UNIT II

LIMIT DESIGN FOR FLEXURE

DESIGN OF FLANGED BEAMS

INTRODUCTION

When there is a reinforced concrete slab, over a reinforced concrete

beam the slab and bean, can be designed and constructed in such a way that
they act together. The concrete in the slabs, which is on the compression side
of the beam (in the middle portions of continuous beams), can be made to
resist the compression forces, and the tension can be carried by the steel in
the tension side of the beam. These combined beam and slab units are called
flanged beams. They may be T or L beams, depending on whether the slab is
on both or only on one side of the beam .

One should be aware that continuous T or L beams act as flanged

beams only between the supports where the bending moments are
conventionally taken as positive and the slabs are on the compression side of
the beam. Over the supports, where the bending moments are negative, the
slabs are on the tension side and here the beam acts only as a rectangular
beam, with the tension steel placed in the slab portion of the beam. Thus at
places of negative moments these beams have to be designed as singly or
doubly reinforced rectangular beams as shown in figure.
In order to make the slab and beam act together, transverse steel should
be placed at the top of the slab with sufficient cover for the full effective
width of slab. This steel is also useful to resist the shear stresses produced by
the variation of compressive stress across the width of the slab.
The four main components that constitute these flanged beams (in
addition to the hanger bars) for which strength calculations are necessary:

o The compression flange

o Tension steel
o Transverse steel in the slab for integral action
o Stirrups for shear.
EFFECTIVE FLANGE WIDTH

An equivalent width of the slab with uniform stress distribution that can
be assumed to act along with the beam for strength calculation is called the
effective width of the flanged beam. The compressive stress in the flange just
above the rib is higher than that at some distance away from the rib as in
figure.

The nature of this variation is very indeterminate, and the effective

width concept that enables the use of an imaginary width of beam over which
a uniform compressive stress is assumed to act is very useful.

ACTION OF TWO-WAY SLABS

 When a slab simply supported on all the four sides is loaded, the
corners tend to curl and lift up. This is to compensate for the non-
uniform distribution of pressure exerted by the slab on the supporting
walls.
 This behavior can be easily demonstrated by supporting a rigid
cardboard with Ly less than 2Lx on its four sides and pressing it down
wards .
 In practice, the upward movement described above may be prevented
by a wall or such other construction at the edge of the slab.
 In such circumstances it is said that the corner is 'torsionally
restrained'. Unless top steel is provided for such slabs, these will crack
at the corners.
 These slabs also tend to carry loads by spanning diagonally across the
corners. Hence, in addition to the top steel along the diagonal, bottom
steel is also needed at the corners.
o Even though for both these purposes (Le. the curling effect and
diagonal transfer of load at corners) steel is needed diagonally, it
is more convenient to provide two-way steel in the x and y
directions at the top and bottom surfaces of the slab. The steel is
known as corner steel.
MOMENTSIN TWO-WAY SLABS SIMPLY SUPPORTED ON ALL
SUPPORTS

For computation of moments in simply supported cases of two-way

slabs, Table 27 in Annexure D of IS 456 can be used. These are derived from
the Rankine-Grashoff formula.
2. Determination of a x

Having determined a the value of a can also be determined from the

relations

 NEGATIVE MOMENTS AT DISCONTINUOUS EDGES

Negative moments may be experienced at discontinuous edges since,

in practice, they are not supported on rollers but partially restrained at their
ends. The magnitude of this moment depends on the degree of fixity at the
edge of the slab and is indeterminate.
 The usual practice is to provide at these edges top reinforcement for
negative moment equal to (0.042 w1 i.e. w However, IS 456, Clause D 1.6 of
Annexure D recommends provision of 50 per cent of steel provided at mid
span along these edges, and this negative steel has to extend into the span 0.1
times the span length, as indicated in Figure.

 CHOOSING SLAB THICKNESS

The following three equally important conditions regarding the minimum

thickness should be satisfied by the slab.

Condition 1: The minimum should be such that it is safe in compression.

Thus the depth is calculated for the greater value of the negative moment on
the short span denoted M Hence

Total thickness = d (short) + 0.5 + cover. The steel for the short span is
placed at the lowest layer so that for the long strip the total thickness = d
(long) +  +  + cover. An average of (d + ) may also be used for practical
design purposes.
Condition 2: The slab should satisfy the span/effective depth ratio to control
deflection. For this purpose the short span is considered in the calculation of
L/d ratios. The value of span/effective depth ratios of 28 for simply supported
slabs and 32 for continuous slabs may be adopted for initial trials.

Condition .3: The slab should be safe in shear without shear reinforcements
as in the case of one-way slabs.

 SELECTING DEPTH AND BREADTH OF SUPPORTING

BEAMS

The depth of beams used for supporting the slab should be sufficient to
justify the assumptions of unyielding supports. The empirical relation used in
Swedish Regulations between depth of beams and depth of slabs as given in
figure may be used for arriving at the preliminary depth of these beams. It
can be seen that the depth of beam necessary from this consideration lies
between 2.5 to 5.0 times the depth of slab, depending on the ratio of Ly to Lx.
It can be represented by the equation

Again the breadth b of the beam is to be selected to ensure adequate torsional

rigidity. An empirical relationship giving breadth as a function of the length
of short span can be derived as
Having selected these preliminary values for depth and breadth, they can be
later checked by other methods for deflection control and torsional strength.

 CALCULATION OF AREAS OF STEEL

The depth of slab selected from deflection criterion will be generally

greater than the minimum required from strength considerations. The areas of
steel are calculated on the assumption that the short span steel will be placed
below the long span steel.

At corners like C where the slab is discontinuous only on one side, half of
the above area is to be provided as corner steel in each of the layers. Corner
steel need not be provided in corners such as C which is continuous on all
sides.

 LOADS ON SUPPORTING BEAMS

According to IS 456, Clause 24.5, the total loads that act on the support
beams for two-way slabs may be assumed as the load within the respective
area of the slab bounded by the intersection of 450 line from the corners with
the median line of the panel parallel to the long side. As is well known from
yield line theory of the slabs, this is a good approximation if all the sides are
similarly supported, either as discontinuous or as continuous.
 The total load so obtained can be converted to an equivalent distributed
load for design of these beams. As the intensity of the loads on the beam is
non-uniform along its length, being higher at the central portion than at the
ends some codes like BS 8110 make a further assumption and calculate the
equivalent load as if it is acting only on 3/4 of the length Lx and Ly.

 PROCEDURE FOR SAFETY AGAINST EXCESSIVE

DEFLECTION

As already explained, deflection of slabs is controlled by span/effective

depth ratio similar to the case of beams and one-way slabs. For two-way
slabs, the shorter span and the percentage of steel in that direction have to be
considered for this purpose. The correction factors to be used in basic span
depth ratios for slabs for deflection control have already been explained.
Methods for computation of deflection of slabs are generally used only under
special circumstances.

 PROCEDURE FOR DESIGN OF TWO-WAY SIMPLY-

SUPPORTED SLABS

Step 1: Assume a slab thickness with proper cover to steel. This is to be

based on (spanl effective depth) ratio of shorter span.

The minimum practical depth of slab is 90 to 100 mm. As the

percentage of steel in slabs is low compared to that in beams, a larger value
of L/d ratio than that of beams will be found to be acceptable for slabs. (The
correction factor is larger in slabs due to low percentage of steel used in
them.)

Usually, the following span/effective depth ratios may be assumed for

preliminary design of two-way slabs (15 456, Clause 24.1):

 Simply supported slabs = 28

 Continuous slabs = 32
Assume suitable concrete cover of at least 15 mm depending on the
environmental conditions.

STEP 2: Calculate the design load and the value of dead load and live load
for the slab:
w=(l.5LL+1.5DL)

Step 3: Calculate design moment. Determine ly/lx where l is the shorter span,
find the moment coefficients from Table 23 of IS 456, and calculate the
moments Mx and My.

Step 4: Calculate maximum shear and check shear stress in the slab. For
calculating the shear, assume shear based on load distribution of the beams or
use Table 12.3. For refined analysis, critical section may be assumed .

Step5: Calculate steel required in both directions. Check the value of Mx/bd2
It should not be greater than that allowed for compression failure in concrete.
(d is the centre of steel in the x-direction.) Calculate the area of reinforcement
required. Choose diameter and find the spacing. Check for maximum spacing
allowed: 3d or 450 mm. For slabs less than 300 mm, limit spacing to 200
mm. These steps should be carried out for both directions.

Step 6: Check for deflection. The span depth ratio for deflection is based on
lx and As1.

Step 7: Check for cracking minimum steel in both directions and spacing.

Step 8: Detail the steel preferably as given in simplified detailing of

reinforcement in slabs.

