Destructive Technique:

Sectioning Method:
Principle:

It is one of the types of Destructive technique and is used in welded components and structural parts from
decades for evaluating residual stresses. By Kalakoutsky [15], this technique was originated in 1888 to
measure longitudinal stresses in the bar by slashing longitudinal strips and by determining length
variation. The stress examination is done by considering transverse stress value very small and the cutting
process is not lonely responsible to yield significant strain.

Procedure:
The slitting method is fragile meanwhile it ought not present heat or plasticity in the cut examples keeping
the first residual stress without the influence of exterior parameters. These strains are measured using
mechanical or electrical strain gauges [10 9]. In order to find residual stresses in a plate, it is necessary
that sample preparation have to be done usually, depending upon residual stress gradient, the quantity
of longitudinal bars to be sectioned according to it. Where mechanical strain gauges are suitable for
sectioning process as in that case device is not attached directly to the workpiece [12]. Over a specific
cross-section, the required stress distribution can be found by finding the deformation in length of single
bar and also with the aid of Hook`s Law [6].

Advantages:
For welded joints, this technique is commonly preferred. For example, in box section of high strength
steel, using fillet welds in A36 steel [1], and panels of thin Al 5456. Sectioning is an accurate, adequate
and economical method to find residual stresses in structural member because of its reliability and
versatility [6].

Disadvantages:
It is not able to test in service structures and is usually costly and time taking and some times repeatedly
number of experiments are required to done this sectioning method [6].

Limitations:
Sources of errors are mainly occurred due to change in temperature and it can be minimized using same
material reference bar [6 7].

Contour Method:
Principle:

In 2000, Prime [18] proposed a Contour Method (CM) and it works on the principle of superposition
throughout the relaxation of residual stresses by considering that the structural material behaves
elastically. By considering the following schematic figure of contour method, it can be summarized that
due to relaxation of internal stresses the value of displacements is compared to the longitudinal stresses
and flat surface contours [7].

Figure 1: Contour Method Schematic Principles [42]

Over weld cross-areas, this method is simpler to decide residual stress as practically there is no
requirement of computations, CM gives a advanced longitudinal goal (1 mm dividing).

Procedure:

Contours on the two parts require averaging to eliminate shear stress impacts requires additional
suspicion: that the stiffness is something similar on the different sides of the cut. In case of materials with
homogenous property, this supposition that is absolutely fulfilled when a symmetric portion is sliced
accurately down the middle. Practically speaking, the part just should be symmetric inside the area where
the stiffness significantly affects the distortions of the sectioned portion, which can be assessed as
reaching out from the cut exterior by close to 1.5 occasions the Saint Venant's trademark distance [18].
The trademark distance is frequently the thickness of the part, yet is all the more moderately taken as the
most extreme cross-sectional measurement. On the off chance that the part is lopsided, a FE examination
can be utilized to gauge potential blunders, which will in general be little until the part is topsy-turvy.

Advantages:

This method is almost exceptional in its capacity to gauge a two-dimensional cross-sectional guide of
leftover anxieties in uniform enormous parts [6].

Disadvantages:

This method`s performance is best for larger parts also a Bulge error is possible that is further eliminated
using Finite element method [8].

Limitations:

While choosing an estimation procedure for stress disseminations that are fundamentally 1-D, improved
exactness can almost certainly be accomplished by using other techniques, as in case of incremental
slitting [9]. Until now, the contour strategy has just been used in utilizing wire EDM to get it done, which
restricts the submission to metals and a couple of different ingredients that can be cut with EDM [22].

Semi- Destructive Testing

Hole Drilling Method:

This is a common method of semi destructive technique used for finding the residual stresses [6]. The
principle, anticipated over 80 years prior by Ruud [19] depends on the way that relaxation happens when
approximate material is taken out from a section with interior residual stresses and it very well may be
assessed using the incited nearby deformation [3 6 7].

Procedure:

At the midpoint of suitable model and rosette strain gauge, a hole is bored in the specific section in order
to find the internal stresses using strain statistics. Schajer,1998 [20] presents the incremental method in
order to find the non-uniform residual stresses that allow to take decision about number of step depth
and number of steps. As this process is created on the incremental distortion as a result of drilling. A new
hole shape was developed by Kockelmann [17], along with the characteristics hole attained by high-speed
milling.

Figure 1:Comparison of before hole drilling and after hole drilling [6]

There is a schematic illustration of tensile residual stresses of deformation around a hole drilled into
material [6]. When HDM results are compared with that of ultrasonic for residual stresses than following
graph is observed.

