Pavement Design & Highway Construction
Pavement Design & Highway Construction
Pavement Design & Highway Construction
Design
&
2020 Highway
Construction
Lecture (3150613)
Note
Module III
Construction of Pavement
Flexible Pavement
Step – 2: Dewatering
If the foundation of the embankment is in an area with stagnant water, and in the
opinion of the Engineer it is feasible to remove it, the same shall be removed by bailing
out or pumping and the area of the embankment foundation shall be kept dry. Care
shall be taken to discharge the drained water so as not to cause damage to the works,
crops or any other property.
Step - 6: Compaction
The compaction shall be done with the help of Vibratory Roller of 8 – 10 Tonne static
weight. Compaction trial shall be carried out on a suitable stretch to determine the no.
of passes required for particular type of soil, dumped for embankment, to achieve
specified densities as per MORTH. Based on the trial actual compaction will be carried
out with required no. of passes of Soil Compactor until the specified density is
achieved. Rolling shall progress parallel to the center line of the road uniformly
overlapping each preceding track by one-third width. Rolling shall be continued till the
specified density is achieved. In case specific compaction is not achieved the material
in the soft area shall be removed and replaced with approved material. Densities shall
be tested by sand replacement method / nuclear density gauge.
Subsequent layers shall be placed only after the finished layer has been tested and
accepted. The top levels of the embankment shall be checked with reference to the
longitudinal and cross profile of the road as per drawing to keep the variation within
tolerance limit. Different layers of embankment will be marked on pillars fixed outside
the toe-line.
When earthwork operations have been substantially completed, the road area shall be
cleared of all debris, and ugly scars in the construction area responsible for
objectionable appearance eliminated.
● Construction of sub-base (Granular Sub-base) (as per MORTH)
Moisture content of the mix shall be checked and suitably adjusted so that,
at the time of compaction, it is from 1 or 2 percent below the optimum
moisture content.
Rolling shall commence at the lower edge and proceed towards the upper
edge longitudinally for portions having unidirectional crossfall or on super
elevation. For a carriageway having crossfall on both sides, rolling shall
commence at the edges and progress towards the crown.
Each pass of the roller shall uniformly overlap not less than one-third of the
track made in the preceding pass. During rolling, the grade and crossfall
(camber) shall be checked and any high spots or depressions which become
apparent, corrected by removing or adding fresh material. The speed of the
roller shall not exceed 5 km per hour.
All loose, segregated or otherwise defective areas shall be made good to the
full thickness of layer and re-compacted.
● Drainage Layer
During rains, part of the rain water flows on surface and part of it percolates through
the soil mass as gravitational water until it reaches the ground water below the water
table. So to remove and to divert this water, drainage is required in the construction of
pavement.
Impurities in water are collected at the bottom of the catch basin, which is to be cleaned
regularly. A hood is provided in the catch basin to prevent the entry of sewer gas into
the catch basin.
(b) Inlets
Inlets is a structure constructed along the edge of the urban road to discharge rain water
into the storm water sewer. Inlets is a concrete box with grating either at the top or on
the side. If grading is horizontal, it is called horizontal inlet. If grading is vertical it is
called vertical inlet or curb Inlet.
(a) Lowering of water table (b) controlling seepage flow (c) controlling capillary water
(1) If the soil is relatively permeable, it may be possible to lower the high water table
by construction of longitudinal drainage trenches with drain pipe and filter sand. The
top of the trenches is covered with clay seal. The depth of the trench would depend on
i. the required lowering of water table.
ii. distance between the drainage trenches
iii. types of soil
(2) If the soil is relatively less permeable, the lowering of the ground water table may
not be adequate at the center of the pavement. Hence, in addition, transverse drains
may have to be provided in order to effectively drain off the water and thus to lower
the water table.
Transverse drains are provided at spacing 6 to 20 m and at the slope of 1:5 from center
to the edge of the road.
In this method instead of lowering the water table, capillary rise is arrested by the
following methods
(i) A layer of granular material of suitable thickness is provided during the construction
of embankment, between the subgrade and the highest level of subsurface water table.
The thickness of the granular capillary cut off layer should be sufficiently higher than
the anticipated capillary rise within the granular layer so that the capillary water can
not rise above the cut off layer.
(ii) Another method of providing the capillary cut off is by inserting an impermeable
or a bituminous layer in the place of granular blanket.
This is laid on a prepared subgrade. sub base or base or on an existing pavement. It can
be used as a sub base. base course or surfacing course. Where rainfall is not heavy. A
camber of 1 in 48 is given at the formation level of the subgrade as well as the finished
surface and when rainfall is heavy a camber of 1 in 36 is suggested. (IRC 19-1977).
