ME 322 – COMBUSTION ENGINEERING

COURSE DESCRIPTION: The course deals with principles involved in combustion, carburetion and fuel injection;
fundamentals and basic principles of combustion processes, compression and combustion charts,
fuels, engine components, engine performance and combustion engine design.

COURSE OUTLINE:

1. Introduction to Combustion Engineering

a. Importance of Combustion
b. Combustible Substances
c. Elements of Combustion
2. Principles of Thermodynamics
3. Mixture of Gases
a. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
b. Volumetric Analysis of Mixture of Gases
c. Gravimetric Analysis of Mixture of Gases
4. Theoretical Engine Cycles
a. Otto Cycle
b. Diesel Cycle
c. Dual Cycle
5. Fuels
a. Types
b. Ultimate Analysis of fuels
c. Proximate Analysis of fuels
d. Heating Value of fuels
e. Handling
6. Combustion
a. Combustion Equation
b. Stoichiometric analysis of combustion
c. Combustion with excess air
d. Air fuel ratio
7. External Combustion
8. Engine Testing, Performance and Maintenance
9. Engine designs

Grading System:

Problem Sets/Plates = 50%

Quizzes/Exam = 50%

100%
TOPIC 1 – INTRODUCTION TO COMBUSTION ENGINEERING

Combustion (burning)

- is a rapid chemical reaction between sources that are compounds of hydrogen and oxygen.
- It is the conversion of a substance called fuel into chemical compounds known as products of combustion by
combination with an oxidizer.
- The fuel may be any solid, liquid or gas and the oxidizer may be free oxygen or atmospheric air.
- The combustion process is an exothermic chemical reaction (a reaction that releases energy as it occurs). It is
represented in symbols as:
Fuel + Oxidizer (Air) Products of Combustion + Energy (Heat liberated)

Note: In Combustion Engineering, the heat liberated is commonly referred to as the heat of reaction, heat of
combustion, calorific value, heating value or the heat value of the fuel.

- Combustion is essential to processes where heat is needed.

o In steam power generation, heat must be supplied to the working fluid (liquid water is heated into
superheated steam).
o In manufacturing, heat produced by combustion is used to convert raw materials into products.
o In engines, combustion is needed to produce mechanical work

ELEMENTS OF COMBUSTION

For combustion to occur, the following must be present.

1. There must be Fuel to burn.

2. There must be Air to supply oxygen.
3. There must be Heat (ignition temperature) to start and continue the combustion process.

Note: Absence of one element of will not result to combustion.

To ensure complete combustion, the following must be achieved:

1. The amount of air should be such that it is sufficient to burn the fuel completely. Complete combustion of fuel
means complete oxidation of all the combustible materials in the fuel. A deficiency of air causes incomplete
combustion of fuel which results in considerable unburned fuel being discharged from the furnace, whereas
too much supply of air simply dilutes the gases and cools the furnace.
2. The air and fuel should be thoroughly mixed so that each combustible particle comes in intimate contact with
the oxygen contained in the air.
3. The fuel should remain in the furnace for sufficient time until it gets burned completely.
4. The temperature in the furnace should be high enough to ignite the incoming air fuel mixture.

Combustible Substance/Material – is something that can combust (burn) in air.

Table 1. Atomic and Molecular Weights of elements usually encountered in combustion problems
 ELEMENT SYMBOL ATOMIC WEIGHT MOLECULAR
WEIGHT
Carbon C 12 12
Hydrogen H2 1 2
Sulfur S 32 32
Oxygen O2 16 32
Nitrogen N2 14 28