 PROCEDURE FOR DESIGN OF TWO-WAY RESTRAINED

SLABS (WITH TORSION AT CORNERS)
Step 1: Assume a slab thickness with proper cover to steel.
Step 2: Calculate the design load from dead and live loads:
w = (1.5 DL + 1.5 LL)
Step 3: Draw the slab pattern of each slab in plan and show which case in
Table 22 of JS 456 each of the slabs refers to. Find Ly/Lx for the slab.
Step 4: Write down the shear force coefficients on the assumptions based on
distribution of slab loads to supporting beams. Make approximate check for
shear.
Step 4(a): Determine the maximum moment for the middle strips in the long
and short directions. Make adjustment for the negative moments at
continuous edges of common spans if necessary.
(b): Take each panel, check depth for bending moment. ensure that MI(bd 2) is
not greater than that allowed for both Ly and Lx, directions, and calculate the
steel required in each direction at mid-span and supports of the middle strip.
One may assume the average effective depth for both the directions for
calculation of steel area.
 d = (h — cover — diameter of reinforcement)
Find the required spacings of steel.
(c): Calculate the nominal steel for the edge strips.
(d): Identify the corners to be provided with corner steel and calculate the
corner steel required. It is equal to 0.75 times the area of the maximum
positive steel and is to be provided over 0.2L the width at the corners.
(e): If the shear check in step 4 is critical, make a final check for shear, taking
the value of design shear strength as that allowed for the area of steel
provided at the edges and using the enhancement factor.
Step 5: Check the deflection (the span/depth ratio in short direction with the
corresponding percentage of steel).
Step 6: Check for cracking (the minimum steel in both directions). Check the
rule for spacing of steel.
Step 7: Detail the main steels (edge strip steels and corner steels) preferably
according to standard practice.

 CONCENTRATED LOAD ON TWO-WAY SLABS

As slabs are two-dimensional structures, concentrated load produces
saucer-shaped deformation. It is difficult to analyze this deformation. Hence
an equivalent plane structure analysis is used, which will always be
approximate. The bending moment and shear force due to concentrated loads
on one-way slabs are analyzed by the equivalent width method:
 METHODS BASED ON THEORY OF PLATES FOR
CONCENTRATED LOADS ON TWO-WAY SLABS (PIGEAUD
METHOD)
The two well-known methods based on theory of elasticity for
determination of bending moments in slabs due to concentrated loads, e.g.
wheel loads, are Pigeaud’s and Westergard’s methods. Of these, the former
method is more popular than the latter and is commonly used for design of
bridge slabs.

However, it should be remembered that the standard design curves

available for Pigeaud’s method are for loads placed at the centre of two-way
simply supported slabs as shown in Figure, and for other cases of loading and
support conditions of values from the curves have to be suitably modified.

DESIGN OF BENDING MEMBERS FOR SERVICEABILITY

REQUIREMENTS OF DEFLECTION AND CRACKING

INTRODUCTION

In addition to the two limit state condition (durability on exposure to

the environments and ultimate strength at overloads), reinforced concrete
structures must also satisfy the serviceability conditions under the action of
the dead and live toads that act normally on the structure.

Two of the important serviceability conditions are:

 1.The member should not undergo excessive deformation (i.e. limit
state of deflection
 The crack width at the surface in the reinforced concrete member
should not be mocetjttt that which is norma allowed by codes of
practice (i.e. the limit state of cracking).
 Even though other limit states like limit state of vibration can be
specified and are applicable to special structures such as bridges, The two
conditions above are generally accepted as very important conditions to be
satisfied by every structure under service loads. Codes also specify the partial
safety factors for load combinations under which these are to be checked.

According to IS 456, Table 18 the combinations of loads for serviceability

conditions should be the largest of the following:
 1.0DL+1.0LL
 l.0DL+1.0WL
 1.0DL+0.8LL+0.8WL(EL)

For control of defleceion, two methods are usually described in

codes of practices:
 The empirical method of keeping the span-effective depth ratios of the
members not more than those specified in the codes.
 The theoretical method of calculating the actual deflection and
checking it with the allowable deflection in codes of practice.

Similarly, for control of crack width two methods are

recommended:

i. The empirical method of detailing the reinforcements accord to

the provisions of the code regarding spacing of bars, minimum
steel ratios, curtailment and anchorage of bars, lapping of bars,
etc.
ii. The theoretical method of calculating the actual width of cracks
and checking whether they satisfy the requirements in the codes
for the given environmental conditions.
 Greater attention to deflection and cracking of concrete structures has
to be given with the aid of modern methods of R.C. design structures, as
these methods allow higher stresses than the conventional method, both in
concrete and steel.
During the past few decades, the maximum allowable stresses have
nearly been doubled for steel and increased considerably for concrete. Thus,
whereas most of the steel used in older R.C.C. members were only of grade
Fe 250, in modem construction, steel of grades of Fe 415 and Fe 500 are very
commonly used. This necessitates better control of deflection and cracking
conditions.

DESIGN FOR LIMIT STATE OF DEFLECTION

Excessive deflection of beams and slabs is not only an eyesore in itself,
but it can also cause cracking of partitions. As given in 18 456, Clause 23.2,
the commonly accepted limits of allowable deflections are:
 A final deflection of span/250 for the deflection of horizontal bending
members like slabs and beams due to all loads so as not to be noticed
by the eye and thus is not an eyesore.
 A deflection of span/350 or 20 mm, whichever is less, for these
members, after the construction of the partitions and finishes etc., to
prevent damage to finishes and partitions.
Even though methods for estimating deflection by calculation, are available
the empirical method to limit deflection are enough for routine design of
slabs and beams.

EMPIRICAL METHOD OF DEFLECTION CONTROL IN BEAMS

One can roughly express the allowable deflection/span ratio of beams

in terms of length/depth ratio as can be shown by the following derivation.
Let the deflection of a simply supported beam under UDL be expressed by
the formula

This means that assuming certain terms as constants, the allowable

deflection/span ratio can be controlled by the span/depth ratio. This principle
is used for specifying the span/depth ratio for control of deflection in beams
and slabs.

PROCEDURE FOR CHECKING DEFLECTION

Step 1: Depending on condition of supports, choose the basic span/effective

depth ratio from Table 9.1 if the span is 10 m or less. If it is greater than 10
m, reduce the values as indicated in figure.

Step 2: Determine modification factor F which depends on the type of steel

used (corresponding to the service stress in steel) and the percentage of steel
required in the beam at the point of maximum deflection.
The modification factor F is to be obtained from IS 456 . This figure gives F
factor for different stress levels and percentages of tension steel. The value of
the stress in steel at working stress (for which deflection is to be determined)
is assumed to be 0.58 of the yield stress of steel.

Thus the steel stress which will depend on the actual area of steel
provided at the section is to be calculated from the following formula:

f = 0.58fy [As (required) ÷ As (provided)]

This equation is very useful for determining the value of F more accurately
than the one given in Fig. 4 of IS or when computer procedures are used for
checking the deflection. The service stress L is obtained more accurately
from the equation
 In T beam the ratio of tensile steel to be used for determination of F is
to be based on the [ and the breadth of the flange and corrections of this is
made by the special factor of T beams, viz. F as given in step 4.
It should be remembered that with higher grades of steel used (i.e.
higher service stresses or with larger theoretical percentage of steel needed
for the beam) the value of the multiplying factor F becomes smaller, i.e. the
necessary depth for the same span increases.

Step 3: Determine the modification factor F corresponding to the percentage

of compression reinforcement provided at the point of maximum moment.
The larger the percentage of compression reinforcement, the larger will be the
factor F For T beams the width to be considered is the effective flange width.

The compression steel can include all bars in the compression zone. It
may be noted that increasing the percentage of compression steel is the best
method to control deflection in critical cases as it can be done without
decreasing the strain in tension steel required by limit state design.

The corresponding expression in 85 8110 (1985) is

Step 4: As the factors F and F for flanged beams are calculated with the
effective flange width (bf), a reduction factor F should be used to allow for
the reduced area of concrete in the tension zone. In normal rectangular beams
the concrete in the tension zone also contributes to the stiffness of the
member.

The reduction factor depends on the ratio of web width (bw) to effective
flange width (bf) as follows:

For bw/bf = 0.3 and below, the value of F3 = 0.8

For bf/bw= 1.0, the value ofF3 = 1.0
For intermediate values, the value of F3 is obtained by linear
interpolation
 The equation for P3 according to both IS and 85 can be written as

Step 5: The final span depth ratio allowed is

Deflection Control in Slabs

At present, there are no accurate methods for

estimating deflection of slabs. The empirical procedure recommended for
control of deflection for slabs is the same as in beams, i.e. to limit the
span/depth ratio as indicated. The same modifying factors as given above are
used. In two- way slabs supported on all four sides, the shorter span of the
two-way slab is taken for calculation with the amount of reinforcements in
that direction at the centre of this span taken as the percentage of tension
reinforcement.
THEORY OF SINGLY REINFORCED MEMBERS IN BENDING
(LIMIT STATE OF COLLAPSE — FLEXURE)

INTRODUCTION
Beams and slabs carry loads by bending action. In the
limit state method, these members are first designed for strength and
durability, and their performance is then checked with regard to other limit
states of serviceability, e.g. deflection and cracking. Many of these formulae
are given in IS 456 Annexure .
Even though it may not be necessary for a designer to
know the derivation of all the formulae, it is advisable for the student who is
studying the subject for the first time to become familiar with these
derivations as it gives a better insight into the design process. For practical
designs, however, one may make use of the tables and charts in the “Design
Aids to IS 456 (1978)” published as SP16 by the Bureau of Indian Standards
or other publications.

