Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies

Topic: Friction
Reference:
Beer, F. P., Johnston , E., & Mazurek, D. F. (2016). Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics 11th Edition. McGraw-Hill
Education.
Hibbeler, H. I. (2013). Engineering Mechanics: Statics 13th Edition Pearson Prentice Hall, New Jersey.

Introduction:

Although the wearing effect of friction in materials is undesirable, frictional forces have much
useful application in engineering. It is therefore important for engineering students, to understand
the mechanics of friction and frictional force. This will enable them to effectively deal with
friction in its various applications in the field of engineering.

Intended Learning Outcomes:

Upon completion of this course, the students should be able to:

ILO 2: calculate the various effects and uses of forces
ILO 3: examine the interplay of the attributes of forces in their various applications

Topic Outcomes:
This module aims that the students will be able to learn the following:
• Nature of friction and frictional force
• Applications of friction such as in wedges, square-threaded screws & belt friction.

When two surfaces are in contact, tangential forces, called friction forces, always develop if
you attempt to move one surface with respect to the other.
Two types of friction:
• Fluid friction or viscosity develops between layers of fluid moving at different
velocities.
• Dry friction, sometimes called Coulomb friction, develops in situations involving
rigid bodies that are in contact along unlubricated surfaces.

Theory of Dry Friction. Consider the effects caused by pulling horizontally on a block of
uniform weight W which is resting on a rough horizontal surface that is nonrigid or deformable,
Fig. a. The upper portion of the block, however, can be considered rigid. As shown on the free-
body diagram of the block, Fig. b, the floor exerts an uneven distribution of both normal force
ΔNn and frictional force ΔFn along the contacting surface. For equilibrium, the normal forces
must act upward to balance the block’s weight W, and the frictional forces act to the left to
prevent the applied force P from moving the block to the right. Close examination of the
contacting surfaces between the floor and block reveals how these frictional and normal forces
develop, Fig. c. It can be seen that many microscopic irregularities exist between the two
surfaces and, as a result, reactive forces ΔRn are developed at each point of contact. * As shown,
each reactive force contributes both a frictional component ΔFn and a normal component ΔNn.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies

The effect of the distributed normal and frictional loadings is indicated by their resultants N and
F on the free-body diagram, Fig. d. Notice that N acts a distance x to the right of the line of
action of W, Fig. d. This location, which coincides with the centroid or geometric center of the
normal force distribution in Fig. b, is necessary in order to balance the “tipping effect” caused by
P. For example, if P is applied at a height h from the surface, Fig. d, then moment equilibrium
about point O is satisfied if Wx = Ph or x = Ph/W.

Laws of Dry Friction

• Place a block of weight W on a horizontal plane surface. The forces acting on the block
are its weight W and the reaction of the surface. Since the weight has no horizontal
component, the reaction of the surface also has no horizontal component; the reaction is
therefore normal to the surface and is represented by N (fig. a).
• Now suppose that you apply a horizontal force P to the block. If P is small, the block
does not move; some other horizontal force must therefore exist, which balances P. This
other force is the static-friction force F, which is actually the resultant of a great number
of forces acting over the entire surface of contact between the block & the plane (fig. b).
• If you increase the force P, the friction force F also increases, continuing to oppose P,
until its magnitude reaches a certain maximum value Fm. If P is further increased, the
friction force cannot balance it anymore, and the block starts sliding. As soon as the
block has started in motion, the magnitude of F drops from Fm to a lower value Fk. From
then on, the block keeps sliding with increasing velocity while the friction force, denoted
by Fk and called the kinetic-friction force, remains approximately constant (fig.c).

Coefficients of Friction
• The maximum value Fm of the static friction force is proportional to the normal
component N of the reaction of the surface. We have
Static Friction Fm = µN where µs = coefficient of static friction
• Similarly, the magnitude Fk of the kinetic-friction force can be expressed in the form Fk =
µkN, where µk = coefficient of kinetic friction.
• The coefficients of friction μs and μk do not depend upon the area of the surfaces in
contact. Both coefficients, however, depend strongly on the nature of the surfaces in
contact.
• Approximate values of coefficients of static friction for various combinations of dry
surfaces are given in the Table 1. Since coefficients of friction are dimensionless
quantities, the values given in Table 1 can be used with any system of units.

