Understanding Data and

Ways to Systematically
Collect Data
Objectives:
The learners are expected to:
1. choose appropriate quantitative research design
2. describe sampling procedure and the sample
3. construct an instrument and establish its validity and
reliability
4. describe intervention (if applicable)
5. plan data collection procedure
6. plan data analysis using statistics and hypothesis
testing (if appropriate)
7. present written research methodology
Chapter III – Research Methodology
• Understanding data starts with collecting
them.
• This chapter shows how the problem will be
investigated and discusses the following
elements: research design; respondents, sample
and sampling methods; instruments used; and
statistical treatment.
Chapter III – Research Methodology
• the focus is on what quantitative researchers actually
study and how they make sense of the data or
information that they gather or collect
• making sense of the data collected in quantitative
research is different from how it is done with the data
collected in qualitative research
• quantitative research is theory-testing and research
questions are framed/structured in terms of hypothesis
• qualitative research is theory generation done in a
process called analytical induction
 Essential Elements of the Research
Methodology
• Research Design. It is a very important aspect of
research methodology which describes the research
mode (whether it is qualitative or quantitative
research, or if the researcher will use a specific
research type e.g., descriptive, survey, historical,
case or experimental).
• Respondents of the Study. This describes he target
population and the sample frame.
 Essential Elements of the Research
Methodology
• Instrument of the Study. It describes the specific
type of research instrument that will be used such
as questionnaire, checklist, questionnaire-checklist,
interview schedule, teacher-made tests, and the like.
• Establishing Validity and Reliability. The
instrument must pass the validity and relibilty tests
before it is utilized.
 Essential Elements of the Research
Methodology
• Statistical Treatment. One of the many ways of
establishing the objectivity of research findings is by
subjecting the data to different but appropriate
statistical formulas and processes.
 Lesson 1: Quantitative Research
Design
• Research design refers to an overall
strategy that a researcher uses to
logically and coherently integrate the
various components of a study.
•Quantitative research is classified into
five general kinds.
 Descriptive