ULTIMATE STRENGTH OF R.C. BEAMS (UMIT STATE OF

COLLAPSE BY FLEXURE)
The following assumptions are made for calculating
the ultimate moment of resistance or the strength at limit state of flexural
collapse of reinforced concrete beams (IS 456, Clause 38.1):
 Plane sections remain plane in bending up to the point of failure (i.e.)
strains are proportional to distance from the neutral axis).
 Ultimate limit state of bending failure is deemed to have been reached
when. the strain in concrete at the extreme bending compression fibre
reaches 0.0035.
 The stress distribution across the compression face will correspond to
the stress-strain diagram for concrete in compression. Any suitable
shape like parabolic, rectangular or any combinations of shapes that
 give results which are in substantial agreement with tests may be
assumed for this compression block. For design purpose, the maximum
compressive strength in the structure is assumed as 0.67 times the
characteristic laboratory cube strength. With an additional partial
safety factor of m = 1.5 applied to concrete strength

the values of the maximum concrete stress in a beam can be taken as equal to
0. for all practical purposes. In Fig, it should be noted that m = 1.5 is applied
over the whole stress-strain curve to obtain the design stress-strain curve for
concrete.
4. The tensile strength of concrete is neglected as the section is assumed to be
cracked up to be neutral axis.
5. The stress in steel will correspond to the corresponding strain in the steel,
and can be read off from the stress-strain diagram of the steel. For design
purposes, a partial safety factor of 1.15 is used for strength of steel so that the
maximum stress in steel is limited to fy/1.15= 0.87fy. It should be noted that
the design stress-strain curve for cold worked steel is obtained by applying
partial safety factor m = 1.15 over the region starting from 0. &j of the actual
stress- strain curve for steel .
6. In order to avoid sudden and brittle compression failure in singly
reinforced beams, the limiting value of the depth of compression block is to
be obtained according to IS 456 by assuming the strain of tension steel at
failure to be not less than the following:

BALANCED, UNDERREINFORCED AND OVERREINFORCED

SECTIONS

 Reinforced concrete sections in bending are assumed to fail when the

compression strain in concrete reaches the failure strain in bending
compression equal to 0.0035.
 Sections, in which the tension steel also reaches yield strain
simultaneously as the concrete reaches the failure strain in bending, are
called balanced sections. Sections, in which tension steel reaches yield
strain at loads lower than the load at which concrete reaches failure
strain, are called under reinforced sections.
 It should be remembered that yielding of steel does not mean ultimate
failure of the beam. When steel yields, there will be excessive
deflection and consequent cracking but complete rupture of steel takes
place at a much higher strain, of the order of 0.20 to 0.25 (i.e. 20 to 25
per cent elongation based on the original length) compared to the
actual steel yield strain of 0.0038.
 The latter is only of the same order as failure strain of concrete. The
ultimate failure of under reinforced beams in all practical cases is
therefore finally due to the concrete reaching the ultimate failure strain
of 0.0035.
 It is preferable that a beam be designed as an under reinforced beam,
where „failure‟ will take place after yielding of steel, with enough
warning signals like excessive cracking and deflection taking place
before ultimate failure.
 R.C. sections, in which the failure strain in concrete is reached earlier
than the yield strain of steel is reached, are called over reinforced
sections. Such beams, if loaded to full capacity, will again fail by
compression failure of concrete but without warning. Such designs are
not recommended in practice.
EQUIVALENT COMPRESSION BLOCK IN CONCRETE
If an idealized stress-strain curve of concrete is used as in the third
assumption the magnitude of total compression which is given by the area
of the stress block in the beam will be as shown in Fig. and can be
expressed as
(USE OF DESIGN AID SP 16 WITHOUT CALCULATIONS)

The special publication No. 16 by Indian Standards Institution gives

charts and tables for quick design of R.C. sections. Charts 1 to 18 and Tables
Ito 4 are for singly reinforced beams. These charts and tables are derived
from which is
Charts Ito 18 have been prepared by assigning different values of M
per unit width and plotting d vs. p Tables 1—4 which cover a wider range
gives the value of Pt for various values of M/bd2
To determine the percentage of steel required for a given value of M, b,
d, fck, fy from Tables 1 to 4 of SP 16, proceed as follows:
 Calculate M/bd2
 Enter the table corresponding to the given value of fck and fy in
SP 16.
 Read off the percentage of steel required.
Most designers use this handbook method as it is also the easiest
method.
GUIDELINES FOR CHOOSING WIDTH, DEPTH AND
REINFORCEMENT OF BEAMS
The following guidelines may be used to arrive at the dimensions of
R.C. beams:
 The minimum percentage of tension steel used in beams should
be around 0.3 per cent. Usually, the depth of singly reinforced
beams is so arranged that the percentage of steel required is only
around 75 per cent of the balanced steel.
  At least two bars should be used as tension steel, and not more
than six bars should be used in one layer in a beam.
 The diameter of hanger bars should not be less than 10 mm and
that of main tension bars
 12mm. The usual diameters of bars chosen for beams are 10, 12,
16,20,22,25 and 32mm. When using different sized bars in one
layer, place the largest diameter bars near the beam faces. The
areas of steel should be symmetrical about the centre line of the
beam.
 The width of the beam necessary for accommodating the
required number of rods will depend on the specification for
cover and minimum spacing. Table gives the required cover to
main steel for beams. Assuming the nominal cover of 20 mm for
mild steel environment and using 8 mm diameter stirrups the
clear cover to steel works out to 28 mm IS 456, Clause 26.3.1
gives the minimum distance between bars as the diameter of bar
or maximum size of aggregate plus 5 mm. The maximum size of
aggregates normally used in India is 20 mm so that clear

DESIGN OF ONEWAY SLAB

INTRODUCTION
Reinforced concrete solid slabs are constructed in one of the following ways
 One-way slabs
 Two-way slabs
 FIat slabs
 Flat plates.
 One-way slabs are those supported continuously on the two
opposite sides so that the loads are carried along one direction
 only. The direction in which the load is carried in one-way slabs
is called the span. It may be in the long or short direction.
 One-way slabs are usually made to span in the shorter direction
since the corresponding bending moments and shear forces are
the least. The main reinforcements are provided in the span
direction.
 Steel is also provided in the transverse direction, to distribute
any unevenness that may occur in loading and for temperature
and shrinkage effects in that direction. This steel is called
distribution steel or secondary reinforcement. The main steel is
calculated from the bending moment consideration and under no
circumstances should it be less than the minimum specified by
the code. The secondary reinforcement provided is usually the
minimum specified by the code for such reinforcement.
 Two-way slabs are those slabs that are supported continuously
on all four sides and are of such dimensions that the loads are
carried to the supports along both directions.
 Flat slabs and flat plates are those multi span slabs which
directly rest on columns without beams. Flat slabs differ from
flat plates in that they have either drop panels (increased
thickness of slab) or column capitals in the regions of the
columns.
 Flat plates have uniform slab thickness, and the high shear
resistance around the columns are obtained usually by the
provision of special reinforcements called „shear-head
reinforcements‟ placed in the slab around the columns.
LIVE LOAD ON SLABS IN BUILDINGS
a. Dead load of slabs consists of its own weight and in
addition, the weight of finishes, fixtures and partitions.
 Live load or imposed load is specified as per IS code. This
live load varies according to the use for which the
building is to be put after construction.
b. It is important to note that for design of buildings these
live loads are considered as either acting on the full span
or assumed to be absent altogether in the span. In
continuous slabs, they are to be so placed as to get the
maximum bending moment and shear effect in the
structure. In design of slabs for other structures like
bridges, the effects of partial loading of the slab may have
to be considered.
According to IS 875, the loading on slabs for buildings are calculated as
follows:
 Self-weight at 25 kN/m for reinforced concrete.
 Finishes and partitions generally at 1.5 kN/m
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF ONE-WAY SLABS WITH UDL
USING COEFFICIENTS
One. way slabs, because of their one-way action,
are analyzed as beams of unit width. However, codes allow the use of simple
coefficients for calculation of moments and forces in continuous beams and
slabs of uniform loading with more or less equal spans and continuous on at
least three spans.
Spans are considered as equal, if the differences in
span are not more than 15 per cent of the larger of the spans. These
coefficients for ultimate bending moments and shears are given in Tables 12
and 13 of IS 456 .It should be noted that when using this table, redistribution
of moments between sections is not allowed.
DESIGN FOR SHEAR IN SLABS
Normally the thickness of slabs is so chosen that the shear can be
resisted by concrete itself and the slab does not need extra shear
reinforcements. It is only in extreme situations where the thickness tends to
be very large that shear reinforcements are allowed to be used for slabs. Shear
tests on solid slabs have shown that when these shallow members ate less
than 300 mm thick, they have an increased shear resistance compared to
members such as beams which are 300 mm or more in depth. This shear
enhancement factor for shallow depths is given in IS 456, Clause 39.2 .