Figure 2: Residual Stresses vs Distance from the weld centerline[42]

Advantages:
For non-specific specimen shape, hot drilling method is commonly used also this method is much more
suitable for larger specimens i.e. (100-1000mm) [11].

Disadvantage:

Hole Drilling method is not able to evaluate the entire specimen depth. Another important factor is
accuracy as low accuracy is obtained as a result of destruction of specimen [16].

Limitation:

Limited Resolution and low accuracy in case of inhomogeneous material stresses also the strength of
material decrease due to removal of material as a result of hole drilling [21].

Non-Destructive Testing

Neutron Diffraction Method:

Principle and Procedure:

It is a branch of Non-Destructive Testing based on the elastic scattering of neutrons. Penetrating Radiation
is commonly used Neutron Diffraction method, although with the nucleus of an atom it interacts directly
and the value of diffracted intensity is somehow different from X-rays as it interacts with electrons. It is
additionally frequently the situation that light atoms (low atomic number, Z) contribute similarly as firmly
to the neutron deflected intensity as do huge Z particles, and in this manner, neutrons enter similarly well
into high Z material as low Z. From isotope to isotope, the scattering characteristics varies rather than
linearly w.r.t atomic number [6].

Advantages:

Neutron energies of wavelength value between 0.7 to 3 angstroms are mainly used in Neutron diffraction
stress measurement and this method is commonly used in measuring residual stresses in rolled rods,
weldment, rocket case forgings, plastically deformed plates and many other useful components [2].

Disadvantages:
The measurements are costly and require more time to analyze and calculate the results [3].

Limitations:
At the point of strain measurement, the unstressed lattice spacing must be known as it cannot be easily
measured with the synchrotron method. In addition to this, other limitations include that the component
should bring to a neutron foundation for every single strain evaluation as it requires few seconds to an
hour [6].

X-Ray Diffraction:

It is one of the approaches of Non-Destructive testing where, it is responsible for finding the inter-atomic
lattice arrangement, that is the revealing of strain in the irradiated area. X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) is a
method, in which few microns penetrate in X-ray radiations. This shallow profundity obliges the
presumption that the stress perpendicular to the exterior is zero [21]. So, in order to be in a state of plane
stress the gauge or irradiated volume is taken. This disorder takes into account rearrangements of the
stress-strain equations and evades the requirement for exact assurance of the unstressed cross section
plane measurement. In this manner, worked on equations utilizing the distinction between explicit cross
section planes at a few angles to the surface plane are utilized to extrapolate the strain condition to a
vector in the plane of the surface [ 6 7 ]

Advantages:

Arrangements for fetching XRD estimations from the lab climate to handle applications has progressed
quickly over the most recent twenty years, particularly toward expanded convey ability, speed of activity
and conservativeness. There are a few seconds or less measure time in spatial analysis of less than 1mm2
is possible using XRD technique.

Disadvantages:

The unstressed lattice factors can be exaggerated by phase alloy quantity, configuration and many extra
aspects.

Limitations:

Stress evaluation in X-Ray Diffraction technique obtained only to some certain depth of about 0.025mm.

Ultrasonic Testing:

Another useful NDT method is ultrasonic technique as it depends upon altering the ultrasonic waves as it
can be associated to the residual stress state by using elastic constant of the material presented by Kandil
FA,2001 [14]. Its measurement depends upon the linear relation between material stresses and the velocity
of ultrasonic waves and the relation among velocity and stress is as follows
 (1)

Where, acoustoelastic constant is denoted by K while V and Vo are the values of the velocities in the
stressed and stress-free region. Javadi et al.[13] did a progression of intriguing examinations on the
ultrasonic technique. They contrasted with contact and drenching ultrasonic estimations of welding residual
stress in unique joints. A blend of FE welding recreation and Lcr ultrasonic waves were utilized to arrive
at the objective, and based on exploratory outcomes, they reasoned that both of the techniques can quantify
the residual stress with adequate exactness and the choice between them relies upon geometry and
orientation of the tried design and furthermore on the accessible test gadgets.

Comparison between Destructive and Non-Destructive Method:

Let us consider a comparison chart that summarize a comparison between various techniques of testing
in reference to their surface penetration.

