every piece of plastic begins as a fossil fuel, and
greenhouse gases are released from its extraction, processing, usage, and end-of-life at each point of
the plastic lifecycle.
This Circular Economy Roadmap for Plastics in India, prepared by The Energy and Resources Institute
with support from the Children’s Investment Fund Foundation, identifies the key demand and supply-
side potential across the entire value chain for fostering circularity in plastics and includes a specific
focus on the downstream issues on reducing, reusing, and recycling plastics. It aims to decouple
plastics production from virgin fossil feedstock, incentivize use of recycled plastics to substitute virgin
plastics, encourage responsible design, and strengthen and expand plastic recycling and reutilization.
The implementation of the actions suggested in the roadmap will help address the social and environmental
challenges due to the mismanagementof plastic waste and the associated economic costs, while also
decreasing unnecessary plastic consumption. The roadmap strongly emphasizes that the transition to
circular plastics economy in India, requires extensive (financial and regulatory) linkages between key
stakeholders, including regulators, policymakers, corporates, and financial institutions, supported by
innovative technological and financial solutions.
This roadmap aims at providing a way forward to all stakeholders including industry, policymakers,
academicians, administrators and civil society organizations including those working with the informal
sector. I am confident that it will enable and generate debates and discussions on plastics use and
recycling, and will also generate interest among the business community who might eventually come
out with multitude of business models, contributing to promoting a circular plastics economy in India.
Ajay Mathur
Director General, TERI
iv
Table of Contents
Foreword iii
Acknowledgements ix
List of Acronyms xi
Executive Summary 1
Introduction 3
Plastic Industry in India 5
Plastic Waste in India: Challenges and Implications 8
Existing Policy and Regulatory Framework for Plastic Industry in India 10
Material Flow of Plastics 14
Circular Economy for Plastics in India: Challenges and Opportunities 21
Plastics Circularity Scenarios 22
Demand-side Potential: Key End-use Sectors 22
Supply-side Potential 27
Circularity Scenarios: Integrating Demand-and Supply-side Potentials 30
Fostering Circularity of Plastics in India 35
Need for Special Focus on Difficult-to-Recycle Plastics (Reduce, Redesign or Eliminate) 35
Existing Practices in India: Scope for Replication and Scaling up 36
Need for Improved Rural Plastic Waste Management 36
Policy Instruments: Strengthening and Expanding 37
Extended Producer Responsibility: Fostering Effective Implementation 39
Investment towards Circular Solutions 39
Polymer Science Perspective towards Plastics Circularity 40
Roadmap for Circular Economy for Plastics in India 42
References 52
Annexure 1 58
Annexure 2 68
v
List of Figures
FIGURE 1: Overview of key value chain stages ..........................................................................................5
FIGURE 2: Plastic consumption/demand in scenarios without (w/o) and with (w) SUP
bans, 2010-35.................................................................................................................................16
FIGURE 3: Plastic consumption projection by plastic type, 2010–35.....................................................17
FIGURE 4: Plastic consumption projection by plastic type with sup ban implementation,
2010–35 ..........................................................................................................................................17
FIGURE 5: Sankey representation of material flow of plastics in india (basis data for 2018–19)....20
FIGURE 6: Circular economy for plastics in India and challenges .........................................................21
FIGURE 7: Bio-plastics risks and challenges ..............................................................................................29
FIGURE 8: Roadmap for circularity in plastics in India: objectives.........................................................43
vi
List of Tables
TABLE 1: Stakeholder mapping across the plastic value chain ............................................................6
TABLE 2: Circularity implications of legislative and regulatory framework for plastics in India...10
TABLE 3: Polymer resins application and recycling ................................................................................14
TABLE 4: Share of key end-use sectors of plastic usage ........................................................................22
TABLE 5A: Plastics circularity in packaging sector ...................................................................................23
TABLE 5B: Plastics circularity in automotive sector ..................................................................................25
TABLE 5C: Plastics circularity in building and construction sector .......................................................26
TABLE 6: Potential resource efficiency and circularity scenarios for plastics sector in India .......32
TABLE A1: Some of the existing good resource efficiency and circular economy
practices/initiatives in context of plastics in India ................................................................58
TABLE A2: International experience on plastics circularity roadmaps and strategies:

key learning ....................................................................................................................................63
TABLE A3: Cost benefit analysis of petroleum-based HDPE and of PLA resin obtained
from cassava root (Case 1) and cassava starch (Case 2) in Thailand ................................67
TABLE A4: Typical SEC of ethylene and propylene production ................................................................68
TABLE A5: Typical SEC of polypropylene production .................................................................................69
TABLE A6: Typical SEC of polyethylene production ...................................................................................70
TABLE A7: Typical SEC of PET production ...................................................................................................70
TABLE A8: Typical SEC of PVC production ...................................................................................................71
TABLE A9: Typical SEC of EPS production ...................................................................................................71
vii
viii
Acknowledgements
This study has been funded by Children’s Investment Fund Foundation (CIFF).
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Dr. Suneel Pandey, Director and Senior Fellow, TERI
for his able guidance and valuable inputs throughout the development of this study.
We also deeply acknowledge the contribution of Dr. Vijay Habbu, Adjunct Professor at ICT, Mumbai
and Mr. Shailendra Singh, Founder & CEO SustainMantra for their valuable insights into the plastic
industry. We thank Mr. Will Hall, Associate Fellow, TERI for his support in modelling future projections
for plastics and Mr. N. Vasudevan, Senior Fellow, TERI for providing technological inputs for polymer
production processes.
We extend our thanks to all individuals and organizations who contributed to this study through their
participation in the various consultative fora. Their varied insights and feedback shaped the team’s
thoughts and formulated the basis for the study.
The inputs of All India Plastic Manufacturers Association of India (AIPMA), PET Packaging Association
for Clean Environment (PACE), and Indian Centre for Plastic in the Environment (ICPE) helped us to
reach out to key experts in the plastics sector as well as get feedback on the main issues and challenges
facing the industry from a circular economy perspective.
ix
x
List of Acronyms
ABS Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene
AEPW Alliance to End Plastic Waste
AFR Alternate Fuel and Raw Material
AIPMA All India Plastic Manufacturers Association of India
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
B&C Building and Construction
B2B Business-to-Business
BAMB Building as Material Banks
BAU Business as Usual
BBMP Bruhat Benagluru Mahanagara Palike
BIS Bureau of Indian Standards
BPF British Plastics Federation
CE Circular Economy
CEN European Committee for Standardization
CFRP Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic
CIFF Children’s Investment Fund Foundation
COINDS Comprehensive Industrial Document
CPCB Central Pollution Control Board
CPMA Chemicals & Petrochemicals Manufacturers’ Association
CRL Circular Retrofit Lab
CSR Corporate Social Responsibility
DIN German Institute for Standardization
EC European Commission
EoL End-of-Life
EPR Extended Producer Responsibility
FDA Food and Drug Administration
FMCG Fast Moving Consumer Goods
GAIL Gas Authority of India
GHG Green House Gas
GOI Government of India
xi
GPP Green Public Procurement

GPS Global Positioning System
GRIHA Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment
GVPs Garbage Vulnerable Points
HCCBPL Hindustan Coca Cola Beverages Private Limited
HDPE High Density Polyethylene
HUL Hindustan Unilever Limited
HV AC Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning
IBEF India Brand Equity Foundation
ICPE Indian Centre for Plastic in the Environment
ICT Institute of Chemical Technology
IEC Information, Education and Communication
ISO International Standards Organization
JIS Japanese Institute for Standardization
LDPE Low Density Polyethylene
LLDPE Linear Low Density Polyethylene
MLPs Multi-Layer Packaging
MMP Multi-Material Packaging
MNCs Multinational Corporations
MoC&F Ministry of Chemical and Fertilizers
MoCI Ministry of Commerce and Industries
MoEFCC Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
MoHFW Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
Mohua Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs
MoRTH Ministry of Road Transport and Highways
MPP Multi Polymer Packaging
MRFs Material Recovery Facilities
MSME Ministry of Micro, Small & Medium Enterprises
MSW Municipal Solid Waste
MTPA Million Tonnes Per Annum
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
ONGC Oil and Natural Gas Corporation
PACE Packaging Association for Clean Environment
PBAT PolyButyrate Adipate Terephthalate
PBS Polybutylene succinate
PCCPs Personal Care and Cosmetic Products
xii
PCL Polycaprolacton
PE Polyethylene
PET Polyethylene Terepthalate
PHAs Polyhydroxyalkanoate
PIB Press Information Bureau
PLA Polylactic Acid
PP Polypropylene
PPE Personal Protective Equipment
PPP Public Private Partnership
PS Polystyrene
PUF Polyurethane Foam
PVA Polyvinyl Alcohol
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride
PVOH Polyvinyl Alcohol
PWM Plastic Waste Management
R&D Research and Development
RDF Refuse Derived Fuel
RE Resource Efficiency
RMIT Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology
SABIC Saudi Basic Industries Corporation
SBM Swachh Bharat Mission
SMEs Samll and Medium Enterprises
SPI Society of the Plastics Industry
SPP Single Polymer Packaging
SUPs Single Use Plastics
TERI The Energy and Resources Institute
ULBs Urban Local Bodies
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
USA United States of America
VC Venture Capital
VGF Viability Gap Funding
WtE Waste to Energy
xiii
xiv
Executive Summary
To limit global warming below 2 °C, rapid reduction in global energy consumption is required. The
industry has been focusing on reducing the sectoral greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from production
(supply-side) of widely used resources such as steel, cement, plastics. However, this can be achievable
only when reduction in supply-side emissions is complemented with demand-side management. Here,
circular economy (CE) has an important role to play as it can through better demand management create
opportunities to reduce the demand for virgin resources and emissions associated with their production.
Globally, in 2019, the GHG emissions from production and incineration of plastic were estimated to be
more than 850 million tonne (equal to the emissions from 189 500 MW coal power plants).
Many sectors are using plastics owing to their substantial benefits of being lightweight, flexible, durable,
provide long shelf life, which are far greater than their drawbacks. The recent COVID-19 outbreak has
seen a significant rise in the use of plastics, particularly in the form of personal protective equipment
(PPE) and because of growth in e-commerce packaging, or in light of safety and hygiene aspects of
product packaging.
Amongst different applications of plastics, packaging is the key end-use sector accounting for the
highest share. Packaging plastics with mostly shorter product lifetimes, compared to plastics used in
other applications such as building and construction (B&C) or in automobiles, are considered to have
a significant potential in contributing towards CE. Tapping this potential and identifying opportunities
along the value chain can help in the transition from the take-make-use-throw linear model.
In the linear model, plastic polymers and raw materials are majorly made from fossil fuels, accounting
for 8–9% global oil and gas in its production. In the midstream, manufacturing/design stage, a significant
portion of plastics are made for single use, which significantly contributes to waste generation. In the
downstream stage, most plastics are consumed for one time use only and become waste after a few
minutes of use. Plastic waste is mostly handled by the informal sector. The lack of formal channels,
robust technology, economic incentives, business models, and urban local bodies (ULBs) involvement
leads to leakages in segregated collection, transport and safe treatment and disposal of plastic waste.
In India, 60% of plastics (such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles, high density polyethylene
(HDPE) containers, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes) are recycled. However, these are mostly downcycled
in an informal setting. There is high share of plastic waste that ends up in landfills, burnt, or leaked into
the environment. Plastics that are difficult or hard to recycle because they are made of mixed materials/
multi-polymers or are contaminated or dirty from use, end up mostly as mismanaged waste.
Currently, policies such as ban on single-use plastics are adopted when considering increase research
on alternatives and recycling rates. Moving forward, there is a need for developing recyclable, cost-
effective plastics as a viable substitute to non-recyclable plastics. It is extremely critical and essential
to unlock the market potential of secondary plastics (recycled plastics).
1
The roadmap for circularity in plastics looks at the entire value chain and aims to decouple plastics
production from virgin fossil feedstock, incentivize plastic recycling and reuse, and reduce damage by
plastic litter while decreasing unnecessary plastic consumption. Starting from upstream, the material
flow of plastics in India shows that out of the total polymer consumption of 16.8 million tonnes per annum
(MMTPA) in 2018–19, 90% was for plastic and the remaining 10% was for non-plastic consumption-
adhesives, rubbers, cosmetics, etc. Polymers for production of various synthetic fibres, constitutes
another 4 MMTPA. Business as usual (BAU) forecasts out to 2035 for plastics consumption across main
polymer types show the largest consumption continue to come from polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene
(PP). These are the main polymers used for flexible packaging end use, and also constitute a significant
part of (mismanaged) plastic waste. Flexible packaging, particularly multi-polymer or multi-material in
the form of bags, pouches, shrink films, tubes, sleeves, and carded packaging are mostly non-recyclable,
or difficult to collect and, hence, cannot be recycled. For downstream activities, TERI estimates on
plastic waste flows for India suggest that out of the total plastic consumption, 42% consumption
in current year stays in circulation (lifetime of product greater than 1 year) while 58% comes out as
waste. From the total plastic waste generated about 60% is actually recycled, 8.5% reutilized for energy
recovery and repurposing, and about 31.5% is mismanaged plastic waste i.e. littered in streets, drains,
garbage vulnerable points (GVPs)* , thrown in dumpsites, or openly burnt.
Resource efficiency (RE) and circularity can be integrated through demand and supply-side measures
along the value chain. Measures include use of recycled plastics and waste as a substitute for
virgin polymers, eco-design to reduce absolute material consumption and ease of disassembly
of final product. Incorporating these measures poses challenges linked to biomass availability
and land availability for food, biomaterial, or bioenergy production, undeveloped market for
recycled plastics/secondary raw material, difficulty in securing high quality supply of recyclable
plastic waste, a limited market for post-consumer resin (pellets) and technological limitations
for eco-design. The roadmap details the potential impact of these measures from demand and
supply sides, under three circularity scenarios for India: BAU, Moderate, and High ambition
RE and CE. The roadmap has set three key priorities/objectives, supported by measurable action
plan that may be monitored over – short (0–2 years), medium (2–5 years), and long term (>5 years).
These objectives are:
»» Adopting sustainable material solutions –use of bio-based polymers, substitution of virgin polymer
with recycled polymer, and dematerialization of plastic products
»» Increase supply of good quality secondary plastics feedstock (recycled plastics); and
»» Invent, innovate, and encourage alternative uses of problematic plastics waste
Building on a shared vision, the success of the roadmap requires cooperation from all stakeholders
including national, state, and city governments, industry, academia, and the informal sector. The political
acceptability and the financial viability of different actions, enforcement of the chosen top-down
and bottom-up approach will foster the implementation of the roadmap. There will also be required
regular, systematic monitoring of the action points along with the collection and analysis of data in
the context to determine the efficacy, and the need for adjustment in the actions defining the roadmap.
* GVPs are illegal land disposal sites on unauthorized locations where solid waste is disposed indiscriminately without segre-
gation with little to no regards for pollution controls or aesthetics by individuals or commercial establishments. There are no
physical barriers separating these garbage points from humans, animals, and the environment because of which they are a
source of surface and ground water pollution and present a health hazard for public and the environment.
2
Introduction
Across the world, the discussions in the context of sectoral greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from
industry have focused on reducing the emissions from the production (supply side) of widely used
resources such as steel, cement, plastics, among others. In 2019, the GHG emissions from global
production and incineration of plastic were estimated to be more than 850 million tonne (equal to the
emissions from 189 500 MW coal power plants) and by 2050, annual emissions could grow to more
than 2.75 billion tonne of CO2 equivalent if the current patterns of plastic production and use continue
(Hamilton, et al., 2019).
Ninety nine per cent of feedstock for plastics is fossil based. For producing plastic products out of plastic
polymers, virgin feedstocks account for 90% share, and the remaining 10% is met by recycled polymers.
Plastics account for 8–9% of global oil and gas production and its production is projected to double by
2040, with its share of global oil consumption expected to grow to about 20% in 2050 (World Economic
Forum;Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2016). Switching to bio-based plastics has the potential of lowering
GHG emissions from plastics production. However, this impact will depend on the source of bio-based
feedstock and its direct and indirect impact on land-use change (Borrelle, et al., 2017), (Piemonte &
Gironi, 2011).
The reduction of supply-side emissions from the plastics sector will need to be complemented with
the management of demand-side emissions. Circular economy can play an important role in creating
opportunities for generating demand-side reductions in emissions. This can be achieved through different
channels including substitution of virgin resources with secondary raw material/recycled polymers,
product design for better resource recovery at end-of-life, improved resource efficiency of production
processes, longer use of products to reduce waste generation, and regeneration of natural systems to
sequester carbon in soil and products. For example, available estimates note that instead of landfilling
(mechanical) recycling lowers GHG emissions by about 0.6 tonne of CO2 equivalent per tonne of plastic
recycled (Bennett, 2016). The circular economy rationale is also increasingly promoted as a means to
move from a global plastic waste dilemma to a plastics economy that is aligned with the principles of
sustainable development (Gall, et al., 2020).
Of the plastics, packaging plastics, in particular, are considered to have significant potential in contributing
towards circular economy (European Commission, 2018; Hahladakis & Iacovidou, 2018; Leslie, et al. 2016
; Plastics Europe, 2018; Eygen, et al., 2018; World Economic Forum; Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017).
This potential arises majorly from single-use (use and throw) characteristics of packaging plastics and
its subsequent mismanagement. A recent study (FICCI, 2020) on packaging in India projects a loss of
almost USD133 billion worth of plastic material value in the next 10 years till 2030 due to unsustainable
packaging in India. The study also suggests that circular economy-based interventions have the potential
of recovering almost 75% of this projected loss value, i.e. USD 100 billion.
There is significant local, national, and global focus on (mismanaged) plastic waste issue and its potential
contribution to marine litter (Brooks, Wang, & Jambeck, 2018; Jambeck, et al., 2015; Rochman, et al.,
3
2013; Thompson, et al., 2009). Important to highlight here is that marine plastic pollution contains not
only plastic debris/litter but also micro-plastics1 (an emerging issue of international concern, particularly
for the health of oceans and marine biodiversity). In countries like India, with large coastlines and
many rivers flowing through the country, the challenges related to plastic use and waste cannot be
ignored. The issue of riverine and marine pollution linked with plastics is becoming a topic of wide-
spread discussion and stakeholders are coming forward to find a solution to this problem.
This Circular Economy roadmap for Plastics in India identifies opportunities across the entire value
chain of plastics with specific focus on the downstream issues of avoiding waste and fostering re-use
and recycle of plastics. The roadmap draws upon learning from existing best practices across the world.
Building on a shared vision, its implementation requires cooperation between all stakeholders including
individuals, government, industry, private, public, and informal sectors perspective. The success of the
roadmap will depend on the enforcement of the chosen top-down and bottom-up approaches, regular,
systematic monitoring of these approaches along with the collection and analysis of needed data in
the context to determine its efficacy and the need for adjustment.
1
This is a category of plastic debris termed ‘microplastics’, which are small pieces of plastic that may enter the ocean as such,
or may result from the fragmentation of larger items through the influence of UV radiation
4
Plastic Industry in India
The plastic value chain (Figure 1)** spans from the extraction of raw material for plastic production
over several steps to the end-of-life management and disposal of plastic waste. The plastics sector
engages a broad spectrum of stakeholders from the public, private, and civil sector at the national,
state, and local levels, as elaborated in Table 1, all of whom have defined roles and responsibilities.
The key stakeholders involved across different stages of plastic value chain are plastic producers and
processors, consumers, and waste managers. They are supported by connected stakeholders: industry
associations, waste management companies, transporters, and importers/exporters. The common
stakeholders across the entire value chain include financial institutions, civil society organizations, and
regional, national, and international governmental and non-governmental institutions.
Stage Acitivity Output
Oil Exploration and Production Oil and Gas