The thickness of each layer of WBM is about 7.5 cm to 10 cm.
2. Screenings
The screenings are used to fill up the voids in the compacted layer of coarse
aggregates. The screenings consist of aggregates of smaller size, generally of the
same material as the coarse aggregates. The grading requirements of screenings for
WBM construction are as below.
3. Binding Materials
Binding material consisting of fine grained material is used in WBM construction
to prevent raveling of the stones. Kanker modules or lime stone dust may also be
used. Binding material should have plasticity index between 4 to 9 when WBM is
used as a surfacing course.
Binding material need not be used where crushable type material like moorum or
soft gravel is used as screenings
Construction method
The following steps are adopted.
1. Preparation of foundation for receiving the WBM course:
The foundation for receiving the new layer of WBM may be either the subgrade or
sub-base course. This foundation layer is prepared to the required grade and camber.
It is also cleaned of all dust and loose materials. Any ruts or soft spots should be
corrected and rolled. The foundation should be well dried. When the existing road
is black topped, furrows are cut at 1 m intervals at 45° to the center line of the
carriage way.
4. Rolling
After spreading the coarse aggregates compaction is done by a three wheeled power
roller of capacity 6 to 10 tonnes. The rolling should begin from edges with the roller
running forward and backward until the edges have been compacted. The roller
should overlap each preceding wheel track by one half width. Rolling is stopped
when the aggregates are partially compacted to permit application of screenings.
5. Application of Screenings
After the coarse aggregates are compacted adequately, the dry screenings are
applied gradually over the surface to fill the interstices in three or more applications.
Dry rolling is continued as the screenings are being spread and brooming carried
out.
screenings are applied where necessary and rolled till the coarse aggregates are well
bonded.
3. They are permeable to rainwater and it leads to the softening and yielding of
subsoil.
4. The failure of WBM surface mainly occurs due to intensive traffic poor
drainage, dirty binding materials, insufficient foundation etc.
5. Its life is also less.
Construction of Wet Mix Macadam - WMM Road (as per IRC: 109 – 2015)
Wet Mix Macadam (WMM) construction is an improvement upon the conventional
WBM and is intended to be as an alternative and more durable pavement layer.
Wet Mix Macadam is a sub-base/base course of the pavement wherein clean,
crushed graded aggregates and granular material, like, graded coarse sand are
mixed with water and rolled to a dense mass on a prepared surface. The work may
be done in layers. The thickness of an individual layer shall not be less than 75 mm
and can be up to 250 mm.
Aggregate
Physical Requirements
Coarse aggregates shall be crushed stone/crushed gravel, not less than 90 percent
by weight of gravel/shingle retained on 4.75 mm sieve shall have at least two
fractured faces.
If the water absorption value of the coarse aggregates is greater than 2 percent,
soundness test shall be carried out on the material as per 1S:2386 (Part V) with
sodium sulphate which should not exceed 12 %.
Construction Operations
1. Weather and Seasonal Limitations
The work of laying of wet mix macadam shall not be done during rain.
2. Preparation of the Sub-base/base
The surface of the sub-base/base to receive the WMM course shall be prepared to
the specified lines and cross-fall (camber) and made free of dust and other
extraneous mater.
Any ruts or soft yielding places shall be corrected in an approved manner and rolled
until firm surface is obtained, if necessary by sprinkling water. Laying of WMM
over an existing bituminous surface is not permitted.
4. Preparation of Mix
When the WMM mix is the crusher run material, it shall be stockpiled with the
front end loader. Before sending the mix for laying, the stockpile shall be watered
and homogeneously mixed and loaded to the tipper/dumper. In other case WMM
shall be prepared in an approved mixing plant of suitable capacity requirements. In
exceptional cases, for small quantity of wet mix work, mixing may be done in
ordinary concrete mixer.
Optimum moisture for mixing shall be checked and confirmed as the laboratory
OMC. While adding water, due allowance should be made for evaporation losses.
However, at the time of compaction, water in the wet mix should not vary by more
than 2%.
develop during rolling which exceed 12 mm when tested with a 3-meter straight
edge, the surface should be loosened and premixed material added or removed as
required before rolling again so as to achieve a uniform surface conforming to the
desired grade and cross-fall. In no case should the use of unmixed material be
permitted to make up the depressions.
All loose, segregated or otherwise defective areas shall be made good to the full
thickness of the layers and re-compacted until the specified density is achieved
through -out the entire layer.