Table 1 Approximate Values of Coefficient of Static Friction for Dry Surfaces

Metal on metal 0.15–0.60
Metal on wood 0.20–0.60
Metal on stone 0.30–0.70
Metal on leather 0.30–0.60
Wood on wood 0.25–0.50
Wood on leather 0.25–0.50
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies

Stone on stone 0.40–0.70

Earth on earth 0.20–1.00
Rubber on concrete 0.60–0.90

Four different situations that can occur when a rigid body is in contact with a horizontal surface:
1. The forces applied to the body do not tend to move it along the surface of contact; there is
no friction force (Fig. a).
2. The applied forces tend to move the body along the surface of contact but are not large
enough to set it in motion. We can find the static-friction force F that has developed by
solving the equations of equilibrium for the body. Since there is no evidence that F has
reached its maximum value, the equation Fm = μsN cannot be used to determine the
friction force (Fig. b).
3. The applied forces are such that the body is just about to
slide. We say that motion is impending. The friction force F
has reached its maximum value Fm and, together with the
normal force N, balances the applied forces. Both the
equations of equilibrium and the equation Fm = μsN can be
used. Note that the friction force has a sense opposite to the
sense of impending motion (Fig. c).
4. The body is sliding under the action of the applied forces,
and the equations of equilibrium no longer apply. However,
F is now equal to Fk, and we can use the equation Fk = μkN.
The sense of Fk is opposite to the sense of motion (Fig. d).

Angles of Friction
• Consider again a block of weight W resting on a horizontal plane surface. If no horizontal
force is applied to the block, the resultant R reduces to the normal force N (Fig. a).
• If the applied force P has a horizontal component Px that tends to move the block, force
R has a horizontal component F and, thus, forms an angle ɸ with the normal to the
surface (Fig. b).
• If you increase Px until motion becomes impending, the angle between R and the vertical
grows and reaches a maximum value (Fig. c). This value is called the angle of static
friction and is denoted by ɸs.

Angle of Static Friction tan ɸs = Fm/N = µsN/N

tan ɸs = µs

• If motion actually takes place, the magnitude of the friction force drops to Fk; similarly,
the angle between R and N drops to a lower value ɸk, which is called the angle of kinetic
friction (Fig. d).

Angle of Kinetic Friction tan ɸk = Fk/N = µkN/N

tan ɸk = µk
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies

Awareness for Learning

When asked to draw a FBD of the forces acting on a block with weight “W” resting on an
inclined plane, you will most probably draw three forces: W, F and N. Have you ever asked
yourself why?
Query for learning: Following Newton’s 3rd law, should not the diagram show only the
weight “W” and a collinear reaction “R” opposite it?

Characteristics of Dry Friction. As a result of experiments that pertain to the foregoing

discussion, we can state the following rules which apply to bodies subjected to dry friction.
• The frictional force acts tangent to the contacting surfaces in a direction opposed to the motion
or tendency for motion of one surface relative to another.
• The maximum static frictional force Fs that can be developed is independent of the area of
contact, provided the normal pressure is not very low nor great enough to severely deform or
crush the contacting surfaces of the bodies.
• The maximum static frictional force is generally greater than the kinetic frictional force for any
two surfaces of contact. However, if one of the bodies is moving with a very low velocity over
the surface of another, Fk becomes approximately equal to Fs, i.e., µs ≈ µk.
• When slipping at the surface of contact is about to occur, the maximum static frictional force is
proportional to the normal force, such that Fs = µsN.
• When slipping at the surface of contact is occurring, the kinetic frictional force is proportional
to the normal force, such that Fk = µkN.

Problems Involving Dry Friction

• If a problem involves only a motion of translation with no possible rotation, we can
usually treat the body under consideration as a particle.
• If the problem involves a possible rotation, we must treat the body as a rigid body.
• If the structure considered is made of several parts, we must apply the principle of action
and reaction.