Raw Material
Production
Upstream
Feedstock production Monomers
Polymerization Polymer Resin
Manufacture of Intermediate
Bottle Caps, Multi-layer Films
Manufacture and Use
Plastic Components
Manufacture of Final
Midstream Pouches and Cartons
/Assembled Packaging
Manufacture of Consumer FMCG Products

Products
Use of Plastic Products and

Plastic Waste
Packaging
Disposal and End-of-Life
Waste Collection/Sorting Segregated and Aggregated

Treatment
Plastic Waste
Downstream
Recycling Flakes, Pellets, Films, and Sheets
Reutilization Plastones, Roads, Tiles,

Lumber, Co processing as fuel
FIGURE 1: Overview of key value chain stages of plastics

** This figure is based on a presentation by Dr. Vijay Habbu, an expert in the plastics sector and currently an Adjunct Professor at
ICT, Mumbai
5
TABLE 1: Stakeholder mapping across the plastic value chain

Category Level Stakeholder Plastic Value Roles & Responsibilities
Group Chain Stage
Government National/ Ministries and Multiple Provide policy framework
State Departments at national and state levels
including regulations, market-
based instruments, information
and voluntary tools; Facilitate
capacity building activities
National/ Public Downstream Monitor; Support policy making
State Institutions and ensure compliance; Review
of information shared by states
National/ Financing Multiple Provide financial resources
State Institutions for waste management
(banking and infrastructure
non-banking
financial
institutes)
City/Local Local Multiple Provide policy framework
Government at municipal level; Create
[urban local bye-laws; Implement waste
bodies (ULBs)] management activities; Engage
with private players supporting
waste management activities
Private National Monomer (raw Upstream Perform upstream processes
materials) like monomer production and
and Polymer polymer production
Producers
National Industry Upstream
Associations
National/ Manufacture and Midstream Perform midstream processes
State Use (converters/ at state and national levels
processors/ involving production of plastic
plastic components and its use by end-
producers, use sectors
importers, brand
owners and
retailers)
National/ Manufacture and
State Use (product
and end-use
application
industry
associations)
National/ Service Providers Multiple Contribute to plastic value
State (transporters) chain
National/ Service Providers Multiple Provide financial resources
State (banks and non- for waste management
banking financial infrastructure
institutions)
6
TABLE 1: Stakeholder mapping across the plastic value chain

Category Level Stakeholder Plastic Value Roles & Responsibilities
Group Chain Stage
Private City/Local Disposal & EoL Downstream Provide downstream processes
(consumers/ with regard to plastic waste
recyclers/ management
processors/
re-purposers/
collection and
recovery centres)
City/Local Disposal & EoL Downstream
(waste industry
association/
waste
management
companies)
City/Local Disposal & EoL Downstream Support waste management
(informal sector: system and perform
collectors, downstream processes.
aggregators, Collect waste materials from
transporters, public spaces e.g. waste bins,
recyclers) dumpsters, illegal dumping
sites. Sort and collect waste
materials at dump/landfill site.
Informal plastic recycling
sector adds value to the
economy by transforming
waste into tradeable goods,
reducing cost associated with
waste management for ULBs
Civil Society National/ NGOs, Research Multiple Influence all parts of the
Organizations State and Academia plastic value chain (i.e.
research & (research production, consumption,
advocacy, & advocacy and EoL) through different
Think tanks institutions, measures like research and
think tanks development; capacity building;
and academic raise awareness and initiatives
institutes) on local issues; support policy
City/Local NGOs, Research Downstream making and compliance at
research and Academia national, state, and at local
centres (research levels
centres,
think tanks,
universities,
educational
centres)
Key Connected Common

Stakeholder Stakeholders stakeholder
7
Plastic Waste in India: Challenges and
Implications
The existing waste management practices are unable to support the urban waste generated, which is
becoming a major issue in India. Post-consumer plastic waste is collected as part of municipal solid
waste (MSW). At present, MSW is estimated to have collection efficiency as high as 85–86%. However,
source segregation is majorly lacking, which is leading to contamination of potentially recyclable dry
waste materials including plastics. Recyclable plastics, such as single polymer packaging (flexible or
rigid), if not segregated and instead mixed and contaminated with wet, food waste, will become non-
recyclable. Contaminated or low value plastic waste that does not get collected, recycled, or reutilized
gets mismanaged. This waste mostly consists of low value, single-use plastics (SUPs) used widely as
carry bags or for food and small-sized packaging for FMCG products. Economic incentives do not exist
that can capture and prevent the leakage of these low value, contaminated, SUPs at the end of their short
life into the environment.
Majority of the post-consumer plastic waste that gets collected mostly end up in open dumpsites and
(unscientific)2 landfills. Landfills occupy a significant area and, given the current rate of population
growth and urbanization, there is less land available for landfilling, especially within city limits where
land value is high3. Landfills also result in an unpleasant landscape, apart from causing leachate and
release of GHGs.
Mismanaged plastics also have high chances of becoming part of waterways and marine litter. Such
plastic waste is often found littered and thrown in drains and during monsoons lead to drain clogging
and increased chances of flooding. Such waste leaked from coastal cities is carried by ocean currents to
form gyres, which are garbage patches in the ocean where waste gets collected. It is essential to recycle
or safely dispose plastics, as once mismanaged, most plastics do not degrade but fragment into micro-
plastics in the environment. Biodegradable plastics4, contrary to perception or claims do not decompose
into the expected benign chemicals (CO2, CH4, H2O) and certainly not overnight, inevitably ending up as
litter and microplastics.
Although, CPCB estimates suggest that India has a high recycling of about 60% for the post-consumer
plastic waste; however, this is done mostly by the informal sector (which includes waste pickers,
aggregators, informal recycling units), with some help from ULBs. There is still a lack of structured
integration of the informal sector into formal waste management systems despite the MSWM Rules
2016 mandating it. The ULBs, private sector including the multinational brands, and waste management
companies struggle to work effectively with the informal sector despites increasing evidence of economic,
2
Very few states in India have converted their landfills into sanitary landfills.
3
Estimates suggest the current rate of garbage dumping requiring 1240 ha of land for landfill per year, which is increasingly
difficult to achieve (Swati, Thakur, Vijay, & Ghosh, 2018).
4
Biodegradable plastics are plastics which decompose in the environment within a reasonable period of time, but may require
biodegradable additives to enhance biodegradation process and some may require a specific environment to disintegrate.
Time taken by plastics to decompose depends upon various factors such as raw material used and environmental conditions
such as moisture and temperature. These constitute a very small proportion. Examples of such fossil fuel-based biodegrad-
able plastics are poly(butylene succinate) (PBS), poly(butylene succinate-co-adipate) (PBSA), polycaprolactone (PCL), and
poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT).
8
environmental, and social benefits of forming mutually beneficial partnerships. The workers are paid low
wages, do not have adequate and proper protective equipment, and work long hours without any standard
operating procedures (SOPs), in conditions that lack health and occupational safety measures.
The organizational structure and functioning of the informal sector recycling begins with the collection
of the recyclables from (open) dumpsites, streets, or directly at the source from households. After
collection, the recyclables are passed from the informal waste picker to a local kabadiwaalas (who are
small scrap aggregators and typically buy5 different types of waste paper, glass, metal, and plastic, and
operate from a shop where they collect, store and minimally process waste materials collected), and
then to larger aggregator6/ junk yard owners, intermediate dealers, or other middlemen. This trading is
done in a rather hierarchical and non-transparent value chain in a market space that is semi-formal and
informal with no clear price estimates for different plastic products. Post-recycling, the recycled plastic
in the form of pellets and granules is reintroduced into the economy as secondary raw material (Asim,
Batool, & Chaudhry, 2012; Ezeah, Fazakerley, & Roberts, 2013).
Lack of technology entails mostly physical or mechanical recycling of plastics by cutting, shredding, or
washing into granulates, flakes or pellets of appropriate quality in a crude manner, which can then be
blended with virgin material for superior quality. Lack of formal channels, Standard Operating Procedures
(SOPs), and rudimentary recycling techniques lead to waste leakages during the recycling process. The
final recycled flakes/pellets/granules are not of superior quality and maybe contaminated with other
polymers or materials.
Formal recycling is mainly limited to clean, segregated, pre-consumer waste in a few clusters in the
country, including those in western Indian states of Gujarat and Maharashtra as they have a robust
recycling and transport infrastructure and grid connectivity. These states also recycle pre- and post-
consumer plastic waste from far away states of Southern or Eastern India, which involves significant
transportation costs. Poor infrastructure and road connectivity in regions, especially like North-East
India, make transporting plastic waste over long distances to recycling units a major hurdle. In addition
to this, even in locations where recycling infrastructure is available, only about 50–60% of the capacity
is utilized due to lack of availability of clean, segregated waste. The capacity is also underutilized due
to ban on import of plastic waste7. Recyclers were importing clean, segregated, polymer waste, which
allowed them to work at capacity while also treating domestic post-consumer plastic waste. However,
since the ban, the recyclers are facing shortages in supply of clean waste as large part of the domestic
post-consumer plastic waste obtained is contaminated, which makes it less recyclable.
Additives and chemicals in plastic products can leach out during recycling and from the recycled use of
pellets/flakes/ granules, thus making the recycled product more toxic for the environment than virgin
plastic products (Bhattacharya, et al. 2018). This toxicity of recycled material can contaminate the virgin
raw material and, hence, their use for food and pharmaceutical applications is restricted.
In addition to reuse and recycling, energy recovery from co-processing and waste-to-energy plants and
repurposing plastic waste (for example-use in road construction or lumber making) are other options
that define the end state of plastic waste. However, lack of segregated waste, low investments, absence
of business models, financial and human resource constraints faced by the ULBs have not allowed these
options to achieve scale, and operations are taking place mostly at small scale or pilot level, at times in
partnership with the private sector.
5
Kabadiwaalas also buy directly from the households and other generators of post-consumer waste by directly going to them.
6
These larger aggregators also buy waste directly from bulk generators of recyclable waste
7
In March 2020, changes were made in the country’s hazardous waste rules (PIB, 2018) parts of which concern scrap plastic
movements stating that ‘solid plastic waste has been prohibited from import into the country,’ and the exemptions to the ex-
isting ban on import of plastic scrap-were abolished.
9
Existing Policy and Regulatory
Framework for Plastic Industry in India
In recent years, the Government of India (GOI) has considered and enacted various forms of
environmental legislations and regulations at the national, state, or local levels with respect to
plastics, particularly on the end-of-life management and mitigation of plastic waste pollution. But the
effectiveness of monitoring and enforcement of these measures is generally weak.
The policy push towards resource efficiency and circular economy in plastics is also relatively new and
lacks a systematic approach. Specifically, there is not much emphasis on unlocking the market potential
of secondary plastics (recycled plastics).
There is a growing recognition amongst the industry across the value chain to drive change upstream,
midstream, and complement the efforts being made downstream. Table 2 summarizes the existing
legislative and regulatory framework and its implications on plastics circularity.
TABLE 2: Circularity implications of legislative and regulatory framework for plastics in India
Policy Year Government Description

Ministry/
Department
Upstream
Plastics and recycled 1999, MoEFCC Rules have laid down provisions for the
plastics manufacture, 2002, manufacturing, usage, EoL management,
sale, and usage rules 2003 criteria for manufacturing plastic carry bags
and containers. Amendments (2002; 2003)
provide specifications for virgin and recycled
plastic manufacturing, extend definition
of vendor, and mandate registration and
authorization for manufacturers, production,
sale, or trade for plastic packaging
Policy resolution 2007 MoC&F Provision for specifically delineated
for promotion of investment regions for the manufacturing
petroleum, chemicals, facilities for domestic- and export-led
and petrochemical production in petroleum, chemicals and
investment regions petrochemicals, along with associated
(PCPIRs) services and infrastructure
10

Ministry/
Department
Midstream
National Design 2007 MoCI It focuses on ‘Design in India’ and to
Policy enhance the competitiveness of Indian
industry
Hazardous and Other 2008, MoEFCC It has laid down responsibility for handling
Waste (Management, 2016 and storage of hazardous waste. It also
Handling and deals with the import, export of hazardous
Transboundary waste for recycling, recovery, and reuse.
Movement) Rules It defines processes generating hazardous
waste including plastic production, and
where such processes are prohibited. The
new (2016) rules banned the import of solid
plastic waste, including PET bottles. It also
distinguishes hazardous waste from others
and recognizes waste as a resource for
recycling and reuse supplementing industrial
processes
Food 2011 MoHFW It lays down general requirements for
Safety and Standards packaging and labelling
Regulations
Notice for withdrawal 2019 CPCB Discontinued recognition of PROs with CPCB,
of producer and the producers and other stakeholders
responsibility can plan their EPR implementation as per
organizations requirement of PWM Rules, 2018
Downstream
Guidelines for 1998 BIS Describes types of wastes, classification of
recycling of plastics recycling, and steps involved in the recycling
process
Bio-medical waste 1998, MoEFCC Earliest policy that addresses the treatment
Rules 2016 of plastic waste in biomedical area. Focuses
on recycling of plastics, sharps and glass to
authorized recyclers. Provides colour coding
and the type of container for disposal of
biomedical wastes containing plastic bags
11

Ministry/
Department
Municipal Solid 2000 MoEFCC Declared responsibilities of authorities on
Wastes national, state, and municipal levels
(Management and
2016 MoEFCC New rules have mandated source
Handling)
segregation of waste and event organizers,
Rules, 2000
RWAs, market associations, gated
communities, institutions, and SEZ
have been assigned the responsibility
Plastic Waste 2011 MoEFCC Rules put ban on use of plastic materials
Management in sachets for storing, packing, or
(Amendment) Rules selling gutkha, tobacco and pan masala
2016, MoEFCC Requires producers/brand owners who
2018 introduce plastic carry bags, multi-layered
plastic sachets, pouches, and packaging
into the marketplace to submit an EPR plan.
The amended (2018) rules state that only
those multi-layered plastics (MLPs) will
be phased out which are non-recyclable or
non-energy recoverable or have no alternate
use. Also there will be a central registration
system for the registration of the producer/
importer/brand owner
Guidelines for disposal 2016 CPCB According to these guidelines, the most
of thermoset plastic preferred option is minimization of use of
waste including: Sheet SMC/FRP/ polycarbonate polymer products
Moulding Compound and promote the use of alternate material
(SMC)/ Fibre which are easily recyclable/reusable/
Reinforced Plastic degradable
(FRP)
Guidelines for the 2018 CPCB Guidelines provide the source of non-
disposal of non- recyclable plastic waste and management of
recyclable fraction non-recyclable plastic waste
(multi-layered)
plastic waste
Guidelines for co- 2016 CPCB Guidelines provide the protocol to be
processing of plastic followed by different stakeholders and
waste in cement kilns description of co-processing plastic waste in
cement kilns
12

