Pavement Design & Highway Construction

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Pavement

Design
&
2020 Highway
Construction
Lecture (3150613)

Note

Module III
Construction of Pavement

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


Civil Engineering Department
PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

Flexible Pavement

● Construction procedure of Embankment/Subgrade (As per MORTH)

Step – 1: Setting Out


After completion of site clearance, the limits of embankment shall be marked by fixing
pegs at regular intervals before commencing the earthwork. Construction toe line shall
be more than the design toe line for proper construction of the edges.

Step – 2: Dewatering
If the foundation of the embankment is in an area with stagnant water, and in the
opinion of the Engineer it is feasible to remove it, the same shall be removed by bailing
out or pumping and the area of the embankment foundation shall be kept dry. Care
shall be taken to discharge the drained water so as not to cause damage to the works,
crops or any other property.

Step - 3: Stripping & storing topsoil


When so directed by the Engineer, the topsoil from all areas of cutting and from all
areas to be covered by embankment foundation shall be stripped to specified depths
not exceeding 50-mm and stored in stockpiles of height not exceeding 2 m for covering
embankment slopes, out slopes and other disturbed areas where re-vegetation is
desired. Topsoil shall not be unnecessarily subjected to traffic either before stripping
or when in a stockpile. Stockpiles shall not be surcharged or otherwise loaded and
multiple handling shall be kept to a minimum.

Step - 4: Compacting ground


The original ground shall be levelled to facilitate placement of first layer of
embankment, scarified, mixed with water and then compacted by rolling so as to

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

achieve minimum dry density as specified in the modified Technical specification.


Foundation treatment specified for embankments shall be carried out as per approved
drawing. Unsuitable material occurring in embankment foundation shall be removed
as per direction and approval of the Engineer and replaced by approved materials laid
in layers and suitably compacted to the required and specified degree of compaction.
Excavation at approved borrow areas shall be carried out with excavator and
transportation of excavated material shall be done by dumpers/ tractor trolley. Natural
ground soil shall be tested for its suitability. If found unsuitable it shall be replaced
with the permission of the Engineer. Dry Density of natural ground soil shall be
determined, and natural ground shall be tested for dry density, if found less than 95%
of M.D.D., the original ground shall be scarified and mixed with the required quantity
of water and then compacted by vibratory roller to achieve minimum specified dry
density.
For construction adjacent to the existing embankment, a continuous horizontal
benching 300 mm wide or as per drawing shall be provided in the existing
embankment.

Step - 5: Spreading Material in different layers


The embankment material shall then be spread in layers not exceeding 250 mm
compacted thicknesses when using vibratory roller over the entire area with the dozer
and finished by a motor grader. When the existing embankment to be widened
continuous horizontal benches shall be cut out into the old slope to ensure adequate
bond. Where water is required to be added the same shall be sprinkled from a water
tanker fitted with sprinkler, uniformly on the surface but without flooding and shall be
mixed thoroughly in soil by harrowing until uniform moisture content is obtained
throughout the depth of the layer. If the material delivered to the roadbed is too wet, it
shall be dried by aeration and exposure to the sun till the moisture content is accepted
for compaction. At the time of compaction, the moisture content should be in the range
of 1% above and 2% below of OMC.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

Step - 6: Compaction
The compaction shall be done with the help of Vibratory Roller of 8 – 10 Tonne static
weight. Compaction trial shall be carried out on a suitable stretch to determine the no.
of passes required for particular type of soil, dumped for embankment, to achieve
specified densities as per MORTH. Based on the trial actual compaction will be carried
out with required no. of passes of Soil Compactor until the specified density is
achieved. Rolling shall progress parallel to the center line of the road uniformly
overlapping each preceding track by one-third width. Rolling shall be continued till the
specified density is achieved. In case specific compaction is not achieved the material
in the soft area shall be removed and replaced with approved material. Densities shall
be tested by sand replacement method / nuclear density gauge.
Subsequent layers shall be placed only after the finished layer has been tested and
accepted. The top levels of the embankment shall be checked with reference to the
longitudinal and cross profile of the road as per drawing to keep the variation within
tolerance limit. Different layers of embankment will be marked on pillars fixed outside
the toe-line.

Step – 7: Finishing Operation


Finishing operations shall include the work of shaping and dressing the
shoulders/roadbed and side slopes to conform to the alignment, levels, cross-sections
and dimensions. Both the upper and lower ends of the side slopes shall be rounded off
to improve appearance and to merge the embankment with the adjacent terrain.
The topsoil, removed and conserved earlier shall be spread over the fill slopes to
facilitate the growth of vegetation. Slopes shall be roughened and moistened slightly
prior to the application of the topsoil in order to provide satisfactory bond. The depth
of the topsoil shall be sufficient, usually thickness being from 75 mm to 150 mm.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

When earthwork operations have been substantially completed, the road area shall be
cleared of all debris, and ugly scars in the construction area responsible for
objectionable appearance eliminated.
● Construction of sub-base (Granular Sub-base) (as per MORTH)

Step- 1: Preparation of Subgrade


Immediately prior to the laying of sub-base, the subgrade shall be prepared
by removing all vegetation and other extraneous matter, lightly sprinkled
with water, if necessary and rolled with two passes of 80-100 KN smooth
wheeled roller.

Step – 2: Spreading and Compaction


The sub-base material of the grading specified in the Contract and water
shall be mixed mechanically by a suitable mixer equipped with provision
for controlled addition of water and mechanical mixing. So as to ensure a
homogenous and uniform mix.

The required water content shall be determined in accordance with IS:2720


(Part 8). The mix shall be spread on the prepared subgrade with the help of
a motor grader of adequate capacity. Its blade having hydraulic controls
suitable for initial adjustment and for maintaining the required slope and
grade during the operation, or as approved by the Engineer.

Moisture content of the mix shall be checked and suitably adjusted so that,
at the time of compaction, it is from 1 or 2 percent below the optimum
moisture content.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

▪ Immediately after spreading the mix, rolling shall be done by an approved


roller. if the thickness of the compacted layer does not exceed 100 mm, a
smooth wheeled roller of 80 to 100 KN weight may be used. For a
compacted single layer up to 200 mm the compaction shall be done with the
help of a vibratory roller of minimum 80 to 100 KN static weight capable
of achieving the required compaction.

Rolling shall commence at the lower edge and proceed towards the upper
edge longitudinally for portions having unidirectional crossfall or on super
elevation. For a carriageway having crossfall on both sides, rolling shall
commence at the edges and progress towards the crown.

Each pass of the roller shall uniformly overlap not less than one-third of the
track made in the preceding pass. During rolling, the grade and crossfall
(camber) shall be checked and any high spots or depressions which become
apparent, corrected by removing or adding fresh material. The speed of the
roller shall not exceed 5 km per hour.

Rolling shall be continued till the density achieved is at least 98 percent of


the maximum dry density for the material determined as per IS:2720 (Part
8). The surface of any layer of material on completion of compaction shall
be well closed, free from movement under compaction equipment and from
compaction planes, ridges, cracks or loose material.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

All loose, segregated or otherwise defective areas shall be made good to the
full thickness of layer and re-compacted.

● Drainage Layer
During rains, part of the rain water flows on surface and part of it percolates through
the soil mass as gravitational water until it reaches the ground water below the water
table. So to remove and to divert this water, drainage is required in the construction of
pavement.

Drainage can be provided as surface drainage and sub-surface drainage.

⮚ Methods of Surface Drainage

1. By longitudinal side drains:

(a) Side drains for road in embankment

When road is constructed in embankment, it is necessary to provide side drain on one


side or both sides, such side drains should be constructed at least 2.0 m away from the
bottom edge of an embankment. The depth of side drain is kept 1.0 to 1.5 m to prevent
the entry of drain water into the embankment.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

(b) Side drains for road in cutting


When road is constructed in cutting, side drains are provided on either side of road.
The drain should not overflow in any circumstances.
Closed side drains are preferred, as open and deep side drains are dangerous where
space is limited. In such cases covered drains of drainage trenches properly filled with
layers of coarse sand and gravel may be used. Coarser gravel layers are provided at the
bottom of the drain.