Most problems involving friction fall into one of the following three groups:
1. You know all the applied forces and the coefficients of friction, and you must
determine whether equilibrium is maintained. In this situation, the friction force is
unknown and cannot be assumed to be equal to μsN. (fig. a)
• Write the equations of equilibrium to determine N and F.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies

• Calculate the maximum allowable friction force, Fm = μsN. If F ≤ Fm, equilibrium is

maintained. If F ≥ Fm, motion occurs, and the magnitude of the friction force is Fk = μkN.
2. You know all the applied forces, and you must find the smallest allowable value of μs
for which equilibrium is maintained. Assume that motion is impending, and determine
the corresponding value of μs. (fig. b)
• Write the equations of equilibrium to determine N and F.
• Since motion is impending, F = Fm. Substitute the values found for N and F into the
equation Fm = μsN and solve for μs.
3. The motion of the body is impending and μs is known; you must find some unknown
quantity, such as a distance, an angle, the magnitude of a force, or the direction of a
force. (fig. c)
• Assume a possible motion of the body and, on the free-body diagram, draw the friction
force in a direction opposite to that of the assumed motion.
• Since motion is impending, F = Fm = μsN. Substituting the known value for μs, you can
express F in terms of N on the free-body diagram, thus eliminating one unknown.
• Write and solve the equilibrium equations for the unknown you seek.

Sample Problem 1. A uniform crate with a mass of 20 kg is resting on a horizontal surface. If a

force P = 80 N is applied to the crate, determine if it remains in equilibrium. The coefficient of
static friction is µs = 0.3.

Solution. Considering the FBD of the crate, the resultant

normal force NC must act a distance x from the crate’s
center line in order to counteract the tipping effect caused
by P. There are three unknowns, F, NC, and x, which can
be determined strictly from the three equations of
equilibrium.

Equations of Equilibrium.

∑Fx = 0; 80 cos 30° N - F = 0

∑Fy = 0; -80 sin 30° N + NC - 196.2 N = 0
∑MO = 0; 80 sin 30° N(0.4 m) - 80 cos 30° N(0.2 m) + NC(x) = 0

Solving, F = 69.3 N
NC = 236.2 N
x = -0.00908 m = -9.08 mm

Since x is negative it indicates the resultant normal force acts (slightly) to the left of the crate’s
center line. No tipping will occur since x 6 0.4 m. Also, the maximum frictional force which can
be developed at the surface of contact is Fmax = µsNC = 0.3(236.2 N) = 70.9 N. Since F = 69.3 N
6 70.9 N, the crate will not slip, although it is very close to doing so.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies

Awareness for Learning

Query for learning: can a person walk on a zero-friction floor [assuming that it is possible to
have such a floor]?
Express your answer using mechanics of forces with matching FBD.

Sample Problem 2. It is observed that when the bed of the dump truck is raised to an angle of θ
= 25° the vending machines on it will begin to slide off the bed. Determine the static coefficient
of friction between the vending machine and the surface of the truckbed.

Solution. The FBD of the vending machine is shown including

the given dimensions. We will assume its weight to be W. The
dimension x is used to locate the position of the resultant normal
force N. There are four unknowns, N, F, µs, and x.

Equations of Equilibrium.
∑Fx = 0; W sin 25° - F = 0 (1)
∑Fy = 0; N - W cos 25° = 0 (2)
∑MO = 0; -W sin 25°(2.5) + W cos 25°(x) = 0 (3)
Since slipping impends at u = 25°, using Eqs. 1 and 2, we have
Fs = µsN; W sin 25° = µs(W cos 25°)
µs = tan 25° = 0.466 Ans
The angle of θ = 25° is referred to as the angle of repose, and by comparison, it is equal to the
angle of static friction, θ = φs. Notice from the calculation that u is independent of the weight of
the vending machine, and so knowing u provides a convenient method for determining the
coefficient of static friction.
Note: From Eq. 3, we find x = 1.17 ft. Since 1.17 ft < 1.5 ft (location of center of gravity), indeed
the vending machine will slip before it can tip.

Sample Problem 3. A uniform 10-kg ladder rests against

a smooth wall at point B, and the end A rests on the
rough horizontal plane for which the coefficient of static
friction is µs = 0.30. Determine the angle of inclination θ
of the ladder and the normal reaction at B if the ladder is
on the verge of slipping.

Solution. As shown on the FBD, the frictional force FA

must act to the right since impending motion at A is to
the left.
Equations of Equilibrium and Friction. Since the ladder is
on the verge of slipping, then FA = µsNA = 0.3NA . By
inspection, NA can be obtained directly.
∑Fy = 0; NA - 10(9.81) N = 0 NA = 98.1 N
Using this result, FA = 0.3(98.1 N) = 29.43 N. Now NB
can be found.
∑Fx = 0; 29.43 N - NB = 0
NB = 29.43 N = 29.4 N Ans.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies

Finally, the angle θ can be determined by summing moments about point A.