The enhanced shear is (kç), where k is called the shear enhancement

factor for slabs. According to the above table, k varies from 1.30 for slabs of
150mm or less to 1.00 for slabs of 300mm or more. BS 8110 also allows the
use of the shear enhancement factor and its value is given by the expression.

According to IS 456, the rules to be followed in the design of slabs for

shear are:
 No shear reinforcement should be provided for
slabs less than 200 mm thick. However, the
increased value of shear resistance in slabs can be
taken into account in design.
  It is preferable to design slabs without any extra
shear reinforcements.
 However, if found necessary, shear reinforcements
may be allowed to be provided in slabs which are
200 mm or more in thickness. The spacing of these
reinforcements can be increased to “d” instead of
“0.75d” as in beams.
 In no case, even with provision of shear
reinforcements, according to IS 456, Clause
40.2.3.1, should the maximum shear stress allowed
in slabs due to ultimate load exceed one-half that
allowed in beams as given in Table 20 of IS 456.

CONSIDERATIONS FOR DESIGN OF SLABS

 Choosing Span Effective Depth Ratio for Slabs
For a given type of support condition, the same span/depth basic ratio as
given for beams in IS 456 are applicable for slabs also. However, as the
percentage of reinforcements in slabs is generally low, the effective
span/depth ratios can be much larger than the basic ratios .
It should also be remembered that with heavy loadings when the
percentage of steel in slabs increases, this ratio will tend to be the same as in
beams. For the first trial, a convenient percentage of steel may be assumed
for the stabs and the span/effective depth ratio calculated.
Thus, assuming 0.3 per cent of steel, the correction factor F from Fig. 4
of 1S 456 will be 1.4, and the span/effective depth ratio for a continuous slab
will be of the order of 1.4 x 26 = 36. Because of these considerations. IS 456,
Clause 24.1 recommends the following span-overall depth factor for two-way
slabs using Fe 415 steel; up to 3.5 m span and loading class up to 3 kN/m2.
Concrete Cover
The nominal cover specified for slabs for different exposures is given
in Chapter 3. Also, a minimum cement content and maximum water cement
ratio are specified for different environment conditions. However, as
increased cover raises the dead load, the slab has to carry, one should be
judicious in the choice of cover. Strict maintenance of the chosen cover
during construction and using a good grade of concrete for the construction
will go a long way to ensure durability of slabs and reduce the dead load due
to cover.
Calculation of Steel Area In Practice
It should be noted that the depth of slab chosen for deflection
requirements will be usually greater than the depth required for balanced
design. Hence the area of steel required wi/I be less than the balanced
amount. The fundamental formula used for this purpose is

Any one of the procedures explained in Section 4.13 for determining

steel area for an under reinforced section may be used for the calculations.
The three other rules for choosing steel for slabs are the following [ 26.5.2]
 The diameter of steel should not exceed 1/8 total
thickness of slab
 The amount of steel area in either direction should
not be less than 0.12 per cent of the total sectional
area when using Fe 413 steel
  Spacing of main steel >3d or 300 mm; secondary
steel 5d or 450 mm.

DESIGN PROCEDURE
The procedure of design of one-way slabs is to consider them as
„beams of one meter width in the short direction. The various steps in design
are as follows:
Part 1: Assume depth to take care of deflection and design sleet
Step 1: Assuming a suitable overall thickness for the slab, calculate the
factored loads (dead and live load) for design. This initial guess for thickness
of slab may be made from empirical relations between depth and span. The
allowable span/overall depth ratio of stabs may be taken as given in Section
11.5.1. The minimum depth for ease of construction is 100 mm. The factored
load is (1.5 DL + 1.5 LL). A suitable cover depending on exposure condition
should be assumed.

Step 2: Considering the slab as beam of one meter width and using effective
span, determine the maximum bending moments M for the ultimate factored
load. For continuous slabs, coefficients of Table 11.1 (IS 456 Table 7) may
be used for this purpose. Otherwise, any established elastic analysis may be
used. In the latter case redistribution of moments is also allowed.

Step 3: Using the formula M = KfCKbd2 and b = 1000 mm, find the minimum
effective depth required as in beams. Add cover and find the total depth of
slab from strength considerations. Check the depth with the depth assumed in
step 1. Generally, the depth from Step 1 will be more than that obtained from
the strength formula.
Step 4: Check the depth used for shear. As the actual percentage of steel at
supports is not known, the check is only approximate. A value of c
corresponding to the lowest percentage of steel in Table 13 of IS 456 may be
used for this purpose. This value can be increased by a factor k. The depth
used should be such that, in the final analysis, the slab is safe without any
shear reinforcements.

Step 5: As the depth selected is usually greater than the minimum depth d,
the tension steel required will be less than the balanced amount for the
section. Determine the steel required by a suitable formula or by use of SP 16
charts and tables.

Part 2: Check for cracking by obeying rules for detailing.

Step 6: Check whether this steel is not less than the minimum percentage of
the gross section specified for slabs, namely, 0.12 per cent with high yield
steel and 0.15 per cent with mild steel bars. Provide at least the specified
minimum. Table 11.3 may be used for this purpose. (IS 456, Clause 26.5.2.1)
Step 7: Choose a suitable diameter for the main reinforcement and determine
the spacing of steel. For crack control, this spacing should suit the bar
spacing rules for slabs. In general, the spacing of main steel should not
exceed three times effective depth or 300 mm whichever is smaller.

Step 8; Recheck for shear stresses, using the actual percentage of steel
available.

Step 9: Check the adopted depth for deflection using the empirical method .

Step 10: Provide necessary distribution (secondary) reinforcement. This too

should not be less than the specified per cent of the cross-sectional area of the
slab, namely, 0.12 per cent for high yield bars and 0.15 per cent for rolled
mild steel bars. This steel is usually placed over the main reinforcement bars
to maximize the effective depth for the main reinforcements and facilitate the
order of placing of steel. Check also the spacing of the secondary steel, so
that it does not exceed five times the effective depth or 450 mm.

Step 11: For the slab forming the top flange of a T or L beam, the transverse
reinforcement provided on the top surface should extend across the full
effective width of the flange. According to IS 456, Clause 23.1.1, this
transverse steel should not be less than 60 per cent of the main steel at mid-
span of the slab and according to BS8110 the amount should not be less than
0.15 per cent of the longitudinal cross-sectional area of the flange (both for
high yield steel and mild steel).
These steels are only for tying up the slabs with the beams, and not for
absorbing any stresses in the compression zone of T beams. When the slab is
spanning across T beams, the negative steel may be used for this purpose.
When the slab is spanning in the direction of the T beams, separate steel has
to be employed for this transverse steel to make the beam act as a T beam.

USE OF DESIGN AIDS SP 16

IS Publication SP 16 gives various tables and charts for rapid design of

slabs. One may use either tables 1 to 4 of SP 16, which are usually used for
design of singly reinforced beam sections by assuming b = 1000, or tables 5
to 44 giving the moment of resistance of slabs of specific thicknesses 10 to 25
cm for different values of fck and The tables are made for the standard 15 mm
clear cover to slab reinforcement.
The minimum steel ratio of 0.12 per cent for Fe 415 and 0.15 per cent
for Fe 250 with respect to gross area to be provided as distribution steel can
also be read off for the various thicknesses of these slabs.

CONCENTRATED LOAD ON ONE-WAY SLABS

The bending effects due to concentrated loads on one-way slabs are

usually analyzed by the effective width method .The corresponding effects on
two- way slabs are analyzed by Pigeaud‟s method. It may be noted that even
though one-way slabs can also be analyzed by Pigeaud‟s method, effective
width method is more commonly used for such slabs.
Some designers take a as the distributed width through the depth of the slab
also, in which case

Similarly, let e=y1 + 2 (wearing coat + effective depth). The first

method is more conservative and generally used for highway slabs. The
second method may be used in other safer situations. The effective width b is
then calculated by the expression given in IS 456, Clause 243.2.1 .
 k = constant given in Table 14 of IS 456 depending on the ratio of the
width of the slab (B) to its effective span (L), and the nature of the slab
whether it is simply supported or continuous. (A value of k = 1.2 on either
side of toad width as shown in Fig may be assumed for alt one-way slabs.
x = distance of the centroid of load from the near support
Le= effective span
a = dispersed width of the contact area of the concentrated load parallel
to the supported edge. (Dispersion is taken at 45° through wearing coat only.)
Under no circumstances should the effective width exceed the actual
width of the slab, and when the concentrated load is close to an unsupported
edge of the slab, effective width should not exceed the above value or one-
half the above value plus the distance of the load from the unsupported edge,
whichever is less.
For determining the effective length of the load in the direction of the
span, the dispersion of the load along the bridge through full effective depth
of the slab is usually taken into account, thus assuming at 45° through both
the wearing coat and the effective depth.
 Such dispersion is taken into account for each load when the loads are
placed one behind the other on the slab along the direction of the span.
When the effective widths and the effective lengths of loads as
calculated above overlap, for two or more loads, the effective widths for each
load should be considered separately and marked. If the effects overlap, the
slab should be designed for the combined effects of the two loads on the
overlapped portion.