2. Catch basins and Inlets in urban areas

(a) Catch basins


In urban roads because of the limitations of land width and also due to presence of foot
path, it is necessary to provide underground longitudinal drains. Catch basin is a
structure like chamber constructed on a sewer line. Water from pavement surface is
collected in catch basin and discharged to the sewer drain. The catch basin (Catch pit)
is provided with grating to prevent the entry of rubbish into the drainage system.

Impurities in water are collected at the bottom of the catch basin, which is to be cleaned
regularly. A hood is provided in the catch basin to prevent the entry of sewer gas into
the catch basin.

(b) Inlets

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

Inlets is a structure constructed along the edge of the urban road to discharge rain water
into the storm water sewer. Inlets is a concrete box with grating either at the top or on
the side. If grading is horizontal, it is called horizontal inlet. If grading is vertical it is
called vertical inlet or curb Inlet.

⮚ Methods of Sub-Surface Drainage


Removal or diversion of excess soil-water from the subgrade is termed as subsurface
drainage.
▪ Sub surface drainage is necessary in the following situations
1. When road is in cutting and water seeping from sides.
2. When road is near the foot of hill and is likely to be damaged by water flowing down
the hill.
3. When road is passing through plain area and water is likely to be accumulated on sides.
4. where water rises up to subgrade by capillary action.
5. where subgrade soil is affected by the drain passing near the road.

▪ Methods of sub-surface drainage:


Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt
PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

(a) Lowering of water table (b) controlling seepage flow (c) controlling capillary water

(a) Lowering of water table


The highest level of water table should be fairly below the level of subgrade, in order
that the subgrade and pavement layers are not subjected to excessive moisture. The
water table should be kept at least 1.0 to 1.2 m below the subgrade. In places where
water table is high the best remedy is to take the road formulation on embankment of
height not less than 1.0 to 1.2 m. When the formation is to be at or below the general
ground level, it would be necessary to lower the water table.

(1) If the soil is relatively permeable, it may be possible to lower the high water table
by construction of longitudinal drainage trenches with drain pipe and filter sand. The
top of the trenches is covered with clay seal. The depth of the trench would depend on
i. the required lowering of water table.
ii. distance between the drainage trenches
iii. types of soil

(2) If the soil is relatively less permeable, the lowering of the ground water table may
not be adequate at the center of the pavement. Hence, in addition, transverse drains
may have to be provided in order to effectively drain off the water and thus to lower
the water table.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

Transverse drains are provided at spacing 6 to 20 m and at the slope of 1:5 from center
to the edge of the road.

(b) Controlling seepage flow


When the general ground as well as the impervious strata below are sloping, seepage
flow is likely to exist. If the seepage zone is at depth less than 0.6 to 0.9m from the
subgrade level, longitudinal pipe drain in trench filled with filter material and clay seal
may be constructed to intercept the seepage flow. The figure shows the method by
which the seepage line can be lowered to the desired depth.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

(c) Controlling capillary water

In this method instead of lowering the water table, capillary rise is arrested by the
following methods

(i) A layer of granular material of suitable thickness is provided during the construction
of embankment, between the subgrade and the highest level of subsurface water table.
The thickness of the granular capillary cut off layer should be sufficiently higher than
the anticipated capillary rise within the granular layer so that the capillary water can
not rise above the cut off layer.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

(ii) Another method of providing the capillary cut off is by inserting an impermeable
or a bituminous layer in the place of granular blanket.

Construction of Water Bound Macadam - WBM road


The WBM consists of clean crushed course aggregates which are mechanically
interlocked by rolling and the voids in the aggregates are filled with screenings and
binding materials with the help of water.

This is laid on a prepared subgrade. sub base or base or on an existing pavement. It can
be used as a sub base. base course or surfacing course. Where rainfall is not heavy. A
camber of 1 in 48 is given at the formation level of the subgrade as well as the finished
surface and when rainfall is heavy a camber of 1 in 36 is suggested. (IRC 19-1977).
The thickness of each layer of WBM is about 7.5 cm to 10 cm.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

Materials used for WBM


1. Coarse aggregates
2. Screening
3. Binding materials.
1. Coarse aggregates:
Crushed aggregates, crushed slag, over burnt bricks, Kankar, Laterite, Broken stones
IRC recommendations for size and grading requirements of coarse aggregate &
specification are shown as below.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

2. Screenings
The screenings are used to fill up the voids in the compacted layer of coarse
aggregates. The screenings consist of aggregates of smaller size, generally of the
same material as the coarse aggregates. The grading requirements of screenings for
WBM construction are as below.

3. Binding Materials
Binding material consisting of fine grained material is used in WBM construction
to prevent raveling of the stones. Kanker modules or lime stone dust may also be
used. Binding material should have plasticity index between 4 to 9 when WBM is
used as a surfacing course.

Binding material need not be used where crushable type material like moorum or
soft gravel is used as screenings

Construction method
The following steps are adopted.
1. Preparation of foundation for receiving the WBM course:
The foundation for receiving the new layer of WBM may be either the subgrade or
sub-base course. This foundation layer is prepared to the required grade and camber.
It is also cleaned of all dust and loose materials. Any ruts or soft spots should be
corrected and rolled. The foundation should be well dried. When the existing road
is black topped, furrows are cut at 1 m intervals at 45° to the center line of the
carriage way.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

2. Lateral Confinement of aggregates:


If the aggregates are placed on the subgrade, they are likely to be loosened and come
out under the load of the traffic. Hence, the aggregates have to be confined. This is
done by constructing the shoulders first, to the thickness of the compacted layer of
the WBM (7.5 cm). The inside edges are trimmed and the included area is cleaned
of all spilled materials.

3. Spreading coarse aggregates


The coarse aggregate should spread uniformly and evenly upon the prepared base
in the required quantities Iron the stacks placed along the side of the road. The
aggregates may be spread manually or mechanically and profile checked using
templates placed across the road about 6 m apart. The WBM should be constructed
in layers not more than 75 mm in compacted thickness.

4. Rolling
After spreading the coarse aggregates compaction is done by a three wheeled power
roller of capacity 6 to 10 tonnes. The rolling should begin from edges with the roller
running forward and backward until the edges have been compacted. The roller
should overlap each preceding wheel track by one half width. Rolling is stopped
when the aggregates are partially compacted to permit application of screenings.

5. Application of Screenings
After the coarse aggregates are compacted adequately, the dry screenings are
applied gradually over the surface to fill the interstices in three or more applications.
Dry rolling is continued as the screenings are being spread and brooming carried
out.

6. Sprinkling and grouting


After the application of screenings, the surface is sprinkled with water, swept and
rolled. Wet screenings are swept into the voids using hand brooms. Additional
Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt
PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

screenings are applied where necessary and rolled till the coarse aggregates are well
bonded.

7. Application of binding material


After the application of screenings and rolling, binding material is applied at a
uniform rate at two or more successive thin layers. After each application of binding
material, the surface is copiously sprinkled with water and wet slurry swept with
brooms to fill the voids. This is followed by rolling with 6 to 10 tonnes roller and
water is applied that sticks to the roller.