Stabilization
Soil stabilization is the process of improving the shear strength parameters of soil
and thus increasing its bearing capacity in road construction. It is required when
the soil available for construction is not suitable to carry structural load. Generally,
soils exhibit undesirable engineering properties unless they are treated to enhance
their physical properties. Stabilization can increase the shear strength of a soil and
control its shrink-swell properties, thereby improving the load bearing capacity of
a sub-grade to support pavement and its foundations. Soil stabilization is used to
reduce permeability and compressibility of the soil mass in earth structures and to
increase its shear strength. Mixing additives, positively affecting the strength,
improving and maintaining the soil moisture content can be achieved by
stabilization.
Lime Stabilization
2 to 10 % of lime is added to the soil
Lime stabilization is suitable only for clayey soils. It decreases swelling potential
and swelling pressures in clays. i.e. Black cotton soils.
Adding lime to soils produces maximum dry density under a higher optimum
moisture content then in the untreated soil.
Lime produces a decrease in plasticity index of soil.
The improvement in strength is partly due to the decrease in plastic properties of
clay and partly to the pozzolanic reaction of lime with soil.
Lime is also used with fly ash. The fly ash content may vary from 10 to 20% and
the percent of lime may lie between 3 to 6 %.
Construction method:
The subgrade is prepared.
The soil to be stabilized is excavated iron borrow pits and pulverised.
Part of the lime (3 to 7 %) and part of fly ash (10 to 20 %) are mixed as dry powder.
The mixture is allowed to age for a day 1.e. preconditioning of soil makes the
pulverisation process easier and is remixed.
The rest of the lime, fly ash is added and water added if necessary.
The mix is spread and compacted to desired grade and camber.
The soil lime fly ash is cured by preventing drying.
Field tests are conducted to check the moisture content during compaction and dry
density after compaction.
Cement Stabilization
❖ About 5 to 14 % cement is added to the soil and sprinkled with water. As the
cement hydrates, the mixture becomes hard, durable structural material.
❖ The main use has been to build stabilized bases under concrete pavements for
highways and airfields. Soil cement mixtures are also used to provide wave
protection on earth dams.
❖ Well graded soil containing gravel, coarse and fine sand will require 5% cement
by weight. Plastic clays require 149% cement by weight.
Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt
PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement
❖ Better the pulverization and degree of mixing higher is the strength. Presence of
unpulverised dry lumps of soil reduces strength and durability.
❖ There is an OMC corresponding to the maximum value of dry density or strength
of a soil cement mix. The moisture that is added for adequate compaction is more
than enough for the purpose of hydration of cement.
❖ There are various useful additives which improve the properties of soil cement.
❖ E.g. Lime for clayey soil, sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, calcium chloride.
Construction Method
The subgrade & subbase is prepared
The soil to be used is collected from nearby borrow pits. It is pulverized in mixing
plant and placed on subgrade
The cement is then added and mixed dry.
Water is sprayed and remixed.
It is then spread and compacted to desired grade and camber.
The surface is cured by preventing the moisture from escaping by covering with
paper or by moist soil.
The prime coat consists of low viscosity liquid bituminous materials like cutback MC
(Medium curing) and SC (Slow curing). which will enter the voids of the surface.
Construction procedure
● The surface to be primed should be swept, clean free from dust and should be dry.
● Large pot holes, depressions should be repaired before priming.
● The bituminous primer is sprayed uniformly over the dry surface at the rate of 7.3 to
14.6 kg per 10 m2 area using mechanical sprayer.
● The primed surface should be allowed to care for 24 hours. Traffic should not be
allowed until it is cured.
2. Tack Coat
● When a bituminous surface has to be laid on an existing black top or a cement concrete
pavement, then the bonding is provided by a tack coat.
● Tack coat may also be provided on the WBM surface which has already been treated
by a prime coat.
● Tack coat is usually applied by spraying bituminous material of higher viscosity like
the hot bitumen at the rate of 4.9 to 9.8 kg per 10 m2 area.
● The tack serves the same functions as a prime coat.
3. Seal Coat
A seal coat consists of a single coat of a very thin surface applied over certain
bituminous pavements such as bituminous bond macadam, Grouted macadam premix
carpet etc. which are not impervious.
The main functions of seal coat are
(a) to seal the surface against the ingress of water.
(b) to develop skid resistance texture.
(c) to repair an existing road
Bituminous Mix
Bituminous mix is aims to produce a mix which is more workable, strong, durable and
economical.
mix so that the compacted mix is effectively impervious and will have acceptable
dissipative and elastic properties.