Ministry/
Department
Environment 2016 MoEFCC Prevent throwing or depositing non-
Protection Act biodegradable garbage in public drains,
(control of non- roads, and places open to public view and
biodegradable protect the environment from being polluted
garbage) by such garbage and for matters connected
therewith or incidental there to
Consolidated 2017 CPCB Guidelines provide roles and responsibilities
guidelines for of different stakeholders in efficient plastic
segregation, waste management and technologies for
collection, and disposal of plastic wastes
disposal of plastic
waste
Prohibition of import 2019 MoEFCC GOI prohibits the import of PET bottle
of PET flakes waste/scraps PET flakes made from used
PET bottles, etc.
Guideline 2020 MoEFCC Mandate manufacturers to take
Document : Uniform responsibilities over materials used in their
Framework for products beyond the sale-phase
Extended Producers
Responsibility
(Under Plastic Waste
Management Rules,
2016)
13
Material Flow of Plastics
Plastic products are made up of different types of polymer resins (which can be typically identified
using resin codes printed on the products) and consumption for these resins is determined through
specifications required by the end-use applications/products. The resin codes were adopted by the
Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI) in 1988 to provide an industry-wide standard that would make it
easier to identify and sort recyclable plastics. These codes were adopted by Bureau of Indian Standards
as IS 14534:1998. Table 3 presents the major polymer resins, their common usage, and actual recycling
status in India.
TABLE 3: Polymer resins application and actual status of recycling

Resin Polymer Application Actual Common recycling process and
code status of predominant end-products
recycling
Polyethylene Water and soft Very »» Predominant form of recycling
terephthalate (PET/ drink bottles, commonly is mechanical recycling. Waste
PETE) food jar, cooking recycled converted into flakes (almost
oil, fruit juice 90% of) which are converted
container, oven into polyester fibres and (the
ready meal trays remaining 10%) into bottles;
»» Chemical recycling is very
limited. Waste polymerization
and the resulting PET reisin is
converted into bottles”
High-density Bottles (shampoo Very »» Mechanical recycling. Waste
polyethylene (HDPE) and other personal commonly converted into granules which
care products), recycled are converted into moulded
carbouys and products (rigid packaging) or
cans (milk, edible sheets/filmc (flexible packaging);
oil, lube oil), and »» Chemical recycling is being
containers (home currently researched, yet to even
care products reach the pilot stage”
and personal care
products)
Polyvinyl chloride Medical field Commonly »» Mechanical recycling. Waste
(PVC)* (blood and recycled converted into granules which
urine bags), are converted into moulded
housing (doors products (rigid packaging
and windows), »» Recycling process generates
packaging (cling dioxins that are dangerous
films, blister
packaging,
labelling, shrink
wrapping), pipes
and flexible
holdings, rainwear
14
TABLE 3: Polymer resins application and actual status of recycling

Resin Polymer Application Actual Common recycling process and
code status of predominant end-products
recycling
Low-density Grocery bags, Sometimes »» Mechanical recycling. Waste
polyethylene (LDPE) wrappings (dry recycled converted into granules which
cleaning bags), are converted into flexible
squeezable packaging; Significant percentage
bottles, bubble foil of LDPE plastic waste is mis-
managed due to small size
and associated difficulties in
collection. Contamination of
the LDPE plastic waste is also
an issue of concern and re-
purposing in road construction
has significant potential
Polypropylene (PP) Furniture, Commonly »» Mechanical recycling. Waste
consumer luggage, recycled converted into granules which
bottle caps, are converted into rigid packaging
medicine bottles, or flexible packaging; but these
chips packs, are majorly thrown away (and so
drinking straws, get mis-managed)
ketchup bottles,
and hummus/
butter tubs
Polystyrene (PS)* Disposal cups, Typically not »» Mostly thrown away (so get
cutlery, packaging recycled mis-managed) and if collected
foam, plastic table can be used as RDF or landfilled
wear, compact CD ; 2 types of polystyrene (hard,
jackets brittle plastic) and expanded
polystyrene (light, insulating,
waterproof plastic)
Others Food packaging, Typically not »» Mechanical recycling. Waste
Miscellaneous electronic goods, recycled converted into granules and used
category and and defence making lumber or specialized
includes Thermoset gadgets; fishing products or can be used for road
plastics, Multilayer nets, clothing, construction
& Laminated ropes
Plastics, PUF
Bakelite,
Polycarbonate,
Melamine, Nylon,
fiberglass;
acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene
(ABS)*8
Important to highlight that SPI points out on its web site, “The code was not intended to be — nor was it ever
promoted as — a guarantee to consumers that a given item bearing the code will be accepted for recycling in their
community.”
Source: Adapted from various sources
8
The plastics with resin code 7 are more of a miscellaneous category for everything that was not fitted into the other three resin
codes. Because this group is miscellaneous, it is difficult to recycle.
15
There are five major polymers [polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyethylene (PE),polyvinyl chloride
(PVC), PP, polystyrene (PS)] that are commonly used, particularly for consumer/ commodity packaging
and non-packaging plastic products. Different combination of dyes and additives are added to these
polymers to produce the desired colour, shape, and texture in the final plastic product. PE, which is
the most extensively consumed polymer, is made as high-density polyethylene (HDPE), low-density
polyethylene (LDPE), and linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) in household items, such as plastic
containers, bottles, bags, and plastic toys. In terms of consumption share of polymers for making different
types of plastic products, estimates for 2020 suggest these to be as follows: PP (38%), LLDPE (11%),
LDPE (2%), HDPE (14%), PVC (10%), PS (2%), PET (15%), and others that include other thermoplastics
and thermoset plastics (10%)9. PP together with the three types of PE accounted for over 50% of India‘s
polymer consumption for plastic products in 2018–19.
Using the relationship between GDP per capita and historical polymer consumption data, a business as
usual (BAU) forecasts till 2035 for polymer consumption/demand across main polymer types is depicted
in Figure 210.
50,000
Plastic Consumption (ktpa)
25,000
0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035
w/o SUP Ban w SUP Ban
FIGURE 2: Plastic consumption/demand in scenarios without (w/o) and with (w) SUP bans, 2010-35
Source: Own analysis based on (CPMA, 2020; OECD, 2020; Sambyal, 2019)
9
This is the basis for the CPMA Data for Apparent Demand (CPMA, 2020)
10
For these forecasts, OECD’s long-term baseline projections, assumptions around India’s economic and population growth out
to 2035 was gathered. It should be noted that these do not take into account the near-term impact of COVID-19, which should
have a relatively small overall impact on total plastic consumption over the 2020–2035 time period.
16
The BAU projections for the respective polymer sub-categories (Figure 3) shows the expected variation
in consumption of polymers till 2035, with the largest consumption continuing to come from PE and
PP, which are the main polymers used for flexible packaging end use and constitute a significant part
of (mismanaged) plastic waste. The BAU projections, however, would change once different circularity
interventions are introduced through the use of policy measures. To illustrate, for an SUP ban, though
national targets aim 2022, there is likely to be delay both to the implementation and enforcement.
It may be more realistic to assume that the relevant policy reaches 100% efficacy by 2030.
Based on these assumptions, by 2035, the implementation of SUP bans in India will reduce plastic
consumption by nearly 25%, versus a scenario where no SUP bans were implemented (Figure 4).
A breakup of the projection into the respective polymer sub-categories depicts significant increases in
60,000
40,000
20,000
0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035
HDPE LDPE LLDPE PET PP PS PVC Other thermoplastic Thermoset
FIGURE 3: Plastic consumption projection by plastic type, 2010–35
40,000
20,000
0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035
HDPE LDPE LLDPE

PET PP PS
PVC Other thermoplastic Thermoset
FIGURE 4: Plastic consumption projection by plastic type with sup ban implementation, 2010–35
17
certain plastic polymer types over this period, with the largest consumption still coming from PP, PVC,
HDPE, and LDPE.
Limited proven national crude oil reserves that stand in no relation to domestic needs, the country
relies majorly on imports of crude oil (measuring 205.3 million tonne with an import dependency ratio
of over 80% as per 2018 estimates). The manufacture of monomers (majorly from the oil-refinery
by-product naptha11) and the production of (plastic) polymers/resins is spread across a small set
(17–18) of large industrial groups that have globally competitively sized plants with the state-of-the-art
technology. As per 2018–19 estimates (IBEF, 2020), the five companies with the largest market shares
together account for over 75% of the plastic polymers market.12 The supply of polymers for making
plastics relies heavily on virgin resins, which are both domestically produced and imported13. Midstream
processes, include conversion of polymers, specifically resins to manufacture semi-finished products.
Local plastic fabrication is done to make finished products for use by the brand owners. Eighty percent
of these ‘midstream’ processes take place in MSME sectors14.
Durability of plastic products plays an important role in determining consumption patterns and its flow
into waste. Short-life plastics end up in the waste stream within a year assuming normal or average
rate of physical usage. Long-life plastics give utility over time and do not quickly wear outmay be used
repeatedly or continuously (assuming a normal or average rate of physical usage), averaging a lifetime
of 3–15 years.
Figure 5 presents the Sankey representation of material flow of plastics in India, basis data for 2018–
19. Out of the total polymer consumption of 16.8 million tonnes per annum (MTPA) in 2018–19, 90%
(equal to 15.12 MTPA) was for plastic and the remaining 10% was for non-plastic consumption, including
adhesives, rubbers, cosmetics, fibres (textiles). Based on TERI’s internal calculations15, the plastic
waste flow for India suggests that out of the total plastic consumption, 42% of the plastic consumption
in the year remains in use and the remaining 58% comes out as plastic waste. The generation point of
plastic waste can be mainly classified into two categories: (a) pre-consumer or industrial plastic waste;
and (b) post-consumer plastic waste. These groups of wastes have different qualities and properties
and are subjected to different management strategies. Industrial plastic waste contains resin pellets.
These are virgin material and mostly used within the plastic manufacturing processes in the same
industry or through industrial symbiosis in another industry.
Post-consumer plastic waste comes out as part of the MSW stream, which accounts for the majority
of plastic waste. Recent estimates16 on national-level assessment of plastic waste generation suggest
11
The market for bio-polymers (plant)-based feedstock is in its infancy, accounting for a very small share in the production of
polymers. More than 95–97% of polymers are derived from fossil fuel feedstock. Also since the prices of crude oil products
witness significant volatility, it makes the petrochemicals prices highly volatile.
12
The five large groups were: Reliance Industries (45%), Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. (16%), ONGC Petro Additions Limited
(12%), Haldia Petrochemicals (9%) and Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL) (8%).
13
Trade has a central role in India’s domestic plastics value chain. Whilst several polymers (raw materials): PP, HDPE, LDPE,
are available domestically for the manufacturing/processing industry, plastics also represent the sixth largest imported com-
modity, and ranks amongst the top 15 export commodities in India (World Bank 2018). Polymers constitute the major form in
which plastics are imported by India. These include PE, PVC and the category of polyacetals, other polyethers, and epoxide
resins, PC, alkyd resins, polyallyl esters, and other polyesters in primary forms.
14
Despite the scale of operation at MSME level, the country has the capacity to service both the domestic and the overseas
market.
15
These calculations are part of World Bank supported project on National Assessment of Plastic Waste in Indian cities.
16
The results of the plastic waste flow are similar to the (CPCB 2015) study on estimating the waste generation in 60 cities of
India. However, the study did not factor in re-utilization, which is now becoming an increasingly popular option to deal with
contaminated mismanaged waste.
18
that 60% of the total plastic waste is recycled, and 8.5% is reutilized for energy recovery (in WtE plants
or cement kilns) and for repurposing such as in applications of road construction/lumber making. The
remaining 31.5% is mismanaged plastic waste, i.e. littered in streets, drains, garbage vulnerable points
(GVPs), or thrown in dumpsites or openly burnt leading to high risk of leakage that ends up as marine
litter. This mismanaged plastic, regardless of disposal method, represents danger to human health
and the environment. For example, whenever plastic is burned, it emits into the environment GHGs,
principally CO2, and hazardous chemicals in the form of additives.
Plastic waste can be flexible type or rigid type and within this categorization, the waste could be
packaging or non-packaging type.
Flexible Plastic Waste

Flexible packaging is mainly of three types17: single/mono polymer packaging (SPP) (using mainly PET,
PE and PP) for manufacturing milk pouches and water poches, multi-polymer packaging (MPP) (using
mainly combinations of PE, EVOH, PET, Nylon, PP) for manufacturing edible oil pouches, stand up pouches,
and multi-material packaging (MMP) (using mainly a combination of PE, PET, PVC with aluminium) for
manufacturing snack food packaging, hair dye, and medicines. Within these three categories, the SPP
has the simplest structure and ease of recycling properties, but it has the lowest barrier properties
and thus low shelf life. MMP has superior barrier properties (as it controls oxygen, carbon dioxide and
moisture level, the key to preserving freshness) and thus longer shelf life but a complex structure,
which causes challenges in recycling.
Flexible non-packaging plastic items for SPP include items such as cables and dental floss, for MPP
include items such as agricultural mulch films and for MMP include items such as light toys and
houseware items.
Discarding different types of plastic products and their littering after use are dependent partly on the
weight and size of these plastics products. The collection is very low for flexible SPP and MMP (though
recyclability is high for SPP and difficult for MMP) and it is medium for MPP (with medium level of
recyclability).
Rigid Plastic Waste

Rigid packaging is also of similar three types: SPP (used for water and beverage packaging, lube oils,
and health drinks using PET, PE and PP, respectively), MPP (used for pickles and yogurt pulp packaging,
and with PE+EVOH) and MMP using paper, aluminium and polymers such as PE (used for fruit juices,
milk packs, blister packs, brick cartons). For rigid packaging too, SPP has the simplest structure (and
thus lowest barrier properties) whereas MMP has the complex structure with high barrier properties.
Rigid non-packaging plastic items for SPP include products such as tanks, furniture, crockery, combs,
pipes, for MPP include items such as bangles, frames, cutlery, stationery, tooth brushes, white goods,
auto parts, and for MMP include items like footwear and razors. Littering is low for all the three types,
and their collection is high. Rigid SPP, especially, is easy to recycle (such as PET bottles for beverages
and HDPE shampoo bottles) however, challenges in recyclability are associated with rigid MPP and MMP.
17
This section describing the different types of flexible and rigid plastics is based on a presentation by Dr. Vijay Habbu, an expert
in the plastics sector and currently an Adjunct Professor at ICT, Mumbai.
19
20
PP: 4.54
Packaging
Plastic waste plastic waste
from recycled: 3.67
packaging: 7.26
Short-life
packaging: 8.62 Waste used for energy
recovery and value
LLDPE & additon: 0.79
LDPE: 2.42 Packaging
consumption: 9.07
Packaging plastic
waste littered/
dumped/openly
burnt: 2.80
HDPE: 2.72
Long-life Packaging
packaging: 0.45 plastic in
Short-life non-
circulation: 1.81
packaging: 0.30
Plastic out of polymer: 15.12
Polymer consumption: 16.80