Experimental Correlational
Quantit
ative
Researc
h

Quasi- Ex Post Facto

experimental (Causal)
 Descriptive Research Design (DRD)
• aims to observe and report on a certain phenomenon,
type of behavior, or trait as it takes place or manifests
itself
• The researcher achieves this objective by using rating
scales and other means to measure the variables as they
occur.
• Its limitation is its inability of one variable to claim as
the cause of another variable.
• DRD is used when little is known about a topic or when
the study is exploratory in nature.
•Descriptive research designs help provide
answers to the questions of who, what, when,
where, and how associated with a particular
research problem; a descriptive study cannot
conclusively ascertain answers to why.
Descriptive research is used to obtain
information concerning the current status of
the phenomena and to describe "what exists"
with respect to variables or conditions in a
situation.
What do these studies tell you?
a) The subject is being observed in a completely natural and
unchanged natural environment. True experiments, whilst
giving analyzable data, often adversely influence the normal
behavior of the subject.
b) Descriptive research is often used as a pre-cursor to more
quantitative research designs with the general overview
giving some valuable pointers as to what variables are worth
testing quantitatively.
c) If the limitations are understood, they can be a useful tool in
developing a more focused study.
d) Descriptive studies can yield rich data that lead to important
recommendations in practice.
e) Approach collects a large amount of data for detailed analysis.
What these studies don't tell you?
a) The results from a descriptive research cannot be
used to discover a definitive answer or to
disprove a hypothesis.
b) Because descriptive designs often utilize
observational methods [as opposed to
quantitative methods], the results cannot be
replicated.
c) The descriptive function of research is heavily
dependent on instrumentation for measurement
and observation.
 Correlational Research Design
(CRD)
• aim is to determine whether an increase or decrease
in one variable corresponds to the increase or
decrease in another
• It does not seek to establish a cause-effect
relationship but mere association among variables.
• Like in DRD, experimental manipulation is not
used in the correlational research design. Variables
are measured as they occur.
 Ex Post Facto
• aims to infer a cause from the already existing
effects
• attempts to establish a causal relationship
• does not use experimental manipulation
• Like DRD, ex post facto is used when the study
being conducted is exploratory and little is known
about the phenomenon or behavior being studied.
Causal - comparative research design may be
thought of as understanding a phenomenon in terms
of conditional statements in the form, “If X, then Y.”
This type of research is used to measure what impact
a specific change will have on existing norms and
assumptions. Most social scientists seek causal
explanations that reflect tests of hypotheses. Causal
effect (nomothetic perspective) occurs when
variation in one phenomenon, an independent
variable, leads to or results, on average, in variation
in another phenomenon, the dependent variable.
Conditions necessary for determining causality:
•Empirical association -- a valid conclusion is based
on finding an association between the independent
variable and the dependent variable.
•Appropriate time order -- to conclude that causation
was involved, one must see that cases were exposed
to variation in the independent variable before
variation in the dependent variable.
•Nonspuriousness -- a relationship between two
variables that is not due to variation in a third
variable.
What do these studies tell you?
a) Causal - Comparative Research design assist
researchers in understanding why the world
works the way it does through the process of
proving a causal link between variables and by
the process of eliminating other possibilities.
b) Replication is possible.
c) There is greater confidence the study has internal
validity due to the systematic subject
selection and equity of groups being compared.
What these studies don't tell you?
a) Not all relationships are casual! The possibility always
exists that, by sheer coincidence, two unrelated events
appear to be.
b) Conclusions about causal relationships are difficult to
determine due to a variety of extraneous and
confounding variables that exist in a social environment.
This means causality can only be inferred, never proven.
c) If two variables are correlated, the cause must come before
the effect. However, even though two variables might be
causally related, it can sometimes be difficult to
determine which variable comes first and, therefore, to
establish which variable is the actual cause and which the
actual effect is.
Experimental Research design - A blueprint of the procedure that
enables the researcher to maintain control over all factors that may
affect the result of an experiment. In doing this, the researcher
attempts to determine or predict what may occur. Experimental
research is often used where there is time priority in a causal
relationship (cause precedes effect), there is consistency in a causal
relationship (a cause will always lead to the same effect), and the
magnitude of the correlation is great. The classic experimental
design specifies an experimental group and a control group. The
independent variable is administered to the experimental group
and not to the control group, and both groups are measured on
the same dependent variable. Subsequent experimental designs
have used more groups and more measurements over longer
periods. True experiments must have control, randomization, and
manipulation.
 Quasi-
experimental has the
Research Design presence of
an
intervention
applied to
the subjects
Experimental of the study
Research Design
What do these studies tell you?
a) Experimental research allows the researcher to control
the situation. In so doing, it allows researchers to
answer the question, “What causes something to
occur?”
b) Permits the researcher to identify cause and effect
relationships between variables and to distinguish
placebo effects from treatment effects.
c) Experimental research designs support the ability to
limit alternative explanations and to infer direct causal
relationships in the study.
d) Approach provides the highest level of evidence for
single studies.
What these studies don't tell you?
a) The design is artificial, and results may not generalize
well to the real world.
b) The artificial settings of experiments may alter the
behaviors or responses of participants.
c) Experimental designs can be costly if special equipment
or facilities are needed.
d) Some research problems cannot be studied using an
experiment because of ethical or technical reasons.
e) Difficult to apply ethnographic and other qualitative
methods to experimentally designed studies.
• Intervention – or treatment involves the
manipulation of the independent variable in an
experiment.
• The presence of the intervention can be attributed
as the causes of changes in the dependent variable.
• Two groups involved:
❑ Treatment group – the group of participants subjected
to the intervention
❑ Control group – refers to the participants not
subjected to the intervention
 Quasi-Experimental Research Design
(QRD)
• aims to establish a causal relationship between two
variables
• Experimental manipulation is applied in to the
subjects to some extent.
• Participants are not randomly assigned to either
treatment or control group. There is lack of
randomness in this type of research design.
• Provides limited conclusiveness in establishing the
causal relationship between variables.
 Quasi-Experimental Research Design
(QRD)
•QRD divides the subjects into intact groups.
• Intact groups are already established before the
study takes place.
• a group of individuals with the same educational
background, same nationality, or age bracket
• It is necessary to ensure matching between the
two groups based on relevant observable
characteristics such as education, aptitude, age,
and wealth.
 Experimental Research Design (ERD)
•A.k.a true experimental
• aims to establish a cause-effect relationship
• applies variable manipulation more extensively
• does not only assign groups but also specific
individuals to the control and treatment groups
• This ensures greater control on the part of the
researcher and less threats to the validity of the
study.
 Experimental Research Design (ERD)
•Limitations:
❑ not all variables can be experimentally controlled and
manipulated
❑ some procedures in the ERD may be impractical and
unethical as in the case of clinical setting
❑ studies under the ERD may be prone to Hawthorne
effect – refers to the observed change in the behavior of
participants who know that they are being observed
Identify the quantitative research design
appropriate for each of the following research
titles. Justify your answers. 1 whole
intermediate or yellow pad by group
Format:

Research title: ______________

QRD:________________
Justification:
________________________________________
1. Relationship Between School Stressors and
Personality of Senior High School Students
2. Effects of Exercise on the anxiety Levels of
Bipolar Patients
3. Measuring the Quality of Sleep among Senior
Citizens
4. The Level of Academic Achievement of
Young Adults from Dysfunctional Families
5. Effects of Classical Music on the Quality of
Sleep among Infants
Objectives:
The learners are expected to:
1. choose appropriate quantitative research design
2. describe sampling procedure and the sample
3. construct an instrument and establish its validity and
reliability
4. describe intervention (if applicable)
5. plan data collection procedure
6. plan data analysis using statistics and hypothesis
testing (if appropriate)
7. present written research methodology
POPULATION