∑MA = 0; (29.43 N)(4 m) sin θ - [10(9.81) N](2 m) cos θ = 0
sin θ / cos θ = tan θ = 1.6667
θ = 59.04° = 59.0° Ans.

Exercise Problems:

1) The 5-kg cylinder is suspended from two equal

length cords. The end of each cord is attached to a ring
of negligible mass that passes along a horizontal shaft.
If the rings can be separated by the greatest distance d
= 400 mm and still support the cylinder, determine the
coefficient of static friction between each ring and the
shaft. (Ans. µ = 0.354)
2) The 5-kg cylinder is suspended from two equal
length cords. The end of each cord is attached to a ring
of negligible mass that passes along a horizontal shaft.
If the coefficient of static friction between each ring
and the shaft is µs = 0.5, determine the greatest distance
d by which the rings can be separated and still support
the cylinder. (Ans. d = 537 mm)

3) The 80-lb boy stands on the beam and pulls

on the cord with a force large enough to just
cause him to slip. If (µs)D = 0.4 between his
shoes and the beam, determine the reactions at
A and B. The beam is uniform and has a weight
of 100 lb. Neglect the size of the pulleys and the
thickness of the beam.
(Ans. Ay = 474#, Bx = 36.0#, By = 232#)
4) The 80-lb boy stands on the beam and pulls
with a force of 40 lb. If (µs)D = 0.4, determine
the frictional force between his shoes and the
beam and the reactions at A and B. The beam is uniform and has a weight of 100 lb. Neglect the
size of the pulleys and the thickness of the beam. (Ans. FD = 36.9#, Ay = 468#, Bx = 34.6#,
By = 228#)

5) If each box weighs 150 lb, determine the least

horizontal force P that the man must exert on the top
box in order to cause motion. The coefficient of static
friction between the boxes is µs = 0.5, and the
coefficient of static friction between the box and the
floor is µ’s = 0.2. (Ans. P = 60#)

6) If each box weighs 150 lb, determine the least

horizontal force P that the man must exert on the top
box in order to cause motion. The coefficient of static
friction between the boxes is µs = 0.65, and the
coefficient of static friction between the box and the
floor is µ’s = 0.35. (Ans. P = 90#)
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies

Wedges

A wedge is a simple machine that is often used to transf orm an applied force into much larger
forces, directed at approximately right angles to the applied force. Wedges also can be used to
slightly move or adjust heavy loads.

Consider, for example, the wedge shown in Fig. a, which is used to lift the block by applying a
force to the wedge. Free-body diagrams of the block and wedge are shown in Fig. b. Here we
have excluded the weight of the wedge since it is usually small compared to the weight W of the
block. Also, note that the frictional forces F1 and F2 must oppose the motion of the wedge.
Likewise, the frictional force F3 of the wall on the block must act downward so as to oppose the
block’s upward motion.

The locations of the resultant normal forces are not important in the force analysis since neither
the block nor wedge will “tip.” Hence the moment equilibrium equations will not be considered.
There are seven unknowns, consisting of the applied force P, needed to cause motion of the
wedge, and six normal and frictional forces. The seven available equations consist of four force
equilibrium equations, ∑Fx = 0, ∑Fy = 0 applied to the wedge and block, and three frictional
equations, F = µN, applied at each surface of contact.

If the block is to be lowered, then the frictional forces will all act in a sense opposite to that
shown in Fig. b. Provided the coefficient of friction is very small or the wedge angle u is large,
then the applied force P must act to the right to hold the block. Otherwise, P may have a reverse
sense of direction in order to pull on the wedge to remove it. If P is not applied and friction
forces

Sample Problem. The uniform stone has a mass of 500 kg and is held in the horizontal position
using a wedge at B. If the coefficient of static friction is µs = 0.3 at the surfaces of contact,
determine the minimum force P needed to remove the wedge. Assume that the stone does not
slip at A.