DESIGN OF TWO-WAY SLABS

Slabs which are supported on unyielding supports like walls on all four
sides are called two-way slabs. The span in the larger direction is denoted by
ly and lx that in the shorter direction by ly The distribution of loads in the l y
and lx directions will depend on the ratio ly/lx When ly/lx > 2, it can be shown
that most of the loads are transmitted along the shorter directions and the slab
acts as a one-way slab.
Beam supports which are sufficiently stiff can be considered as
unyielding and slabs on these beams also act as two-way slabs. Beam
supports which deflect significantly under the loading from slabs, come under
slabs on flexible beams, and cannot be strictly classified as conventional two-
way slabs.

In these slabs the load distribution and bending moments produced are
different from slabs on unyielding supports.

The boundaries of a two-way slab can be fully restrained (continuous),

simply supported, or partially restrained at the edges as shown in Fig.
 UNIT III
LIMIT STATE DESIGN FOR SHEAR TORSION BOND AND ANCHORAGE
DESIGN FOR TORSION
INTRODUCTION
Many types of loadings produce torsion in reinforced concrete members. The resultant
torsion may be classified into two types
o Primary or equilibrium torsion
o Secondary or compatibility torsion

o The first type is that which is required to maintain basic static equilibrium, and
the second is the one required to maintain only compatibility condition
between members.
o In general, one may say that torsion in statically determinate structure is of the
equilibrium type and torsion in statically indeterminate structures may be
either of the equilibrium or the compatibility type.
o In statically indeterminate structures, there are more than one load path along
which loads can be distributed and equilibrium maintained, so that the
structure can be made safe without taking minor torsional effects into account.
Such neglect, at most, will produce some cracking, but not failure.
o However, in structures in which a large part of the load is applied
unsymmetrical, torsion will have to be considered carefully.
o Torsion is a major component if it is of the equilibrium type as also in
situations where the torsional stiffness of the members has been taken into
account in the structural analysis.

1
 o In other cases of secondary torsion, provision of nominal shear reinforcements
according to codes of practice may be assumed to take care of the incidental
effects.
o Thus the small amount of unintentional torsion in most of the conventional
beams and slabs can be ignored in design and supplied by proper detailing of
reinforcements.

ANALYSIS FOR TORSIONAL MOMENT IN A MEMBER

o Moments provided in a structure on application of loads are taken by some
members in bending and other members by torsion, depending on their
disposition.
o Just as bending moments are distributed among the members sharing the
moments in proportion to their bending stiffness, i.e. (EI/L) values, the factor
that determines the transfer of torsional moment is the torsional stiffness
(GCIL), where G is the elastic shear modulus and C the torsion constant. This
principle is used to determine torsional moments carried by members in
structural analysis .

2
 o For analysis, T L or I sections are divided into component rectangles and the C
value is the combined (added up) value of the component rectangles. The
division should be such that the value of C obtained for the whole section, i.e.
should be the largest possible value.

o Hollow box sections can be treated as solid when the will thickness is more
than 13/4 (one. fourth the depth). Otherwise, it can be divided into its
component rectangle, and the value of the total torsional stiffness determined.
It should, however, be remembered that sections of thickness less than / are
not suitable for reinforced concrete in torsion due to its large flexibility.

Bending and Torsional Stiffness of R.C. Members

That the magnitude of distribution of moments as torsion to adjoining members is
small can be seen from the following argument: First,

Torsional Rigidity of R.C. Members

o On the basis of laboratory tests, BS 8110 (part 2): Clause 2.4.3 states that for
structural analysis or design, the torsional rigidity may be calculated by

3
 assuming G = 0.42 times the modulus of elasticity of concrete and C equal to
one-half of the St. Venant value calculated for the plain concrete section.

where
A = area enclosed by the centre line of the wails
T1= wall thickness
o It should be noted that the combined effect of bending shear and torsional
shear is to increase the shear on one side and decrease it on the opposite side.

Torsional Strength of Concrete Beams (According to BS 8110)

o According to 88 8110, one has to assess the shear produced in bending shear
and torsional shear separately.

4
 o The safe strength of concrete in bending shear without shear reinforcement is
given by ç (Table 19, 15 456). Similarly, the shear produced by torsion can be
evaluated by plastic theory by

REINFORCEMENTS FOR TORSION IN R.C. BEAMS

o Ultimate failure of a beam in torsion, according to Hsu’s skew bending theory,

is by rotation about a skew axis as shown in Fig. 18.5. (This can be easily
demonstrated by taking a brittle material like a piece of chalk and giving it a
twist at each of its ends by hand in the opposite directions.)
o Because of the skewness of the surface of failure (unlike in simple bending
where it is planar), reinforcements for torsion should consist not only of
transverse links (loop reinforcement) but also of longitudinal steel provided at
all the four corners of the beam (Fig. 18.6).
o The requirement can be explained both by the skew bending theory as also by
the simple space truss model (Fig.18.7) similar to the plane truss model
proposed a early as in 1929, for bending shear.

5
6
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN OF SECTIONS FOR TORSION BY DIFFERENT
CODES
o The design procedure to be adopted when torsion is present in R.C. members
depends on the code to be used.
o The IS, BS and ACI propose different methods for torsion design, even though
the resultant design is considered equally safe.
o When torsion is present along with ‘bending shear’, IS recommends the use of
an equivalent shear for which the shear steels are calculated.
o Again in IS when torsion is present as combined with bending, an equivalent
bending moment is calculated and reinforcement for this equivalent bending
moment is provided as longitudinal steel.
o In the British practice, the section is separately analyzed for maximum
torsional stresses, and depending on the magnitude of the resultant stress, the
torsional reinforcements are calculated.

7
 o Steel is also calculated separately for shear and bending moments. The values
of reinforcements thus calculated individually are combined and provided as
stirrups and longitudinal steel.
o The A procedure for design for torsion is to accommodate torsional shear in
the same way as in flexural shear, i.e. part of the torsional moment may be
considered as carried by concrete without web steel and the remainder by
stirrups.

DESIGN FOR TORSION BY BS 8110

According to BS 8110, torsion is treated separately and provided for
separately. This method is explained first as it gives an insight into the fundamentals
of design of R.C. beams for torsion.
1. Area of stirrups
o A simple expression for the area of the stirrups to withstand torsion can be
obtained by assuming the cracking pattern in torsion (which is in the form of a
helix) to be inclined at 45° to the horizontal as shown in Fig. 18.5.
o The torsion is withstood by the moment of forces in the stirrups in the x and y
directions about the centre.
o Denoting the centre-to-centre distances between the links as x and yi.
horizontally and vertically (see Fig. 18.6) we get

8
2. Area of additional longitudinal steel (Ast)
o At least four numbers of steel bars should be placed symmetrical inside the
four corners of the links to be effective.
o According to this concept, the volume of the longitudinal steel required will be
the same as the volume of the transverse hoops.
o Taking a distance equal to spacing of stirrup and equating the forces, we get
the area of additional longitudinal steel as

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN FOR COMBINED BENDING, SHEAR AND

TORSION BY IS 456
o Design procedure for torsion according to IS 456, it is not necessary to
calculate the shear stresses produced by torsion separately as in BS 8110.
o The former gives the analysis for combined effects of torsion shear and
bending shear. Bending shear and torsion are combined to an equivalent shear
ye.
o Similarly, the bending moment and torsional moment are combined to an
equivalent bending moment Me. The R.C. section is then designed for V and
Me.

Calculation of Equivalent Shear and Design for Stirrups

9
 An empirical relation for equivalent shear due to the combined effects of
torsion and shear has been suggested in IS 456, Clause 41.3 as

10
The above equation for bending moment is derived from the interaction curve
between bending moment and torsion and the three possible modes of failure, the
theory of which is beyond the

DETAILING OF TORSION STEEL

o IS 456, Clause 25.5.1.7 gives the rules regarding detailing of torsion steel,
which are to be read along with Clause 40.4.3. These rules can be summarised
as follows:
 The spacings of stirrups should not exceed x1
 or 300 mm
o There should be at least one longitudinal bar placed at each corner of the
stirrups.
o When the cross-sectional spacing exceeds 450 mm additional longitudinal bars
should be provided to satisfy the minimum reinforcement and spacing rules
regarding side face reinforcement.
o That is, there should be a minimum of 0.1 per cent longitudinal steel spaced at
not more than 300 mm or thickness of web.IS 456, Clause 26.5.1.3.