TARGET
POPULATION

SAMPLE
 Lesson 2: Samples and Sampling Methods

•Sampling refers to the process of systematically

selecting individuals, units, or groups to be
analyzed during the conduct of the study.
• Sampling is the statistical process of selecting a
subset (called sample) of a population of interest
for purposes of making observations and statistical
inferences about the population.
• Population is the group you want to generalize.
• Sample refers to the actual units selected for
observation.
 Samples and Sampling Methods
• Because it is impossible to study an entire
population due to feasibility and cost concerns,
it becomes necessary to select a representative
sample from the population of interest for
observation and analysis.
•The reason for selecting the samples is to get
information about the target population.
 Samples and Sampling Methods
•The goal in research is to make sure that the
samples selected represent the target
population. This increases the generalizability
of your findings.
•Generalizability refers to the extent that your
findings can be applied in other context.
 Sampling Process
• Both qualitative research and quantitative research
share similar stages despite the differences in
sampling procedures.
• Stage 1 – Defining the target population
• Stage 2 – Choosing a sampling frame
• Stage 3 – Choosing a sample from the sample frame
using a well-done sampling technique
• Two (2) types
• probability sampling or random sampling
• nonprobability sampling
Four (4) Ways to Determine Sample Size

• Heuristics
• Literature Review
• Formulas
•Power Analysis
 Heuristics
•A term normally used in qualitative studies as
a research approach that utilizes introspection.
• In quantitative research, heuristics refers to the
rule of thumb for the sample size used in the
study.
• The next slide are suggested sample sizes in
different QRD by Lunenberg and Irby, (2008).
RESEARCH DESIGN NUMBER OF
PARTICIPANTS
Survey 800

Correlational 100 to 200

Ex Post Facto 30+

Experimental 30 or more
 Suggested acceptable sampling
size depending on the type of
research (Gay, 1978)

1. Descriptive Research – 10 % of
the population; smaller pop – 20 %
2. Correlational Research – 30
participants
3. Ex-post Facto – 15 per group
4. Experimental – 15 per group
 Literature Review
•You may want to read studies similar to yours
and check the sample size that they used.
• These studies can serve as a reference in
proving the validity of the sample size that you
plan to use.
 Formula
•The formula of the National Education
Association in the United Sates can be used to
compute for the needed sample size.

2
X 𝑁P(1−P)
s= 2
d N−1 +P(1 −P)
 2
X 𝑁P(1−P)
s=
d2 N−1 +X2 P(1 −P)
where
s = required sample size
X 2 = table value of chi-square for 1 degree of
freedom at the desired confidence level ( 1.96)2
N = population size
P = population of the proportion (0.5)
d = the degree of accuracy expressed as a proportion
(.05)
Calmorin’s Formula.
• This is used when the population is more
than 100 and the researcher decides to utilize
scientific sampling.

2
NV+ Se x 1 −p
𝑆𝑠 = 2
NSe + V x p 1 −p
 2
NV+ Se x 1 −p
Ss = 2
NSe + V x p 1 −p
• where:
Ss – sample size
N – population size
V – standard value (2.58) of 1% level of probability
with 0.99 reliability
Se – sampling error
p – the largest possible proportion
Slovin’s Formula is used to compute for sample size when
you have limited information about the characteristics of
the population and you are using a non-probability
sampling procedure.

N
____________
2

1 + Ne
 SAMPLING
N
____________
2

1 + Ne
Where:

n- sample size
e desired margin of error (2%, 3%, 4%, 5%)
N=population size
 SAMPLING
Example Situation: Sta. Cruz Elementary
School and the Sangguniang Barangay
plans to implement the Barangay Health
Care Program among its 9,000 population.
The school head, having knowledge in
statistics, asks the help of the teachers to
assist him in getting a sample of the
population. He uses 2% margin of error.
How many residents are included in the
sample?
SAMPLING
9,000
____________
2

1 + 9,000(.02)
SAMPLING
9,000
____________

1 + 9,000(.0004)
SAMPLING
9,000
____________

1 + 3.6
SAMPLING
9,000
____________

4.6

1,957
Using the Slovin’s Formula, get the sample size for
each of the following research situation. Show your
complete solution.

1. Kenneth wanted to conduct a research on the reasons

why Senior High Students in Iloilo City fail to
comply with their outputs on time. If the entire
population is 3200, get the sample size with 3%
margin of error.

2. Dr. Jerandy Salpin, a sociologist, decided to find out

the household practices of the residents of Brgy, Sooc
and its relation to the behaviour of their children in
school. There are about 1,500 identified respondents.
Get the sample size if the margin of error is 2 %.
 Power Analysis
•The most precise among the strategies
• founded on the principle of statistical
power
• Statistical power refers to the probability of
rejecting a lase hypothesis, thus suggesting
that there is, indeed, a relationship between
the independent and dependent variables.
 Power Analysis
•Ideally, a study possesses a statistical power of
80%.
• Power analysis is then used to determine the
sample size sufficient for measuring the effect size
of a treatment.
• Effect size refers to the degree of difference
between the control and treatment groups. (The
higher the effect size, the greater the difference
between control and treatment groups.)
 SAMPLING PROCEDURE/ KINDS OF SAMPLING
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Random sampling Purposive sampling