Solution. The minimum force P requires F = µsN at the surfaces of contact with the wedge. The
free-body diagrams of the stone and wedge are shown in Fig. 8–13 b. On the wedge the friction
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies

force opposes the impending motion, and on the stone at A, FA < µsNA, since slipping does not
occur there. There are five unknowns. Three equilibrium equations for the stone and two for the
wedge are available for solution. From the free-body diagram of the stone,

∑MA = 0; -4905 N(0.5 m) + (NB cos 7° N)(1 m) + (0.3NB sin 7° N)(1 m) = 0

NB = 2383.1 N

Using this result for the wedge, we have

∑Fy = 0; NC - 2383.1 cos 7° N - 0.3(2383.1 sin 7° N) = 0
NC = 2452.5 N

∑Fx = 0; 2383.1 sin 7° N - 0.3(2383.1 cos 7° N) + P - 0.3(2452.5 N) = 0

P = 1154.9 N = 1.15 kN Ans.

NOTE: Since P is positive, indeed the wedge must be pulled out. If P were zero, the wedge
would remain in place (self-locking) and the frictional forces developed at B and C would satisfy
FB < µsNB and FC < µsNC.

Exercise Problems:

1) If the beam AD is loaded as shown,

determine the horizontal force P which
must be applied to the wedge in order to
remove it from under the beam. The
coefficients of static friction at the
wedge’s top and bottom surfaces are
µCA = 0.25 and µCB = 0.35, respectively.
If P = 0, is the wedge self-locking? Neglect the weight and size of the wedge and the thickness of
the beam. (Ans. P = 5.53 kN; it is self-locking when P = 0)

2) Determine the largest angle θ that will cause the wedge to be self-locking regardless of the
magnitude of horizontal force P applied to the
blocks. The coefficient of static friction
between the wedge and the blocks is µs = 0.3.
Neglect the weight of the wedge. (Ans. θ =
33.4°)

3) If the spring is compressed 60 mm and the coefficient

of static friction between the tapered stub S and the slider
A is µSA = 0.5, determine the horizontal force P needed to
move the slider forward. The stub is free to move without
friction within the fixed collar C. The coefficient of static
friction between A and surface B is µAB = 0.4. Neglect
the weights of the slider and stub. (P = 34.5N)
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies

4) The coefficient of static friction between wedges B and C

is µs = 0.6 and between the surfaces of contact B and A and
C and D, µ’s = 0.4. If the spring is compressed 200 mm when
in the position shown, determine the smallest force P needed
to move wedge C to the left. Neglect the weight of the
wedges. (Ans. P = 304N)

5) The coefficient of static friction between the wedges B

and C is µs = 0.6 and between the surfaces of contact B and
A and C and D, µ’s = 0.4. If P = 50 N, determin e the smallest allowable compression of the
spring without causing wedge C to move to the left. Neglect the weight of the wedges. (Ans. x =
32.9mm)

Square-threaded Screws

A square-threaded screw is commonly used to transmit power or motion from one part of the
machine to another, especially when large forces are applied along its axis. In this section, we
will analyze the forces acting on square-threaded screws. The analysis of other types of screws,
such as the V-thread, is based on these same
principles.

A square-threaded screw can be considered a

cylinder having an inclined square ridge or thread
wrapped around it. If the thread is unwound by one
revolution, the slope or the lead angle θ is
determined from θ = tan-1(l/2πr). Here l and 2πr are
the vertical and horizontal distances between A and
B, where r is the mean radius of the thread. The distance l is called the lead of the screw and it is
equivalent to the distance the screw advances when it turns one revolution.

Upward Impending Motion. Consider a square-threaded screw

[as in the jack shown on the left] that is subjected to upward
impending motion caused by the applied torsional moment *M. A
free body diagram of the entire unraveled thread h in contact with
the jack can be represented as a block as shown in Fig. A. The
force W is the vertical force acting on the thread or the axial force
applied to the shaft of the screw jack, and M / r is the resultant
horizontal force produced by the couple moment M about the axis
of the shaft. The reaction R of the groove on the thread has both
frictional and normal components, where F = µs N. The angle of
static friction is φs = tan-1(F/N) = tan-1µs.

Applying the force equations of equilibrium along the horizontal

and vertical axes, we have

∑Fx = 0; M/r - R sin (θ + φs) = 0

∑Fy = 0; R cos (θ + φs) - W = 0

Eliminating R from these equations, we obtain

M = rW tan (θ + φs) Figure A

Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies

Self-Locking Screw. A screw is said to be self-locking if it

Figure B
remains in place under any axial load W when the moment M is
removed. For this to occur, the direction of the frictional force
must be reversed so that R acts on the other side of N. Here the
angle of static friction φs becomes greater than or equal to θ
(Fig. D). If φs = θ (Fig. B), then R will act vertically to balance
W, and the screw will be on the verge of winding downward.