PVC: 3.18
Non-packaging
Plastic in circulation: 6.35
Non-packaging plastic
PS/EPS: 0.45
Long-life non- consumption: 6.05 in circulation: 4.54
packaging: 5.75
PET: 1.21
Plastic waste
Others: 0.60 from non- Non-packaging
packaging: 1.51 plastic waste
Non-plastic out of
recycled: 1.43
polymer: 1.68
Non-packaging plastic waste
littered/dumped/openly burnt: 0.08
FIGURE 5: Sankey representation of material flow of plastics in india (basis data for 2018–19)
Circular Economy for Plastics in India:
Challenges and Opportunities
A resource-efficient circular economy for plastics is one that minimizes wasteful use of plastics, produces
plastics from renewable sources, is powered by renewable energy, reuses and recycles plastics within
the economy without leakage to the environment, and generates no or minuscule waste or emissions.
To enable this, the GOI through its Plastics Waste Management Rules, 2016 has mandated Extended
Producer Responsibility (EPR) that incorporates circularity by making manufacturers of products
responsible for collecting and processing their products upon the end of their lifetime. The objective
of EPR is to minimize the total environmental impact of waste materials from a product and encourage
manufacturers/ brand owners to create markets for reuse or recycling of materials.
Although there have been collaborative initiatives in existence such as the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) India, in partnership with Hindustan Coca-Cola Beverages Private Limited (HCCBPL),
which encourages sustainable plastic waste management practices and fosters a move towards circular
economy in 50 cities and towns in India, there are many challenges in adopting circularity of plastics in
India, as given in Figure 6.
These challenges, when addressed, can create vast economic, social, and environmental opportunities
within the plastics and other industries and allow for synergistic functioning of the public and
private sectors.
Midstream: Midstream:
Downstream: Downstream: Downstream:
Upstream: Manufacturing; Sustainable Downstream:
Segregated Segregated Recycling Downstream:
Sustainable raw Design-for-recycle; consumption;
disposal of waste
Treatment;
collection of dry (mechanical or Landfill
materials Reuse secondary Secondary Repurposing
at source waste chemical)
materials applications
Reverse supply chain and recovering valuables: energy and
Fewer materials, extending product life, secondary applications, and Fewer
inputs creating employment opportunities. Outputs
Fewer
leakages
Existing challenges to foster plastics circular economy in India
• Segregation of waste at source and segregated collection, especially in rural areas, is non-existent
• Unorganized, informal mechanical recycling, with leakages and emissions
• Mixed input streams and ‘pure’ recyclate types of plastic having large variation in additives
• Chemical recycling requiring large investments
• Occupational and health safety hazards linked with waste collection (for women and children in particular) and in recycling , such as release of dioxins linked to
cancer and reproductive problems
• Lack of strict enforcement of waste collection and disposal
• Open dumping and clogging of drains with plastic waste is still prevalent
• Lack of investment and funding to set up proper waste management infrastructure including operational costs of transporting waste for reprocessing
• Lack of market-based instruments and regulatory measures for effective functioning of business models
• Economically challenging to set up standard prices of plastic waste as raw material and market for recycled products
• Most plastic reprocessed only once as plastic resins degrade in quality every time it is re-heated
• Lack of coorporation between stakeholders across the plastics value chain
• Awareness and knowledge gaps
• EPR implementation is more like a CSR initiative
FIGURE 6: Circular economy for plastics in India and challenges
21
Plastics Circularity Scenarios
Demand-side Potential: Key End-use Sectors
Plastics are used for a variety of different purposes application categories/end-use sectors (Table 4).18
Packaging is broadly categorized into rigid packaging and flexible packaging. Flexible packaging, which
is the newer form of packaging, has the largest share amongst the key end-uses. It also anticipates a
strong growth in the future due to numerous advantages, such as convenience in handling and disposal,
price advantage in transportation, as well as its portability, which has traditionally been limited by rigid
packaging.
TABLE 4: Share of key end-use sectors of plastic usage

Sectors Share in 2013–14 Share in 2019
Flexible Packaging 35% 42%
Rigid Packaging 13% 17%
Household 10% 7%
Building and Construction 12% 13%
Agriculture 9% 9%
Electrical and Electronics 14% 2%
Automotive 3% 7%
Others 4% 3%
Household includes FMCG products such as toiletries and cosmetics, furniture, toys, luggage, housewares, and
other lifestyle-related goods.
Construction would include water pipes, water tanks, roof shelters, sheets, etc.
Others would include sports and leisure, medical, dental care, and industrial machinery (heterogeneous category)
Source: PlastIndia Foundation (2019); PlastIndia Foundation (2014)
In the automotive sector, usually a car on an average consists of 10–20% plastics in the total weight;
there can be variation in this share depending on fuel efficiency standards and performance requirements.
Estimates by IHS (Plastics Today, 2016) had suggested that by 2020, an average car will incorporate
about 770 pounds of plastic by weight; in 2014 this was 440 pounds. Currently, there are about 30,000
parts in an automobile vehicle, out of which one-third are made up different types of basic plastics and
polymers (The Plastics Industry Trade Association, 2016). They are used in the engine, body panels,
bumpers, and fascia systems, chasis/suspension, seats/trims, HV AC system, steering wheels, and light
panels among other sections in the vehicle.19 The past few years have seen several advances in plastics
technology and a number of conventional metal parts like fuel tanks are being made using plastics. In
2014, plastics used for electrical parts, exterior and interior applications, accounted for 70% in the total
automotive plastic consumption (Automoative Products Finder, 2017). More than 70% of the plastic
18
It is important to note that the use of plastic packaging in other key end-use sectors is considered to be part of the packaging
share. Other key end-use sector share only include non-packaging use of plastics.
19
Comprehensive Industry Document (COINDS) for Automobile Manufacturing Industries
22
used in the automobiles comes from six polymers:20 PP, PVC, polyurethane (PU), PE, polycarbonate and
polyamide (nylon), (PET), and acrylonitrile butadine styrene (ABS).
Properties of plastics such as being strong yet light weight, durable, cost-effective, low maintenance,
non-corrosive makes them an attractive option in the building and construction sector. Plastics are
mainly used for seals, cladding, and profiles (windows and doors), pipes21 (gas, water supply, sewerage,
OFD, plumbing, industrial piping), cables, floor coverings, foam insulation, window panels, sealants,
floor protective sheets, wall panels, industrial and hospital floorings, bathroom and toilet fittings,
submersible pump parts, synthetic tiles and marbles, roto molded water and chemical tanks, buried
roto molded/ FRP septic tanks, ducts, wires, and cables (TERI, 2019). Polymers are also the binding
materials of paints and lacquerse (such as acrylate co-polymers, epoxy and polyurethane). Piping and
conduit in construction are the largest users of polymers using PVC and PE.
Tables 5a, 5b and 5c present the key opportunities22 for integrating resource efficiency and circularity in
the value chains of these key end-use sectors.
TABLE 5A: Plastics circularity in packaging sector

Circularity Existing Practices/Scope Opportunities
Aspect (International and Indian context)
Use of bio- »» Largest application (60% of total »» Use of PBS as alternatives in packaging,
plastics bio-plastic consumption) in India including the use in fresh food packaging
for packaging to enhance lifespan
»» Used in bottles, loose-fill, cups, »» With bans against SUPs and economic
pots, blows, flexible films, etc. of scale setting in for bio-plastics, their
»» In India, selected FMCG companies share in packaging sector is expected to
aiming for 100% biodegradable increase
plastic for packaging ready-to-eat
and cosmetic products
Reusable »» Pepsico India, scaling up its non- »» Many reuse opportunities in business-to-
packaging returnable glass bottles for its business (B2B) applications, which are
packaging generally better understood and adopted
at scale already
»» Leadec India provided reusable
crating solutions for automotive »» Designing packaging solutions in business-
components made of HDPE which to-consumer (B2C) applications
can be folded »» Potential to meet individual needs,
specificities for packaging, improved user
»» Reffin aims to offer restaurants
experience and create brand loyalty
with an alternative means of
delivering their foods to consumers »» Replacing existing SUP containers in the
by using tiffin carriers, generally growing online food delivery services by
made out of stainless steel using re-usable containers
20
Lightweight materials such as Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic (CFRP) are also being increasingly used. Composites help re-
duce vehicles’ impact on the environment because they offer high strength to weight ratio. These materials allow innovative,
flexible, and unique design freedoms and aerodynamic shapes normally difficult to achieve with other materials. CFRPs are
lighter and stronger and have the potential to reduce vehicle weight by up to 50% while maintaining structural efficiency and
enhancing safety of the occupant in the vehicle.
21
Plastic pipes have replaced traditional, Victorian pipes as they have reduced leakages and saved the energy required to pro-
cess and pump water (British Plastics Federation , 2020). It is also more energy efficient to use plastic pipes instead of iron or
concrete pipes due to reduced energy required in the production and transportation of light weight plastic pipes to the building
and construction site. Plastic cladding and profile for windows, doors, etc. is increasingly replacing timber for minimum fire
risk.
22
This is not an exhaustive list of opportunities
23
TABLE 5A: Plastics circularity in packaging sector

Use of »» Commitment by large companies »» Use recycled plastic in non-food
recycled (both Indian and MNCs) will applications
plastics23 move to 100% recyclable plastic
»» Inclusion of pro-environment message on
packaging by 2025
the packages and to nudge the consumer
»» Cargill Oils India, in association towards responsible behaviour that
with Dow Chemical, reformulated includes giving preference to products
its plastic material, making 90% of containing recycled raw material
its plastic packaging recyclable
Re- »» Lush, handmade cosmetics have a »» Avoid use of extra packaging material or
design of packaging free line create packaging free line of products
packaging
»» Cargill’s oil business in India has »» Fewer types of standardized plastics for
redesigned its packaging by cutting specific uses in FMCG-reduce plastic
down on the amount of raw plastic waste leakage and improve recycling
used across all products
»» Replacing packaging material like shrink
»» Cremica Food Industries is wraps with more durable and reusable
reducing lamination in packaging long lasting alternatives
»» Stay on tabs for beverages, flip flop caps
for FMCG products24
»» Replacing multi-polymer plastic packaging
with single polymer plastic packaging25
»» Colour coding and labels for disposing bio-
based and/or compostable after use26
23
However, ensuring that food safety requirements and rules on food contact materials is followed.
24
Collection and sorting mechanisms find it difficult to capture small package parts such as caps, lids, etc.
25
Stand-up pouches by Dow Chemicals makes use of mono layer of PE which has recycling technologies
26
This can enable its tracking and subsequent segregation can take place and ensure standardization of plastic waste manage-
ment through its value chain.
24
TABLE 5B: Plastics circularity in automotive sector

Circularity Existing Practices/Scope (International and Opportunities
Aspect Indian context)
Use of bio- »» Successful pilot experiments have been »» Bio-based polyesters, bio-
plastics completed on the use of bio-based plastics based PET and PLA-blends
for automotive applications27 in applications such as
headliners, sun visors and
»» Most important upcoming market within
automotive sector is technical applications. floor mats, interior fabrics
Currently, automotive and transport sectors
account for 1% of the bio-plastics market
segment
Use of recycled »» Currently, recycled plastic account for 15%
»» Plastic fibres made from
plastics in vehicles used bottles in sound
insulation layers in
»» TATA motors engaged in automotive bumper
dashboards
recycling
»» Use of plastics recycled
from bumpers to create new
bumpers, as well as plastics
recycled from bottle caps to
make new auto parts
»» Use of recycled plastic
content in vehicles is
expected to increase to 70%
Use of eco design »» BMW uses hemp as well as natural »» Natural fibres and/or
practices fibres along with acrylic polymers for biopolymers draw significant
manufacturing interior door panels interest from equipment
manufacturers due to
»» Ford uses bio-polymers from soyabean
their biodegradability, low
along with polyurethane to manufacture
cost, low relative density,
head rests in their selected models
high specific strength, and
»» Nissan Leaf uses natural fibres from corn renewable nature
along with Sorona (polytrimethylene
»» Eco-design approach
terephthalate) for manufacturing of rugs
gets product design
and mats
environmental oriented
27
However, it is important to ensure that the bio-plastic chosen meets the vehicle specifications in terms of safety and the integ-
rity standards.
25
TABLE 5C: Plastics circularity in building and construction sector

Use of »» Bricks and planks made out of plastic »» Biological nutrients and
alternative waste being used as alternatives to sustainable, renewable materials
material traditional clay and mortar bricks in can replace materials that are
construction heavily processed and hard to reuse
and recycle
Standardized »» The utilization of Energy »» Assessing performance of

approach Conservation Building Code and secondary materials in products
implementation of green rating replaces virgin materials and in the
systems like the Green Rating for design of construction products
Integrated Habitat Assessment
»» By standardizing technology,
(GRIHA) is leading to resource-
construction companies can reduce
efficient buildings in India
the cost of their production
Use of recycled »» Royal Melbourne Institute of »» Recycled plastic blended with virgin
plastics Technology (RMIT) researchers plastic lowers the cost
developed a building material made
»» Recycled plastic can save the cost
from cigarette butts mixed with
of other materials, such as wood
plastic waste, bitumen, and paraffin
and slate
wax
»» Recycled plastics can be used to
»» Corepla along with Waste Free
make stronger concrete structures
Oceans built the first humanitarian
in the form of sidewalks, driveways
shelter prototype by collecting
plastic waste along the river
»» Benagluru-based non-profit Swachha
developed a solution that can convert
discarded plastic waste into tiles and
irrigation pipes. In association with
the Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara
Palike (BBMP), Swachha developed
‘Re-Tile’ tiles, which customers can
use on pavements
26
Supply-side Potential
Plastic Feedstock
The feedstock for making plastics includes traditional fossil fuels, bio-based plastics, or recycled
plastics.
For fossil fuel based plastics, monomers are manufactured majorly from naptha and natural gas, the
oil-refinery byproduct (Geyer, Jambeck, & Law, 2017). The monomers then become the building blocks for
producing (plastic) polymers/resins.28 This process leads to emissions and their economics also impact the
recycling efforts. These types of plastics are mostly non-biodegradable. Polymers such as polybutyrate
adipate terephthalate (PBAT), polybutylene succinate (PBS), polycaprolactone (PCL), and polyvinyl alcohol
(PVOH, PVA) exist that are biodegradable fossil fuel-based polymers as their chemical structures can be
broken down by the action of microorganisms in the presence of light, oxygen, and moisture.
Bio-based plastics are produced from non-fossil-fuel feedstock, usually organic materials such as
plant fibres (flax, jute, hemp), wood (reclaimed wood fibres from mills and agricultural waste), and
starches; however, like fossil fuel-based plastics, they are available in many grades and in a variety of
properties. Bio-based plastic products often have an appearance very similar to conventional plastic
products and cannot be easily distinguished by consumers, other than by scientific analysis. If they
contain both renewable and fossil-fuel-based carbon, they are then only partially bio-based. The amount
of bio-based constituents and the conditions under which these polymers biodegrade vary widely.
By-products of industries that use organic plant materials can be the feedstocks for some bioplastics.
Starch can be processed to produce polylactic acid (PLA). Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHAs) are polyesters
produced in nature by numerous microorganisms, including bacterial fermentation of sugars or lipids.
Another example is sugar cane, processed to produce ethylene, which can be then used to manufacture
polyethylene. However, not all bio-based plastics are bio-degradable (Albertsson & Hakkarainen, 2017)
and not all bio-degradable plastics are bio-based plastics. Bioplastics can be as toxic as other plastics.
Products based on cellulose and starch contain chemicals which can trigger strong toxic reactions
under laboratory conditions.
Though biodegradable plastics break down faster, the speed and nature of biodegradation varies from
material to material and depends on environmental conditions. The additives prevent biodegradable
plastics from successfully being recycled alongside conventional plastics, and leave behind toxic
microplastics in the environment. Despite biodegradable plastics being favoured, the science behind
biodegradation, the technology for manufacturing these plastics, and disposal practices indicate that
the products will increase the formation of difficult to spot micro-plastics, and hamper existing recycling
chain, increase the chance of leaching into the contents of packaging. However, their disposal in the
composting environment should result in the formation of natural by-products such as oxygen, nitrogen,
carbon dioxide, water, biomass, and inorganic salts. They are also expected to not leave any persistent or
toxic residues. But they may end up in posing more harm to the economy, food safety, and human health.
Compostable plastic, on the other hand, means that the polymers get biodegraded within a composting
timeframe of about six months, yielding H2O, CO2, biomass, and inorganic compounds, and ideally not
leaving any visual or toxic residue (Department of Ecology, 2014) . However, they too end up generating
29
Annexure 2 gives a brief note on production process of ethylene, propylene, and major polymers
27
micro-plastics. Despite the terms ‘biodegradable’ and ‘compostable’ often being used interchangeably,
they are not the same. Composting is only one environment where biodegradation occurs. Compostable
plastics biodegrade in industrial composting operations at the same rate as other compostable materials.
The current global production capacity of bio based and biodegradable plastics is only about 4 million
tonne per year, accounting for about 1% of the total production of plastics, which was estimated at 380
million tonne (Geyer, Jambeck, & Law, 2017) . Companies such as BASF, DuPont, and NatureWorks LLC
are among the major players in the bio-plastics domain. It is also the focus of small- and medium-sized
companies,29 and technology providers.
Several worldwide organizations are involved in setting standards for biodegradable and compostable
plastics including American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), European Committee for
Standardization (CEN), International Standards Organization (ISO), German Institute for Standardization
(DIN), Japanese Institute for Standardization (JIS), and British Plastics Federation. Standards from
these organizations help the industry to create biodegradable and compostable products that meet
the increasing worldwide demand for more environmentally friendly plastics. BIS Standard IS/ISO
17088:2008 specifies procedures and requirements for the identification and labelling which has to
confirm to any international, regional, national or local regulations and identify products made from
plastics suitable for recovery through aerobic composting (CPCB, 2009) .
A third source of feedstock for making plastics is using recycled plastic. Each kilogram of plastic that
is not reused or recycled is replaced with another kilogram produced from non-renewable, fossil-based
raw materials. Recycling is one of the sustainable solutions to treat end-of-life plastics and helps in
improving energy and environmental impacts.
A 2018 study (McKinsey & Company, 2018) notes, ‘Recycled resins could replace almost a third of
virgin plastic by 2030 and nearly 60% by 2050, slashing demand for petrochemicals’. One reason for a
growing market demand for high-quality plastic recyclates is the significantly higher voluntary targets,
set as part of corporate commitments towards sustainability and mandated targets set by regulations
for recycled plastics. This has created a potential for the chemical companies to engage in producing
polymers using methods of mechanical recycling, and conducting pyrolysis and chemical recycling of
used plastics. The oil major, Shell,30 has made ‘high-end’ chemicals using a liquid feedstock made from
plastic waste by pyrolysis process that is considered a breakthrough for hard-to-recycle plastics. The
initiative is said to advance Shell’s ambition to use 1 million tonne of plastic waste a year in its global
chemical plants by 2025.
Petrochemical companies are well placed to invest in new feedstock units based on pyrolysis-treated
plastic waste from the large volume of newly available waste plastics that could be coming into the
market, alongside the fossil fuel-based feeds they have traditionally been using.29 With consistent
supplies of waste plastic, this will also enable petrochemical companies in reducing their vulnerability
to virgin fossil fuel prices in the international market.
Increased demand for bio-based feedstock could pose many risks and challenges (Figure 7).
29
Some of the large oil and gas companies are becoming more integrated players in plastic production, providing waste process-
ing solutions and supplying bio-based and/or secondary raw materials.
30
Shell is a founding member of the Alliance to End Plastic Waste (AEPW). This not-for-profit organization is bringing together
top minds from across the plastics value chain (chemicals and plastics manufacturers, consumer goods companies, retailers,
converters, and waste management companies) and partnering with the financial community, governments, and civil society.
The AEPW has committed $1.5 billion over the next five years to help end plastic waste in the environment.
28
Bioplastics : risks and challenges