(probability sampling or (or non-scientific sampling
scientific sampling) is the deliberate selection of
involves the selection of a samples based on their
group of participants from a characteristics) may not
larger population by chance. sufficiently represent the
All the members of members target population in the
of the population are given study.
equal chance of being
selected.
Non-probability Sampling
• Selecting respondents that do not have equal
chance of being selected as samples
• Convenience sampling – other names are
accidental sampling or incidental sampling.
You have already determined the sample size
from your population. The respondents are the
ones at the moment present during your
research conduct.
 Convenience Sampling
Advantage: A sample selected for ease of access,
immediately known population group and good response
rate.
Disadvantage: cannot generalise findings (do not know what
population group the sample is representative of) so cannot
move beyond describing the sample.
•Problems of reliability
•Do respondents represent the
target population
•Results are not generalizable
Non-probability Sampling
•Quota Sampling - similar to stratified sampling
which the population is divided into homogenous
strata and then sample are selected from each
stratum. Example – the first 50 respondents who are
approached by the researcher will participate in the
study.
 QUOTA SAMPLING

• The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups, just as in

stratified sampling.
• Then judgment used to select subjects or units from each segment based on a
specified proportion.
• For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and 300 males
between the age of 45 and 60.
• It is this second step which makes the technique one of non-probability
sampling.
• In quota sampling the selection of the sample is non-random.
• For example interviewers might be tempted to interview those who look most
helpful. The problem is that these samples may be biased because not everyone
gets a chance of selection. This random element is its greatest weakness and
quota versus probability has been a matter of controversy for many years
 Types of Non probability Sampling Designs
• Quota sampling
• Based on pre-specified quotas regarding demographics,
attitudes, behaviors, etc
• Advantages
• Contains specific subgroups in the proportions desired
• May reduce bias
• easy to manage, quick
• Disadvantages
• Dependent on subjective decisions
• Not possible to generalize
• only reflects population in terms of the quota, possibility of
bias in selection, no standard error
Non-probability Sampling
•Purposive sampling – handpicking of subjects, a.k.a
judgmental sampling; the researcher chooses the
necessary number of respondents
 Judgmental sampling or Purposive sampling
• - The researcher chooses the sample based on who
they think would be appropriate for the study. This
is used primarily when there is a limited number
of people that have expertise in the area being
researched
 Selected based on an experienced individual’s
belief
• Advantages
• Based on the experienced person’s judgment
• Disadvantages
• Cannot measure the respresentativeness of the
sample
 Random Sampling
Each unit of the population has the probability of
being selected or included in the sample

Advantages
1. Sample mean is unbiased
projection of the population.
2. Methods od estimation is simple
and easy.
 Random Sampling
Disadvantages

1. Location of samples might be

inaccessible, thus costly.
2. Method of listing and assigning
number to all sampling units is
impractical when the population is
very large
•Random sampling is defined as that method of
drawing a portion (sample) of a population so
that all possible samples of a fixed size have
the same probability of being selected.
•Through random sampling, the researcher is
expected to obtain samples that will represent
the population where they are taken.
 Types of Random Sampling in
Quantitative Research

•Simple Random Sampling

• Stratified Random Sampling
• Cluster Sampling
• Systematic Sampling
 Simple Random Sampling
•All individuals in a given population have an
equal chance of being selected.
•This is the simplest and yet the most
generalizable among all probability sampling
techniques because sampling frame is not
subdivided and the sample is not biased.
•It is considered the best way to obtain a
representative sample.
 Simple random sampling

Every subset of a specified size n from the population

Sunil Kumar
has an equal chance of being selected
 Simple Random Sampling
•Various ways
•fish bowl technique,
•roulette wheel,
•use of table of random numbers, and
• computerized random number generator
 Simple Random Sampling
•Fish bowl technique is
selecting participants by
drawing out names from a
transparent glass bowl.

http://www.sawyerbrook.com/wp-
content/uploads/Fishbowl.jpg
 Simple Random Sampling
•Fish bowl technique steps:
1. Prepare the sampling frame and the list of the
names of all elements of the population.
2. Write down all the names of the members of the
population on strips of paper (one name per
strip)
3. Place the strips of paper in a bowl or container.
4. Draw samples as desired.
 Simple Random Sampling
•For large number sampling frames,
1. a table of random numbers or
2. computerized random number
generator is used.
 Using Table of Random Numbers
1. Assign a number to each element of the accessible population.
2. Enter the table of random numbers at an arbitrary or random
starting point. This can be done by closing your eyes and using
a pen to point at a number.
3. Continue in a systematic way up or down, to the left or right or
diagonally. The direction is not important but should be
determined before starting the process; this direction shall
continue until total sample is selected.
4. Continue to select numbers until the desired sample is
reached. When the total number is bigger than the sample size
or has already been drawn, it has to be disregarded and
another number must be selected.
http://
apps.w
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 Using Microsoft Excel
• Enter your list of population into a spreadsheet.
• Use RAND( ) or RANDBETWEEN( ) functions
to generate random numbers
• https://i2.wp.com/blog.excelstrategiesllc.com/Images/2016/12/RAND_ExcelFunction.png?w=72
 Using Randomizer
1. Assign numbers to the individuals in the population that you like to study.
2. Visit the link – https://www.randomizer.org/.
3. Encode the sets of numbers. The sets refer to the number of groups in your
study.
4. Encode the number range. This refers to the range of the total population that
you will examine in the study.
5. Click yes to make the numbers unique or appearing only once in each set, so
that you will know which participant will be assigned to which set.
6. Select the sorting scheme for the members of your sample – either from the
least to greatest or from greatest to least.
7. Select the corresponding marking (on or off). This will help assign a
participant to a specific set.
8. The numbers generated will represent the individuals who will be in your
sample. For instance, if number 40 is selected by Randomizer, the person you
have assigned as #40 will be part of your sample.
 Simple Random Sampling
Advantages Disadvantages
• Highly representative if all • Not possible without
subjects participate; complete list of population
• the ideal members;
• potentially uneconomical to
achieve;
• can be disruptive to isolate
members from a group;
• time-scale may be too long;
• data/sample could change
 Types of Random Sampling in
Quantitative Research