Durability
Durability is defined as the resistance of the mix against weathering and abrasive
actions. Weathering causes hardening due to loss of volatiles in the bitumen. Abrasion
is due to wheel loads which causes tensile strains. Typical examples of failure are (i)
pot-holes, - deterioration of pavements locally and (ii) stripping, lost of binder from
the aggregates and aggregates are exposed. Disintegration is minimized by high binder
content since they cause the mix to be air and waterproof and the bitumen film is more
resistant to hardening.
Flexibility
Flexibility is a measure of the level of bending strength needed to counteract traffic
load and prevent cracking of surface. Fracture is the cracks formed on the surface
(hairline-cracks, alligator cracks), main reasons are shrinkage and brittleness of the
binder. Shrinkage cracks are due to volume change in the binder due to aging.
Brittleness is due to repeated bending of the surface due to traffic loads. Higher
bitumen content will give better flexibility and less fracture.
Skid resistance
It is the resistance of the finished pavement against skidding which depends on the
surface texture and bitumen content. It is an important factor in high speed traffic.
Normally, an open graded coarse surface texture is desirable.
Workability
Workability is the ease with which the mix can be laid and compacted, and formed to
the required condition and shape. This depends on the gradation of aggregates, their
shape and texture, bitumen content and its type. Angular, flaky, and elongated
aggregates workability. On the other hand, rounded aggregates improve workability.
Desirable properties
The desirable properties of a bituminous mix can be summarized as follows:
⮚ Stability to meet traffic demand
⮚ Bitumen content to ensure proper binding and water proofing
⮚ Voids to accommodate compaction due to traffic
⮚ Flexibility to meet traffic loads, esp. in cold season
⮚ Sufficient workability for construction
⮚ Economical mix
There are two main types of dense graded mix used. They are:
● Bituminous Concrete(BC)
The fine aggregate percentages in both the grading are same in a range of 28 to 42%.
The main criteria that differ both the grading are that the grading 1 consist of large size
particles i.e. 25 mm to 45 mm.
The grading-1 with NMAS of 37.5 mm has many disadvantages like segregation. This
segregation will later result in honeycombing. At lower air-void levels, these mixes
become permeable compared to the grading 2, with NMAS of 25mm.
Hence, the grading-1 causes problems related to water exposure. With the increase of
NMAS, the permeability will increase the multi-fold at a present void level condition.
From the above description about dense bitumen mixes, it was clear that dense bitumen
mix grade-2 have larger use as the base course due to its fewer disadvantages compared
to dense bitumen mix Grade-1. This hence was necessary to determine a grade for the
binder and the surface course.
The bituminous concrete grading-1 with nominal maximum aggregate size 19mm as
the binder course binds the base course (dense bitumen mix Grade-1) as well as the
wearing course bituminous concrete grade-2 of nominal maximum aggregate size
13mm, with NMAS 19 mm employed as a transition. The bituminous concrete
grading-2 is good to be used as a wearing course.
To facilitate thin asphalt lifts, bituminous concrete grading-3 is more suitable than
grade-2. The bituminous concrete grade-2 of NMAS 9.5mm has been efficiently used
in the highway construction for the US. For higher traffic BC grade-2 are
recommended.
The two types of semi-bituminous mixes used in the pavement construction in India
are;
The word is an anonym of optimum. So, it is advised to make the mix get rid of
pessimism voids. These tend to capture moisture or water that will later cause stripping.
When the semi dense bituminous concrete is employed above the bitumen macadam
(BM) layer, there are chances for the penetration of rainwater through the SDBC and
reach the BM.
This will create the separation of aggregate and the bitumen in the BM layer. This will
cause stripping and the scaling of SDBC. The scaling later with time will result in the
potholes on the road.
The Mixed Seal Surfacing design mix is based on the IRC: SP:78-2008. This is an
alternative used for the premix carpet (PMC). Both the PMC and the MSS are
employed in 20mm thickness.
There are two gradations that are specified for the mixed seal surfacing mix. They
are
The open graded Bitumen Mixes have fine aggregates in a minimum amount, hence
they are very permeable to water. They are employed based on specific functions in
the base and for surface mixes.
In bituminous macadam mix, the bitumen to be used would depend upon the climatic
conditions and traffic. While, the coarse aggregate shall consist of crushed rock,
crushed gravel or other hard material retained on 2.36 mm sieve. Where the crushed
gravel is proposed for use as aggregate, not less than 90% by weight of the crushed
material retained on 4.75 mm sieve that shall have at least two fractured faces resulting
from crushing operation.