Modified land use patterns Competing demands from the
from forest areas to arable agricultural products sector for
land additional pressure on food security and responsible
biodiversity. sourcing requirements.
Processing
bio-feedstocks into
plastic will itself
New emissions from land disturbance, chemically produce significant
and mechanically intensive agriculture, and the greenhouse
harvest, transport, and processing of the feedstocks. emissions.
Plastic produced may be chemically identical—or even combined with—fossil-based

plastic, thus eliminating the environmental and social benefits of reduced plastic
production and may not be degradable in marine environment.
Bio-based non-biodegradable polymers such as bio-PE and bio-PET, also referred to as
‘drop-in’ polymers, offer virtually identical properties to their fossil fuel-based counterparts
Biodegradable plastics could

become problematic if not
easily identified and collected
separately, it will instead end
up mixing with recyclable
and other plastic waste New/modified recycling and recovery
streams. infrastructure required.
FIGURE 7: Bio-plastics risks and challenges
The development of renewable resource-based bio-plastics and bio-based materials may result in
challenges linked to biomass availability and land availability for food, biomaterial, or bioenergy
production. An environmental impact assessment (Broeren, et al., 2017) shows a great variation in GHG
reduction from starch-based plastics versus their conventional counterparts, from an 85% reduction to
an 80% increase depending on the plastics composition. (Broeren, et al., 2017). Further, a cost benefit
analysis of petroleum-based HDPE and of PLA resin obtained from cassava root (Case 1) and cassava
starch (Case 2) in Thailand showed that the net benefits from PLA are only achieved when cassava meals
are sold as another product from cassava root (Chiarakorn, Permpoonwiwat, & Nanthachatchavankul,
2011). A summary of cost benefits is given in Table A3 in Annexure 1.
Currently, with very low levels of production of bio-based plastics, issues of feedstock scarcity and/or
land-use competition do not arise; in the longer run, however, as the demand and production increase,
these issues may become extremely relevant. This calls for the need to diversify the non-fossil resource
base to include bio-waste feedstock and the use of captured carbon dioxide as feedstock.
What will be important is to find ways to use co-product and by-product of one industry and convert it
into value-added. Opportunities need to be identified to create value for an undervalued co-product of one
29
industry that can be integrated into a bio-plastic by creating novel bio-based materials for new industrial
uses. The co-products from biofuel, pyrolysis, and food processing industries show immense potential
as fillers or for reinforcing materials for plastics in creating a range of eco-friendly and sustainable bio-
composites.
The cost of production of bio-plastic is currently higher than those of conventional plastics made out of
fossil fuel feedstock, owing to absence of adequate infrastructure to make the former compared to the
large infrastructure that already exists for the traditional plastics.
There is potential to convert some of the existing infrastructure to process organic feedstock to make bio-
plastics. For example, PLA and bio-polyethylene can be produced from already existing manufacturing
equipment (those designed and originally used for petrochemical industry plastics). (Babu, O’Connor, &
Seeram, 2013).
The biodegradable plastic industry in India is still in its infancy. Several uncertainties exist that prevent
its large-scale adoption. As most cities lack adequate number of facilities and infrastructure, the bio-
plastics end up on the street posing harm to the environment just like conventional plastics. Continuous
research is required in this direction to ensure that these biodegradable plastics are produced from
renewable sources and display in-use properties similar to that of conventional plastics (CPCB, 2009).
There is also a need for putting in place adequate infrastructure and generating consumer awareness
for end-of-life management of bio-based plastics.
Market for Recycled Plastics/Secondary Raw material

The market for off-take of recycled plastic raw materials can be segmented into two parts: 1)
extended recyclers (recyclers who process scrap and convert it to end-product) and 2) plastic product
manufacturers (end product manufacturers who purchase recycled plastic resins as raw material).
Formal recyclers face challenges in securing high quality supply of recyclable plastic waste as current
supply of this waste id dominated by the informal sector. Further, the cost of processing scrap is high
in the formal sector if occupational health and safety conditions are met. These factors make recycled
plastic difficult to compete with the low cost of virgin plastic. It is easier to compete in segments that
do not currently use plastics as raw material. For example, alternative building materials made out of
recycled plastics in the form of plastic bricks and planks can be used instead of conventional materials
such as clay and mortar bricks in building construction.
Plastic product manufacturers see only a limited market for post-consumer resin (recycled plastic
pellets). This is driven by the low grade of recycled plastic resins produced by most players due to
operation in fragmented market. There is a potential to penetrate export markets, such as Europe, where
the demand for sustainable products and circular consumption are increasing. But to tap these markets,
the manufacturers of post-consumer resin will need to meet the higher quality standards demanded by
foreign buyers.
Circularity Scenarios: Integrating Demand-and Supply-side Potentials

In this section, we define three scenarios for India to understand the potential impact of resource
efficiency and circular economy (RE&CE) measures from demand and supply side in the plastics sector:
Business as usual scenario: It is assumed that a standard economic growth model exists where the
consumption of plastic products and the generation of plastic waste increase at a rate consistent with
30
the international, historical experience. Existing innovations and business models at downstream stage
of the value chain focussing on plastic waste management at public and private sector level continue,
with new ones coming up. But these innoations and models are majorly localized with no upscaling and
replication. Further, no explicit circularity measures/efforts are put in at the upstream stages.
Moderate RE&CE scenario: Moderate reduction (in key end-use sectors) in virgin plastic demand
by substituting it with recycled/secondary plastic that is made available from improved plastic
waste management. Businesses are working towards complying with the plastic waste management
legislations and have initiated the implementation of Extended Producer Responsibilities (EPR),
particularly for collection and resource recovery targets. Legislative measures such as ban on SUPs and
on certain types of packaging are coming into effect. The GOI is pushing towards developing affordable
substitutes/alternatives to SUPs.
High ambition RE&CE scenario: The demand for virgin plastic is drastically reduced through a
combination of circularity fostering measures that include increased recycling levels, effective
implementation of EPR over entire value chain of plastics (including through measures that aim to reduce
plastic consumption and reduce multi-polymer plastic), continued and strengthened push by the GOI
in developing affordable substitutes/alternatives to plastics, and improved enforcement of legislative
measures such as ban on SUPs and ban on certain types of difficult packaging.
These scenarios have been detailed out in Table 6.
31
32
TABLE 6: Potential resource efficiency and circularity scenarios for plastics sector in India
Circularity Substitution Expansion of Increased Recycling or Design for Reduction in Plastic
Interventions between Plastic Segregated Waste Reprocessing into a Secondary Recycling Consumption
and Scenarios Polymers Collection Material31 »» Use of alternatives
»» Fewer types
»» Move to a »» Improved »» Increase mechanical of plastics to to plastics products
bio-based as collection and recycling capacity and reduce the and reduction in
specific uses (across
alternative transportation efficiency complexity in
key end use sectors/
feedstock to infrastructure plastic waste
»» Scale up chemical recycling applications)
fossil feedstock management 32
»» Awareness capacity »» Re-use of end use
»» Shift from multi- generation »» Design to products
polymer material enable easy
to mono-polymer disassembly at »» Design to bring in
efficiency in plastic raw
material the EoL
material use
Business Bio-based plastics No change in Limited increase in overall Not happening; Very limited substitution
as usual account for less segregation of recycling of plastics (at rates R&D process brought about in specific
scenario than 1% of the waste plastic and witnessed over the last 3–5 initiated applications including
plastics produced collection levels years) brought by new localized those related to SUP 33, 34
Important to note, initiatives and business models.
Use of multi-
collection levels
polymer material Increased awareness
in urban India are
continues to grow generation brought about by
currently high but the
(R&D initiated to IEC activities
issue is more linked
identify substitutes)
to unsegregated
collection and
irresponsible
dumping and littering
post collection
31
Maintaining high material quality will remain a challenge and consequently there may continue less than potential demand for recycled material and risk of down-cycling.
32
(Hahladakis & Iacovidou, 2018)
33
There is significant legislative push against SUPs
34
In India, around 43% of manufactured plastics are used for packaging purpose and most are of single use.
»» Fewer types
material the EoL
material use
Moderate Percentage share of Expansion in Moderate increase in overall Pilot experiments Some substitution
RE&CE bio-based plastics infrastructure to recycling of plastic brought around design for brought about in all
scenario will increase to 10% support segregated about by improvement in plastic recycling applications related to
(2035) by 2035 collection and collection, and expansion SUP35; Development of
storage (e.g. MRFs of recycling capacity in the innovative alternative
Reason being that
and transfer station) country by private and public products in a few
the ability of these
has been initiated sector; Overall recycling rate plastic products, mostly
types of plastics
increases to 70–75%; the draft in packaging-related
in reducing the Improved
National Resource Efficiency applications; Reducing
accumulation of awareness amongst
policy targets 100% recycling over packaging; SUP
plastic pollution has stakeholders on
and reuse rate for (PET) plastic product share decreases
been disputed, and source segregation
by 2025 to 40% (reduction brought
their applications
33
about mainly through
are limited
reduction in single-
use plastic bags and
Styrofoam products)
35
More durable and multi-strip plastic packaging to replace durable and single-strip alternatives.
34
»» Fewer types
material the EoL
material use
High ambition Percentage share of Source segregation High increase in recycling Happens and it High substitution brought
RE&CE bio-based plastics is enforced in 90% brought about by significant positively impacts about in all applications
scenario reaches 40% 36,37 by of the cities in India; and step changing improvement the recycling related to SUP; Reducing
(2035) 2035 Infrastructure to in PWM (through full rates- by reducing over packaging, and
support segregated implementation of the best the costs linked to development of innovative
collection and available recycling practices) plastics separation alternative products to
storage (e.g. MRFs across the country by private from the end-of- plastic products in all key
and transfer stations) and public sector resulting life products and end use applications; SUP
exist; Deposit refund in an overall recycling rate of also improving the product share decreases
systems/schemes plastics as 90-94 percent38; recycling per se to 20% (reduction brought
supported by digital Deposit refund systems/ due to reduced risk about mainly through
technology are schemes supported by digital of contamination reduction in single-
in function that technology are in function of mixed plastics use plastic bags and
enhance collection that enhance supply of Styrofoam products)
of uncontaminated uncontaminated plastic waste
waste for recycling
36
According to PlastIndia, bio-plastics are expected to account for 5% of the plastic market share by 2020 and 40% by 2030. But no concrete evidence on this exists.
37
Literature has indicated that bio-plastics can replace up to 85% of conventional plastics; but no time period for this has been provided.
38
As per (CPCB 2015) 94% of plastic waste generated is recyclable and belongs to the thermoplastics family, while the rest 6% belong to non-recyclable thermoset plastics. Fur-
ther, 67% of the plastic waste belonged to HDPE/LDPE, 10% to PP, and 8.66% to PET amongst others.
Fostering Circularity of Plastics in India
Need for Special Focus on Difficult-to-Recycle Plastics (Reduce,
Redesign or Eliminate)
Difficult or hard to recycle plastics are those contaminated by food waste or combined with other
polymers, materials or the low volume SUPs. These plastics face issues linked to collectability and
retrievability. The aerodynamic nature of many of the thin plastics in this category such as polyethylene
carry bags (particularly those below 50 micron thickness), food wrappers (most commonly chips
and biscuit packets) make it the top cause of flyaway litter at landfills and one of the most common
components of marine litter (NSW EPA, 2016; Brendelle Group, 2012; Green, et al., 2015). Other examples
of thin plastics are food take-away boxes, coffee cups, daily disposable contact lenses, straws, cotton
ear swab, cigarette buds, food wrappers. Different types of polymer resins (such as LDPE, HDPE, PET,
PP, PS, EPS) are used in manufacturing these products. However, the difficult or hard to recycle plastics
can be effectively recycled if:
»» Sufficient quantity of clean segregated and mono-material plastic waste is made available.
However, majority of difficult-to-recycle plastics become part of MSW that are rarely segregated
or very poorly segregated.
»» Established value chain for waste products also plays an important role. For example, SUPs made
from high value plastic resins such as PET are readily recycled due to a strong post-consumer
value chain. In India, more than 90% of PET is recycled and converted into fibre.
»» Consumption of some SUPs can be easily reduced. For instance, bulk packaging consumers could
switch to reusable containers instead of buying products in multi-layered sachets.
»» Consumer and legislative pushback against difficult-to-recycle plastic products/packaging can be
given to companies as a CSR/marketing incentive to avoid their use wherever possible. Although
substitution to recyclable plastics or other alternatives is not always feasible as alternatives do not
have the desired material properties, companies such as Plastic Bank have also come up to help
packaging producers transition away from difficult-to-recycle plastics such as MLPs to ethically
sourced plastics (Plastic Bank, 2020).
»» Researchers and industry groups work on R&D for creating novel processes39 to recycle MLPs and
also develop new recyclable MLPs. Companies such as Borealis are designing recycled plastic
materials and offer a range, including multi-layered ones, made from conventional plastic layers
such as PE and PP (Borealis, 2020). However, these processes are still at pilot scale and there
39
MLP recycling has typically been done by dissolving the different layers of MLPs in organic chemicals. However, this method
is expensive and releases toxic and flammable chemicals. Novel processes under pilot scale, as created by University of Ali-
cante in Spain, include multilayer film delamination techniques ( University of Alicante Research Group). This process creates
microscopic holes used to deliver chemicals between different material layers while removing adhesives, ink, etc. and sepa-
rating the material into different recyclable layers. This can recycle most types of MLPs while using environmentally friendly
chemicals.
35
is a long way before they become commercially available, economically feasible, and scalable.
It is also difficult to assess the properties of these new materials and how they may differ from
conventional materials.
»» Hard to recycle plastics such as contact lenses, cotton ear swabs, etc. have low collectability/
retrievability. EPR schemes should be implemented nationally to increase their collection.
»» Collection is a problem with low value, hard to recycle plastics. It can be incentivized by establishing
and monitoring decentralized recycling units, training low skilled recyclers, partnering with
informal sector, and by generating awareness. Customers can also be engaged in strengthening
collection systems. Items such as contact lenses are bought regularly and may be returned to
the shop through deposit refund scheme that can be applied when the customer returns the old,
used contacts for new ones. Formal and strengthened collection systems can be established and
strengthened by building infrastructure, capacity, and also by creating customer touch points for
the implementation of deposit refund schemes.
Currently, due to lack of commercially available and economically feasible alternatives, phasing out hard
to recycle plastics completely will do more harm than good. Here policies such as India’s unfolding ban
on single-use plastics are essential in considering the nuanced approach needed to increase research
on alternatives and recycling rates (Mudur, 2019). However, to have an effective national-level EPR
implementation, the SUPs need to have a standard categorization: those that can be banned, those that
fall under the EPR obligation, and those that can be exempt.
Existing Practices in India: Scope for Replication and Scaling up

Many good practices exist in India and globally that foster circularity in the plastics sector. Moving
forward, enhanced innovation, fostering of partnerships, and building collaboration can help scale up
these practices and replicate them from one geography and sector to another. This would help unlock
potential mitigation opportunities, including sustainable development benefits through circular business
models that redesign the waste supply chain and strengthen the reverse logistics.
It is important to create awareness so that all stakeholders are involved from end to end. Limited
customer knowledge on circular opportunities can hinder the scaling up and replication of best practices.
Awareness generation creates opportunities of co-creating offerings with individuals, customers, or
suppliers by making them part of the value chain. Awareness generation can create demand for more
sustainable plastics and alternatives upstream and midstream of the plastics value chain and contribute
to improved plastic waste management at the end-of-life, downstream through source segregation and
participation in deposit refund schemes.
Table A1 in Annexure 1 summarizes some of the existing good practices/initiatives in India and globally
across the plastic value chain that make the plastics sector resource efficient- from upstream sustainable
polymer production to midstream impact created by reuse, reduce, recycle plastics in assembly
and manufacturing, and finally to improved end-of-life plastic waste management practices at the
downstream. These examples emphasize on life-cycle thinking that involves the entire value chain from
sourcing to disposal, and to look for circular business opportunities in this flow of goods from end-to-end.
Need for Improved Rural Plastic Waste Management