11
DESIGN PROCEDURE ACCORDING TO BS 8110
Rules for Design
o Let the section be subjected to bending moment M, shear V, and torsion T.
o It is necessary to design the transverse and longitudinal steel.
o First, the section is designed for longitudinal steel for the bending moment M.
o Then it is designed for the shear produced by the bending shear and torsion.

Checking of Shear Caused by V and T

12
Design Formula for Torsion

o It has already been shown that for design of stirrups for torsion, one has to
calculate the areas of links and the longitudinal steel.
o These are given by the following formulae:
 The area of links is given by Eq. (18.9) as

PROCEDURE FOR DESIGN FOR TORSION BY BS 8110

o Step 1: Find the area of tension steel for M.
o Step 2: Calculate V/bd.
o Step 3: Calculate ç due to torsion.
o Step 4: Design shear and torsion steel as per Table 18.2.
o Step 5: Calculate additional longitudinal steel

ARRANGEMENT OF LINKS FOR TORSION IN FLANGED BEAMS

o It is easy to arrange the stirrup and longitudinal steel for rectangular
section. However, when treating flanged beams like T or I beams, it is
not to be treated as one whole.

13
 o It should be split into its constituent rectangles as detailed for torsion.
o Studies have shown that treating flanged beams with the largest
rectangle, by taking the torsion gives conservative values, and this
procedure is recommended in IS 456, Clause 40.1.1.
o In those cases where different rectangles are taken as resisting torsion,
each rectangle must be suitably reinforced with the necessary links
(Fig. 18.9).

TORSION IN BEAMS CURVED IN PLAN

o Circular beams (e.g. the ring beam under a circular water tank supported on
columns) are subjected to bending and torsion moments.
o Their distribution along the circumference depends on the number of column
supports. The magnitude of these moments can be expressed as a function of
the uniformly distributed load wand the radius of the ring beam r as follows:
Let aand flbe taken as given in Fig. 18.10.
o The general formulae for torsion and bending moment at angle /3 are given by

Bond, Anchorage, Development Lengths

INTRODUCTION
o The term ‘bond’ in reinforced concrete design refers to the adhesion or
the shear stress that occurs between concrete and steel in a loaded
member.

14
o It is the bond between steel and concrete that enables the two materials
to act together without slip.
o The assumption that in a R.C.C. beam plane sections remain plane
even after bending will be valid only if there is perfect bond or no slip-
between concrete and steel.
o The magnitude of this bond stress at a point is called local bond. It
varies along a member depending on the variation of bending moment
as shown in Fig. 10.1.
o Similarly, in order to develop the full tension in the steel placed at the
mid-section of a beam, it should be properly anchored on both sides of
the section so that the full tension capacity of the steel reinforcement is
developed.

o The average stress that acts along this anchorage length is called the
average anchorage bond.
o Even though local bond varies along the length of the anchorage, its
‘average value’ is taken for design.
o The length or extension that should be provided on either side of the
point of maximum tension in the steel so that the average bond stress is
not exceeded, is called the development length in tension.
o Development length should be ensured in compression steel also. This
length for development of compressive stress in steel is called
development length in compression.
o Till recently, since smooth mild steel bars were used as reinforcements,
both local bond and development lengths were important and they had
to be checked separately in routine designs.

15
 o However, with the wide use of high bond bars (where the mechanics of
bond is more complex and the action is not only adhesion of steel with
concrete, but also mechanical locking by the projections on the steel
bars as shown in Fig. 10.2), more emphasis is laid on development
length requirements than on local bond.
o Thus, IS 456, Clause 26.2.2 deals with requirements for proper
anchorage of reinforcements in terms of development length, Ld only.
o Fig. 10.2 Nature of bond in reinforcement bars: (a) Smooth bars; (b)
Deformed bars.
o Hooks, bends, extensions etc. provided at the ends of bars are
sometimes referred to as end anchorages, and their anchorage length is
denoted by the symbol La.

LOCAL (OR FLEXURAL) BOND

o Local bond (also known as flexural bond) at a point is ‘fhe rate of
change of tension in the steel at a given location in a R.C.C. member.
o With mild steel smooth bars where adhesion and friction are the main
components of local bond, this is important, and an expression for the
magnitude of flexural bond at a point can be derived as follows: In a
distance d over the length of the beam, let the increase in tension be
equal to T as given by Fig. 10.1. Then we get

16
 o However, as already mentioned, the mechanism of bond between
ribbed steel (which has projections along its length) and concrete is
different from that in smooth bars and the above expression for local
bond stress is not strictly valid for ribbed steel.
o The projections shown in Fig. 10.2 are so designed that bond failures
will not normally occur, that hence checking of local bond stresses
(which is obligatory for designs with mild steel smooth bars) is not
required when using high bond bars.

AVERAGE (ANCHORAGE) BOND STRESS

o With modern high bond bars the mechanism of reinforcement anchorage is
due to
 Adhesion of concrete and steel,
 Shear strength of concrete, and
 Interlocking of ribs with concrete.
o Codes specify that, with high bond bars, the condition to be satisfied is that the
average resistance called the average bond stress, developed along the full
length of the bar surface embedded in the concrete, should be safe at ultimate
loads.
o Ultimate average anchorage bond stress for plain bars in tension according to
IS 456 is given in Clause 26.2.1.1 and Table 10.1.

17
It may be noted that the value of design ultimate anchorage bond stress in
compression is larger by 25% because
o the compression tends to increase the diameter and tension tends to decrease
the diameter of the bar,
o the end of compression bar also contributes to the transfer of load, and
o the adverse effects of flexural cracks are absent in the compression zone.

DEVELOPMENT LENGTH
o The length of bar necessary to develop the full strength of the bar is called the
development length L see Fig. 10.3.
o The expression of Ld can be derived as taking design yield strength in tension
as 0.874,

o Hence as a rough rule full anchorage of steel stressed to ultimate strength may
be taken as 400 for tension and 300 in compression. The provisions in BS and
ACT for development length are more complex than these simple rules in IS
456.

18
 o It should also be noted that when the actual reinforcement provided is more
than that theoretically required, so that the actual stress in steel will be less
than the full stress.
o This principle is used in design of footings and other short bending members
where bond is critical.
o By providing smaller sizes of bars or more steel than required by theory, the
bond requirement can be satisfied.
o It should be remembered that Ld is calculated from the point of maximum
stress.

END ANCHORAGE OF BARS

o It is the practice in detailing of steel to continue the reinforcement (both
tension and compression steel) beyond the point where it is theoretically
required for a distance equal to the effective depth of the beam or 12 times the
diameter of the bar.
o This length is called end anchorage, La.
o The need for extension of reinforcement is evident from Fig. 10.3. If there is a
diagonal crack, the force in steel will correspond to force at X and not Y
(Refer SP 24 and IS 456, Clause 26.2.3.1).
o The condition to be satisfied is
o La = d or 120. whichever is greater

CHECKING DEVELOPMENT LENGTHS OF TENSION BARS

o The development length of bars which are in tension due to bending should be
checked (in theory) at the following places.
o When detailing of bars is carried out, special care should be given at points
where there is a change of direction of steel so that they do not tend to break
away the concrete cover provided for the steel or produce very high
compression in the concrete at the bend.
o This reinforcement should also be restrained by stirrup and other devices.
o For example, when column bars are bent at top of floors and spliced with steel
from the next storey, laterals at close spacing should be provided for the
horizontal component of the forces in these bent column bars.

19
ANCHORAGE OF A GROUP OF BARS (BUNDLED BARS)
o Anchorage of steel bars is accomplished by fixing of the tension or
compression bars in concrete and providing the required development lengths.
o In conventional practice, placing of bars, one touching the other was not
allowed.
o A space equal to the diameter of bar was to be left in between the bars to
develop the bond stresses.
o In modern practice up to four bars can be bundled together to avoid congestion
in heavily reinforced sections such as over the supports of continuous T
beams.
o However, groups of bars, when used in compression, should be carefully
examined for the additional provision of links for containment of the
compression bars.
o According to IS 456, Clause 26.2.1.2, the development length required by
each bar of the bundled bars is that of the individual bar increased by 10 per
cent for the two bars, 20 per cent for three bars and 33 per cent for four bars
which are in contact.
o More than four bars in contact are not allowed to be used.
o Care should also be taken not to stop all the bars of the group together.
o A spacing of at least 400 (which is equivalent to full development of a bar)
should be maintained between the cutoff of each alternate bar at least till the
bars are reduced to two.

20
CURTAILMENT OF BARS AND THEIR ANCHORAGE
o Bending moment at mid-spans of beams requires maximum area of
steel. Towards the ends of the beam some of these steel may be
stopped by curtailing them (Fig. 10.9).

o In practice, the theoretical cut-off point (TCP) and the actual or

physical cut-off point (PCP) differ.
o The distance at which the PCP occurs should not be less than either the
effective depth of the member or twelve times the bar size.
o In addition, the bar as a whole should satisfy the requirement of
development length.
o Simplified empirical rules have been laid down for detailing of
reinforcements for slabs and beams of nearly equal spans with UDL to
comply with anchorage and other requirements.