8. Setting and Drying


After final compaction, the WBM course is allowed to set overnight. On the next
day the hungry spots are located and are filled with screenings or binding material,
lightly sprinkled with water and rolled.
The approximate loose quantities of materials required in m3 for 7.5 m compacted
thickness of WBM for 10 m2 area are
(a) Coarse aggregates (63 to 40 mm) 0.91 to 1.07 m3
(b) Screening (type A) 12.5 mm size 0.18 to 0.21 m3
(c) Binding material for base course - 0.06 to 0.09 m3

Advantages of WBM Roads


1. Initial cost is low,
2. They make use of locally available material and labour.
3. No skilled labours are required.
4. If in good condition it can take a composite traffic of about 900 tonnes per lane
per day.
Disadvantages of WBM Roads
1. Their maintenance lost is high.
2. If WBM surface is poorly maintained. it causes inconvenience and danger to the
traffic
Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt
PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

3. They are permeable to rainwater and it leads to the softening and yielding of
subsoil.
4. The failure of WBM surface mainly occurs due to intensive traffic poor
drainage, dirty binding materials, insufficient foundation etc.
5. Its life is also less.

Construction of Wet Mix Macadam - WMM Road (as per IRC: 109 – 2015)
Wet Mix Macadam (WMM) construction is an improvement upon the conventional
WBM and is intended to be as an alternative and more durable pavement layer.
Wet Mix Macadam is a sub-base/base course of the pavement wherein clean,
crushed graded aggregates and granular material, like, graded coarse sand are
mixed with water and rolled to a dense mass on a prepared surface. The work may
be done in layers. The thickness of an individual layer shall not be less than 75 mm
and can be up to 250 mm.

Aggregate

Physical Requirements

Coarse aggregates shall be crushed stone/crushed gravel, not less than 90 percent
by weight of gravel/shingle retained on 4.75 mm sieve shall have at least two
fractured faces.

If the water absorption value of the coarse aggregates is greater than 2 percent,
soundness test shall be carried out on the material as per 1S:2386 (Part V) with
sodium sulphate which should not exceed 12 %.

Physical Requirement of Coarse Aggregates for Wet-Mix Macadam


Sr.
Test Requirement
No.
1 Los Angeles Abrasion Value 40 percent (Maximum)
2 Aggregate impact Value 30 percent (Maximum)
3 Combined Flakiness and Elongation indices (Total) 35 percent (Maximum)

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

Construction Operations
1. Weather and Seasonal Limitations
The work of laying of wet mix macadam shall not be done during rain.
2. Preparation of the Sub-base/base
The surface of the sub-base/base to receive the WMM course shall be prepared to
the specified lines and cross-fall (camber) and made free of dust and other
extraneous mater.

Any ruts or soft yielding places shall be corrected in an approved manner and rolled
until firm surface is obtained, if necessary by sprinkling water. Laying of WMM
over an existing bituminous surface is not permitted.

3. Provision of Lateral Confinement of Wet Mix Layer


while constructing WMM, arrangement shall be made for the lateral confinement
of wet mix. This shall be done by laying materials of adjoining shoulders along
with that of wet mix layer. The sequence of operations shall be such that the
construction of the shoulder is done in layers each matching the thickness of the
adjoining pavement layer. Only after a layer of pavement and corresponding layers
in shoulder have been laid and compacted, the construction of the next layer of
pavement and shoulder shall be taken up.

4. Preparation of Mix
When the WMM mix is the crusher run material, it shall be stockpiled with the
front end loader. Before sending the mix for laying, the stockpile shall be watered
and homogeneously mixed and loaded to the tipper/dumper. In other case WMM
shall be prepared in an approved mixing plant of suitable capacity requirements. In
exceptional cases, for small quantity of wet mix work, mixing may be done in
ordinary concrete mixer.

Optimum moisture for mixing shall be checked and confirmed as the laboratory
OMC. While adding water, due allowance should be made for evaporation losses.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

However, at the time of compaction, water in the wet mix should not vary by more
than 2%.

5. Transporting and Spreading of Mix


Immediately after mixing, the mixed material shall be transported to site and spread
uniformly and evenly upon the prepared sub-base/base in required quantities.
Hauling of the mix over a freshly completed stretch is not permitted. Transportation
of mix is usually done by tipping trucks. In order to avoid moisture loss in transit
due to evaporation, mix should be covered with tarpaulin. The material is usually
kept wet during transport and laying to reduce the likelihood of particle
segregation. The mix may be spread by a paver finisher. However, in case of
multilayer construction the bottom layer may be allowed to be laid by motor grader.
6. Compaction
After the mix has been laid to the required thickness, grade and cross-fall/camber,
the same shall be uniformly compacted to the full depth with a suitable roller. The
speed of roller shall not exceed 5 km/hr. Formulation of compaction methodology
to meet the compaction requirements of the Specifications shall be based on trial
section.

In portions having unidirectional crossfall/superelevation, rolling shall commence


from lower edge and progress gradually towards the upper edge. Thereafter roller
should progress parallel to the centerline of the road, uniformly overlapping each
preceding track by at least one third width until the entire surface has been rolled
and portions in camber, rolling should begin at the edge with the roller running
forward and backward until the edge has been compacted firmly. The roller then
progresses gradually towards the center parallel to centerline of the road uniformly
overtopping each of the proceeding track by at least one third width. The process
of compaction is then to be repeated from the other edge of the pavement up to the
center line until the entire pavement is compacted.
Rolling should not be done when the subgrade is soft or yielding or when it causes
a wave-like motion in the sub-base/base coarse or subgrade. If irregularities
Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt
PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

develop during rolling which exceed 12 mm when tested with a 3-meter straight
edge, the surface should be loosened and premixed material added or removed as
required before rolling again so as to achieve a uniform surface conforming to the
desired grade and cross-fall. In no case should the use of unmixed material be
permitted to make up the depressions.

All loose, segregated or otherwise defective areas shall be made good to the full
thickness of the layers and re-compacted until the specified density is achieved
through -out the entire layer.

7. Setting and Drying


The laid wet mix macadam course shall be allowed to dry for 24 hours before
priming.

Stabilization
Soil stabilization is the process of improving the shear strength parameters of soil
and thus increasing its bearing capacity in road construction. It is required when
the soil available for construction is not suitable to carry structural load. Generally,
soils exhibit undesirable engineering properties unless they are treated to enhance
their physical properties. Stabilization can increase the shear strength of a soil and
control its shrink-swell properties, thereby improving the load bearing capacity of
a sub-grade to support pavement and its foundations. Soil stabilization is used to
reduce permeability and compressibility of the soil mass in earth structures and to
increase its shear strength. Mixing additives, positively affecting the strength,
improving and maintaining the soil moisture content can be achieved by
stabilization.

Lime Stabilization
2 to 10 % of lime is added to the soil
Lime stabilization is suitable only for clayey soils. It decreases swelling potential
and swelling pressures in clays. i.e. Black cotton soils.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

Adding lime to soils produces maximum dry density under a higher optimum
moisture content then in the untreated soil.
Lime produces a decrease in plasticity index of soil.
The improvement in strength is partly due to the decrease in plastic properties of
clay and partly to the pozzolanic reaction of lime with soil.
Lime is also used with fly ash. The fly ash content may vary from 10 to 20% and
the percent of lime may lie between 3 to 6 %.

Construction method:
The subgrade is prepared.
The soil to be stabilized is excavated iron borrow pits and pulverised.
Part of the lime (3 to 7 %) and part of fly ash (10 to 20 %) are mixed as dry powder.
The mixture is allowed to age for a day 1.e. preconditioning of soil makes the
pulverisation process easier and is remixed.
The rest of the lime, fly ash is added and water added if necessary.
The mix is spread and compacted to desired grade and camber.
The soil lime fly ash is cured by preventing drying.
Field tests are conducted to check the moisture content during compaction and dry
density after compaction.

Cement Stabilization
❖ About 5 to 14 % cement is added to the soil and sprinkled with water. As the
cement hydrates, the mixture becomes hard, durable structural material.
❖ The main use has been to build stabilized bases under concrete pavements for
highways and airfields. Soil cement mixtures are also used to provide wave
protection on earth dams.
❖ Well graded soil containing gravel, coarse and fine sand will require 5% cement
by weight. Plastic clays require 149% cement by weight.
Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt
PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

❖ Better the pulverization and degree of mixing higher is the strength. Presence of
unpulverised dry lumps of soil reduces strength and durability.
❖ There is an OMC corresponding to the maximum value of dry density or strength
of a soil cement mix. The moisture that is added for adequate compaction is more
than enough for the purpose of hydration of cement.
❖ There are various useful additives which improve the properties of soil cement.
❖ E.g. Lime for clayey soil, sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, calcium chloride.