Most parts of rural India have no waste collection mechanism in place and as a result, the waste including
plastic waste is either dumped in the outskirts of the villages or burnt periodically at household level or
36
at the village outskirts. In India where more than 60–70% of its people reside in rural areas, improper
rural waste management can pose lot of environmental and health threats. Even in states where there
is plastic bag ban in place, plastic bags are still in use. This is especially true in rural areas and smaller
towns where enforcement is less strict. In regions like in Delhi, plastic bags are sold not in the open, but
in a more clandestine manner. Further, a growth in demand has been witnessed by the rural population
for small-sized packaged FMCG and food items (in the form of sachets, pouches, bottles, containers)
from an affordability, easy to carry, and use point of view. These small-sized items have enabled meeting
of rising consumerism triggered by TV and Internet advertisements.
Most commonly found plastics in rural areas are thermoplastics such as polythene bags, bottles,
among others. They are relatively easy to recycle but difficult to collect viably at a scale given the
low density in rural areas. In order to deal with the waste generated in rural areas, it is extremely
important to first determine the quantity and quality (composition) of household plastic waste and its
disposal. Individual house owners should segregate wastes at household level which can be then sold
to the local recyclers. Scientific and technological interventions and recycling are essential for sound
plastic waste management so it is treated as a resource in rural areas also. States should encourage
individual or self-help groups for plastic waste collection and provide them with formal contracts at the
village or Gram Panchayat level as well as connect them to plastic aggregation points. This will help in
reducing the transportation costs and make collection viable for local entrepreneurs. Ambikapur district
in Chhattisgarh successfully implemented the collection and segregation at source which is further
segregated at secondary and tertiary segregation solid and liquid resource management centres with
the help of SHGs. This requires building infrastructure, providing information, and developing education
and communication (IEC) modules for general public. Furthermore, the burden of sourcing of plastic
waste for recycling in rural areas should be placed on the producers. States should fix proportionate
targets for recycling to be executed by brands and producers within rural areas given the increase of
rural penetration of formally produced goods (Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, 2018).
Policy Instruments: Strengthening and Expanding

It is extremely important to strengthen and expand upon the existing regulatory and fiscal measures
to mandate and incentivize the use of recycled plastics (including material and products), as well as
creating efficient plastic product and packaging design, including designs for disassembly, recyclability
and reduction. Further financing solutions can support business innovation around the circular supply
chain of plastics.
To support markets for recycled materials, policies must address the supply and demand of recycled
materials and products. These policies must account for the dual goal of facilitating consumer acceptance
and providing incentives for producers and their suppliers (OECD, 2018). Momentum also exist on plastic
bans, fees, and other developments but still much work has to be done to support the implementation
and enforcement of these bans and fees.
»» Fiscal measures can reduce the use of virgin plastics and increase the use of recycled plastics
in production, creating demand for recycled plastic upstream in the supply chain. This in turn
expands the incentives for increased collection and the recycling of plastic material downstream.
• These measures can also stimulate the phasing out of commonly identified problematic
packaging or products (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2019).
• Corporate tax credits could be provided to initiatives by the private sector to scale up
existing and build new recycling infrastructure.
37
• Differentiated taxes should be imposed on virgin and recycled plastic, and the cost of
externalities linked to the two types of plastics should be internalized.
• Taxes should be levied on the use of known hazardous additives, difficult-to-recycle
polymers, or even non-essential single-use plastic products, to discourage their use.40
• Penalties could be used to penalize packaging made up of materials that are difficult to
separate or recycle, as well as improper waste disposal by industry and individuals.
»» A regulatory push that leads to more demand for recycled plastic material and products should
be the key focus.
• The push could be recycled content targets for new plastic products to help create a
large, reliable demand that the plastic recycling industry can build upon, and that product
manufacturers can work towards fulfilling the targets.
• Setting standards, providing certification and labels for quality of recycled material will
ensure safety and enable confidence and acceptability by industries using the material
as input and consumers utilizing the products made using these materials. Industry
associations can play a role in developing and propagating the adoption of these standards
and certification. In the absence of formal standards, industry-wide benchmarks could play
a similar role. Standards should ensure uniformity in composition at the design stage for
products, such as making all bottle caps from the same polymer. For example, in the USA,
recycled plastics intended for use with food must comply with the relevant requirements
of Chapter 21 of the Code of Federal Regulations. The US Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) has prepared a detailed guidance for the use of the recycled plastics in the packaging
sector (FDA, 2006).
»» Public procurement has been shown to be a powerful tool for promoting and accelerating market
entry while simultaneously positively influencing consumers’ opinions (Dietrich, et al., 2017).
There are examples of public procurement of products made with recycled plastic and/or plastic
products designed for easy recycling. The House of Commons (Environment Audit Committee)
in the United Kingdom has called for a mandatory requirement of 50% recycled content in the
production of new plastic bottles by 2023, which will help create demand and stimulate a circular
economy for recycled plastic bottles (BPF, 2018).
»» Inclusive and innovative financing solutions beyond fiscal measures for business innovation
around a circular supply chain of plastics need to be designed. This could be done through the
creation of a dedicated innovation fund, effectively catalysing efficient and equitable use, and the
mobilization of domestic and international resources. Venture capital (VC) funds could be one of
the key methods for mobilizing resources. Other financing solutions include access to institutional
finance to meet working capital requirements, viability gap funding, green bonds, blended finance,
risk insurance and impact investing, and risk guarantee funds to enterprises that are engaged in
plastic waste collection and management in key ‘hotspot’ areas.
40
One such example if that of Ireland where a levy on plastic bags reduced the consumption of plastic bags by 90% (Nielsen,
Holmberg, & Stripple, 2019). Ireland’s plastic bag tax revenue is earmarked not only to cover administration costs but also to
cover environmental fund used to support waste management, litter clean-up, and other environmental initiatives (Anastasia
& Nix, n.d) .Other examples include Scotland and Belgium.
38
Extended Producer Responsibility: Fostering Effective

Implementation
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) has been recognized by the India’s waste management sector
since introduction of the Plastic Waste Rules in 2011. However there have been uncertainties and
challenges faced in context of its implementation. The PWM Rules of 2016 provided additional impetus
and noted that all companies using plastic packaging must register as ‘producers’ or ‘brand owners’.
These rules further oblige producers and brand owners to register with SPCBs or the CPCB if active
in more than one state and to submit an EPR plan. In June 2020, GOI released the draft Uniform EPR
Framework to further guide the implementation of EPR at state and city level.
The Framework aims at implementing EPR along with third-party monitoring mechanisms by roping the
private sector including brand manufacturers, producers, recyclers, and integrating the informal sector.
It includes a fee-based model, producer responsibility organizations (PROs) based model and a plastic
credit model. The new draft framework also has provisions to impose stringent penalties on producers
if they fail to meet their targeted collection. However, to foster effective implementation, addressing
awareness gaps amongst various stakeholders, creating adequate infrastructure and capacity at ULB
level, monitoring enforcement and designing of business models that integrate the informal sector into
the formal plastic waste management initiatives will play an important role recognition and need for
also taking a more holistic view of EPR and expanding its focus across the entire value chain to include
upstream design and material use considerations as well as coming up with innovations such as product
delivery related, along the use-phase.
Investment Towards Circular Solutions

There is significant scope to bring about investment to foster circular solutions in India. Under EPR, with
producers being made responsible for collecting and processing their manufactured products at the end
of their lifetime, there are opportunities to invest and create the required recycling infrastructure and
supporting technology. Even the success of the design incentives critically depends on the recycling
infrastructure at the implementation locality that translates product design improvements into end-of-
life cost reduction. Design infrastructure cost is also a key area which will require investments.
Point 9.3.1 of the draft rules under the Fee-Based Model mentions the following:
The primary responsibility of the collection and segregation and final disposal of the plastic waste is with
the ULBs. In the present scenario, the ULBs do not have sufficient funds and expertise to systematically
collect the segregated plastic waste and then supply it to the recyclers/cement plants/etc. There is a
need to build the capacities of the ULB in terms of infrastructure development and technical expertise so
that waste management can happen systematically under the EPR mechanism
»» The EPR fees could also provide the funding support to public investment in sanitary landfills.
Considering that currently most of the recycling that happens for plastics is mechanical, there
is a need to push for chemical recycling. Technologically, advancements in chemical recycling
and advanced sorting technologies (e.g. optical sorting) could greatly increase productivity of
recycling, while enabling the industry to be able to recycle more complex materials.
»» Technology-related investments in digital waste management tools such as GPS-enabled tracking
for vehicles or image recognition tools which leverage on the Internet of things and data analytics
is another opportunity where investment can play an important role to move towards digital
maturity and help improve collection and recycling rates (Ocean Conservancy, 2019).
39
»» Investments into modernizing and integrating the informal recycling sector will not only increase
occupational safety and environmental efficiency (water, energy) of the recycling processes these
sectors use but reduce leakage of residual plastic waste into the environment.
»» Under the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, recycling sectors/zones should be created with proper
infrastructure for pollution control, safe working conditions, and quality check on secondary raw
material that is recovered/recycled.
»» Some of the key mechanisms to provide the investment support include the provision of grants
or low interest loans, modifying collateral requirements to enable small and medium enterprises
(SMEs) to access bank finance, viability gap funding, and the use of revolving funds. For example,
the European Regional Development Fund Innovations Actions Grant Scheme (Environment)
provides grants to SMEs for eco-innovations relating to resource efficiency and waste reduction
on a co-financing basis (European Commission, 2015).
»» Viability gap funding (VGF), which entails supporting projects till they can be financially self-
sustaining, can enable firms to meet high initial costs and address long payback periods and also
support scaling up or technology up-gradation. Instruments such as revolving funds can be used
specifically to incentivize circularity in business models by allowing business models or specific
resource efficiency measures that are seen as potentially risky to obtain funding.
»» Local governments can provide seed-funding for circular business models that are suitable to the
local context.
Polymer Science Perspective Towards Plastics Circularity

The life cycle analysis of plastics as compared to other alternatives such as glass, wood, or jute bags
showed that plastics are more environmentally friendly in terms of lower GHG emissions and energy
used. A paper bag, for example, has a higher environmental impact in terms of energy, water, material
consumption, and GHG emissions as compared to a plastic bag that is also lighter in terms of weight and
alternate options of paper and cloth bags can only compete with plastic if they are reused, which depends
on social behaviour and awareness amongst consumers. (Jiang, Fan, & Klemeš, 2020) Therefore, use of
plastics is not bad; however, it is the linear plastics economy and the plastic that leaks out at its end-of-
life, which causes problems.
In the packaging sector itself, about 70% of plastic packaging products are converted into plastic
waste in a short span (Mohua, 2019). These products can have simple structure that are made of
single polymers such as a milk pouch or have complex structure with multiple polymers as in edible oil
packaging or be multi-material packaging containing laminated layers made of paper, plastic, aluminium,
such as in tetrapack. Simple structures made of single polymer are more recyclable than multi-layered
plastics; however, they do not offer the same barrier properties and long shelf life as the complex,
MLPs like tetrapack. There is a large demand for healthcare products in MLPs-small satches; for e.g. a
shampoo satches costs much less than the shampoo bottle of the same brand and the satches are easily
transportable as well. However, the satches economy has high costs to the society and economy. It is
low value, not collectable/retrievable, and non-recyclable; therefore, it readily leaks out of the plastics
waste management system and adds to plastic litter and marine litter.
40
To stop production of single-use, hard to recycle plastics, brand manufacturers have to work with
polymer producers to create plastics that are circular by design and can stay in the circular economy
with the end goal of reducing the consumption of virgin polymers upstream and plastic waste
generation downstream. As the market demand dictates the type of plastic product needed, brands
manufacturers know the market requirements and subsequently create demand for the required resins.
Brand manufacturers can, therefore, work backwards with polymer producers to produce sustainable
polymers such as recycled polymers instead of virgin polymers.
Some examples of such partnerships are seen globally. For example, Unilever partnered with Clarinet
to come up with detectable black plastic shampoo bottles to prevent them from ending up in landfills
as they are easily detectable by waste pickers. Globally, such best practices showcasing partnerships
between brand manufacturers and petrochemical polymer producers can be seen; however, there is still
untapped potential with respect to polymer science.
41
Roadmap for Circular Economy for
Plastics in India
In this section we present the proposed roadmap for circularity in plastics sector in India through a set
of three key priorities/objectives, supported by action plan, actions under which can be measured and
monitored over a certain timeline: Short Term (ST) and Medium Term (MT) and Long Term (LT), where
ST is 0–2 years, MT is 2–5 years and LT is > 5 years. The three key objectives that are identified are:
»» Adopting sustainable material solutions –use of bio-based polymers, substitution of virgin polymer
with recycled polymer, and dematerialization of plastic products
»» Increase supply of good quality secondary plastics feedstock (recycled plastics); and
»» Invent, innovate, and encourage alternative uses of problematic plastics waste
The implementation of the roadmap will require stakeholder coordination and collaboration including
that between the national government, state governments, city governments, and industry. Further, the
political acceptability and the financial viability of the various actions will play a key role in their uptake.
To give an example, the local municipalities may be open to MRFs being set up in their cities and may
even be willing to allocate land for the same and bear part of the operational costs. However, they would
still require the private sector/industry to support the equipment and technology component costs and
the remaining operational costs (so need for Public Private Partnership (PPP) mode). Overtime once
the MRFs are able to develop the revenue sources based on sales of recyclables, they can become self-
sustainable models, which not only builds entrepreneurs but converts waste to wealth. The political
acceptability linked to these interventions also increases if the informal sector is integrated in the setup
and paid fair dues.
Setting up pilot projects and/or demonstration activities around different circular economy aspects can
enhance the transparency which will show in ground results, leading to higher political acceptability
and more effective decision-making processes. To identify possible pilot activities, learning from similar
countries could be drawn and where required customized.
42
Circular Economy for Plastics in India Roadmap: Objectives

Objective 1: Adopting sustainable material solutions-use of
bio-based polymers, substitution of virgin polymer with
recycled polymer, and dematerialization of plastic products.
Action
• R&D around sustainable • Green • Awareness
material solutions Procurement generation
• Targets (voluntary and
• Incentivizing sustainable • Technology
mandatory) for adoption of
material use based solution
sustainable material solutions
• Circular designs on plastic • Knowledge • Business
products (including creation development support
packaging) programme
Objective 2: Increase supply of good quality secondary

plastics feedstock (recycled plastics).
Action
• Awareness • Infrastructure for • Informal sector
generation waste recycling integration with
formal sector
• Knowledge • Incentivize supply of • Capacity
creation quality recycled building
plastics
Objective 3: Invent, innovate, and encourage alternative

uses of difficult to recycle plastic waste.
Action
• Expanding • Infrastructure for • Industry
reutilization existing and new uses collaboration
and partnership
• R&D to find • Business
economically viable development
alternative new uses support programme
FIGURE 8: Roadmap for circularity in plastics in India: Objectives
43
Objective 1:
Adopting Sustainable Material Solutions: Use of Bio-based
Polymers, Substitution of Virgin Polymer with Recycled Polymer,
and Dematerialization of Plastic Products
Focus point in value chain: Midstream/Upstream
R&D around sustainable material solutions (Medium Term)
»» Government support - public funding, R&D tax incentive schemes.