Figure 3: Spatial resolution vs Measurement penetration for various residual stress measurement [6]

Figure 3 sums up a few of the strategies as far as their spatial goal and their capacity to make residual
stress estimations profound inside an example, the "entrance." It is apparent that few elements should
be painstakingly thought of and adjusted to settle on a suitable decision of a residual stress estimation
technique for a given application. In the above comparison, it is clear that sectioning and ultrasonic
methods are most expensive even magnetic and eddy current method is also expansive for more
penetration results as it deals in micros. However, the overall best methods are X ray diffraction and
Neutron Diffraction as they are least expansive as well as they are able to cove wide range of penetration.

Finite Element Analysis:

The capacity to precisely anticipate for the safe infrastructure and design of the boat and ship
constructions is the strength of stiffened boards. Assessing conduct of stiffened boards and the
strength is a muddled issue because of the different blends of calculation, boundary conditions,
stacking and breakdown ways that are conceivable. Besides, geometric and residual stress flaws
acquainted during assembling are troublesome in order to examine, prompting vulnerability in
figuring stiffened plate conduct. In ship structures, the essential wellspring of distortion and
residual stress is lopsided plastic and cooling disfigurement incited by welding while assembling.

Residual stresses as well as distortion as a result of welding lessen the strength of welded solidified
boards average of ship structures (Guedes Soares and Gordo 1996 [4 5]; Khan and Zhang 2011;
Paik and Sohn 2012). In case of stiffened panels in ships, the essential load in axial compression
brought about by wave-instigated longitudinal bending. Under axial compressive burden in plan
(IACS 2009), Logical articulations are frequently noted to assess the conduct of stiffened plates.
On the other hand, the conduct of stiffened plates can be concentrated in more noteworthy
explanation utilizing mathematical strategies like the finite element methods and finite difference.

To compute a load-shortening plot that portrays the reaction of the part to axial load, stiffened
plate analysis is regularly done determined (Guedes Soares and Gordo 1993 [4]). In a ship hull
girder, this normal axial strain against axial stress bend would then be able to be utilized to describe
the conduct of a stiffened plate. By Caldwell (1965) [24], The primary lucid strategy for deciding
the ultimate moment capacity of a exterior beam was projected. To portray the ultimate strength
of rigid plate, His technique depended on expected strength variables.

An evaluation of exploration subjected to load as a result of compression on stiffened plates by

In the heat treatment and welding processes, the following physical phenomena are illustrated
below:

Figure 4: Organized physical phenomena [43]

The above-mentioned steps are necessary in most of the software for FEA analysis of welding
phenomena. Faulkner (1975) [39] recommended that the worth of η ordinarily goes from three to
five, contingent upon the stiffened plate dimensions and welding conditions. Ohtsubo and Sumi
(2000) [40] proposed the longitudinal residual stress circulation for stiffened plate conduct
appeared in Figure 4. Within axial compression the longitudinal residual stress appropriation
utilized by Smith (2008) [28 29] in a parametric report on the strength of stiffened plates is shown
in figure 5. Albeit the residual stress conveyance in the plate is like that appeared in Figure 4, the
dispersion of stress in the stiffener is in better concurrence with experimentally estimated values
controlled by Nagaraja Rao and Tall (1961) [31] when compared with Ohtsubo and Sumi (2000)
[40]. The targets of this examination are to assess the impact of residual stress induced by welding
on hardened plate conduct and to evaluate the exactness of plan techniques for anticipating
solidified plate conduct projected by the IACS (2009) regular structural standards considering 3-
D residual stress induced by welding and twisting fields. 3-D thermo-elasto-plastic non-linear
finite simulation technique is able to predict distortion and welding residual stresses.

Figure 5: Longitudinal residual stress distribution in welded stiffened plate [27]

As a result of welding, various test procedures are accessible for estimating residual stresses
including strain gauge measurements or X-Ray examination. In addition to this, various numerical
techniques are also used to ensure test results [25 26]. This include 2D and 3D Finite element
method analysis. However, there are some local phenomena like crack initiation and geometrical
singularities that measurements always contain [27 30]. By considering that facts, there is a
significant importance that is involved in a method to illustrate their linkages, that actually
simulates the boundary conditions in actual components as in case of 3D modeling.
Figure 6: Longitudinal residual stress distribution in welded stiffened plates (Smith 2008) [27].

The representative weld simulations which would give extra data not-influenced by tolerance as
for the welding interaction, pipe measurement, residual stress estimations and strategies, and
verification of that data. A consecutively coupled thermo-mechanical examination was performed,
where heat transfer investigation was trailed by structural examination. The nodal temperature
esteems determined during thermal examination were utilized as a predefined field for mechanical
investigation to decide the distortions and residual stress state initiated by welding. It is safe to
expect that the mechanical reaction of the test specimens relies on the thermal stacking; while there
is no inverse reliance. This is on the grounds that the measure of heat produced because of the
mechanical dissemination is insignificantly little when contrasted with the heat energy provided
by the heat source.

