INDEX: 11 A-Level Biology Topic 2

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INDEX : 11 A-Level Biology Topic 2

(i) know the structure and properties of cell membranes


(ii) understand how models such as the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure
are interpretations of data used to develop scientific explanations of the structure
and properties of cell membranes

Cell surface membrane.


Structure/ properties and roles:
The Cell surface membrane is made up of a phospholipid bilayer, with hydrophilic
phosphate heads facing towards water molecules on the membrane surface. The
hydrophobic fatty acid tails face away from water molecules on the membrane
surface. This hydrophobic region forms a barrier to polar molecules like Na+, K+,
Ca2+, Cl-, etc…
However , lipid soluble, non polar molecules like CO2, O2, cholesterol, fatty acids
etc…can pass across the phospholipid bilayer. Water can pass through the
phospholipid bilayer because of its small size and relatively low polarity. Proteins
are embedded into the phospholipid bilayer. These proteins allow certain polar
molecules and ions to pass across the membrane. Hence they are often referred to
as channel proteins, carrier proteins or transporter proteins. They are specific and
will allow only certain substances to pass across.

Some of the proteins (extrinsic proteins) act as enzymes, recognition sites and
electron carriers. The proteins also provide structural support for the membrane.
Branched chains of carbohydrates maybe attached to some phospholipid molecules
(glycolipids) or to proteins (glycoproteins).The carbohydrates act as recognition
sites for neurotransmitters, hormones or for cell to cell recognition. Cholesterol
makes the membranes less fluid and more stable. This model of cell surface
membrane is called the ‘fluid mosaic’ model. Fluid means that molecules can
change places within the membrane. Mosaic means that proteins are embedded
randomly in to the phospholipid bilayer.

Role:
• Selectively permeable membrane helps to prevent passage of some substances
and allow passage of other substances. This helps to maintain the appropriate
composition of the cytoplasm.

41. Understand how molecules and ions move into and out of cell
Molecules move in and out of cell across the selectively permeable cell membrane.
There are four basic processes, namely, diffusion, osmosis, active transport and
bulk transport (exocytosis and endocytosis). Diffusion and osmosis are passive
processes which use kinetic energy of molecules (not ATP), but active transport
and bulk transport are active processes, which use metabolic energy (ATP) from
the cell.

(i) understand what is meant by passive transport (diffusion, facilitated diffusion),


active transport (including the role of ATP as an immediate source of energy),
endocytosis and exocytosis
(ii) understand the involvement of carrier and channel proteins in membrane
Transport
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of their high
concentration to a region of their lower concentration down a concentration
gradient. It is a passive process, which means that it does not require ATP. It
occurs due to the random movement of particles across the membrane. The
particles move in both directions across the membrane, but the rate of movement
of particles from higher to lower concentration is greater than the movement in the
opposite direction. Each type of molecule / ion moves down its own diffusion
gradient, independent of other molecules.

For Example: O2 and CO2 diffuse in different directions in the lungs.

Factors affecting diffusion: The rate of diffusion across membranes depends on the
following factors.
a) - Surface area of membrane: rate of diffusion is directly proportional to surface
area.
b) - Difference in concentration across the membrane: rate of diffusion is directly
proportional to the concentration gradient.
c) – Thickness of membrane: rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to the
thickness of the membrane or the diffusion distance.
d) – Temperature: rate of diffusion is directly proportional to the temperature as the
kinetic energy of particles increase with temperature.
e) - Size of particles: Smaller / lighter particles diffuse faster. Substances that can
be exchanged by diffusion
• O2 and CO2 are non polar, small molecules which can diffuse rapidly across the
phospholipid bilayer.
• Ions and large polar molecules, like glucose , amino acids ,Na+, Cl- are repelled
by the hydrophobic region (fatty acid tails) of the phospholipids and diffuse across
extremely slowly, if at all.
• Steroid hormones are lipid soluble and can diffuse across the membrane easily.

Facilitated Diffusion:
Some ions (Na+, Ca2+, K+, Cl-, HCO3-) and polar molecules (Glucose, amino
acids) can diffuse through special transport proteins called channel proteins or
carrier proteins. Diffusion can occur through the channel in either direction. Since
diffusion would not be possible without these proteins the process is called
facilitated diffusion. The proteins that allow facilitated diffusion may be of two
kinds:
Channel Proteins:
These have a fixed shape and
allow a specific ion to pass
across the membrane. These
channels act as water filled
passages for specific
substances to diffuse across the
membrane. They allow
substances to flow in both
directions across the
membrane. However some of
these channels may be gated,
allowing substances to pass in
a specific direction.

Carrier Proteins:
They undergo rapid changes
in shape (about 100
times/sec).
These are useful to allow
larger polar molecules like
sugars and amino acids to
cross the membrane. When a
specific molecule binds with
the carrier protein at its
binding site, the protein
changes shape and delivers
the molecule across the
membrane.
understand what is meant by osmosis in terms of the movement of free water
molecules through a partially permeable membrane, down a water potential
gradient

Osmosis:
Is the net movement of water molecules form a region of higher water potential to
a region of lower water potential across a selectively permeable membrane. Water
potential is defined as the tendency of water molecules to move from one place to
another. It is represented by the symbol ¥ (psi). The unit of measurement is KPa.
There are two factors which affect the water potential.

a). Solute concentration:


Pure water has a water potential of 0 KPa. Adding solute into pure water will
decrease its water potential. For example, a solution containing 17g of sucrose in
1dm3 of water has a water potential of -130KPa. A solution containing 35g of
sucrose in 1dm3 of water would have a water potential of -260 KPa. This simply
means that the water molecules will have a lesser tendency to move away from a
more concentrated solution (with a low ¥).

b). Pressure on both side of the membrane:


Consider a plant cell placed in pure water. Water enters the cell by osmosis down a
water potential gradient. However, this does not go on forever. The inward
movement of water will stop when the cell becomes turgid, even though a water
potential gradient still exists.

(ii) understand the involvement of carrier and channel proteins in membrane


transport.
Active Transport:
It is the uptake of molecules or ions against a concentration gradient using energy
from respiration (ATP).

How does it work?


• The molecule or ion combines with a specific carrier protein in the cell surface
membrane.
• ATP transfers a phosphate group to the carrier protein on the inside of the
membrane. This causes the carrier protein to undergo a change of shape which
causes the molecule or ion to move across the membrane.
• The molecule or ion is then released and the protein changes back to its original
shape. Due to energy needed for this process, the cells involved tend to contain
more mitochondria and a high rate of respiration. Some processes involving active
transport are: Nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, absorption of amino
acids in ileum, absorption of ions by root hair cells of plants, protein synthesis,
selective re-absorption in kidney.

Exocytosis and Endocytosis are processes by which bulk transport of materials


take place (irrespective of the concentration gradient).

Endocytosis: (Taking substances into the cell ).


The cell surface membrane wraps around the substance (forming an invagination).
This invagination deepens and finally pinches off to enclose the substance in a
vesicle inside the cytoplasm.

Eg: Phagocytes (white blood cells engulf bacteria), amoeba engulfing prey.
Taking in of solid substances is Phagocytosis. Taking in of liquids is Pinocytosis.

Exocytosis:
This is the reverse of Endocytosis. It is the passage of materials out of the cell.
This method is often used for secretion of enzymes, hormones or mucus. The
secretory vesicles fuse with the cell surface membrane and release their contents to
the outside.

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