»» Private sector support -laboratory experiments, technology transfer, collaborative action to promote
access to and affordability of sustainable material solutions.
»» Key areas:
• Designing natural alternatives to plastic micro beads in personal care products.
• Overcoming technical limitations faced by mono-material products as opposed to multi-
material products.
• Developing alternative monomers, polymers and additives using green chemistry approaches.
Incentivizing sustainable material use (Medium Term)
»» Differentiated taxes on use of virgin versus recycled materials in production process; penalties
(where possible) on products without minimum percentage of recycled polymer content.
»» Earmarking of tax revenues for reinvestment in the plastic sector including for enhancing plastic
collection, recycling infrastructure, and improving the working conditions of informal sector
engaged in plastic end-of-life management.
»» Deposit refund system based on digital platforms and use of artificial intelligence to incentivize
return of used packaging through specifically for short life plastic packaging.
»» Reduction/ discount against obligation within the ‘producer responsibility’ legislative framework to
producers who meet the voluntary and mandatory targets around sustainable material use.
Circular designs on plastic products (particularly

packaging) (Medium Term /Long Term)
»» Develop and implement design standards for key plastic packaging/products (eliminate unsuitable
design choices, reduce quantum of plastics used, design to foster reuse, and improve recycling
quality and economics).
»» Develop standards, tests, and certification to provide clarity, consistency, transparency on quality
of recycled materials.
»» Develop plastic products using easier to recycle polymer formats. For example- develop mono
material film packaging instead of conventional multi-layer ‘difficult-to-recycle’ composite films.
»» Longer mandatory guarantees for encouraging the production of more durable products.
44
Targets for adoption of sustainable material solutions

(Short Term /Medium Term)
»» Voluntary targets (product specific) on reducing the use of virgin plastics and substitution with
recycled plastics.
»» Mandatory targets (product specific) on use of recycled plastics in making some of the key plastic
products such as garbage bags and rigid containers used for non-food applications.
»» Reporting by manufacturers and importers of plastic products on the amount of virgin and recycled
plastic content in their products.
Knowledge creation (Short Term /Medium Term)
»» National (pan-India) classification of SUPs and removal of State-level variations in SUP definition.
»» Plastics disclosure to encourage wise and sustainable use of plastics at offices and production
facilities; large offices and institutes to conduct audits to determine current plastic usage and
identify ways to reduce their plastic consumption and/or increase the proportion of recycled or
biodegradable plastic within their set ups.
»» Bin audits/maintenance checks across offices and institutions for plastic waste management
»» Inventorization studies on waste characterization including share and type of SUPs and polymer
type.
»» Life cycle assessment of plastics in key end-use sectors to determine GHG emissions from using
plastics vs other materials vs bioplastics/ recycled plastics in current scenario and alternative
scenarios.
Awareness generation (Short Term)
»» Set up local ‘no plastic market zones’ to engage communities to experience shopping without
plastics.
»» Industry associations and local government jointly engage with consumers through plastics
consumer communications’ campaign that promote sustainable purchasing, reuse, and responsible
disposal of plastic products.
»» Awareness generation on the presence of microplastics in personal care and cosmetic products
(PCCPs).
»» Focused programme for school and college students to inculcate a measurable behavioural change
regarding plastic usage and its disposal (in a manner that minimizes littering and mismanagement)
and promote use of alternate materials such a jute and compostable bags.
45
Green Procurement (Medium Term)
»» Large private companies and government to promote procurement of sustainable materials as part
of their criteria when tendering projects/ activities.
»» Procurers in the retail sector to demand goods in sustainable packaging (containing recycled
content and designed for reuse or recycling).
»» Offices and institutions to mandate bulk delivery of cleaning and personal care products with
refillable plastic containers, thereby eliminating single-use containers.
»» Phase-in compulsory reporting to monitor the uptake of Green Public Procurement (GPP).
Technology based solution (Long Term)
»» Block chain-supported platforms providing greater supply chain visibility for better decision making-
help suppliers, processors, manufacturers, moulders, and brand owners to choose traceable,
sustainable, and circular materials.
»» R&D and technology support to suppliers and manufacturers to produce traceable and circular
materials/products.
»» Provide critical information for reversed logistics and take back of products, materials and
components:
• Example: Block chain smart contracts between a supplier of the segregated plastic waste
(segregator) and a prospective buyer (example, closed-loop recycler), or between supplier
of recycled plastic feedstock and prospective plastic goods manufacturer
Business development support programmes

(Short Term /Medium Term)
»» Technical and financial support to business models around sharing and leasing of plastic products:
• Example: Leasing of water dispensers and refillable plastic bottles to households and offices
or renting of plastic toys.
»» Amplify success stories and exciting ongoing work on sustainable material solutions to attract new
entrepreneurs and to encourage the development of new investable ventures.
»» Financial support to address the funding gap faced by start-ups that are aiming to design business
models around commercial production/use of sustainable materials.
46
Objective 2:
Increase Supply of Good Quality Secondary Plastics Feedstock
(Recycled Plastics)
Focus point in value chain: Downstream
Awareness generation (Short/ Medium Term)
»» Targeted messaging with support of the ULBs to influence measurable behaviour change in citizens
and encourage them to source segregate, and engage in responsible handing over of waste to waste
collector.
»» Public awareness campaigns on source segregation, health and environmental hazards linked to
plastics mismanagementand the need to recycle plastics.
»» Harmonized industry-wide effort to communicate information about chemicals used in plastic and
the need for responsible disposal of end-of-life plastic products.
»» Standards and labelling of recyclable, bio-degradable, bio-plastics.
»» Incorporation of 3Rs of waste management-reduce, reuse and recycle in the education curriculum.
»» Extensive community engagement activities involving religious and community leaders to promote
reuse, waste minimization, source segregation.
Knowledge creation (Short/ Medium Term)
»» Develop best practices document/guidelines in key end-use sectors {for e.g. comprehensive industry
document (COINDS)}, resource recycling and waste minimization practices.
»» Develop best practices document/guidelines of sustainable business models in India and globally
that may be scalable and replicable in the key end-use sectors.
»» Study to assess the quantity and quality (composition) of household plastic waste in rural areas.
»» Assessment of recycling capacity, gaps, and opportunities to identify and increase capacity
utilization.
»» Information bank on plastic types in different products that will enable tracking of plastic movement
in the economy.
»» Baseline assessment of quantity and quality of recycled polymers produced through the recycling
processes (plastic granules/flakes/pellets).
»» This should include state-wise assessment that can be used to determine efficient flows of recycled
material and its utilization.
»» Inventorization of different types of plastic waste generated, handling practices, storage, and
channelization for its reuse, recycling, repurposing, or final disposal.
47
Infrastructure for waste recycling (Long Term)
»» Equipment for source segregation (bins) and collection of the source segregated waste in
compartmentalized/separate vehicles:
• Example: ULBs jointly with private waste management company could one time provide
bins for households, bags for commercial establishments, and litter bins at appropriate
commercial and public places. Subsequent purchases of bins and bags to be done by the
waste generator
»» Innovation in infrastructure for collection and separation of plastic waste from MSW.
»» Develop decentralized formal recycling clusters including setting up technology for creating better
quality recyclates, and treatment infrastructure.
»» Develop MRFs, transfer stations to collect, sort, store, transport segregated waste through public-
private partnerships with brands/industry; For example, UNDP-Coca-Cola-Unilever initiative, ITC-
Pune Municipal Corporation initiative.
Incentivize supply of quality recycled plastics (Medium Term)
»» Creating a marketplace to bring in transparency in the demand and supply of recyclates and ensure
fair price for the recycler; specifically need to create a market for household waste plastics through
procurement and industrial partnerships.
»» Fiscal incentives to promote advanced forms of recycling such as chemical recycling.
»» Issuance and selling of ‘reverse logistics credits’ by informal sector (cooperatives) to companies
to help them fulfil their EPR responsibility related to collection and disposal of waste in the right
manner. These credits make it worthwhile for waste pickers to collect lower-value waste material
(difficult to collect otherwise), while also increasing revenue for waste pickers.
»» Setting up of a National Plastic Recycling Fund to collect and recycle plastic waste
48
Informal sector integration with formal sector

(Medium Term)
»» Integrate informal sector with formal recyclers through contracts and as part of EPR policy and
PWM rules to improve collection and sorting efficiency.
»» Integration of informal sector by the ULBs could include:
• Bring in social empowerment programmes for the informal sector, set up cooperatives.
• Incentivize partnerships between ULBs and waste management companies supporting
the ULBs, waste pickers, junkshops, recyclers, and major companies looking to purchase
recycled goods.
»» Large sorting centres or collection systems with at-the-source separation should employ the
informal sector and prevent the possible detrimental effect on such subsectors of new technologies
under chemical recycling.
»» Capacity building and skill training of the informal sector to increase their technical expertise to
upgrade their recovery activities and be able to design their business contracts.
»» Partnership between private waste management enterprises and the informal sector to improve the
value chains related to materials from waste.
Capacity building (Short Term)
»» Improve capacity for enforcement at the local, municipality level, through capacity building
workshops with expert organizations.
»» Establish cooperatives and unions of independent waste pickers and provide them training, technical
support on better sorting, value addition, and responsible waste handling.
49
Objective 3:
Invent, Innovate, and Encourage Alternative Uses of
Difficult-to-Recycle Plastic Waste
Focus point in value chain: Downstream
Expanding reutilization (Short/Medium Term)
»» Expand development of plastic roads (plastic substitute for bitumen) through Ministry of Road
Transport and Highways (MoRTH), Public Works Department, and National Highway Authorities of
India:
• ULBs to implement the directives of MoRTH.
• Provision of facilities for aggregation of plastic waste for road construction.
»» Use plastic waste for bricks and composites; this will incentivize the informal sector to collect the
non-recyclable waste and also reduce the waste going to landfills.
»» Expand pilot technology of MLP recycling through tie-ups with key industry partners, ULBs, informal
sector by identifying all-India markets including demand for recycled MLP products.
»» Conduct scientific studies to understand the safety (toxicity, leachate generation) of recycled MLP-
based products.
R&D for economically viable alternative new uses

(Medium/ Long Term)
»» Develop chemical recycling-based technologies to provide decentralized and broadly applicable

recycling systems:
• Several pyrolysis systems have been initiated, but there is a need for proper scientific data
and design of unit and follow up studies to promote up scaling and commercialization.
»» Develop techniques and technologies for upcycling of plastic waste:
• PET plastic waste for energy storage applications.
• Discarded/ghost fishing gear (nets, ropes, and components) into accessories, clothing,
footwear, home ware, recreation.
»» Identify new uses and viability of these uses for difficult-to-recycle plastics such as MLPs and non-
recyclable plastics.
»» Conduct pilot projects to find possible R&D solutions for inadequately sorted industrial waste
received for incineration.
»» Develop eco-friendly alternative flame retardants which could eliminate the use of some hazardous
chemicals in plastics manufacture.
50
Infrastructure for existing and new uses

(Medium/ Long Term)
»» Processing set-ups and technology/equipment for converting plastic waste into alternate fuel and
raw material (AFR) in cement kilns and power plants.
»» Establish smaller decentralized co-processing facilities near major waste generating cities; this
will address the major transport cost related challenge in uptake of dry waste to co-processing
facilities.
»» Set up/support infrastructure for separate collection, processing, and industrialized composting
facilities for compostable plastics.
»» Set up units for converting plastic waste into products such as tiles, lumber, bricks.
Business development support programme

(Medium/Long Term)
»» Set up incubators and accelerators, through public and private partnership modes that can provide
funding, link entrepreneurs with academics and industry professionals for mentoring, training, and
provide engagement to start-ups that work on developing business models around alternative uses
of plastic waste.
»» Amplify success stories and exciting work going on problematic plastics to attract new entrepreneurs
and to encourage the development of new investable ventures.
»» Successful municipality-led and private partnership based circularity fostering projects to be
promoted as case studies.
Industry collaboration and partnership

(Short/Medium Term)
»» Country-level plastic pact, like in many other countries, have done to bring industry players together
to define a common vision for fostering circularity in plastics sector.
»» Regional FMCG brands, their chambers of commerce, and industry in states to come together and
define a common vision towards circularity in plastic packaging; tapping significant market strength
in their regions of operations.
51
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57
Annexure 1
TABLE A1: Some of the existing good resource efficiency and circular economy practices/initiatives in
context of plastics in India
Best Location Plastic Waste Waste Description
Practice Value Chain: Management
Stakeholders Hierarchy
Taj hotels India Downstream; Reduce Zero SUP hotel in Andamans and
Bulk have pledged to phase out SUP and
Consumers eliminate 20 lakh plastic straws in
2019
ITC hotels India Downstream; Reduce Pledge to discontinue SUP in all
Bulk its hotels since December 2019
Consumers including replacing plastic straws
with paper or bamboo ones, and
replacing plastic drinking bottles
with water in glass bottles. Some
hotels have also replaced the
miniature personal care bottles with
permanent dispensers
Hindustan India Downstream; Reduce/ Total waste generated from their
Unilever Industry Recycle factories in 2019 has reduced by
partners, brand 63%. All our factories are also
manufacturers, equipped with pre-processing
recyclers facilities such as waste segregation
and waste reduction at source, thus
improving recyclability. In 2019, we
disposed of more than 39,000MTPA
of plastic waste in environment-
friendly ways in India
Bizongo India Midstream; Reduce and Packaging solutions - Elimination
Brand Reuse of SUP by pushing for alternatives
manufacturers already available, by 2021. They
are trying to cut down the cost
of alternate material while also
promoting by better adaptation and
trying to use reusable materials
Zomato India Downstream; Reduce Order without cutlery
Bulk Consumer
58
Swiggy India Midstream; Reduce Sustainable packaging
Bulk Consumer
Amazon India Downstream; Reduce Packaging material contains less
Bulk Consumer than 7% SUP and aim for elimination
of SUP packaging by June 2020
Flipkart India Downstream; Reduce Reduced the 25% of SUP in 2018-
Bulk Consumer has set deadline of 2021 to make all
its packaging recyclable
Walmart India Downstream; Reduce Pledged to phase out SUP shrink
Bulk Consumer wrap from our company’s stores
across India by the first quarter of
2019
Dabbawalla Mumabi, Downstream; Reduce Deliverymen distributing lunch to
MH Waste 200,000 people throughout the
generators, city using washable, durable, and
Bombay Tiffin reusable containers that are not
Box Suppliers made of plastic
Association
Cupable Mumbai, Downstream; Reuse Cupable has established a reverse
Model MH; Waste supply chain by partnering with
Bangalore, generators, restaurants/ event organizers to
KA; collectors install drop off bins that allow only
Hyderabad, their cups to be dropped-off as no
TE; other container fits inside. The model
Chennai, focuses on events with large volume
TN; Delhi; of customers so there potential
Pune, MH for scaling and financial flexibility.
Waste generators pay directly and
are reimbursed part of their deposit
back after returning the cup and are
also incentivized through discounts
on their drinks for using the same
cup
59
Goa Waste Goa Downstream; Recycle/ Co- The GWMC set up by the state
Management ULB, waste processing/ government has an integrated solid
Model generators, WtE waste management facility that
(GWMC) collectors, recycles plastics and dry waste at
recyclers, its MRF and sends its non-recyclable
treatment plastics for co-processing to
providers Karnataka whereby the ULB bears
the heavy cost of collection and
transport to co-processing facility.
Through its activities over four years
- recycling, substituting coal with
RDF, and managing its biodegradable
waste the plant has reduced about
35,48243,330tCO2-eq. emissions
Reliance Raigad, MH Downstream; Repurposing As a pilot, RIL has used about
Plastic road National 50 MT of plastic waste at its
Highway Nagothane Manufacturing Division
Authority, State for construction of 40 km of road
governments, by starting its own its own and also
ULBs, Waste outsourcing garbage collection
collectors and segregation which enables the
collection of sufficient plastic to be
shredded to prepare a mixture at its
sites
60
UNEP - Pan India - Downstream; Recycle United Nations Development
Coca-Cola 28 cities Waste Programme (UNDP) India, in
collectors, self partnership with Hindustan Coca-
help groups, Cola Beverages Private Limited
ULBs including (HCCBPL) and Hindustan Unilever
RWAs, private Limited (HUL) is building on existing
operators, systems to reduce the impact of
institutional plastic waste on environment in
and technical India by promoting collection,
partnerships segregation and recycling of all
kinds of plastics to move towards a
socio- technical circular economy
model. This includes establishing
material recycling facilities.
Institutionalizing Swachhta Kendras
within governance framework
structures and improved socio-
economic conditions of waste
pickers, developing technology-
supported knowledge management:
Promote, cloud-based traceability,
accountability and digital
governance along waste value
chain through our technical partner
Mindtree through field implementing
partners. Impact: The project is
currently operational in 28 cities
with 22 MRFs (Swachhta Kendras)
and since 2018 has collected and
processed over 17,000 MT of plastic
waste
61
Plastic Scrap West Delhi Downstream; Recycle/ Co- Plastic waste trading 1.4 km2 area
Trading (Tikri- ULB, waste processing in Delhi, where around 1875 TPD
Kalan) generators, plastic scraps are flowing, 1818
plastic traders TPD for recycling and 57 TPD to
brick-kilns. This is done mainly
on an informal scale including
backyard mechanical recycling with
no integration of informal sector
and little to no health & safety
measures. Such plastic trading
and recycling clusters need to be
upgraded and informal sector needs
to be integrated for more efficient,
leakage proof trading and recycling
Aarohana Pune, MH Downstream; Upcycle Promotes hand weaving of plastic
Ecosocial and Dadra Industry waste into upcycled bags, fabric,
and Nagar Partners and home decor. They are providing
Haveli employment opportunities to
women in remote villages that
lack alternative sources of income.
Since its inception, Aarohana has
salvaged over 776,500 plastic bags,
sold about 10,000 bags, and made
sales of INR 14 lakhs in their first
year. However, their biggest hurdle is
lack of segregation as contaminated
post-consumer plastic waste cannot
be upcycled
62
TABLE A2: International experience on plastics circularity roadmaps and strategies: key learning
Key Institutions / Organizations
Learnings
Bring in European Commission Saudi Basic Industries Hindustan Unilever Unilever:
Innovation (EC): European Strategy Corporation (SABIC): Limited (HUL) and UNDP: European Plastics Pact
for Plastics in a circular Sustainability Development Plastic Waste (2020)
Economy (2018) Goal Roadmap (2019) Management »» By 2025:
»» Developing innovative »» TrueCircleTM Initiative Programme (2018-2024) • Halve the use of
solutions 4 principles: »» Establish Material virgin plastic
• Advanced sorting, 1. Design for Recovery Centres • Ensuring 100%
chemical recycling Recyclability (MRF) plastic packaging
• Improved polymer 2. Mechanically • Sustained is reusable,
designs in plastics recycled products practises recyclable or
value in waste
3. Certified Circular compostable