Table 2. Molecular Weights (MW) of Combustible Substances

FUEL CHEMICAL FORMULA MOLECULAR WEIGHT

(MW)
Liquid Hydrocarbon
Benzene C6H6 78.108
Butane C4H10 58.124
Dodecane C12H26 170.328
Octane C8H18 114.23
Propane C3H8 44.097
Gaseous Hydrocarbon
Benzene C6H6 78.108
Butane C4H10 58.124
Dodecane C12H26 170.328
Ethane C2H6 30.07
Ethanol C2H5OH 46.069
Ethylene (Ethene) C2H4 28.03
Hydrogen H2 2.02
Methane CH4 16.043
Methanol CH3OH 32.042
Octane C8H18 114.23
Propane C3H8 44.097

TOPIC 2 – PRINCIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS

Thermodynamic principles on combustion involves the laws of conservation for mass and energy and deals with
equilibrium states and chemical compositions of the reactants and products.

Calculating the direction of chemical reaction and associated composition and energy is generally solved by having
knowledge on Chemical Thermodynamics.

The three main areas of Chemical thermodynamics are Stoichiometry, First Law of Thermodynamics and Second Law of
Thermodynamics.

1. Stoichiometry – helps in determining the changes in chemical composition after any chemical reaction
associated with combustion. It also helps in determining the amount of fuel required for complete combustion
based on change in chemical composition.
 2. First Law of Thermodynamics – used to determine the total energy change during the chemical reaction. The
information provided by stoichiometry is essential for this application.

3. Second Law of Thermodynamics – deals with determining the direction of chemical reaction based on
reversible and irreversible processes. In addition, this helps in determining the actual amount of work that
can be obtained by the combustion of a fixed mass of fuel. Therefore, it provides a standard with which the
performances of engines can be compared.

TOPIC 3 – MIXTURE OF GASES

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure – states that the total pressure (PT) by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of
the partial pressures of each of the constituent gases.

𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + ⋯

Where: 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 , … = 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR

Volumetric Composition of Air

Oxygen (O2) 20.99%

Nitrogen (N2) 78.03%

Argon with small quantities or traces of several inert gases such 0.98%
as water vapor, carbon dioxide, helium, hydrogen and neon

For engineering calculation, it is accurate enough to include all inert gases as nitrogen. The composition of air by
volume becomes 21% oxygen and 79% nitrogen.
79 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑁2
Therefore, for every 100 moles of air, there are 21 moles of oxygen and 79 moles of nitrogen or = 3.76
29 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑂2
𝑚3 𝑁2
or 3.76
𝑚3 𝑂2

Gravimetric (by mass) Composition of air

The molecular weight for air Mair, is given by the sum of the products of the molecular weights (MW) of oxygen
and nitrogen and their respective mole fractions in air

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁2 𝑀𝑊 𝑜𝑓 𝑁2 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑂2 𝑀𝑊 𝑜𝑓 𝑂2

𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟 = =( )( )+( )( )
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑁2 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑂2

For 100 moles of air

79 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑁2 28 𝑁2 21 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑂2 32 𝑂2
𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟 = ( )( )+( )( ) = 28.84
100 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑖𝑟 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑁2 100 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑂2

The composition of a mixture can be given as a list of the fractions of each substances present. Therefore, we
define the mass fraction of a component i, mfi, as the ratio of the mass component, mi, to the mass of mixture m.
 𝑚𝑖
𝑚𝑓𝑖 =
𝑚
Note that the mass fractions of all components of the mixture must be equal to 1. Thus,

𝑚𝑓1 + 𝑚𝑓2 + ⋯ = 1

The mass fractions of nitrogen and oxygen in air are then

0.79(28)
𝑚𝑓𝑁2 = = 0.767 𝑜𝑟 76.7%
28.84
0.21(32)
𝑚𝑓𝑂2 = = 0.233 𝑜𝑟 23.3%
28.84
76.7 𝑘𝑔 𝑁2
Thus, the composition of air by mass are 76.7% nitrogen and 23.3% oxygen or = 3.29
23.3 𝑘𝑔 𝑂2