Construction Method
The subgrade & subbase is prepared
The soil to be used is collected from nearby borrow pits. It is pulverized in mixing
plant and placed on subgrade
The cement is then added and mixed dry.
Water is sprayed and remixed.
It is then spread and compacted to desired grade and camber.
The surface is cured by preventing the moisture from escaping by covering with
paper or by moist soil.

Binder Course & Surface course


1. Prime Coat
when a bituminous surface has to be laid on an absorbent or porous surface such as
WBM, then a bituminous prime coat has to be first laid prior to laying the
superimposed layer.
Objectives of applying Prime Coat:
1. To plug the capillary voids in the surface.
2. To harden the surface by binding dust and loose particles.
3. To promote adhesion between it and the super imposed layer.

The prime coat consists of low viscosity liquid bituminous materials like cutback MC
(Medium curing) and SC (Slow curing). which will enter the voids of the surface.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

Construction procedure
● The surface to be primed should be swept, clean free from dust and should be dry.
● Large pot holes, depressions should be repaired before priming.
● The bituminous primer is sprayed uniformly over the dry surface at the rate of 7.3 to
14.6 kg per 10 m2 area using mechanical sprayer.
● The primed surface should be allowed to care for 24 hours. Traffic should not be
allowed until it is cured.

2. Tack Coat
● When a bituminous surface has to be laid on an existing black top or a cement concrete
pavement, then the bonding is provided by a tack coat.
● Tack coat may also be provided on the WBM surface which has already been treated
by a prime coat.
● Tack coat is usually applied by spraying bituminous material of higher viscosity like
the hot bitumen at the rate of 4.9 to 9.8 kg per 10 m2 area.
● The tack serves the same functions as a prime coat.

3. Seal Coat
A seal coat consists of a single coat of a very thin surface applied over certain
bituminous pavements such as bituminous bond macadam, Grouted macadam premix
carpet etc. which are not impervious.
The main functions of seal coat are
(a) to seal the surface against the ingress of water.
(b) to develop skid resistance texture.
(c) to repair an existing road

There are two types of seal coats:


1. Premixed seal coat 2. Liquid Seal coat

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

Premixed Seal Coat


In the areas of low rainfall, a premixed seal coat is applied over the carpet. For this
purpose, a medium coarse sand passing 1.7 mm sieve and retained on 1.18 mm sieve
is used at the rate of 0.06 m per 10 m2 area. The binder required for this purpose is 6.8
kg per 10 m2 area of the road surface. This layer is rolled by a light tandem roller to
give a smooth finished surface. The road may be opened to traffic 24 hours after
providing the seal coat or surface dressing.

Liquid seal coat


In the areas of heavy rain fall a liquid seal coat is applied over the carpet. In this, a hot
bitumen is sprayed on the existing surface at the rate of 9.8 kg per 10 m2 area. On this
bitumen, grit of 6 mm size is spread at the rate of 0.09 m per 10 m2 area and rolled by
a light tandem roller.

Bituminous Mix

Bituminous mix is aims to produce a mix which is more workable, strong, durable and
economical.

Different bituminous layers in a pavement


Bituminous base course: Consist of mineral aggregate such as stone, gravel, or sand
bonded together by a bituminous material and used as a foundation upon which to place
a binder or surface course.
Bituminous binder course: A bituminous-aggregate mixture used as an intermediate
coarse between the base and surface courses or as the first bituminous layer in a two-
layer bituminous resurfacing. It is sometimes called a leveling course.

Asphaltic/Bituminous concrete: Bituminous concrete consists of a mixture of


aggregates continuously graded from maximum size , typically less than 25 mm,
through fine filler that is smaller than 0.075 mm. Sufficient bitumen is added to the

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

mix so that the compacted mix is effectively impervious and will have acceptable
dissipative and elastic properties.

Requirements of Bituminous mixes


Stability
Stability is defined as the resistance of the paving mix to deformation under traffic
load. Two examples of failure are (i) shoving - a transverse rigid deformation which
occurs at areas subject to severe acceleration and (ii) grooving - longitudinal ridging
due to channelization of traffic. Stability depend on the inter-particle friction, primarily
of the aggregates and the cohesion offered by the bitumen. Sufficient binder must be
available to coat all the particles at the same time should offer enough liquid friction.
However, the stability decreases when the binder content is high and when the particles
are kept apart.

Durability
Durability is defined as the resistance of the mix against weathering and abrasive
actions. Weathering causes hardening due to loss of volatiles in the bitumen. Abrasion
is due to wheel loads which causes tensile strains. Typical examples of failure are (i)
pot-holes, - deterioration of pavements locally and (ii) stripping, lost of binder from
the aggregates and aggregates are exposed. Disintegration is minimized by high binder
content since they cause the mix to be air and waterproof and the bitumen film is more
resistant to hardening.
Flexibility
Flexibility is a measure of the level of bending strength needed to counteract traffic
load and prevent cracking of surface. Fracture is the cracks formed on the surface
(hairline-cracks, alligator cracks), main reasons are shrinkage and brittleness of the
binder. Shrinkage cracks are due to volume change in the binder due to aging.
Brittleness is due to repeated bending of the surface due to traffic loads. Higher
bitumen content will give better flexibility and less fracture.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

Skid resistance
It is the resistance of the finished pavement against skidding which depends on the
surface texture and bitumen content. It is an important factor in high speed traffic.
Normally, an open graded coarse surface texture is desirable.

Workability
Workability is the ease with which the mix can be laid and compacted, and formed to
the required condition and shape. This depends on the gradation of aggregates, their
shape and texture, bitumen content and its type. Angular, flaky, and elongated
aggregates workability. On the other hand, rounded aggregates improve workability.

Desirable properties
The desirable properties of a bituminous mix can be summarized as follows:
⮚ Stability to meet traffic demand
⮚ Bitumen content to ensure proper binding and water proofing
⮚ Voids to accommodate compaction due to traffic
⮚ Flexibility to meet traffic loads, esp. in cold season
⮚ Sufficient workability for construction
⮚ Economical mix

Different Bituminous Mixes


There are various types of bitumen mixes with aggregates for pavement construction.
Applications of these bitumen mixes for pavements is discussed below. Based on the
nature of gradation selected for the bitumen mixes, they can be classified into:
Dense Graded Bitumen Mixes

Semi-Dense Graded Bitumen Mixes

Open Graded Bitumen Mixes

Gap Graded Bitumen Mixes

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

Dense Graded Bitumen Mixes for Pavements


These mixes possess continuous gradation of all primary aggregates. These particles
are packed together. Here inter-particle surface friction is the reason behind their
property of strength gain.
● All most all possible flexible pavements constructed in the world employ dense
graded bitumen mixes.

There are two main types of dense graded mix used. They are:

● Dense Bitumen Macadam (DBM)

● Bituminous Concrete(BC)

Dense Bitumen Mixes


This mix is mainly employed for base course and the binder course. This itself consist
of two gradations; Grading-1 and Grading-2. Grading-1 has 37.5mm as the nominal
maximum aggregate size (NMAS). While Grading-2 have NMAS of 25mm.

The fine aggregate percentages in both the grading are same in a range of 28 to 42%.
The main criteria that differ both the grading are that the grading 1 consist of large size
particles i.e. 25 mm to 45 mm.

The grading-1 with NMAS of 37.5 mm has many disadvantages like segregation. This
segregation will later result in honeycombing. At lower air-void levels, these mixes
become permeable compared to the grading 2, with NMAS of 25mm.