The void content is 20 to 25% higher than the dense graded bitumen (DBM). The DBM
have a void content of 3 to 5%.
The PMS is laid as a wearing course with a thickness of 20 mm. The mix will compose
two single size aggregates. One is the aggregate that is passing through 22.4 mm and
that will retain in 11.2 mm. The second aggregate type will pass through 13.2 mm and
retain on 5.6 mm sieve. The aggregate are premixed with bituminous binder on a
previously prepared base, in accordance with the requirements. In PMS, respect to the
climate and the traffic intensities, the viscosity grade bitumen are employed. It can be
either VG-10 or VG-30.
For the preparation of premix, hot mix plant of appropriate capacity and type shall be
used for the preparation of the mix material. The hot mix plant shall have separate
dryer arrangement for heating aggregate. The difference in temperature between the
binder and aggregate shall at no time exceed 14° C. Mixing shall be thorough to ensure
that a homogenous mix is obtained in which all particles of the aggregates are coated
uniformly. The mix shall be transported from the mixer to the point of use in suitable
vehicles or hand borrows.
Based on the aggregate and aggregate application rates that are specified in IRC: 14-
2004, in “Recommended Practice for Open Graded Premix Carpet”, the bitumen
content by weight of mix is 3.3%.
Surface Dressing
As per IRC:110 -2005,” Specification and Code of Practice for Design & Construction
of Surface Dressing”. The surface dressing work involves the process of spraying of
bitumen or the rapid setting cationic emulsion of one or two coats. This is applied over
an aggregate layer of appropriate size and gradation. Grade of bitumen shall depend
upon the climatic condition. The size of the aggregate shall depend upon the type of
surface on which it is laid and the traffic intensity. Surface dressing does not increase
the structural strength.
The surface dressing has the following significances and objectives:
● The surface dressing will provide a dust free wearing course over a granular base
course that act similar to a water bound macadam (WBM) or a wet mixed Macadam
(WMM).
● The surface Dressing will help in providing impermeability for water percolation for
the road surface.
● This will provide a renewal coat for periodic maintenance of bituminous wearing
surfaces.
The stone matrix asphalt mix is tough, highly stable in structure and rut resistant
asphalt mix. These systems rely on the stone to stone contact that will facilitate in
strength. The rich mortar used in the system will provide better durability.
● Compared to the conventional dense graded asphalt mix, the night visibility is
reduced.
The performance of the SMA pavements that are constructed in India has performed
well. Compared to bitumen concrete, the cost for stone matrix asphalt mix has been
found to be 25 to 30% higher. The increased cost of the SMA material is due to its
composing materials like cellulose fibre, modified binder, and the binder content.
Rigid Pavement
Construction of Rigid Pavement (Cement concrete road)
Cement concrete road construction is one of the types of low volume road construction.
The construction of the road is mostly dependent upon the factor like amount traffic
that is to be handled by the road after its completion.
On most of the village roads connecting small villages in the rural areas of the country,
the type of vehicular traffic is quite different from the traffic on other highways.
The traffic passing on a road can be categorized into three categories as light
commercial traffics, medium commercial traffics and heavy commercial traffics, but
the frequency of each class of traffic varies with the road.
Subgrade preparation
Subgrade preparation involves cleaning, earthwork (excavation or filling of soil,
replacement of weak soil, soil stabilization etc.) and compaction. Where the concrete
layer is laid directly over the subgrade, the subgrade is moist at the time concrete is
placed. If the subgrade is dry, water could be sprinkled over the surface before laying
any concrete course, however, care should be taken so that soft patches or water pools
are not formed at the surface. Subgrade is properly drained with considering minimum
modulus of subgrade reaction as 5.54 Kg/cm2.
Placing of Forms
1. The steel or wooden forms are used.
2. The steel forms are M.S. Channel sections and their depts. Is equal to thickness of
pavement and length at least 3m except on curves < 45m radius.
3. Wooden forms are dressed on side; these have minimum base width of 100n for slab
thickness or 20cm.
4. The forms are jointed neatly and are set with exactness to the required grade and
alignment.
Texturing
Finished concrete has a smooth surface; texturing of concrete surface is done to impart
required skid resistance to the concrete surface. The texturing is done by means of wire
brushing or grooving along the transverse direction. Initial texturing may be done at
the time of construction of the paver itself. Final texturing is done no sooner the sheen
of the concrete surface goes off.