ELEMENTS OF THE PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION

1. Carbon Dioxide - CO2

2. Carbon Monoxide - CO
3. Water vapor - H2O
4. Sulfur Dioxide - SO2
5. Nitrogen - N2
6. Ash
7. Oxides from minor combustible elements

Complete combustion of fuel produces various gases such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, water vapor, nitrogen
and oxygen (from excess air). The water vapor produced is from:

1. Moisture originally contained in the coal;

2. Vapor produced by combustion of hydrogen; and
3. Water vapor (humidity) of atmospheric air.

If all the carbon present in the fuel does not get burned completely, then carbon monoxide is produced. The flue
gases (gas exiting) will have considerable amount of carbon monoxide in them if the oxygen is less. However, large
excess air would mean that a large amount of sensible heat would be lost in flue gases. Analysis of flue gas then
gives a correct idea of how the fuel is burned.

COMBUSTION CHEMISTRY

Combustion of Carbon (C)

C + O2 CO2

On mole basis: 1 mole C + 1 mole O2 1 mole CO2

On mass basis (Gravimetric analysis):

12 kg C + 32 kg O2 44 kg CO2

Or

1 kg C + 8/3 kg O2 11/3 kg CO2

This means that 1 kg of carbon requires 8/3 kg of oxygen for its complete combustion to produce 11/3 kg
of carbon dioxide. And if atmospheric air contains 23.3% oxygen by mass, the amount of air required to
burn 1 kg of carbon can be solved using the definition for mass fraction
𝑚𝑖
𝑚𝑓𝑖 =
𝑚
8
𝑚𝑂2 𝑚𝑂2 𝑘𝑔
3
𝑚𝑓𝑂2 = 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 = = = 11.44 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑚𝑓𝑂2 0.233

If the amount of oxygen supplied is not sufficient, the combustion of carbon is incomplete and the product
of combustion will be carbon monoxide.

2C + O2 2CO

On mole basis: 2 moles C + 1 mole O2 2 moles CO2

On mass basis (Gravimetric analysis) :

24 kg C + 32 kg O2 56 kg CO2

Or

1 kg C + 4/3 kg O2 7/3 kg CO2

This means that 1 kg of carbon requires 4/3 kg of oxygen to produce 7/3 kg of carbon monoxide. The
amount of air supplied to burn 1 kg of carbon that produced carbon monoxide is
4
𝑚𝑂2 𝑚𝑂2 𝑘𝑔
3
𝑚𝑓𝑂2 = 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 = = = 5.72 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑚𝑓𝑂2 0.233

Combustion of Carbon Monoxide (CO)

2CO + O2 2CO

On mole basis: 2 moles CO + 1 mole O2 2 moles CO2

On mass basis (Gravimetric analysis) :

2(12+16) = 56 kg C + 32 kg O2 88 kg CO2

Or

1 kg C + 4/7 kg O2 11/7 kg CO2

This means that 1 kg of carbon requires 4/7 kg of oxygen to produce 11/7 kg of carbon monoxide.

NOTE: On a mass basis, the mass of mixture (reactants) must be equal to the mass of the products, but
on a mole basis, the number of moles of mixture and products are not necessarily equal. Also, in
computing the mass in kg of the reactants, use their molecular weights (MW).
 Combustion of Dodecane (C12H26) : Diesel Fuel
37
𝐶12 𝐻26 + 𝑂 12𝐶𝑂2 + 13 𝐻2 𝑂
2 2
2𝐶12 𝐻26 + 37𝑂2 24𝐶𝑂2 + 26 𝐻2 𝑂

On mole basis:

2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶12 𝐻26 + 37 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑂2 24 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑂2 + 26 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻2 𝑂

On mass basis (Gravimetric analysis) :

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶12 𝐻26 = 2 [12(12) + 26(1)] = 340 𝑘𝑔

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 37 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑂2 = 37(32) = 1184 𝑘𝑔

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 24 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑂2 = 24(12 + 32) = 1056 𝑘𝑔