•Simple Random Sampling

• Stratified Random Sampling
• Cluster Sampling
• Systematic Sampling
 Stratified Sampling
•Similar to simple random sampling wherein
members of the population can all be selected
by chance
• However, the population is divided into
homogeneous and non-overlapping subgroups
( or strata). The samples are then selected from
these subgroups, and not from the population
as a whole. Age, gender, and educational
qualifications are just some of the criteria used
in dividing the population into strata.
• The population is
divided into two or
more groups called
strata, according to
some criterion, such as
geographic location,
grade level, age, or
income, and
subsamples are
randomly selected from
each strata.
 Stratified Sampling
•Best used when the characteristics of the
subgroups may influence the variables being
measured – data obtained can be also grouped
into different classes, creating more nuances in
the analysis.
The principal reasons for using stratified random
sampling rather than simple random sampling include:
• Stratification may produce a smaller error of estimation
than would be produced by a simple random sample of
the same size. This result is particularly true if
measurements within strata are very homogeneous.
• The cost per observation in the survey may be reduced by
stratification of the population elements into convenient
groupings.
• Estimates of population parameters may be desired for
subgroups of the population. These subgroups should
then be identified.
• Kalayaan National High School has a
population of 1,000.
•Assuming that 250 is the sample size.
• Respondents are teachers, staff,
security and maintenance personnel
and learners.
Non-
• 250 ÷ 4 = 63 proportional
• Is this OK? stratified
Solution:

• Select subgroup samples in

proportion to their size in the
population.
For example:
50 teachers 13

4 staff 1

5 security and maintenance 1

personnel
350 – grade seven 88

240 – grade eight 60

200 – grade nine 50

151 – grade ten 37

1,000 250
• http://www.psychologywizard.net/uploads/2/6/6/4/26640833/4382851_orig.jpg
 Stratified random sampling can be classified into:
a. Proportionate stratified sampling
It involves drawing a sample from each stratum in
proportion to the letter’s share in total population
b. Disproportionate stratified sampling
proportionate representation is not given to strata
it necessary involves giving over representation to some
strata and under representation to other.
common causes and effects of smoking
among senior high school students

Private
Pubic Schools
Schools

Gr 11 Gr 12 Gr 11 Gr 12

B G B G B G B G
 Stratified Sampling
Advantages Disadvantages
• Can ensure that specific • More complex;
groups are represented, even • Requires greater effort than
proportionally, in the samples simple random;
• strata must be carefully
defined
STRATIFIED SAMPLING……
Advantage :
❖Enhancement of representativeness to each sample
❖Higher statistical efficiency
❖Easy to carry out
Disadvantage:
• Classification error
• Time consuming and expensive
• Prior knowledge of composition and of distribution
of population
 Types of Random Sampling in
Quantitative Research

•Simple Random Sampling

• Stratified Random Sampling
• Cluster Sampling
• Systematic Sampling
 Cluster Sampling
•Used in large-scale studies in which the
population is geographically spread out. In
these cases, sampling procedure may be
difficult and time-consuming
•Grouping of the population into subgroups or
clusters – similar to stratified sampling
 Cluster Sampling
•However, these clusters are not created based
on specific characteristics or traits making them
heterogeneous.
• Random samples of successive clusters of
subjects (e.g. by institution) until groups are
chosen as units.
• Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage sampling' .
• First stage a sample of areas is chosen;
• Second stage a sample of respondents within those areas is selected.
• Population divided into clusters of homogeneous units, usually based
on geographical contiguity.
• Sampling units are groups rather than individuals.
• A sample of such clusters is then selected.
• All units from the selected clusters are studied.
• The population is divided into subgroups (clusters) like families. A
simple random sample is taken of the subgroups and then all members
of the cluster selected are surveyed
 Cluster Sampling
•If you have a population dispersed over a wide
geographic region, it may not be feasible to
conduct a simple random sampling of the
entire population.
• It may be reasonable to divide the population
into “clusters” (usually along geographic
boundaries), randomly sample a few clusters,
and measure all units within that cluster.
http://coronainsights.com/wp-
content/uploads/2014/02/Block-
selection.jpg
 Cluster sampling
Section 1 Section 2