Downward Impending Motion, (θ > φs). If the screw is not

self-locking, it is necessary to apply a moment M’ to prevent
the screw from winding downward. Here, a horizontal force
M’/r is required to push against the thread to prevent it from
sliding down the plane, Fig. C. Using the same procedure as
before, the magnitude of the moment M’ required to prevent
this unwinding is Figure C

M’ = rW tan (θ - φs)

Downward Impending Motion, (θ < φs) . If a screw is self-

locking, a couple moment M” must be applied to the screw in
Figure D
the opposite direction to wind the screw downward (θ < φs).
This causes a reverse horizontal force M”/r that pushes the
thread down as indicated in Fig. D. In this case, we obtain

M” = rW tan (φs - θ) (8–5)

If motion of the screw occurs, simply replace φs with φk in the

above equations.

Sample Problem. The turnbuckle shown below has a square thread with a mean radius of 5 mm
and a lead of 2 mm. If µs = 0.25, between the screw and the turnbuckle, determine the moment M
that must be applied to draw the end screws closer together.

Solution. Since friction at two screws must be overcome, this requires

M = 2[rW tan(θ + φs)] (1)

Here W = 2000 N, φs = tan-1µs = tan-1(0.25) = 14.04°, r = 5 mm, and θ = tan-1(l/2πr) = tan-1(2

mm/[2π(5 mm)]) = 3.64°. Substituting these values into Eq. 1 and solving gives
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies

M = 2[(2000 N)(5 mm) tan(14.04° + 3.64°)]

= 6374.7 N · mm = 6.37 N · m Ans.

NOTE: When the moment is removed, the turnbuckle will be self-locking; i.e., it will not
unscrew since φs > θ.

Exercise Problems:

1) If couple forces of F= 10 lb are applied perpendicular to the lever

of the clamp at A and B, determine the clamping force on the boards.
The single square-threaded screw of the clamp has a mean diameter of
1 in. and a lead of 0.25 in. The coefficient of static friction is µs = 0.3.
(Ans. P = 617#)

2) The column is used to support the upper floor. [a] If a force F = 80 N is

applied perpendicular to the handle to tighten the screw, determine the
compressive force in the column. The square-threaded screw on the jack
has a coefficient of static friction of µs = 0.4, mean diameter of 25 mm,
and a lead of 3 mm. [b] If the force F is removed from the handle of the
jack, determine if the screw is self-locking.

(Ans. W = 7.19kN; since φs > θP the screw is self-locking)

3) If the clamping force at G is 900 N, determine the

horizontal force F that must be applied perpendicular to
the handle of the lever at E. The mean diameter and lead
of both single square-threaded screws at C and D are 25
mm and 5 mm, respectively. The coefficient of static
friction is µs = 0.3. (Ans. F = 66.7N)

4) The shaft has a square-threaded screw with a lead of 8 mm and a

mean radius of 15 mm. If it is in contact with a plate gear having a
mean radius of 30 mm, determine the resisting torque M on the plate
gear which can be overcome if a torque of 7 N - m is applied to the
shaft. The coefficient of static friction at the screw is µB = 0.2.
Neglect friction of the bearings located at A and B.

(Ans. M = 48.3 N – m)
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies

5) If a horizontal force of P = 100 N

is applied perpendicular to the
handle of the lever at A, determine
the compressive force F exerted on
the material. Each single square-
threaded screw has a mean diameter
of 25 mm and a lead of 7.5 mm. The
coefficient of static friction at all
contacting surfaces of the wedges is µs = 0.2, and the coefficient of static friction at the screw is
µ’s = 0.15.
(Ans. T = 4.02 kN, F = 11.06 kN)

Belt Friction
Consider the flat belt shown, which passes over a fixed curved
surface. The total angle of belt to surface contact in radians is
β, and the coefficient of friction between the two surfaces is µ.
The point of interest is tension T2 in the belt, which is needed
to pull the belt counterclockwise over the surface, and thereby
overcome both the frictional forces at the surface of contact
and the tension T1 in the other end of the belt. Obviously, T2 >
T1.