Concrete curing
Curing is a process in which requisite moisture content and temperature is maintained
so that concrete achieves its design strength through hydration of cement.
Initial curing – The surface of pavement is entirely covered with burlap cotton or jute
mats prior to placing it is saturated with water and wet side is placed on pavement.
Final curing – Curing with wet soil exposed edges of slabs are banked with soil berm.
A blanket of sandy soil free from stones is placed. The soil is thoroughly kept saturated
with water for 14 days.
Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt
PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement
In impervious membrane method, use of impervious membrane which does not impart
a slippery surface to the pavement is used. Liquid is applied under pressure with a
spray nozzle to cover the entire surface with a uniform film. It hardness within 30
minutes after its application. The liquid applied immediately after surface finishing.
When the concrete attains the required strength or after 28 days of curing the concrete
road is opened to traffic.
Concrete with high water content is considered thin because it has a lower cement
concentration compared to other types of paving and building materials of this class.
It is often used as a patch between bricks or other pieces of infrastructure to create a
tight seal.
Dry Lean concrete bursts over time if it is not correctly applied or mixed according to
the correct specifications. Careful preparation is the key to the success of dry lean
concrete. Dry Lean Concrete is an important part of the modern rigid floor. It is smooth
concrete with a large proportion of aggregate in relation to cement than conventional
concrete and is generally used as a base/sub-base for hard paving.
Dry Lean Concrete consists of crushed sand, cement, water and sometime fly ash. The
DLC is a sub-base for concrete pavements; the minimum cement content in lean
concrete must not be less than 150 kg/cum concrete (according to MORTH). In case
fly ash is blended at site as part replacement of cement, the quantity of fly ash shall not
be more than 20 % by weight of cementitious material and the content of OPC shall
not be less than 120 kg/cum. The DLC plate must have an average thickness of 150
mm.
Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt
PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement
The main advantages of using DLC as a base layer include the provision of a uniform
and strong support, high resistance to deformation, greater efficiency in the load
transfer in the joints, adequate fixation of the formwork and proper positioning of the
boom cradles to semi-construction – mechanized construction equipment during the
DLC.
Construction Procedure:
Preparation of designed Dry lean concrete mix
♦ Trial mixes of dry lean concrete shall be prepared with moisture contents of 5.0, 5.5,
6.0, 6.5 and 7.0 % using acceptable cement-aggregate ratio.
♦ Optimum moisture content and density shall be established by preparing cubes with
varying moisture contents.
♦ Compaction of the mix shall be done in three layers with a vibratory hammer fitted
with a square or rectangular foot.
♦ After establishing the optimum moisture, a set of six cubes shall be cast at that moisture
for determination of compressive strength at 3 & 7 days. Trial mixes shall be repeated
if the strength is not satisfactory either by increasing cement content or using higher
grade of cement.
The cube specimen prepared with the desirable moisture content should satisfy the
strength requirement. Before the production of the mix, the natural moisture content of
the aggregate should be determined on a day to day basis, so that the moisture content
could be adjusted. The final designed mix should neither stick to the roller nor become
too dry that results in raveling of the surface.
Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt
PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement
The dry lean concrete shall be laid on the prepared granular drainage layer. The dry
lean concrete sub base shall be overlaid with concrete pavement only after 7 days of
sub base construction.
Batching & Mixing
The batching plant shall be capable of separately proportioning each type of material
by weight. The capacity of the batching and mixing plant shall be at least 25% higher
than the proposed capacity for the laying arrangements. The batching & mixing shall
be carried out preferably in a forced action central batching and mixing plant having
necessary automatic controls to ensure accurate proportioning and mixing. Calibration
of the batching and mixing plant shall be carried out at regular intervals, normally
every month.
Transporting
Plant mixed dry lean mix concrete shall be discharged immediately from the mixer,
transported directly to the point where it is to be laid and protected from the weather
by covering with tarpaulin during transit. The concrete shall be transported by tipping
trucks, sufficient in number to ensure a continuous supply of material to feed the laying
equipment to work at a uniform speed and in an uninterrupted manner.
Placing
Lean concrete shall be laid by a hydrostatic paver. The equipment shall be capable of
laying the material in one layer in an even manner without segregation so that after
compaction the total thickness can be achieved as per design. The laying of the two
lane road, shall be done in full width. For a pavement more than two lanes, the
operation may be carried out by two pavers separated by appropriate distance 0f about
15-20 m.
Compaction
The compaction shall be carried out immediately after the material is laid and levelled.
In order to ensure thorough compaction, rolling shall be continued on the full width.