Section 3

Section 5

Section 4
 Cluster Sampling
Advantages Disadvantages
• Possible to select randomly • Clusters in a level must be
when no single list of equivalent but some natural ones
population member exists but are not for essential characteristics
local lists do; (e.g. geographic: numbers equal
but unemployment rates differ)
• data collected on groups may • Possible inadequate representation
avoid introduction of of each type of characteristic
confounding by isolating among the population;
members • To overcome this, a large number
of samples should be used from
different subgroups or clusters
 CLUSTER SAMPLING…….
Advantages :
• Cuts down on the cost of preparing a sampling frame.
This can reduce travel and other administrative costs.
Disadvantages: sampling error is higher for a simple
random sample of same size.
The cost to reach an element to sample is very
High.

Sunil Kumar
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 Types of Random Sampling in
Quantitative Research

•Simple Random Sampling

• Stratified Random Sampling
• Cluster Sampling
• Systematic Sampling
 Systematic Sampling
•Participants are selected from a list based on
their order in the population or on a
predetermined interval.
•Sampling frame is ordered according to some
criteria and elements are selected at regular
intervals through that ordered list.
•Selecting every nth element of the population
(every fifth, eighth, ninth, etc).
 Systematic Sampling
• It involves a random start and then proceeds with
the selection of every kth element from that point
onwards.
• This interval is obtained by dividing the
population size by the sample size for the study.
• k=N/n, where
k - ratio of sampling frame
N - population
n - desired sample size
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Systematic sampling

Every member
( for example:
every 20th
person) is
selected from a
list of all
population
members.
Systematic Sampling

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Systematic Sampling
ADVANTAGES:
• Sample easy to select
• Suitable sampling frame can be identified easily
• Sample evenly spread over entire reference population
• Cost effective
DISADVANTAGES:
• Sample may be biased if hidden periodicity in population
coincides with that of selection.
• Each element does not get equal chance
• Ignorance of all element between two n element
 Stage Sampling
• Combination of cluster (randomly selecting
clusters) and simple random or stratified
sampling individuals
• cluster sampling + simple random sampling
• cluster sampling + stratified sampling
• stratified sampling + systematic sampling
 Cluster vs multi-stage random sample
• Cluster sampling: selecting a sample based on specific, naturally occurring groups (clusters)
within a population.
- Example: randomly selecting 20 hospitals from a list of all hospitals in Iloilo City.
Multi-stage sampling: cluster sampling repeated at a number of levels.- Example: randomly
selecting hospitals by county and then a sample of patients from each selected hospital.
Complex form of cluster sampling in which two or more levels of units are embedded one in the
other.
First stage, random number of districts chosen in all
states.
Followed by random number of barangays, villages.
Then third stage units will be houses.
All ultimate units (houses, for instance) selected at last step are surveyed.
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Multi-stage sampling
Multi-stage sampling (also known as multi-stage cluster
sampling) is a more complex form of cluster
sampling which contains two or more stages in sample
selection. In simple terms, in multi-stage sampling large
clusters of population are divided into smaller clusters in
several stages in order to make primary data collection
more manageable. It has to be acknowledged that multi-
stage sampling is not as effective as true random sampling;
however, it addresses certain disadvantages associated
with true random sampling such as being overly expensive
and time-consuming.
Application of Multi-Stage Sampling: an Example

Contrary to its name, multi-stage sampling can be easy to apply in

business studies. Application of this sampling method can be
divided into four stages:
1.Choosing sampling frame, numbering each group with a unique
number and selecting a small sample of relevant discrete groups.
2.Choosing a sampling frame of relevant discrete sub-groups. This
should be done from relevant discrete groups selected in the
previous stage.
3.Repeat the second stage above, if necessary.
4.Choosing the members of the sample group from the sub-groups
using some variation of probability sampling.
Your research objective is to evaluate online spending patterns of
households in the Philippines through online questionnaires. You
can form your sample group comprising 120 households in the
following manner:

1.Choose 6 provinces/cities in the Philippines using simple

random sampling (or any other probability sampling).
2.Choose 4 districts within each province/city using systematic
sampling method (or any other probability sampling).
3.Choose 5 households from each district using simple random or
systematic sampling methods. This will result in 120 households
to be included in your sample group.
 Provinces/
Cities

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 Difference Between Strata and Clusters