Hence, the grading-1 causes problems related to water exposure. With the increase of
NMAS, the permeability will increase the multi-fold at a present void level condition.

Bituminous Concrete Mixes (BC)


The bituminous concrete mix is used in two forms: Grade-1 and Grade-2. Grade-1 with
NMAS of 19mm. The Grade-2 of 13mm as the NMAS.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

From the above description about dense bitumen mixes, it was clear that dense bitumen
mix grade-2 have larger use as the base course due to its fewer disadvantages compared
to dense bitumen mix Grade-1. This hence was necessary to determine a grade for the
binder and the surface course.

The bituminous concrete grading-1 with nominal maximum aggregate size 19mm as
the binder course binds the base course (dense bitumen mix Grade-1) as well as the
wearing course bituminous concrete grade-2 of nominal maximum aggregate size
13mm, with NMAS 19 mm employed as a transition. The bituminous concrete
grading-2 is good to be used as a wearing course.

To facilitate medium and low traffic, a bituminous concrete grade of nominal


maximum aggregate size 9.5 mm was necessary to considered for the construction of
smooth and impermeable pavement in urban areas.

To facilitate thin asphalt lifts, bituminous concrete grading-3 is more suitable than
grade-2. The bituminous concrete grade-2 of NMAS 9.5mm has been efficiently used
in the highway construction for the US. For higher traffic BC grade-2 are
recommended.

Semi-Dense Graded Bitumen Mixes

The two types of semi-bituminous mixes used in the pavement construction in India
are;

● Semi-Dense Bituminous Concrete (SDBC)

● Mixed Sealed Surfacing (MSS)

Semi-Dense Bituminous Concrete (SDBC)


The semi-dense bituminous concrete mixes have neither dense or open graded
characteristics. It consists of the so-called pessimism voids when they are fully
constructed.
Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt
PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

The word is an anonym of optimum. So, it is advised to make the mix get rid of
pessimism voids. These tend to capture moisture or water that will later cause stripping.

When the semi dense bituminous concrete is employed above the bitumen macadam
(BM) layer, there are chances for the penetration of rainwater through the SDBC and
reach the BM.

This will create the separation of aggregate and the bitumen in the BM layer. This will
cause stripping and the scaling of SDBC. The scaling later with time will result in the
potholes on the road.

Mixed Seal Surfacing (MSS)

The Mixed Seal Surfacing design mix is based on the IRC: SP:78-2008. This is an
alternative used for the premix carpet (PMC). Both the PMC and the MSS are
employed in 20mm thickness.

There are two gradations that are specified for the mixed seal surfacing mix. They
are

● Type A – Closed Gradation with an NMAS value of 9.5mm

● Type B- Open Gradation with an NMAS value of 9.5mm or 12mm


The aggregate grading for the MSS mix is mentioned in below table.
Table: Aggregate Grading for Mixed Seal Surfacing Mix

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

Open Graded Bitumen Mixes

The open graded Bitumen Mixes have fine aggregates in a minimum amount, hence
they are very permeable to water. They are employed based on specific functions in
the base and for surface mixes.

Bituminous Macadam (BM)


This work shall consist of construction in a single course having 50 mm to 100 mm
thickness or in multiple courses of compacted crushed aggregates premixed with a
bituminous binder on a previously prepared base to the required specifications. The
BM have high potential to attract water and moisture within the pavement system.
Therefore adjacent layer of pavement i.e. shoulders should have proper drainage
quality to prevent moisture induced damage to the bituminous macadam.

In bituminous macadam mix, the bitumen to be used would depend upon the climatic
conditions and traffic. While, the coarse aggregate shall consist of crushed rock,
crushed gravel or other hard material retained on 2.36 mm sieve. Where the crushed
gravel is proposed for use as aggregate, not less than 90% by weight of the crushed
material retained on 4.75 mm sieve that shall have at least two fractured faces resulting
from crushing operation.

The fine aggregate consist of crushed or naturally occurring mineral material, or a


combination of two passing 2.36 mm sieve and retained on 75 micron sieve. The
natural sand shall not be used in the binder course. The binder content shall be within
a tolerance of ± 0.3 % by weight of total mix.

The void content is 20 to 25% higher than the dense graded bitumen (DBM). The DBM
have a void content of 3 to 5%.

Pre-Mix Surfacing (PMS)

The PMS is laid as a wearing course with a thickness of 20 mm. The mix will compose
two single size aggregates. One is the aggregate that is passing through 22.4 mm and

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

that will retain in 11.2 mm. The second aggregate type will pass through 13.2 mm and
retain on 5.6 mm sieve. The aggregate are premixed with bituminous binder on a
previously prepared base, in accordance with the requirements. In PMS, respect to the
climate and the traffic intensities, the viscosity grade bitumen are employed. It can be
either VG-10 or VG-30.

For the preparation of premix, hot mix plant of appropriate capacity and type shall be
used for the preparation of the mix material. The hot mix plant shall have separate
dryer arrangement for heating aggregate. The difference in temperature between the
binder and aggregate shall at no time exceed 14° C. Mixing shall be thorough to ensure
that a homogenous mix is obtained in which all particles of the aggregates are coated
uniformly. The mix shall be transported from the mixer to the point of use in suitable
vehicles or hand borrows.
Based on the aggregate and aggregate application rates that are specified in IRC: 14-
2004, in “Recommended Practice for Open Graded Premix Carpet”, the bitumen
content by weight of mix is 3.3%.

Surface Dressing

As per IRC:110 -2005,” Specification and Code of Practice for Design & Construction
of Surface Dressing”. The surface dressing work involves the process of spraying of
bitumen or the rapid setting cationic emulsion of one or two coats. This is applied over
an aggregate layer of appropriate size and gradation. Grade of bitumen shall depend
upon the climatic condition. The size of the aggregate shall depend upon the type of
surface on which it is laid and the traffic intensity. Surface dressing does not increase
the structural strength.
The surface dressing has the following significances and objectives:

● The surface dressing will provide a dust free wearing course over a granular base
course that act similar to a water bound macadam (WBM) or a wet mixed Macadam
(WMM).

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

● The surface Dressing will help in providing impermeability for water percolation for
the road surface.

● Surface Dressing provide high friction for the riding surface

● This will provide a renewal coat for periodic maintenance of bituminous wearing
surfaces.

Gap Graded Bitumen Mixes


The Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA) is the most commonly used gap graded bituminous
mixes. With the increasing traffic and the high pressure of tires of the vehicles will
give large stresses to the road pavement. The roads are subjected to overloading
conditions in certain cases.

The stone matrix asphalt mix is tough, highly stable in structure and rut resistant
asphalt mix. These systems rely on the stone to stone contact that will facilitate in
strength. The rich mortar used in the system will provide better durability.

The advantages of stone matrix asphalt mix are

● Surface Frictional Resistance are improved

● The noise is reduced.

● Compared to the conventional dense graded asphalt mix, the night visibility is
reduced.

The performance of the SMA pavements that are constructed in India has performed
well. Compared to bitumen concrete, the cost for stone matrix asphalt mix has been
found to be 25 to 30% higher. The increased cost of the SMA material is due to its
composing materials like cellulose fibre, modified binder, and the binder content.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

Rigid Pavement
Construction of Rigid Pavement (Cement concrete road)
Cement concrete road construction is one of the types of low volume road construction.
The construction of the road is mostly dependent upon the factor like amount traffic
that is to be handled by the road after its completion.
On most of the village roads connecting small villages in the rural areas of the country,
the type of vehicular traffic is quite different from the traffic on other highways.
The traffic passing on a road can be categorized into three categories as light
commercial traffics, medium commercial traffics and heavy commercial traffics, but
the frequency of each class of traffic varies with the road.