USE OF SP 16 FOR CHECKING DEVELOPMENT LENGTH

o Tables 64 to 66, SF 16 give the tension and compression development lengths
(I required for a design strength of 0.87f (the same in tension and
compression).

21
 o The length required (L for any other stress level that exists in the structure can
be determined from these values by the expression

o Table 67 of SP 16 gives the anchorage value of hooks and bends for tension
reinforcement.
o In tension anchorage, the effect of hooks, bends and straight lengths beyond
bends, if provided, can be considered as development length. In compression
bars, only the projected length of hooks, bends etc. are generally considered as
effective towards development length.

IMPORTANCE OF LAPS AND ANCHORAGE LENGTH

o Laps in steel increase cost as well as difficulty in placing of concrete.
o When using large diameter bars in columns and foundations such as rafts,
correct estimation of laps is required.
o Savings in lap length can considerably reduce cost and consumption of steel in
the structure.
o Recent codes for footings and other foundation structures have relaxed the
provision for anchorage length of starter bars for foundation structures .
o These can be utilized to effect economy of steel in construction.

22
 UNIT IV
LIMIT STAYE DESIGN OFD COLUMNS
DESIGN OF AXIALLY LOADED SHORT COLUMNS
INTRODUCTION
 Members in compression are called columns and struts.
 The term ‘column’ is reserved for members which transfer loads to the
ground and the term ‘strut’ is applied to a compression member in any
direction, as those on a truss.
 Column members whose height is not more than three times its lateral
dimension are called pedestals while the term ‘wall’ is used to compression
members whose breadth is more than four times the thickness of the wall.
 It is well known from the theory of structures that the modes of failure of a
column depend on its slenderness ratio.
 This ratio is expressed in IS and BS practice for reinforced concrete
rectangular columns as the ratio of the effective length I. to its least lateral
dimension (d), (L/d) ratio.
 In steel columns the slenderness ratio is generally expressed as the effective
length to its least radius of gyration (L) ratio.
 This practice is continued for R.C.C. columns in ACT code. Effective length
1e of a column is different from its unsupported length L.
 Columns, when centrally loaded, fail in one of the three following modes,
depending on the slenderness ratio (see Fig. 13.1).

1
  Mode 1: Pure compression failure
o The column fails under axial loads without undergoing any lateral
deformation. Steel and concrete reach the yield stress values at failure.
o The collapse of the column is due to material failure.
 Mode 2: Combined compression and bending failure
o Short columns can be subjected to direct load (F) and moment (M).
Slender columns even when loaded axially undergo deflection along
their length as beam columns, and these deflections produce
additional moments in the columns.
o When material failure is reached under the combined action of these
direct loads and bending moment, it is called combined compression
and bending failure.
 Mode 3: Failure by elastic instability
o Very long columns can become unstable even under small loads well
before the material reaches yield stresses. Under such cases the
member fails by lateral ‘elastic buckling’
o Failure by the third mode is unacceptable in practical construction
(see Fig. 13.1).
o R.C.C. members that may fail by this type of failure is prevented by
the coda! provision that columns beyond a specified slenderness (30
for unbraced columns) should not be allowed in structures.

SHORT COLUMNS
 IS 456 classifies rectangular columns as short when the ratio
of the effective length (Li) to the least dimension is less than
12.
 This ratio is called the slenderness ratio of the column. If the
column is of dimension b x D, then there are two slenderness
ratios namely,
o Slenderness ratio about major axis =Lex/D
o Slenderness ratio about minor axis =Ley/b

2
  If any of these two ratios is equal to or more than 12, it is
called a slender column.
 If both ratios are less than 12, it is a short column.
 In BS the dividing ratio is taken as 15 for braced column and
10 for unbraced columns.
 In ACI the Dr ratio is used instead of the l/b ratio. The
dividing line is taken as Dr = 34 for braced columns and Dr =
22 for unbraced columns.

BRACED AND UNBRACED COLUMNS

 columns can be planned in a structure so that they do not have to withstand
any horizontal load like wind and earthquake loads.
 Thus, for example, when the column of water-tower are braced, the wind load
is taken by the interaction of column bracings.
 In tall buildings, lateral supports like shear walls can be provided so that the
lateral loads are taken by them.
 Such columns are called braced columns.
 Other columns, where the lateral loads have to be resisted in addition to
vertical loads by the strength of the columns themselves, are considered as
unbraced columns.
 Bracings can be in one direction or in more than one direction, depending on
the likelihood of the direction

Design of Short Columns with Moments

 Columns, such as the external columns of framed buildings, or columns
carrying crane toads through corbels of a column, are subjected not only to
direct loads (F), but also to moments (Al) due to the eccentricity in
application of the load (Fig. 14.1).
 In the above columns, the eccentricity is with respect to one axis only and
these columns are said to be under uniaxial bending.

3
  On the other hand, a corner column of a building is subjected to eccentric
load along both the X and Y axes.
 Such columns are said to be under biaxial bending. In Chapter 13 it was
pointed out that the short column formula takes into account accidental
eccentricity to a certain extent.
 (whichever is more) is greater than 0.05D already provided in the formula for
short column, then the short column formula cannot be used for design of
such columns.
 The theory of short columns subjected to axial load and moments should be
used for their strength calculations.
 Slender columns, even when they are subjected to central load, bending
moments are produced as they undergo deflection along its length as a beam
column.
 Such columns also have to be designed as eccentrically loaded columns.

METHODS OF DESIGN
o The three methods that are commonly used to design these columns are:
 Use of design charts (interaction diagrams)
 Use of equilibrium equation to determine the minimum steel
required
 A simplified approximate method considering the section as a
doubly reinforced beam.
o Of these, the interaction diagram is extensively used for design of rectangular
or circular columns with symmetric arrangement of steel.

4
 o The equilibrium method is based on fundamental concepts and is applicable
to any cross-section and any arrangement of steel.
o The simplified method is found useful for columns with large eccentricities
where the column acts more like a beam.

UNIAXIAL BENDING (DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS)

o In eccentrically loaded columns the strain distribution across the section will
not be uniform as in the case of centrally loaded columns.
o As there is bending in addition to direct load, the strain distribution will vary
linearly across the section as in the case of beams.
o The following assumptions as given in IS 456, Clause 39.1(b) are used to
calculate the value of P and M of a given section:
o Plane sections remain plane even after bending.
o The strain at different points in the section will be different. The maximum
compressive strain in concrete at failure is the governing criterion for ultimate
failure. The magnitude of this failure strain is given by the expression (see
also Fig. 14.2)

o where e is the ‘maximum’ strain in compression in the section at failure and 4

is the ‘minimum’ strain in compression in the section at failure.
o The minimum compression strain in a beam 4 is equal to zero so that e = 0.
o In an axially loaded column, e = 4 so that e at failure = 0.002.
o It is interesting to note that the above expression is also equivalent to
assuming that the strain distribution diagram rotates around a fulcrum at a
distance 3D/7 from the highly compressed edge.
o This fulcrum point is the same point where the concrete strain will be 0.002 at
failure with the neutral axis at the far edge of the section, as shown in Fig.
14.2.

o The design compression stress block under the varying strain is the same as
assumed for beams. It is rectangular parabolic with the maximum stress value
° (approximately equal to 0). at failure.
o The design stress-strain curve for steel in compression is the same as in
tension. The same design curve as for beams is assumed for columns also.

5
 o The tensile strength of concrete is ignored.

STRESS-STRAIN CURVE FOR STEEL

 One should have a good idea of the stress-strain curves recommended by IS
for the different types of steels to correctly assess the stresses corresponding
to the strain in the steel.
 According to IS 456, mild steel (Fe 250) has a bilinear stress-strain curve, and
failure strain on the design stress- strain curve is given by the expression

 However, the design stress-strain curves of cold drawn bars, like Fe 415 steel,
is not bilinear.
 There is a linear and a non-linear strain, for the stress levels beyond 0.801, so
that the strains on the design stress-strain curve corresponding to the various
design stress levels .