The finite-element FE simulation comprised of two consecutive examinations. The primary one is
a non-linear finite element thermal examination where the transient temperature field made by a
moving heat source was determined. At the web of the level bar stiffened plates and mid-thickness
of the plate Longitudinal residual stresses anticipated by finite-element FE welding recreation, are
appeared in graphs shown in figures 6 and 7, separately. Table 1 sums up the greatest residual
pressure esteems appeared in the figures.
Figure 7: At the mid thickness of the plate observed longitudinal Residual stresses [27]

Figure 8: At the mid thickness of the web, observed longitudinal stresses [27]
Table 1:At mid plane executive summary of maximum mid thickness longitudinal residual stresses [27]

Thermal Analysis:

According to the governing equations, to summarize thermal analysis using Fourier`s Law, for transient
temperature field in some time t and space (x, y, z) is as follows.

It can be written as

(2)

Where, volumetric heat flux is denoted by Qv in W.m-3 , Thermal conductivity k(T) as a temperature
function in W.m-1. K-1 , cp(T) indicates the specific heat in J.kg-1.k-1 . For convection using equation from
Newton`s law

(3)

Where, heat transfer coefficient is hconv, Ts is the surface temperature in K and other is temperature of the
surrounding and is considered as 20oC. While for radiation, Stephen Boltzmann Law is used

(4)
In case of double ellipsoidal heat source model, Rajput 2014, presented a model to present MIG welding
process. Heat density for front and rare are described by using following equations

(5)

Where Q(x , y , z) indicates the value of thermal flow density in [W/m3], Q is total source power. Also, ar,
af, b, c are the parameters that are useful for that melting area.

Rosenthal developed the analytical approach in order to forecast the temperature history during fusion
welding process. The Rosenthal equation be indebted its legitimacy to its straightforwardness and extensive
pertinence. Besides, this solitary equation is fit for foreseeing temperature time step history as a component
of solidification rate, temperature gradient, cooling rate and time. Rosenthal equation is as follows:

(6)

In the above equation, temperature at a location away from the upper surface is denoted by To, V shows the
velocity of scanning, k for thermal conductivity, and α for thermal diffusivity distance from heat source is
denoted by r [41 32 30]. There is a difference of thermal behavior of FEA model and results obtained from
Rosenthal equations as examined in past, shown below
Figure 9: (a) Comparison of Temperature Gradient (b) Comparison of Cooling Rate (c) Comparison of Solidification rate. Note:
This comparison is between Rosenthal equation and FE model, where the shaded area shows the sensitivity to absorptivity also
dashed lines depicts the values of fitted absorptivity [41].

In the above results, few assumptions are considered i.e. Using fixed scanning velocity and altering the
laser power to achieve a required energy input.

The second stage of the current examination is mechanical study, includes the utilization of the thermal
narratives anticipated by the past thermal investigation for each time increase as an information (thermal
loading) for the computation of residual thermal stress and transient appropriations. In the thermal
examination, utilizing the assessed mechanical and temperature investigations were directed to figure the
weld twisting as the information data. In the mechanical examination, a similar cross section setup utilized
in the thermal investigation is utilized, aside from the component type or boundary conditions. By and large,
the complete strain increment can be communicated as the amount of the individual parts by thermal, plastic
and elastic strain and can be written as
 (7)

Where the values of εph, εtp, εp and εe are the values of phase transformation strain, thermal strain, plastic
and elastic strain and dot on top indicate the rate of respective strain. Using a thermal-elastic-plastic material
formulation residual analysis can be written as:

(8)

Where, 𝜎1, 𝜎2 and 𝜎3 are the values of principal stresses.

The value of the axial stresses obtained from previous work by Finite element simulation of stainless steel
pipe from the welding w.r.t axial distance from the center line of the weld is shown below.

Figure 10: Axial residual stress comparison of experimental with FE Simulation [43]

For the FE nonlinear thermo-mechanical analysis, Jin et al. elaborated the hoop and axial residual stresses
through the numerical simulation based in a radially welded duplex stainless steel pipe. Díaz et al. led
thermo-mechanical Finite Element examinations to think about weld-instigated bending modes and extents
among duplex stainless steel butt welds and austenitic. Nonetheless, in their investigation, examination of
welding residual stress conveyances between the unique steel butt welds was not detailed, for example they
just gave restricted data on the weld disfigurements, and consequently the residual stress dispersions in
duplex stainless steel butt welds couldn't be introduced.