This is given by the formula:

or T2 = T1eµβ
where:
T2, T1 = belt tensions; T1 opposes the direction of motion (or impending motion) of
the belt measured relative to the surface, while T2 acts in the direction of the relative
belt motion (or impending motion); because of friction, T2 > T1
µ = coefficient of static or kinetic friction between the belt and the surface of contact
β = angle of belt to surface contact, measured in radians
e = 2.718…, base of the natural logarithm
Note that T2 is independent of the radius of the drum, and instead it is a function of
the angle of belt to surface contact, β. As a result, this equation is valid for flat belts
passing over any curved contacting surface.

Sample Problem. The maximum tension that can

be developed in the cord shown is 500 N. If the
pulley at A is free to rotate and the coefficient of
static friction at the fixed drums B and C is µs =
0.25, determine the largest mass of the cylinder
that can be lifted by the cord.
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies

Solution.
Lifting the cylinder, which has a weight W = mg, causes the
cord to move counterclockwise over the drums at B and C;
hence, the maximum tension T2 in the cord occurs at D. Thus, F
= T2 = 500 N. A section of the cord passing over the drum at B
as shown. Since 180° = π rad the angle of contact between the
drum and the cord is β = (135°/180°)π = 3π/4 rad. We have
T2 = T1eµsβ; 500 N = T1e0.25[(3>4)π]
Hence,
T1 = 500 N / e0.25[(3>4)π] = 500 N / 1.80 = 277.4 N
Since the pulley at A is free to rotate, equilibrium requires that the tension in the cord remains
the same on both sides of the pulley. The section of the cord
passing over the drum at C is shown. The weight W < 277.4 N.
Why? We obtain
T2 = T1eµsβ; 277.4 N = We0.25[(3>4)π]
W = 153.9 N
so that
m = W/g = 153.9 N / 9.81 m/s2 = 15.7 kg Ans.

Exercise Problems:

1) The uniform concrete pipe has a weight of

800 lb and is unloaded slowly from the truck
bed using the rope and skids shown. If the
coefficient of kinetic friction between the rope
and pipe is µk = 0.3, determine the force the
worker must exert on the rope to lower the pipe
at constant speed. There is a pulley at B, and
the pipe does not slip on the skids. The lower
portion of the rope is parallel to the skids.
(Ans. T1 = 73.3#)

2) The truck, which has a mass of 3.4

Mg, is to be lowered down the slope by a
rope that is wrapped around a tree. If the
wheels are free to roll and the man at A
can resist a pull of 300 N, determine the
minimum number of turns the rope should
be wrapped around the tree to lower the
truck at a constant speed. The coefficient
of kinetic friction between the tree and
rope is µk = 0.3.
(Ans. 695°, approximately 2 turns)
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies

3) A “hawser” is wrapped around a fixed

“capstan” to secure a ship for docking. If the
tension in the rope, caused by the ship, is 1500
lb, determine the least number of complete
turns the rope must be wrapped around the
capstan in order to prevent slipping of the rope.
The greatest horizontal force that a longshoreman can exert on the rope is 50 lb. The coefficient
of static friction is µs = 0.3. (Ans. use n = 2 turns)

4) A force of P = 25 N is just sufficient to prevent the 20-kg cylinder

from descending. Determine the required force P to begin lifting the
cylinder. The rope passes over a rough peg with two and half turns.
(Ans. P = 1.54 kN)

5) The simple band brake is

constructed so that the ends
of the friction strap are
connected to the pin at A and the lever arm at B. If the
wheel is subjected to a torque of M = 80 lb - ft,
determine the smallest force P applied to the lever that
is required to hold the wheel stationary. The coefficient
of static friction between the strap and wheel is µs = 0.5.
(Ans. P = 17.1#)