• Although strata and clusters are both non-overlapping subsets

of the population, they differ in several ways.
• All strata are represented in the sample; but only a subset of
clusters are in the sample.
• With stratified sampling, the best survey results occur when
elements within strata are internally homogeneous. However,
with cluster sampling, the best results occur when elements
within clusters are internally heterogeneous
•Advantages of Multi-Stage Sampling
• Effective in primary data collection from
geographically dispersed. population when face-to-face
contact in required (e.g. semi-structured in-depth
interviews)
• Cost-effectiveness and time-effectiveness.
• High level of flexibility.
•Disadvantages of Multi-Stage Sampling
• High level of subjectivity.
• Research findings can never be 100% representative of
population.
• The presence of group-level information is required.
In formulating the description of respondents of the
study, the following elements must be properly
discussed:
• the total population and its parameters;
• the sample;
• the sampling method, with references to
support it;
• an explanation and discussion of the sampling
method;
• an explanation of how the sampling is done;
• an enumeration of the qualifying criteria; and
• the profile of the respondents.
A. Identify the sampling method used in each of
the given situations.
1. Gina’s target population for her study are employees from the
top 500 corporations in the Philippines. Because there are too
many employees in these corporations, she decided to randomly
select ten corporations and use all of their employees as
participants in her study.
2. Myra’s study aims to determine the relationship between
intelligence quotient and the language proficiency of students.
There are 105, 000 students in her target population. Of these,
15% have high proficiency, 65% have average proficiency, and
20% have low proficiency. She decided to utilize a sample size of
400 participants from the target population. This is proportional
to the total number of members in each group of the population.
A. Identify the sampling method used in each of
the given situations.
3. Ryan wants to know if the new curriculum has an effect
on the academic performance of science students. He
took the list of all students in his school and selected
every 8th name in the class as participants.
4. Troy wants to survey principals and supervisors in
Country X. All in all, there are 12, 000 principals and
24, 000 supervisors in the country. Troy decided to select
350 from the total target population as participants.
B. Identify the sample size and the sampling method
that you will use for your own research. Explain how
you will determine your sample size, and justify your
choice of sampling method for your study.

Size of Target
Population
Method used to
determine
sample size (
include
computation if
applicable)
Sample size for
the study
GUESS THE WORD….

NSRNSTIUETM
GUESS THE WORD….

SLOTO
GUESS THE WORD….

ESTST
GUESS THE WORD….

NUEESSTIONAIQR
GUESS THE WORD….

EWIRVSNTIE
GUESS THE WORD….

ASESROVNTBIO
Objectives:
The learners are expected to:
1. choose appropriate quantitative research design
2. describe sampling procedure and the sample
3. construct an instrument and establish its validity and
reliability
4. describe intervention (if applicable)
5. plan data collection procedure
6. plan data analysis using statistics and hypothesis
testing (if appropriate)
7. present written research methodology
 Instruments
• tools used to gather data for a particular research topic
• When using instruments that are prone to subjectivity
(observation, interview, assessment of performance task), you
may consider having another coder or evaluator to help you
gather and analyse your data. This is to improve the validity
and reliability of data. Then, compute for the inter-coder or
inter-rater agreement.
• Inter-coder or inter-rater agreement refers to the level of
concurrence between the scores given by two or more raters.
 Aspects to consider in describing
your instruments
• the actual instrument used
• the purpose of the instrument
• the developer of the instrument (an institution or
other researchers)
• the number of items or sections/parts in the
instrument
• the response format used (multiple choice, yes or no)
• the scoring for the responses
• the reliability and validity of the study
 INSTRUMENTS IN
QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH

DOCUMENTARY PHYSIOLOGICAL
INTERVIEWS OBSERVATIONS QUESTIONNAIRES TESTS
ANALYSES MEASURES

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 Documentary Analysis
• This technique is used to analyse primary
and secondary sources that are available
mostly in churches, schools, public or
private offices, hospitals, or in community,
municipal, and city halls.
• At times, data are not available or are
difficult to locate in these places and the
information gathered tend to be incomplete
or not definite and conclusive.
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 INSTRUMENTS IN
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RESEARCH