• Reduce costs of Products management • Use at least 25%
existing solutions 4. Certified Renewable »» Develop technology- recycled plastic
• Enhance reuse and Products supported knowledge packaging
recycling of end-of- »» Sustainable Material management
»» Clean Future Ambition:
• life plastics Solutions • Enhance
• Replace 100% of
»» Proposed new rules for • Step up circular segregation,
the carbon derived
waste management economy for plastics collection and
from fossil fuels
• Obligations for recycling of all
• Help manufactures to in its cleaning by
national authorities kinds of plastic
reduce plastic waste 2030
to expedite separate waste along
collection value chain
63
• Encourage investment
in recycling capacity
64
Learnings
Engage Commonwealth Scientific Japan Plastics Federation: Malaysia’s Roadmap Towards Zero Single-use
Stakeholders and Industrial Research Resource Circulation Plastics (2018–2030)
Organisation (Australia): Strategy for Plastics(2018) »» Multi Stakeholder Collaboration among federal
National Circular Economy »» Tripartite Agreement government, state governments, manufactures,
Roadmap (2019) between citizens, business suppliers, business operators, brand owners, general
»» Recycle and reduce and government public, and NGOs
materials such as plastic • Reduce Plastics Bags • Addressing single-use plastics pollution in the
papers, glass and tyres country
»» Multi-Stakeholder
collaboration on waste
management, recycling and
resource recovery
Identify UK WRAP: Smart Prosperity Institute:
Opportunities UK Plastics Pact – A Roadmap to 2025: A Vision for a Circular Economy for Plastics in
»» Eliminate unnecessary single-use packaging Canada(2019)
• Redesign, innovation, or alternative delivery models »» Assign property rights for end-of-life plastic waste to
producers
»» 30% average recycled content across all plastic packaging
»» Set end-of-life performance based regulatory
»» 100 % of plastic packaging to be reusable, recyclable or
requirements
compostable
»» Set minimum percentage of recycled content in
»» Published recyclability guidelines in 2019 for rigid plastic
products and packaging
packaging
(WRAP, 2018) »» Common definitions, performance standards, and
measurement and assessment protocols
Learnings
Focussing on Japan Industry Federation : Plastics Roadmap for Finland(2018):
R’s The Resource Circulation Strategy for Plastics(2018) »» Reduce and Refuse, Recycle and Replace
(Reduce, »» Concept of 3Rs + Renewable »» Green Deal agreements
Reuse,
• Reduce single-use plastics emission by 2030 • Reduce single-use packaging and over
Recycle)
• Promote alternatives such as recycled material and packaging
recyclable resources Design operating model for businesses using disposable
• Double use of recycled material packaging. (Ministry of Enviornment, 2018)
• Approximate 2 million tonne of biomass plastics by
2030. (Ministry of Environment, 2019)
Use of Market The Plastics Roadmap for Finland(2018): Smart Prosperity Institute:
Instruments »» Introduce tax on single use plastics A Vision for a Circular Economy for Plastics in
»» Deposit Refund System for recycling of bottles Canada (2019)
»» Use of bans
»» Tax on single use plastics
»» Imposing Waste disposal levies
65
66
Learnings
Regulatory European Commission: European Commission:
Measures The European Green Deal(2019) The Single-Use Plastics Directive (2019)
»» By 2050, to reach net-zero global warming emissions »» From 2021 onwards, bans and restricts the use of
»» By 2030, ensuring packaging in EU market is reusable and single-use plastics
recyclable • Transition towards making plastics circular
»» The European Strategy for Plastics in a Circular Economy (EEA, 2019)
emphasized on integrating recycled content in green public
procurement (GPP) criteria
Switch to European Commission: Saudi Basic Industries Corporation (SABIC):
Alternate The European Strategy for Plastics in a Circular Economy Sustainability Development Goal Roadmap (2019)
Feedstocks (2018) »» Certified Renewable feedstock: LexanTM

»» Use alternative feedstock, bio-based feedstock and gaseous Polycarbonate
effluents such as carbon dioxide or methane • Develop polymer from renewable feedstock
»» Promote investment and innovation in value chain such as oil by products from the pulp and paper
• Look into lifecycle impacts of alternative feedstock industry
• Supports de-carbonization • Reduce CO2 emissions and use of fossil
• Creates opportunities for growth feedstock
TABLE A3: Cost benefit analysis of petroleum-based HDPE and of PLA resin obtained from cassava root
(Case 1) and cassava starch (Case 2) in Thailand
Variables HDPE (Million PLA Resin Obtained PLA Resin Obtained
USD) from Cassava root from Cassava starch
(Million USD) (Million USD)
Direct Cost (Production 185.74 555.74 576.74
cost + Investment cost)
Indirect Cost (GHG 143.92 30.92 20.92
emission + Opportunity
cost of land)
Total Cost 329.66 586.66 597.66
Direct Benefit (sales of 143 300 300
product)
Indirect Benefit (sales of by NA 294 (Cassava Meals) NA
product)
Total Benefit 143 594 300
Net Benefit -186.66 7.34 -297.66
Source: (Chiarakorn, Permpoonwiwat, & Nanthachatchavankul, 2011)
67
Annexure 2
Brief Production Process of Ethylene, Propylene, and Major Polymers
The production process and the specific energy consumption (SEC) of ethylene, propylene from the
feedstock and the monomers to various polymers such as polypropylene, LDPE, HDPE, LLDPE, polyvinyl
chloride, PET, and PS are briefed below.
1. Ethylene and Propylene

The production of ethylene and propylene uses steam cracking. The feed material ethane/ propane gas
or napththa is fed into pyrolysis furnace in the presence of dilution steam for cracking the feed into
ethylene, propylene and other byproducts. In the process, heat is recovered as steam at about 100 ata
pressure, which is used for driving steam turbines. The cooled gas is compressed and dried. Ethylene
and propylene are separated using cryogenic processes. The production of ethylene and propylene by
steam cracking employs two technologies. Stone & Webster accounts for about 57% of total installed
capacity in India and Lummus accounts for 43% of installed capacity. The typical SEC of feedstock
cracking to produce ethylene and propylene is given in Table A4.
TABLE A4: Typical SEC of ethylene and propylene production

Parameter Unit Consumption
Electricity GJ per tonne 0.3
Fuel GJ per tonne 13-25
Steam GJ per tonne -1.4
Feedstock GJ per tonne 45
The variations in SEC level may be attributed to type of feedstock and battery limit conditions. The SEC
is lower when processing ethane/propane gas (13 GJ/tonne), whereas higher when naphtha is used (25
GJ/tonne)
2. Polypropylene
A number of processes are available for production of polypropylene. The commonly used processes
are Loop reactor process and Gas phase process. The solution polymerization process and stirred tank
heavy diluent process are obsolete.
2.1 Loop reactor process
The loop reactor process involves a series of loops for carrying out polymerization. It involves a second
gas phase reactor for block co-polymer production. The reaction is carried out in liquid propylene medium
with ‘high yield, high stereospecificity’ (HYHS) catalysts at about 75°C and 650 psi pressure. The heat
41
This note draws learnings from the TERI’s report on developing baseline specific energy consumption in petrochemicals
industry in India, Shakti Sustainable Energy Foundation, 2013
68
of reaction is removed by condensing and recycling propylene to the reactor. The slurry is flashed and
volatiles, after purification are recycled. The polymer is purged and dried before pelletization.
For production of block co-polymer, the slurry from the first reactor is transferred to a gas phase reactor
wherein ethylene is added in controlled ratio. The reaction is carried out at about 60° C and 240 psi
pressure. The block co-polymerization can also be carried out in the loop reactor. The subsequent
operations are similar to polymerization.
2.2 Gas phase process
The gas phase process uses either fluidized bed reactor or vertical stirred reactor or horizontal stirred
reactor. Polymerization of propylene is carried out in gas phase at 50-105 °C and 350-550 psi pressure
with HYHS as catalyst, depending on the polymer grades. The process is suitable for production of both
homo-polymers and co-polymers. For the production of block co-polymer, a second gas phase reactor
is used in series, wherein ethylene is added. For random co-polymers, ethylene-propylene stream is
reacted in the first reactor.
Polypropylene is manufactured by various technologies, notably from Unipol, Innovene, LyondellBasell
SPHERIPOL, prevalent in India. The typical SEC of polypropylene production process is given in Table A5.
TABLE A5: Typical SEC of polypropylene production

Steam GJ per tonne 1.0
3. Polyethylene
The manufacturing process of PE such as HDPE, LDPE and LLDPE follows addition polymerization
kinetics involving catalysis of purified ethylene. Three processes are commonly involved in the production
of PE as briefed below.
3.1 High-pressure process
The high-pressure process was developed by ICI, UK for producing yields ‘low density polyethylene’
(LDPE). It uses peroxide catalyst at 100-300 oC and produces low density randomly oriented polymer,
which have a low melting point.
3.2 Intermediate-pressure process
The intermediate-pressure process was developed by Phillips Petroleum Co., USA for preparing high
density polymer with increased rigidity, crystallization, tensile strength, and softening point. The process
uses MoO3 and Cr2O3 on alumina as catalyst.
3.3 Low-pressure process
The low-pressure process was developed in Germany for preparing HDPE. The catalyst used in this low-
pressure Ziegler process consists of aluminium triethyl activated with heavy metal derivatives such as
TiCl4. High purity ethylene is prepared through desulphurization and removal of light ends. The ethylene
is further treated to remove traces of oxygen. It is pumped into a reactor where it is mixed with catalyst
diluents stream. The optimum conditions maintained in the reactor include 70 oC and 7 atm gauge.
69
The effluent stream follows across a series of flash drums in order to remove the solvent from the
catalyst. The residual catalyst is removed by adding water. Thereafter, the flashed solvent is recycled to
the catalyst makeup unit after drying and re-distillation. The slurry formed is centrifuged to remove the
water, and the water is treated to remove the catalyst before recycling. The final products of PE solids are
dried, extruded and given the required final forms. Various types of polyethylenes are made, viz. HDPE,
MDPE, LLDPE, LDPE, by deploying various technologies. A few prevalent in India are LyondellBasell
Spherilene (LLDPE / MDPE / HDPE), LyondellBasell (Hostalen ACP for HDPE), EniChem (for LDPE),
Mitsui CX (for HDPE & MDPE), INEOS Innovene G (Swing LLDPE / HDPE) The typical SEC of LDP, HDPE,
and LLDPE production processes are given in Table A6.
TABLE A6: Typical SEC of polyethylene production

Parameter Unit LDPE HDPE LLDPE
Electricity GJ per tonne 3.5 0.9 0.4
Steam GJ per tonne -2.1 1.0 1.6
4. Polyethylene terephthalate
The conventional production process of PET process includes first the melt phase polymerization
to produce co-polymers with an intrinsic viscosity suitable for textile applications, where it is called
polyester or for thermoformed PET plastics (such as punnets, collar strips). For making bottle grade
(that can be used for water, juices, carbonated soft drinks etc), the polyester needs to have higher
molecular weights as reflected in the higher intrinsic viscosity. For achieving this, the molten polyester is
extruded and solidified into granules (also referred to as chips, pellets, etc.) which are then transferred
to another set of reactors wherein they are subjected to further polymerization in the solid-state. Thus,
the polymerization of PET is carried out in stages under mild conditions of less than 300°C with almost
zero emissions. Just like the textile grade polyester, PET does not need any phthalates or BPA in their
manufacture or further conversion into packaging articles. Due to its unique chemistry, PET is highly
recyclable with approximately 90% actual recycling achieved in India. This high degree of recycling is
achieved primarily through mechanical recycling in which the PET is converted into polyester fibres.
The typical SEC of PET production process is given in Table A7.
TABLE A7: Typical SEC of PET production

Fuel GJ per tonne 4.1
5. Polyvinyl chloride
There are a number of processes employed for production of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) based on end
application. The polymerization is performed in a batch reactor at about 40–70 oC with the vinyl chloride
monomer kept in liquid state under pressure.
5.1 Suspension polymerization
Suspension polymerization is the most commonly used process for PVC production. The vinyl chloride is
fed into a sealed reactor under pressure, where it is finely dispersed in water through vigorous agitation.
70
It is mixed with an in initiator and heated to about 60–70 oC. Upon 90% of monomer is converted to
polymer, the reaction is stopped by discharging the slurry into a degasser. The remaining monomer is
recycled and the resin is filtered, centrifuged and dried.
5.2 Emulsion polymerization
Emulsion polymerization is performed in an aqueous solution containing water-soluble initiators and
emulsifiers. The PVC latex formed has fine particle size suitable for use in the preparation of paints,
paper and fabric finishes and printing inks.
5.3 Mass polymerization
In mass polymerization water is not used. The process employs pre-polymerization stage containing
liquid vinyl chloride monomer in the presence of an initiator to allow for about 10% conversion. The
solution is transferred to an autoclave reactor wherein more initiator and monomer are added and
heated. The powder resin formed can be used to produce film with high clarity as well as for other
applications.
Generally, the vinyl resin produced is inherently hard and brittle. It requires mixing with additives for
converting into useful products. The initial step in producing vinyl compounds involves dry blending. In a
closed vessel, dry and liquid additives are mixed. Since the resin particles are porous, liquid additives are
absorbed easily, yielding a dry powder compound. In applications like pipe manufacturing, the powder
compounds can be processed directly into the final product. Manufacturing of products like wire, cable,
rigid profiles, and injection moulded parts will require additional processing. The typical SEC of PVC
production process is given in Table A8.
TABLE A8: Typical SEC of PVC production

Steam GJ per tonne 0.5
6. Polystyrene
The styrene polymerization technology is a one-step batch suspension reaction followed by continuous
dewatering, drying and size classification. The styrene monomer, water, initiators, suspending agents,
nucleating agents and other minor ingredients are added to the reactor. The mixture is subjected to a
time-temperature profile under agitation. The suspending agent and agitation disperse the monomer
to form beads. A pre-measured quantity of pentane is added to the reactor and the polymerization is
continued to ensure 100% conversion of the monomer. After cooling, the ‘expandable polystyrene’ (EPS)
beads and water are discharged to a holding tank. From here, the process becomes continuous. The
slurry is centrifuged to remove most of the mother liquor. The beads are transferred to a pneumatic
dryer for moisture removal. The dry beads are screened. External lubricants are added for blending to
obtain finished products. The typical SEC of EPS production process is given in Table A9.
TABLE A9: Typical SEC of EPS production

71

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Plastic Industry in India 5

Plastic Waste in India: Challenges and Implications 8

Existing Policy and Regulatory Framework for Plastic Industry in India 10

Material Flow of Plastics 14

Circular Economy for Plastics in India: Challenges and Opportunities 21

Plastics Circularity Scenarios 22

Demand-side Potential: Key End-use Sectors 22

Circularity Scenarios: Integrating Demand-and Supply-side Potentials 30

Fostering Circularity of Plastics in India 35

Need for Special Focus on Difficult-to-Recycle Plastics (Reduce, Redesign or Eliminate) 35

Existing Practices in India: Scope for Replication and Scaling up 36

Need for Improved Rural Plastic Waste Management 36

Policy Instruments: Strengthening and Expanding 37

Extended Producer Responsibility: Fostering Effective Implementation 39

Investment towards Circular Solutions 39

Polymer Science Perspective towards Plastics Circularity 40

Roadmap for Circular Economy for Plastics in India 42

FIGURE 3: Plastic consumption projection by plastic type, 2010–35.....................................................17

FIGURE 6: Circular economy for plastics in India and challenges .........................................................21

FIGURE 7: Bio-plastics risks and challenges ..............................................................................................29

FIGURE 8: Roadmap for circularity in plastics in India: objectives.........................................................43

TABLE 3: Polymer resins application and recycling ................................................................................14

TABLE 4: Share of key end-use sectors of plastic usage ........................................................................22

TABLE 5A: Plastics circularity in packaging sector ...................................................................................23

TABLE 5B: Plastics circularity in automotive sector ..................................................................................25

TABLE 5C: Plastics circularity in building and construction sector .......................................................26

TABLE A2: International experience on plastics circularity roadmaps and strategies:

TABLE A4: Typical SEC of ethylene and propylene production ................................................................68

TABLE A5: Typical SEC of polypropylene production .................................................................................69

TABLE A6: Typical SEC of polyethylene production ...................................................................................70

TABLE A7: Typical SEC of PET production ...................................................................................................70

TABLE A8: Typical SEC of PVC production ...................................................................................................71

TABLE A9: Typical SEC of EPS production ...................................................................................................71

GPP Green Public Procurement

Stage Acitivity Output

Oil Exploration and Production Oil and Gas

Polymerization Polymer Resin

Manufacture of Consumer FMCG Products

Use of Plastic Products and

Waste Collection/Sorting Segregated and Aggregated

Recycling Flakes, Pellets, Films, and Sheets

Reutilization Plastones, Roads, Tiles,

FIGURE 1: Overview of key value chain stages of plastics

TABLE 1: Stakeholder mapping across the plastic value chain

TABLE 1: Stakeholder mapping across the plastic value chain

Key Connected Common

Policy Year Government Description

Policy Year Government Description

Policy Year Government Description

Policy Year Government Description

TABLE 3: Polymer resins application and actual status of recycling

TABLE 3: Polymer resins application and actual status of recycling