Subgrade preparation
Subgrade preparation involves cleaning, earthwork (excavation or filling of soil,
replacement of weak soil, soil stabilization etc.) and compaction. Where the concrete
layer is laid directly over the subgrade, the subgrade is moist at the time concrete is
placed. If the subgrade is dry, water could be sprinkled over the surface before laying
any concrete course, however, care should be taken so that soft patches or water pools
are not formed at the surface. Subgrade is properly drained with considering minimum
modulus of subgrade reaction as 5.54 Kg/cm2.

Construction of Base/ Sub-base


A base/ sub-base to the concrete pavement provides uniform and reasonably firm
support, prevents mud-pumping, and acts as capillary cut-off. Sub-base/base for
concrete pavement could be constituted with brick flat soling, WBM, granular
aggregates, crushed concrete, slag, stabilized soil etc. sub-base could be of three types
with
(i) Granular material (for example, brick soling with one layer of sand under it,
WBM, well graded granular materials etc.) One layer flat brick soling having joints
filled with sand under one layer of water bound macadam conforming to IRC:19-2005.
Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt
PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

(ii) Stabilized soil


Local soil or mooram stabilized with lime or lime-fly ash or cement, as appropriate to
give a minimum soaked CBR of 50 after 7 days curing.
(iii) Semi-rigid material (for example, lime burnt clay pozzolana concrete, lime fly-
ash concrete, lean cement concrete roller compacted concrete etc.).

Thickness of sub-base should be 15 cm when the material used is granular material or


stabilized soil. However, this thickness would be reduced to 10 cm for semi rigid
material. The sub base should be constructed in accordance with the respective
specification and the surface finished to the required lines, levels and cross section.
The layers should be kept moist when cement concrete is placed.

Placing of Forms
1. The steel or wooden forms are used.
2. The steel forms are M.S. Channel sections and their depts. Is equal to thickness of
pavement and length at least 3m except on curves < 45m radius.
3. Wooden forms are dressed on side; these have minimum base width of 100n for slab
thickness or 20cm.
4. The forms are jointed neatly and are set with exactness to the required grade and
alignment.

Batching of Material & Mixing


1. The proportioned mixture is placed in weigh batching plant.
2. All batching of material is done on the basis of one or more whole bags of cement,
weight of one bag is 50 kg or unit weight of cement is taken as 1440 Kg/m3.
3. The mixing of concrete is done in batch mixer. So that uniform distribution, uniform
is color and homogenous mix is obtained.
4. The batch of cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate is led together into the mixer.
Water for mixing is introduced into the drum within fifteen seconds of mixing.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

Transportation & Placing of Concrete


1. The cement concrete is mixed in quantities required for immediate use.
2. It should be seen that no segregation of materials results while transporting.
3. Spreading is done uniformly; certain amount of redistribution is done with shovels

Compaction and surface finishing


Concrete is spread evenly and is rodded with suitable equipment such that formation
of honey-combing or voids can be avoided. At the same time, over-compacting needs
to be avoided, which can cause segregation and loss of entrained air. The surface of
pavement is compacted either by means of power driven finishing machine or by
vibrating hand screed. Areas where width of slab is small, hand consolidation and
finishing is adopted. The concrete is further compacted by longitudinal float. It is help
parallel to carriage way and passed gradually from one site to other. The slab surface
is tested for its grade and level with straight edge.

Texturing
Finished concrete has a smooth surface; texturing of concrete surface is done to impart
required skid resistance to the concrete surface. The texturing is done by means of wire
brushing or grooving along the transverse direction. Initial texturing may be done at
the time of construction of the paver itself. Final texturing is done no sooner the sheen
of the concrete surface goes off.

Concrete curing
Curing is a process in which requisite moisture content and temperature is maintained
so that concrete achieves its design strength through hydration of cement.
Initial curing – The surface of pavement is entirely covered with burlap cotton or jute
mats prior to placing it is saturated with water and wet side is placed on pavement.
Final curing – Curing with wet soil exposed edges of slabs are banked with soil berm.
A blanket of sandy soil free from stones is placed. The soil is thoroughly kept saturated
with water for 14 days.
Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt
PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

In impervious membrane method, use of impervious membrane which does not impart
a slippery surface to the pavement is used. Liquid is applied under pressure with a
spray nozzle to cover the entire surface with a uniform film. It hardness within 30
minutes after its application. The liquid applied immediately after surface finishing.
When the concrete attains the required strength or after 28 days of curing the concrete
road is opened to traffic.

DRY LEAN CONCRETE


Dry Lean Concrete is a mixture in which the amount of cement is less than the amount
of liquid that is present in the layers. It ideal as a base layer on which other types of
concrete are placed on top. It is good for a flat surface on uneven or dirty terrain.

Concrete with high water content is considered thin because it has a lower cement
concentration compared to other types of paving and building materials of this class.
It is often used as a patch between bricks or other pieces of infrastructure to create a
tight seal.

Dry Lean concrete bursts over time if it is not correctly applied or mixed according to
the correct specifications. Careful preparation is the key to the success of dry lean
concrete. Dry Lean Concrete is an important part of the modern rigid floor. It is smooth
concrete with a large proportion of aggregate in relation to cement than conventional
concrete and is generally used as a base/sub-base for hard paving.

Dry Lean Concrete consists of crushed sand, cement, water and sometime fly ash. The
DLC is a sub-base for concrete pavements; the minimum cement content in lean
concrete must not be less than 150 kg/cum concrete (according to MORTH). In case
fly ash is blended at site as part replacement of cement, the quantity of fly ash shall not
be more than 20 % by weight of cementitious material and the content of OPC shall
not be less than 120 kg/cum. The DLC plate must have an average thickness of 150
mm.
Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt
PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

The main advantages of using DLC as a base layer include the provision of a uniform
and strong support, high resistance to deformation, greater efficiency in the load
transfer in the joints, adequate fixation of the formwork and proper positioning of the
boom cradles to semi-construction – mechanized construction equipment during the
DLC.

Advantages of Dry Lean Concrete


1. Provides even and stronger support to the hard floor.
2. It has a high resistance to deformation.
3. It has excellent improved load transfer efficiency at the joints.
4. Helps in all weather conditions.
5. There is a final reduction in the depth of the slab due to the DLC as a base layer.

Construction Procedure:
Preparation of designed Dry lean concrete mix
♦ Trial mixes of dry lean concrete shall be prepared with moisture contents of 5.0, 5.5,
6.0, 6.5 and 7.0 % using acceptable cement-aggregate ratio.
♦ Optimum moisture content and density shall be established by preparing cubes with
varying moisture contents.
♦ Compaction of the mix shall be done in three layers with a vibratory hammer fitted
with a square or rectangular foot.
♦ After establishing the optimum moisture, a set of six cubes shall be cast at that moisture
for determination of compressive strength at 3 & 7 days. Trial mixes shall be repeated
if the strength is not satisfactory either by increasing cement content or using higher
grade of cement.
The cube specimen prepared with the desirable moisture content should satisfy the
strength requirement. Before the production of the mix, the natural moisture content of
the aggregate should be determined on a day to day basis, so that the moisture content
could be adjusted. The final designed mix should neither stick to the roller nor become
too dry that results in raveling of the surface.
Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt
PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