Komanduri and Hou [44] introduced a procedure in which non dimensional integral is utilized to acquire
answers for point heat source and consistently disc plate heat source while Komanduri and Hou [44] got
arrangement dependent on Gaussian appropriated circle heat source model. Customarily, the Rosenthal 2D
model would be utilized to examine this weld. Notwithstanding, as some heat flows in the complete
thickness measurement since the dispersion is fractional and, obviously, the admired line heat source is
uncertain. For any given (point, area) heat source and material, the cooling rate is a greatest at center when
the plate is exceptionally thick. This most extreme is doled out the self-assertive worth of 1.0 and the cooling
rates which happen in plates of limited thickness are communicated as parts of this worth [45].

A few have endeavored to utilize a more sensible distributed area heat source; however, For a moving
distributed heat source, there is no one who has addressed the whole temperature field [46 47]. All the more
as of late, an overall type of the moving distributed heat source has been offered, however computations of
the thermal field were restricted and unexplained. Distributed volume heat source proposed by Paley and
Hibbert [48] , where the density is consistent all through the fused region. This is ridiculous genuinely on
the grounds that the mixing speed should rot to zero at the FZ limit and ascend to a most extreme during
interface of arc welding.

Fourier [49] introduced the essential hypothesis of heat move and later in 1930, For issues with moving
heat sources, Rosenthals [50] applied it in his work. Using mesh-based techniques, the arrangement of
Rosenthals [50] model for moving heat passage issue requires modest strides just as the development of a
fine or a versatile meshing to accomplish an exact portrayal of the situation of the the spatial variety of heat
flux and moving heat source. Every one of these prerequisites make this sort of strategies computationally
exorbitant.

Goldak et al [51] in 1984, put forward another model for heat source for example double ellipsoidal heat
source model which is the blend of two semi-ellipsoidal heat source models, The double-ellipsoidal heat
source can give more exact outcomes by looking at the exploratory evaluations, particularly in the low
entrance welding measure.

Comparison of 2D and 3D:

Using three-dimensional analysis technique, residual stress distribution and temperature field can be
captured in detail during multipass welding. However, this is a time costly process and this kind of 3D
simulation technique is well preferred for small size welded structures with few welding passes and with
thin wall thickness. Fricke et al. established a 3D modeling technique in to calculate the residual stresses as
a result of welding with 6.3mm thickness in austenitic weld pipe. Another 3D finite element model was
presented by Chang and Teng [34]. to simulate stresses and temperature in single pass pipe during welding.
In order to minimize the computing time in three dimensional models, composite shell of special kind was
developed by Dong [25] and a three-dimensional model consisting only one part of welded structure was
employed by (Hossain, 2006) [28 29] . While on the other hand, much time can be saved by considering
2D analysis instead of 3D. This can also be done by considering axisymmetric model as Jiang et al., Dong
and Murakawa and Deng compared full 2D and 3D models to simulate welding residual stresses. The
summary of there investigation indicates that in axisymmetric, 2D and 3D could provide acceptable residual
stresses and temperature results. So, for pipe welding afterwards, further simulations were done with
axisymmetric models while if there is a need to simulate with 3D modeling, lumped pass technology was
preferred to save time for multipass welding simulations.

Limitations:

The exploratory estimation of residual stress has pragmatic limitations. It is destructive as the opening
drilling strategy. In any event, when non-destructive procedures are utilized (for example diffraction
strategy), residual stress can be estimated uniquely at discrete areas close to the weld surface. Because of
the expense of doing welding experiment and computation, there is little data accessible about itemized
residual stress circulation and its advancement in welds including thicknesses more prominent than 50mm
and the quantity of weld pass more noteworthy than 70mm.

Lagrangian formulation has certain advantages over eulerian for welding as complex geometry as well as
non linear equations can be easily solved using Lagrangian approach but in order to use lagrangian approach
to simulate temperature field in welding phenomena, there are three main issues: Firstly, a very fine and
neat mesh is required near as well as inside the weld pool in order to represent temperature gradient
smoothly. Secondly, in order to minimize the numerical influence of spot welding, the requirement for a
time step should be much small as a result of which very large number of time steps much be required and
more data storage space is required. Thirdly, in order to add the filler metal, for a moving weld pool, the
geometry of weld pool as well as mesh must be updated, which is very complex and expensive. So, mainly
addition of filler metal is usually ignored in Lagrangian Finite element method simulations.
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