Rolling Resistance
Theoretically, when a rigid cylinder rolls at constant velocity along a rigid
surface, the normal force exerted by the surface on the cylinder acts
perpendicular to the tangent at the point of contact. However, because no
materials are perfectly rigid, the reaction of the surface on the cylinder
consists of a distribution of normal pressure. For example, consider the
cylinder to be made of a very hard material, and the surface on which it rolls
to be relatively soft. Due to its weight, the cylinder compresses the surface
underneath it. As the cylinder rolls, the surface material in front of the
cylinder retards the motion since it is being deformed , whereas the material in the
rear is restored from the deformed state and therefore tends to push the cylinder
forward. The normal pressures acting on the cylinder in this manner are represented
in the figure by their resultant forces Nd and Nr. The magnitude of the force of
deformation, Nd, and its horizontal component is always greater than that of
restoration, Nr, and consequently a horizontal driving force P must be applied to
the cylinder to maintain the motion.
Rolling resistance is caused primarily by this effect, although it is also, to a
lesser degree, the result of surface adhesion and relative microsliding between
the surfaces of contact. Because the actual force P needed to overcome these
effects is difficult to determine, a simplified method will be developed here to
explain one way engineers have analyzed this phenomenon. To do this, we will
consider the resultant of the entire normal pressure, N = Nd + Nr, acting on the
Figure G
cylinder. As shown in Fig. G, this force acts at an angle θ with the vertical. To
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies

keep the cylinder in equilibrium, i.e., rolling at a constant rate, it is necessary that N be
concurrent with the driving force P and the weight W. Summing moments about point A gives
Wa = P(r cos θ). Since the deformations are generally very small in relation to the cylinder’s
radius, cos θ ≈ 1; hence,
Wa ≈ Pr or P ≈ Wa / r
The distance a is termed the coefficient of rolling resistance, which has the dimension of length.
For instance, a ≈ 0.5 mm for a wheel rolling on a rail, both of which are made of mild steel. For
hardened steel ball bearings on steel, a ≈ 0.1 mm. Because this factor is difficult to measure, little
reliance is placed on the data for determining a . The analysis presented here does, however,
indicate why a heavy load (W) offers greater resistance to motion (P) than a light load under the
same conditions. Furthermore, since Wa/r is generally very small compared to µkW, the force
needed to roll a cylinder over the surface will be much less than that needed to slide it across the
surface. It is for this reason that a roller or ball bearings are often used to minimize the frictional
resistance between moving parts.

Sample Problem. A 10-kg steel wheel shown has a radius of 100 mm

and rests on an inclined plane made of soft wood. If θ is increased so
that the wheel begins to roll down the incline with constant velocity
when θ = 1.2°, determine the
coefficient of rolling resistance.

Solution.
As shown on the free-body diagram, when the wheel
has impending motion, the normal reaction N acts at
point A defined by the dimension a. Resolving the
weight into components parallel and perpendicular to
the incline, and summing moments about point A ,
yields
∑MA = 0; -(98.1 cos 1.2° N)(a)
+ (98.1 sin 1.2° N)(100 cos 1.2° mm) = 0
Solving, we obtain a = 2.09 mm Ans.

Exercise Problems:

1) The shaft is supported by a thrust bearing

A and a journal bearing B. Determine the
torque M required to rotate the shaft at
constant angular velocity. The coefficient of
kinetic friction at the thrust bearing is µk =
0.2. (Ans. M = 46.7 N-m)
Engg 407: Statics of Rigid Bodies

1) A 5-kg skateboard rolls down the 5° slope at constant

speed. If the coefficient of kinetic friction between the
12.5 mm diameter axles and the wheels is µk = 0.3,
determine the radius of the wheels. Neglect rolling
resistance of the wheels on the surface. The center of
mass for the skateboard is at G. (Ans. r = 20.6mm)

2) The tractor has a weight of 16 000 lb and the

coefficient of rolling resistance is a = 2 in. Determine
the force P needed to overcome rolling resistance at all
four wheels and push it forward. (Ans. P =1333#)

3) The floor-polishing machine rotates at a constant angular

velocity. If it has a weight of 80 lb. determine the couple forces
F the operator must apply to the handles to hold the machine
stationary. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the floor
and brush is µk = 0.3. Assume the brush exerts a uniform
pressure on the floor. (Ans. F= 10.7#)

4) The hand cart has wheels with a diameter of 80 mm.

If a crate having a mass of 500 kg is placed on the cart
so that each wheel carries an equal load, determine the
horizontal force P that must be applied to the handle to
overcome the rolling resistance. The coefficient of
rolling resistance is 2 mm. Neglect the mass of the cart.
(Ans. P = 245N)

5) The cart together with the load weighs 150 lb and

has a center of gravity at G. If the wheels fit loosely
on the 1.5-in. diameter axles, determine the
horizontal force P required to pull the cart with
constant velocity. The coefficient of kinetic friction
between the axles and the wheels is µk = 0.2. Neglect
rolling resistance of the wheels on the ground. (Ans.
P = 2.45#)