The dry lean concrete shall be laid on the prepared granular drainage layer. The dry
lean concrete sub base shall be overlaid with concrete pavement only after 7 days of
sub base construction.
Batching & Mixing
The batching plant shall be capable of separately proportioning each type of material
by weight. The capacity of the batching and mixing plant shall be at least 25% higher
than the proposed capacity for the laying arrangements. The batching & mixing shall
be carried out preferably in a forced action central batching and mixing plant having
necessary automatic controls to ensure accurate proportioning and mixing. Calibration
of the batching and mixing plant shall be carried out at regular intervals, normally
every month.
Transporting
Plant mixed dry lean mix concrete shall be discharged immediately from the mixer,
transported directly to the point where it is to be laid and protected from the weather
by covering with tarpaulin during transit. The concrete shall be transported by tipping
trucks, sufficient in number to ensure a continuous supply of material to feed the laying
equipment to work at a uniform speed and in an uninterrupted manner.
Placing
Lean concrete shall be laid by a hydrostatic paver. The equipment shall be capable of
laying the material in one layer in an even manner without segregation so that after
compaction the total thickness can be achieved as per design. The laying of the two
lane road, shall be done in full width. For a pavement more than two lanes, the
operation may be carried out by two pavers separated by appropriate distance 0f about
15-20 m.
Compaction
The compaction shall be carried out immediately after the material is laid and levelled.
In order to ensure thorough compaction, rolling shall be continued on the full width.
Rolling shall commence on the lower edge of camber and proceed towards the outer
edge.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

The spreading, compacting and finishing of the lean concrete shall be carried out as
rapidly as possible and the operation shall be arranged so as to ensure that the time
between mixing of the first batch of concrete and the compaction and the finishing of
the same layer shall not exceed 90 minutes when the temperature of concrete is
between 25˚C - 30˚C. However, if the temperature is less than 25˚C, the time limit is
exceeding to 120 minutes but in no case it exceeds 120 minutes. This work shall not
be proceed when the temperature of the concrete exceeds 30˚C. For the compaction,
required number of roller passing to obtain maximum compaction depends on the
thickness of the lean concrete, compactibility of the mix and the weight and type of
roller etc. After compaction has been completed, roller shall not stand on the
compacted surface for the duration of the curing period except during commencement
of next day's work near the location where work was terminated the previous day.
Curing
As soon as the lean concrete surface is achieved, curing shall be commenced. Curing
shall be done by covering the surface by hessian cloth in two layers which shall be kept
continuously moist for 7 days by sprinkling water. If water-curing is not possible, the
curing shall be done by spraying with liquid curing compound. The curing compound
shall be white pigmented type with water retention index of minimum 90%. Curing
compound shall be sprayed immediately after rolling is complete. As soon as the curing
compound has lost its tackiness, the surface shall be covered with wet hessian for 3
days. After curing it for 7 days, a necessary test has to be performed and then the road
kept open for the traffic.

Joints in Rigid Pavement


NECCESSITY:
1. Expansion, contraction and warping of concrete slabs resulting from temperature
and moisture changes.
2. To facilitate a break in the construction at the end of day’s work or for any
unexpected interruption to work progress.
3. To construct pavements in lanes of convenient width.
Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt
PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

Joints are the discontinuities in the concrete pavement slab, and help to release stresses
due to temperature variation, subgrade moisture variation, shrinkage of concrete etc.
Joints are purposefully in a rigid pavement surface course. All types of joints are used
in rigid pavement construction methods for all PCC (Portland Cement Concrete)
pavement types.
Joints shall be constructed depending upon their functional requirement. The location
of the joints should be transferred accurately at the site and should be cut as per the
dimensions. It shall be ensured that the required depth of cut is made from edge to edge
of the pavement. Joints in the pavement and dry lean concrete sub base shall be
staggered so that they are not coincident vertically and 300 to 400 mm apart
respectively. Sawing of joints shall be carried out with diamond studded blades soon
after the concrete has hardened to take the load of sawing machine and crew members
without damaging the texture of the pavement. Sawing operation could start as early
as 4 to 8 hours after laying of concrete pavement but not later than 8 to 12 hours.

Joints can be formed in two ways. Contraction joints are most often sawed in after PCC
placement. Others such as expansion, isolation and construction joints, are created by
formwork before the PCC is placed. Each one of these methods of joint construction
has its own method and set of considerations.

Types of joints in Rigid Pavement


There are basically two types of joints in rigid pavement i.e. Transverse joints and
Longitudinal Joints.
 Transverse Joints
The joints which are provided in the transverse direction or perpendicular to the
center line of road are known as Transverse Joints.
According to the function of joints transverse joints are classified as
1. Expansion Joints
2. Contraction Joints
3. Construction Joints
Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt
PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

Contraction joint
Contraction joints regulate the location of the cracking caused by dimensional changes
in the slab. Unregulated cracks can grow and result in an unacceptably rough surface
as well as water infiltration into the base, subbase and subgrade, which can enable
other types of pavement distress. Contraction joints are the most common type of joint
in concrete pavements, thus the generic term “joint” generally refers to a contraction
joint.

Contraction joints are provided along the transverse direction to take care of the
contraction of concrete slab due to its natural shrinkage and also to permit the
contraction of the slab, due to fall in temperature. These joints are spaced closer than
expansion joints. Load transfer at the joints is provided through the physical
interlocking by the aggregates projecting out of the joint faces. As per IRC
specification the maximum spacing of contraction joints in unreinforced cement
concrete slabs is 4.5 m and in reinforced slab of thickness 20 cm is 14 m.

Figure: Contraction Joints in Rigid Pavement


As compared to full depth in case of expansion joints, the contraction joints are usually
taken up to about 1/3 the thickness of slab so as to provide a weak section which due
to shrinkage of slab gets easily cracked. Thus the cracking of slab is localized and it is
prevented from progressing further. The use of dowel bars in the contraction joints is
optional.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

Construction joint
Construction joints are provided whenever the construction work stops temporarily at
the end of the day or suspended for more than 30 minutes. If the road construction
stops or discontinued at the transverse, expansion or contraction joints, there will be
no need for the construction joints. If sufficient concrete has not been mixed to form a
slab extending up to a contraction joint and if an interruption occurs, the placed
concrete shall be removed up to the last preceding joint. The joint direction could be
either along the transverse or longitudinal direction. Longitudinal construction joints
also allow slab warping without appreciable separation or cracking of the slabs. These
joints shall be provided at location of contraction joints using dowel bars. Workers
manually insert dowel bars into the construction joint at the end of the work day.
Construction joints should be planned so that they coincide with contraction joint
spacing to eliminate extra joints.

Expansion joint
When the temperature of the pavement increases, the slab expands and if there is no
provision to free space or gap for such expansion the slab will be subjected to
compressive stresses and may also cause upward buckling. So by providing the much
needed gap, expansion joints relieve these stresses. The gap is maintained by being
filled up with a compressible material and sealing at the surface with a flexible sealing
compound to prevent the ingress of water. As the joints opening is usually 20 mm,
there is no aggregate interlock and hence a load transfer device becomes necessary.
This is done by the provision of dowel bars. Expansion joints also permit contraction
and warping of the slab. Expansion joints are provided along the transverse direction
to allow movement (expansion/ contraction) of the concrete slab due to temperature
and subgrade moisture variation.

 Longitudinal Joints
A longitudinal joint is required in all pavements wider than 16 feet. If two adjacent
lanes are poured at the same time, a longitudinal joint is sawed. Tie bars, when
Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt
PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

required, are placed perpendicular to the longitudinal joint and parallel to the grade.
Tie bars may be machine placed during paving or secured with chairs prior to paving.
When tie bars are required along the form line or the edge of a slip-formed lane, bent
bars are used. Bent bars are tie bars bent at a 60° angle. These bars are straightened
after the concrete sets so that they extend into an adjacent lane. Special care is required
to be taken when the tie bars are inserted in the side of a slip formed pavement to assure
no detrimental edge slump is caused by this operation.

Some longitudinal joints require the use of a keyway with no tie bars. Keyways may
be trapezoidal or semi-circular in shape. They are used when an adjacent pavement is
expected to move independently and the two pavements cannot be tied together. The
keyway, prevents any differential settlement of either pavement.

Longitudinal sawed joints are cut with a power concrete saw concurrently with the
contraction joints. The plans and/or Standards drawings are required to be checked for
the proper depth, width, line, and type of seal.