Rolling shall commence on the lower edge of camber and proceed towards the outer
edge.
The spreading, compacting and finishing of the lean concrete shall be carried out as
rapidly as possible and the operation shall be arranged so as to ensure that the time
between mixing of the first batch of concrete and the compaction and the finishing of
the same layer shall not exceed 90 minutes when the temperature of concrete is
between 25˚C - 30˚C. However, if the temperature is less than 25˚C, the time limit is
exceeding to 120 minutes but in no case it exceeds 120 minutes. This work shall not
be proceed when the temperature of the concrete exceeds 30˚C. For the compaction,
required number of roller passing to obtain maximum compaction depends on the
thickness of the lean concrete, compactibility of the mix and the weight and type of
roller etc. After compaction has been completed, roller shall not stand on the
compacted surface for the duration of the curing period except during commencement
of next day's work near the location where work was terminated the previous day.
Curing
As soon as the lean concrete surface is achieved, curing shall be commenced. Curing
shall be done by covering the surface by hessian cloth in two layers which shall be kept
continuously moist for 7 days by sprinkling water. If water-curing is not possible, the
curing shall be done by spraying with liquid curing compound. The curing compound
shall be white pigmented type with water retention index of minimum 90%. Curing
compound shall be sprayed immediately after rolling is complete. As soon as the curing
compound has lost its tackiness, the surface shall be covered with wet hessian for 3
days. After curing it for 7 days, a necessary test has to be performed and then the road
kept open for the traffic.
Joints are the discontinuities in the concrete pavement slab, and help to release stresses
due to temperature variation, subgrade moisture variation, shrinkage of concrete etc.
Joints are purposefully in a rigid pavement surface course. All types of joints are used
in rigid pavement construction methods for all PCC (Portland Cement Concrete)
pavement types.
Joints shall be constructed depending upon their functional requirement. The location
of the joints should be transferred accurately at the site and should be cut as per the
dimensions. It shall be ensured that the required depth of cut is made from edge to edge
of the pavement. Joints in the pavement and dry lean concrete sub base shall be
staggered so that they are not coincident vertically and 300 to 400 mm apart
respectively. Sawing of joints shall be carried out with diamond studded blades soon
after the concrete has hardened to take the load of sawing machine and crew members
without damaging the texture of the pavement. Sawing operation could start as early
as 4 to 8 hours after laying of concrete pavement but not later than 8 to 12 hours.
Joints can be formed in two ways. Contraction joints are most often sawed in after PCC
placement. Others such as expansion, isolation and construction joints, are created by
formwork before the PCC is placed. Each one of these methods of joint construction
has its own method and set of considerations.
Contraction joint
Contraction joints regulate the location of the cracking caused by dimensional changes
in the slab. Unregulated cracks can grow and result in an unacceptably rough surface
as well as water infiltration into the base, subbase and subgrade, which can enable
other types of pavement distress. Contraction joints are the most common type of joint
in concrete pavements, thus the generic term “joint” generally refers to a contraction
joint.
Contraction joints are provided along the transverse direction to take care of the
contraction of concrete slab due to its natural shrinkage and also to permit the
contraction of the slab, due to fall in temperature. These joints are spaced closer than
expansion joints. Load transfer at the joints is provided through the physical
interlocking by the aggregates projecting out of the joint faces. As per IRC
specification the maximum spacing of contraction joints in unreinforced cement
concrete slabs is 4.5 m and in reinforced slab of thickness 20 cm is 14 m.
Construction joint
Construction joints are provided whenever the construction work stops temporarily at
the end of the day or suspended for more than 30 minutes. If the road construction
stops or discontinued at the transverse, expansion or contraction joints, there will be
no need for the construction joints. If sufficient concrete has not been mixed to form a
slab extending up to a contraction joint and if an interruption occurs, the placed
concrete shall be removed up to the last preceding joint. The joint direction could be
either along the transverse or longitudinal direction. Longitudinal construction joints
also allow slab warping without appreciable separation or cracking of the slabs. These
joints shall be provided at location of contraction joints using dowel bars. Workers
manually insert dowel bars into the construction joint at the end of the work day.
Construction joints should be planned so that they coincide with contraction joint
spacing to eliminate extra joints.
Expansion joint
When the temperature of the pavement increases, the slab expands and if there is no
provision to free space or gap for such expansion the slab will be subjected to
compressive stresses and may also cause upward buckling. So by providing the much
needed gap, expansion joints relieve these stresses. The gap is maintained by being
filled up with a compressible material and sealing at the surface with a flexible sealing
compound to prevent the ingress of water. As the joints opening is usually 20 mm,
there is no aggregate interlock and hence a load transfer device becomes necessary.