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 13 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻2 𝑂 = 26[2(1) + 16] = 468 𝑘𝑔

Thus,

340 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶12 𝐻26 + 1184 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑂2 1056 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑂2 + 468 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻2 𝑂
296 264 117
1 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶12 𝐻26 + 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑂2 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻2 𝑂
85 85 85
296
This means that 1 kg of Dodecane requires 𝑘𝑔 of oxygen for its complete combustion to produce
85
264 117
𝑘𝑔 of carbon dioxide and 𝑘𝑔 of water.
85 85

On volume basis (Volumetric analysis):

2 𝑚3 𝐶12 𝐻26 + 37 𝑚3 𝑂2 24 𝑚3 𝐶𝑂2 + 26 𝑚3 𝐻2 𝑂

37 3
1𝑚3 𝐶12 𝐻26 + 𝑚 𝑂2 12 𝑚3 𝐶𝑂2 + 13 𝑚3 𝐻2 𝑂
2
37 3
This means that 1𝑚3 of dodecane requires 𝑚 of oxygen for its complete combustion to produce 12 𝑚3
2
of carbon dioxide and 13𝑚3 of water vapor.

Combustion of Ethane (C2H6)

2 𝐶2 𝐻6 + 7 𝑂2 4 𝐶𝑂2 + 6 𝐻2 𝑂

On mole basis:

2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶2 𝐻6 + 7 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑂2 4 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑂2 + 6 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻2 𝑂

On mass basis (Gravimetric analysis) :

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶2 𝐻6 = 2[2(12) + 6(1)] = 60 𝑘𝑔

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 7 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑂2 = 7(32) = 224 𝑘𝑔

 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 4 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑂2 = 4(12 + 32) = 176 𝑘𝑔

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 6 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻2 𝑂 = 6[2(1) + 16] = 108 𝑘𝑔

Thus,

60 𝑘𝑔 𝐶2 𝐻6 + 224 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑂2 176 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑂2 + 108 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻2 𝑂

56 44 27
1 𝑘𝑔 𝐶2 𝐻6 + 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑂2 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻2 𝑂
15 15 15

56
This means that 1 kg of ethane requires 𝑘𝑔 of oxygen for its complete combustion to produce
15
44 27
𝑘𝑔 of carbon dioxide and 𝑘𝑔 of water vapor.
15 15

On volume basis (Volumetric analysis):

2 𝐶2 𝐻6 + 7 𝑂2 4 𝐶𝑂2 + 6 𝐻2 𝑂

2 𝑚3 𝐶2 𝐻6 + 7 𝑚3 𝑂2 4 𝑚3 𝐶𝑂2 + 6 𝑚3 𝐻2 𝑂
7 3
1 𝑚3 𝐶2 𝐻6 + 𝑚 𝑂2 2 𝑚3 𝐶𝑂2 + 3 𝑚3 𝐻2 𝑂
2
7
This means that 1 𝑚3 of ethane requires 𝑚3 of oxygen for its complete combustion to produce 2𝑚3
2
of carbon dioxide and 3𝑚3 of water vapor.

PROBLEM SET NO. 1

Review prior knowledge on chemical balancing and perform volumetric and gravimetric analysis on the following:

1. Combustion of Sulfur (S)

𝑆 + 𝑂2 𝑆𝑂2

2. Combustion of Hydrogen (H2)

2 𝐻2 + 𝑂2 ___𝐻2 𝑂

3. Combustion of Methane
𝐶𝐻4 + ___𝑂2 𝐶𝑂2 + ___𝐻2 𝑂

4. Combustion of Propane (C3H8)

𝐶3 𝐻8 + ___𝑂2 ___3𝐶𝑂2 + ___4𝐻2 𝑂

5. Combustion of Ethylene (C2H4)

𝐶2 𝐻4 + ___𝑂2 __𝐶𝑂2 + ___𝐻2 𝑂