Interlocking Concrete Block Pavement (ICBP)


Concrete block pavement was introduced in The Netherlands in the early 1950s as a
replacement for baked clay brick roads. Blocks were rectangular in shape and had more
or less the same size as the bricks. In earlier days non-interlocking bricks were used
but now interlocking bricks were used. ICBP gives excellent performance when
applied at locations where conventional systems have lower service life due to a
number of geological, traffic, environmental and operational constraints. Many
number of such applications for light, medium, heavy and very heavy traffic conditions
are currently in practice around the world.

 Advantages of ICBP
1. Since the blocks are prepared in the factory, they are of a very high quality thus
avoiding the difficulties encountered in quality control in the field.
Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt
PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

2. Concrete block pavements restrict the speed of vehicles to about 60 km per hour, which
is an advantage in city streets and intersections.
3. ICBP pavements are well skid resistant as it is having rough surface.
4. The block pavements are ideal for intersections where speeds have to be restricted and
cornering stresses are high.

5. The digging and re-installment of trenches for repairing is easier in the case of block
pavement.
6. These pavements are unaffected by the spillage of oil from vehicles, and are ideal for
bus stops, bus depots and parking areas.
7. Since the concrete blocks are grey in colour, they reflect light better then the black
bituminous pavements, thus bringing down the cost of street lighting.
8. They are preferred in heavily loaded areas like container depots and ports as they can
be very well designed to withstand the high stresses induced there.
9. In India, the laying of concrete block pavements can be achieved at a low cost because
of the availability of cheap labour.
10. The cost of maintenance is much lower than a bituminous surface.
11. Block pavement does not need in-situ curing and so can be opened to traffic soon after
completion of construction.
12. Construction of block pavement is simple and labour intensive and can be done using
simple compaction equipment.
13. Maintenance of block pavement is simple and easy. Also the need for frequency of
maintenance is low as compared to bituminous pavement.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

14. Structurally round blocks can be recycled many times over.


15. Unlike concrete pavements, block pavement does not exhibit very deterioration effect
due to thermal expansion and contraction and are free from the cracking phenomenon.
16. Use of permeable block pavement in cities and towns can help replenish depleting
underground sources of water, filter pollutants before they reach open water sources,
help to reduce storm water runoff and decrease the quantum of drainage structures.

 Limitations
1. Quality control of blocks at the factory premises is a prerequisite for durable "ICBP"
2. Any deviations of the base course profile will be reflected on the "ICBP" surface.
Hence extra care needs to be taken to fix the same.
3. High quality and gradation of coarse bedding sand and joint filling material are
essential for good performance.
4. ICBP over an unbound granular base course is susceptible to the adverse effects of
poor drainage and will deteriorate faster.
5. ICBP is not suited for high speed roads (speed above 60 km/h)

 Procedure of Laying ICBP


Step 1 - Leveling and Compaction of sub grade
The preparation of sub grade should be graded to a tolerance of ± 20 mm of design
levels and its surface evenness should have tolerance of 15 mm under a 3 m straight
edge. Moisture content in the sub grade material will affect the strength. Hence water
table should not be at a level of 600 mm or higher below the sub grade level. In case
of soils like clay and silt, moisture must be removed before further rolling. After that
it is covered with a thin layer of dense base course. The layer is then rolled.
Stabilization of sub grade with lime or cement may also increase the strength of sub
grade.
Sub grade should be compacted in layers either 150 or 100 mm thickness as per IRC
guidelines.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

Step 2 - Installation of sub surface drainage works


Normally drains are sub surface drains and must be surrounded by either filter
aggregate or geotextiles to avoid washing of bedding and jointing sand. Except
pedestrian open areas, the pavement surface should have a cross fall of at least 3 % and
top of the blocks next to
drainage channels should be at least 10 mm above the lip of the channel. In pedestrian
open areas, the pavement surface should have a cross fall of at least 1.25 % and top of
the blocks next to drainage channels should be at least 3 mm above the lip of the
channel.

Step 3 - Provision and Compaction of Sub base & base course


The base course is directly laid over the sub grade with the thickness of each layer
should not be more than 100 mm compacted thickness.
For weaker sub grades there are other options
• Improved drainage
• Cement of Lime stabilization
• Use of Geotextiles
Base course should be finished within 0 mm to 10 mm for level. It should not pond
water and should be well shaped. Do not rely on sand bedding for removal of
unevenness. For compaction usually vibratory plate compactors are used. The selection
of vibratory plate compactors is very vital. Number of passes for effective compaction
will depend upon the various factors like compactor capacity, speed of compactor, base
course material properties, moisture content and layer thickness. Normally vibratory
compactors will lose top material of base course and hence after applying the required
number of passes, 4 passes of regular roller or plate compactor without vibratory
motion should be given. The compaction of material around manholes, kerbs and
service boxes must be done carefully.
Step 4 - Installation of edge restraints
Must be produced with high quality concrete with at least 28-day characteristic
compressive strength of 30 N/mm2 and Flexural strength 3.8 N/mm2. Road kerbs, Edge
Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt
PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

strips, PCC can also be used as edge restraints. The gap between the two edge restraint
block is required to be closed with cement mortar of 1:6 proportion.

Step 5 - Provision and Compaction of coarse bedding sand


Thickness of bedding sand in loose form must be 25-50 mm and in compacted form
20-40 mm. Sand must be laid in uniform thickness. Grades and cambers must be
provided in the sub grade and base course it self and not in the bedding sand. Sand is
required to be spread with screed board and it must have uniform moisture content of
6 to 8 %. Hence regular checking of moisture content in sand is important. Before
placing the sand take a trial to decide the surcharge for a typical sand. Required
quantity of sand for a day work must be stored in advance and must be covered with
tarpaulin sheets or any other suitable material. After laying proper compaction of
bedding sand is required.

Step 6 - Laying of blocks and interlocking


Block should be laid on 5 mm screed (a thick layer) provided with bedding sand
material. Don’t place block on compacted or saturated sand. Normally laying should
commence from edge strip and proceed towards center of the pavement. Also as far as
possible laying should be done only from one direction along the entire width of the
area paved. While locating the starting line following points must be considered,
 On a sloping site start from lowest point and proceed to up slope.
 In case of irregular shaped edge restrains or strips it is better to start from straight string
line.
Gap between the two blocks are not less than 2 mm and not more than 4 mm. The
blocks very popularly laid in three patterns

Step 7 - Application of joint filling sand and compaction


Don’t use wet block and wet sand. Joint filling sand must be properly graded as per
guidelines. For compaction vibratory plate compactors are used. Heavy plate
compactors with a weight between 300 to 600 kg and apply a centrifugal force in the

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt


PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

range 30 to 65 KN are preferred over standard plate compactors. There should not be
delay in compaction after laying of paving blocks. After completion of the compaction,
the paved surface should be cleaned by wire brush and fill empty space if it exists.
 Requirements of Paving Blocks
1. For normal paving work, the length of a paving block should ordinarily be not greater
than twice the mean width.
2. The thickness of paving block should be minimum 60 mm and length should not
exceed 280 mm. The width is generally is in the range 75 to 140 mm with a maximum
chamfer of 10 mm though it is prefer to keep chamfer in the range of 3 to 5 mm.
3. To ensure durability, the average water absorption in a block should not exceed 5%
and in cold region the durability is checked by weight loss of block and that should not
exceed 1%.
 Pattern of Blocks
The blocks can be placed in different bonds or patterns depending upon the
requirement, some popular bonds commonly adopted for block paving are:
1. Stretcher or running bond
2. Herringbone bond
3. Basket weave or parquet bond
Some other common block paving patterns are shown in below figure.

Fig: Pattern of Interlocking Concrete Block Pavement


Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt
PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement

 Strength requirement as per guidelines of IRC: SP-63


In general terms, the paving block must have adequate strength to withstand handling,
construction stresses and effect of traffic, though the strength is not considered a vital
factor in the satisfactory performance of a block pavement. However, it is suggested
that the minimum compressive strength of a single block should be above 30 MPa.

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Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt

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