This is done by the provision of dowel bars. Expansion joints also permit contraction
and warping of the slab. Expansion joints are provided along the transverse direction
to allow movement (expansion/ contraction) of the concrete slab due to temperature
and subgrade moisture variation.
Longitudinal Joints
A longitudinal joint is required in all pavements wider than 16 feet. If two adjacent
lanes are poured at the same time, a longitudinal joint is sawed. Tie bars, when
Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt
PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement
required, are placed perpendicular to the longitudinal joint and parallel to the grade.
Tie bars may be machine placed during paving or secured with chairs prior to paving.
When tie bars are required along the form line or the edge of a slip-formed lane, bent
bars are used. Bent bars are tie bars bent at a 60° angle. These bars are straightened
after the concrete sets so that they extend into an adjacent lane. Special care is required
to be taken when the tie bars are inserted in the side of a slip formed pavement to assure
no detrimental edge slump is caused by this operation.
Some longitudinal joints require the use of a keyway with no tie bars. Keyways may
be trapezoidal or semi-circular in shape. They are used when an adjacent pavement is
expected to move independently and the two pavements cannot be tied together. The
keyway, prevents any differential settlement of either pavement.
Longitudinal sawed joints are cut with a power concrete saw concurrently with the
contraction joints. The plans and/or Standards drawings are required to be checked for
the proper depth, width, line, and type of seal.
Advantages of ICBP
1. Since the blocks are prepared in the factory, they are of a very high quality thus
avoiding the difficulties encountered in quality control in the field.
Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt
PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Construction of Pavement
2. Concrete block pavements restrict the speed of vehicles to about 60 km per hour, which
is an advantage in city streets and intersections.
3. ICBP pavements are well skid resistant as it is having rough surface.
4. The block pavements are ideal for intersections where speeds have to be restricted and
cornering stresses are high.
5. The digging and re-installment of trenches for repairing is easier in the case of block
pavement.
6. These pavements are unaffected by the spillage of oil from vehicles, and are ideal for
bus stops, bus depots and parking areas.
7. Since the concrete blocks are grey in colour, they reflect light better then the black
bituminous pavements, thus bringing down the cost of street lighting.
8. They are preferred in heavily loaded areas like container depots and ports as they can
be very well designed to withstand the high stresses induced there.
9. In India, the laying of concrete block pavements can be achieved at a low cost because
of the availability of cheap labour.
10. The cost of maintenance is much lower than a bituminous surface.
11. Block pavement does not need in-situ curing and so can be opened to traffic soon after
completion of construction.
12. Construction of block pavement is simple and labour intensive and can be done using
simple compaction equipment.
13. Maintenance of block pavement is simple and easy. Also the need for frequency of
maintenance is low as compared to bituminous pavement.
Limitations
1. Quality control of blocks at the factory premises is a prerequisite for durable "ICBP"
2. Any deviations of the base course profile will be reflected on the "ICBP" surface.
Hence extra care needs to be taken to fix the same.
3. High quality and gradation of coarse bedding sand and joint filling material are
essential for good performance.
4. ICBP over an unbound granular base course is susceptible to the adverse effects of
poor drainage and will deteriorate faster.
5. ICBP is not suited for high speed roads (speed above 60 km/h)
strips, PCC can also be used as edge restraints. The gap between the two edge restraint
block is required to be closed with cement mortar of 1:6 proportion.
range 30 to 65 KN are preferred over standard plate compactors. There should not be
delay in compaction after laying of paving blocks. After completion of the compaction,
the paved surface should be cleaned by wire brush and fill empty space if it exists.
Requirements of Paving Blocks
1. For normal paving work, the length of a paving block should ordinarily be not greater
than twice the mean width.
2. The thickness of paving block should be minimum 60 mm and length should not
exceed 280 mm. The width is generally is in the range 75 to 140 mm with a maximum
chamfer of 10 mm though it is prefer to keep chamfer in the range of 3 to 5 mm.
3. To ensure durability, the average water absorption in a block should not exceed 5%
and in cold region the durability is checked by weight loss of block and that should not
exceed 1%.
Pattern of Blocks
The blocks can be placed in different bonds or patterns depending upon the
requirement, some popular bonds commonly adopted for block paving are:
1. Stretcher or running bond
2. Herringbone bond
3. Basket weave or parquet bond
Some other common block paving patterns are shown in below figure.
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