6
 Step 3: Determination of areas of steel from interaction curve is as follows:
Choosing proper curve for grades of steel and d’ find P/fck.
 Calculate A = p /(bD). Distribute this total area A as distributed in the sketch
given in SP 16 for the interaction diagram.
 Case 2: Use of interaction curve to analyzed the safety of the given column
for given P and M, with symmetrical distribution of steel
 Step 1: Find the following parameters:

7
DESIGN OF ECCENTRIC COLUMNS BY EQUILIBRIUM EQUATION
(METHOD 2)
 Another method that can be used for design of eccentrically loaded column is
to work from fundamentals by using equilibrium equation and to arrive at the
necessary steel for a given section of breadth b, depth D, with given P and M,
as follows:
 Step 1: Assume the arbitrary depth of neutral axis. Let the extreme fibre in
concrete reach failure strain as explained in the assumptions in Section 14.3
above.
 Step 2: Determine the strains in the steels.
 Step 3: Determine the compression force in concrete by using Table 14.1 or
by other means. Find also the stress f, in compression steel that will be
provided near the compression face from the strain at the level of steel.
 Step 4: Determine the area of steel to be provided at the compression face (A
by taking moments of all the forces about the position of the steel at the
tension face. The moment equilibrium equation will be

8
  Step 7: Assume other suitable values of the depth of neutral axis and plot the
values of A (total steel) needed, in the above diagram. The values of the
neutral axis corresponding to minimum value of A can be taken as the
optimum solution of the problem.
 Step 8: Provide the steel A and A as obtained in step 7 for optimum value of
x. The procedure is similar.

SIMPLIFIED METHOD (METHOD 3)

 Columns under large eccentricity of load may be solved by considering them
as equivalent to a doubly reinforced beam with a concentrated load acting on
it (for equilibrium of forces) as shown in Fig. 14.10.
 The effect of P and M may be regarded as equivalent to a modified moment
(M + Ma) and a force P applied along the steel on the tension side, where

 In addition, P acts through the tension steel.

 As tables for doubly reinforced beams for these large eccentricities will not
be available, calculation has to be made from the basic equations.
 The simplified stress block as uniform compression can be used for satisfying
the equilibrium of forces.

9
 Taking moments about the tension steel, we get

 However, a correction has to be made for the value of P acting as

compression P on tension steel.
 This reduces the tension steel required and the area of the reduced tension
steel is given by

 It is evident from Eq. (14.3) that the equations are valid only when the beam
theory as is valid for the situation, i.e. the eccentricity is larger than (D/2 -2).

10
MEMBER SUBJECTED TO BIAXIAL BENDING
 IS 456, Clause 38.6 deals with biaxial bending. The analysis may be used by
oneof the following two methods:
 By choosing the neutral axis which is in the XY-plane.
Calculations are made from fundamentals to satisfy the
equilibrium of load and moments about both the axes. (This
method is quite tedious and is not generally recommended for
routine design).
 By the use of the formula recommended for use of IS 456. The
above code recommends the use of the following relation:

 The IS code formula follows the “Bresler Load Contour Method”. It is based
on the concept of a failure surface which is the envelope of a number of
interaction curves for different axes of bending of a column, as shown in
Fig.14.12.
 Any point of the failure surface corresponds to failure condition in a column
about a neutral axis and any point inside the surface can be considered safe.

11
  A horizontal section at each level defines a load contour corresponding to a
particular PIPE value. The general form of the contour is defined by relation
(14.9).
 It may be noted that the limiting value , = 1.0 for P/Pt = 0.2 represents the
equation of a straight line and the value of a, = 2 for P/Ps = 0.8 represents a
circle.
 These values are meant to represent the shape of the interaction diagrams at
these points. Application of this formula is greatly facilitated by Chart 64
given in SP 16 (Chart 14.3 of the text).

SIMPLIFIED 85 8110 METHOD FOR BIAXIAL BENDING

 For the design of symmetrically reinforced rectangular columns under biaxial
bending, results comparable with those obtained by the Bresler method can be
obtained by the simplified design procedure recommended in BS 8110,
Clause 3.8.4.5.
 The principle of the method is to transform the biaxial bending case to a
uniaxial bending case which should withstand an increased moment about
that axis according to the two conditions which are now given.
 Let the column be subjected to (P M and M,). Then it can be designed for
uniaxial bending of (P. M) or (P. M). depending on the following conditions:

12
13
Design of R.C. Slender Columns
INTRODUCTION
 Rectangular columns when the ratio of the effective length of the columns to
its lateral dimension exceeds 12, it is called a slender or long column
according to IS code.
 In BS 8110, the limits for a short column are put as 15 for braced and 10 for
unbraced columns.
 The difference between the behavior of short and slender columns is that,
when slender columns are loaded even with axial loads, the lateral deflection
(measured from their original centre lines along its length) becomes
appreciable, whereas in short columns this lateral deflection is very small and
can be neglected as shown in Fig.

14
 In slender columns the moment produced by this deflection is large and has to
be taken into account in design. Hence slender columns, even if centrally
loaded, have to be designed for not secondary moment produced by the lateral
deflection.
 There are three major methods that are used to take into account the
slenderness effect of these columns. They are:
 The reduction coefficient method
 The additional moment method
 The moment magnification method.
 The reduction coefficient method as given in IS 4 generally recommended for
working stress design where designs are made for service loads (not factored
loads) using allowable stresses in steel and concrete.
 The procedure is to reduce the allowable load by a reduction factor that
depends on the slenderness of the column as given in IS 456, Clause 8.3.3 of
Annex. B.
 In the limit state method, however, where one works with factored loads and
ultimate strengths of steel and concrete, one of the other two methods is
generally recommended.
 The British and the Indian codes specify the use of the additional moment
method as given in IS 456, Clause 38.7.1, whereas ACT recommends the use
of moment-magnification method.

15
MAXIMUM PERMITTED LENGTH OF COLUMNS
 In order to avoid buckling failures, IS 456, Clause 25.3.1 limits the
unsupported length between restraints to 60 times the least lateral dimension.
In practice, the unsupported length to breadth ratio of column is restricted to
60 in braced columns and 30 in unbraced columns.
 This restriction will ensure that the final failure will be due to material failure
only and the classical buckling failure will be avoided.

BASIS OF ADDITIONAL MOMENT METHOD

 Slender columns, even when loaded axially, produce moments along their
length due to lateral deflection.
 If is the maximum deflection, along the axis of the column, the moment
produced by this deflection is given by the expression

 The analysis for add, which is a second order analysis, is also called P-J
analysis. In un braced frames such an analysis should also include the effect
of sway deflections. However, this aspect is not dealt with in this text and is
found in literature on structural analysis of frames.

EXPRESSION FOR LATERAL DEFLECTION

 In theory of structures the elastic deflection of a bending member is
represented by the formula

 ( is called the curvature, which may be defined as the change in slope over
unit length of the member, assuming it to be constant along this length.
 Integrating the above expression twice, we get

16
 This means that the deflection depends on the distribution of curvature of
MIE diagram, along the length of the member.
 Assuming that the moment curvature relationship is linear and is not
influenced by axial load, one can express the maximum deflection in terms of
l/r.
 Thus for a UDL on a simply supported beam with a parabolic distribution of
bending moment, the maximum deflection can be expressed as

 Taking a very conservative estimate of a uniform rectangular distribution of

the bending moment .
 Taking a very unconservative estimate of a triangular distribution of the
bending moment diagram, we obtain

17
18
REDUCTION FACTOR FOR ADDITIONAL MOMENT
 It is quite obvious from physical considerations that the lateral deflection of a
column must be less when a large portion of the column section is in
compression.
 The expression for corn derived above was on the assumption that the
curvature is the one corresponding to the balanced failure where the
maximum strain in tension steel e = 0.002 and the maximum compression
strain in concrete e = 0.0035 at failure.
 For any value of P for which the strain e is less than that of balanced failure,
the deflection and hence the additional moment should also be less.
 Even though IS has made this modification optional, this reduction in many
cases can be substantial, and should be taken into account from economy
point of view.

 The reduced deflection can be expressed by the reduction factor k given by IS

456, Clause39.7.1.1as

The value of Pfr as obtained above is slightly different from that obtained
by

19
 It may however be noted that the value of k cannot be estimated until the area
of the steel in the section is known. Hence, one has to initially assume a
percentage of steel and determine the value of k and check for safety by
successive approximation.
 Having obtained b as above, Chart 65 on page 150 of SP 16 (Chart 16.2 here)
gives a quick method of obtaining k, the reduction factor from PIPE and P
values.

20
FACTORS AFFECTING BEHAVIOUR OF SLENDER COLUMNS
 Columns are usually classified as one of the following types:
o Pin-ended columns
o Braced columns
o Unbraced columns.
 They can also bend in single curvature or double curvature.
 The various types of bending that can occur in column is shown in Figs.
 Analysis of structures like building frames gives the value of the axial load
and the moments at top and bottom of the columns.

21
 The resulting bending moment diagram will indicate whether the column is
bent in single or double curvature.
 If the moments on the two ends are opposite in sign, the column bends in
single curvature.
 In designing slender columns to get the total moment M, for final design. one
has to determine the combined effects of all the following three factors:
 The initial moment M caused by the end moments, M and M (The larger
value is taken as positive and designated as M If the bending is in double
curvature, M is taken as negative.)
 Moment due to accidental eccentricity usually designated by the term M or
Mm.
 The magnitude of M will depend on whether the columns are in single or
double curvature and whether they are braced or unbraced as explained in
notes 1 and 2 of IS 456, Clause 39.7.1.
 The Explanatory Handbook on IS 456, SP 24, Section 38.7 may also be
referred to for more details.

22