DOCUMENTARY PHYSIOLOGICAL
INTERVIEWS OBSERVATIONS QUESTIONNAIRES TESTS
ANALYSES MEASURES

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PARTICIPANT
 INTERVIEW
• Quantitative interview is a method of collecting
data about an individual’s behaviors, opinions,
values, emotions, and demographic characteristics
using numerical data. It involves the oral,
interactive exchange of information between the
researcher and the subject either face-to-face or not.
• The skill of the interviewer determines if the
interviewee is able to express his/her thoughts
clearly.
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 Quantitative Interviews Qualitative Interviews
• highly closed-ended questions • Mostly contain open-ended
(although a few open-ended questions
questions can be asked) • involve data from a small sample
• accompanied by a rating scale or a size
rubric and the responses must be in • Unstructured, semi-structured,
numerical in nature informal interviews and focus
• gather data from a large sample group discussion are used in
size qualitative research.
• minimize interviewer effect –
responses of the participants may be
affected by the behavior displayed
by the researcher or the manner that
the questions are presented.
• Structured interview is in
quantitative research.
Three (3) Types of Interviews
1. Unstructured. In the form of normal conversations or
free-wheeling exchange of ideas, the researcher must be
skilled in conducting the interview so that he/she can
steer the course of conversation. The interviewer must be
knowledgeable on the subject or topic of concern.
2. Structured (Standard). The conduct of questioning
follows a particular sequence and has a well-defined
content. The interviewer does not ask questions that are
not part of the questionnaire but he/she can ask the
interviewee to clarify his/her answers.
3. Semi-structured. There is a specific set of questions, but
there are also additional probes that may be done in an
open-ended manner. The researcher can gather additional
data from a respondent to add depth and significance to
the findings.
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 INTERVIEW
•Usually, an interview is conducted with single
person.
• There are also times when it is conducted with a
group of people ( 5-10) whose opinions and
experience are elicited simultaneously – focus group
interview.
•Life stories – narratives or self-disclosures about an
individual’s life experiences. The interviewer must
guide the respondents in narrating their accounts.
 INTERVIEW
•Data obtained from an interview may be recorded
on audiotapes or videotapes. Today, cell phones or
smartphones can be used as recording devices.
Some researches believe that writing down the
interview affects rapport, reduces spontaneity, and
hinders eye contact.
 Quantitative Interviews Questionnaires
• highly structured • highly structured
• Items are read to the participants. • Participants answer on their own.
• It allows the researcher to ask
follow-up questions.
• It is also beneficial when the target
population do not have the capacity
to answer a printed or encoded
questionnaire.
Guidelines in Conducting a
Quantitative Interview
 Before the Interview

1. Decide on the interview method that you will

use (face to face, phone, video conferencing).
• Consider the kind of data you like to collect, the
amount of time you have allotted for the data-gathering
phase of your study, and your financial capabilities.
 Before the Interview

2. Choose a comfortable venue with the least

amount of distractions.
• Choosing a comfortable venue prevents certain
extraneous variables from affecting the way your
participants respond to the questions in the interview.
 Before the Interview

3. Decide on the situation of the interview.

• Note that an overly lengthy interview can make the
participants less interested in further engaging with
you, thus affecting the responses that they will give.
4. Prepare and master your interview guide.
• Determine beforehand the questions that you will ask
to ensure that the interview will be highly structured
and that you will obtain the targeted data.
 Before the Interview

5. Test you recording device.

• Make sure that it is working efficiently.
6. Pilot-test your interview guide and practice
how you will conduct the interview.
• Doing so will help you check and remedy any possible
problem that can affect the interview before conducting
it.
 Before the Interview

7. Make sure that you obtain consent from the

participants before conducting and recording
the interview.
• You may ask the participants to sign the informed
consent form (ICF) and acknowledge its confidentiality
clause. Orient them as well regarding the purpose of
the study and the extent of their participation in it.
 During the Interview
1. Be in control of the flow of the interview.
• Follow your set of interview guide as strictly as
possible and ask only one question at a time.
2. Help the participants respond as easily and as
naturally as possible.
• For instance, rephrase a question if the participants do
not understand it. Also encourage them to ask
questions and make clarifications. Finally, refrain from
asking leading questions which may prompt the
participants to answer in a certain way.
 During the Interview
3. Demonstrate respect, professionalism, and a
positive attitude toward the participants
throughout the interview.
• Show them that you are interested in what they are
talking about. Also, show them your appreciation for
participating in your study.
 After the Interview
1. Check if your recording device worked well
throughout the interview.
• Ensure that the audio quality is sufficient to enable you
to accurately transcribe your interview.
2. Transcribe or encode the data as soon as you
have finished your interview.
• Transcribing or encoding your data will help you
obtain an overview of the characteristics, behaviors,
and other information that you specifically need to look
into your study.
 After the Interview
3. Write some of your observations regarding the
interview.
• This will help you know and address the issues that
can possibly arise in your next interview.
 INSTRUMENTS IN
QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH

DOCUMENTARY PHYSIOLOGICAL
INTERVIEWS OBSERVATIONS QUESTIONNAIRES TESTS
ANALYSES MEASURES

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 Observation
• Although observation is more frequently used in
qualitative research, it is also used in quantitative
research particularly when the characteristics
being observed are quantitative in nature.
• These characteristics include length, width,
height, weight, volume, area, temperature, cost,
levels, age, time, and speed.
• It is also used when assessing performances. The
observer uses rubric or rating scale in data
collection.
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 Observation
• This process or technique enables the researcher
to participate actively in the conduct of the
research. The instrument used in an observation is
called the observation guide or observation checklist.
Observation must be done in a quiet and
inconspicuous manner so as to get realistic data.
• It can be used to gather information such as the
characteristics and conditions of individuals;
verbal communication; non-verbal
communication; activities and environmental
conditions.
 Advantage Disadvantages
• It allows the researcher to examine • Prone to Hawthorne effect – a
an actual phenomenon or behavior phenomenon in which the
of the subject (plants or animals) or participants alter their behavior due
participant (humans). to their awareness that they are
being observed.
• Observation also tends to be more
exhaustive and time-consuming
than the interview and the
questionnaire.
• In some cases, a researcher needs to
conduct an observation for several
years.
 Observation
• Dimensions to consider for observation:
1. The focus of the observation
2. Concealment – the condition wherein the
subject of observation has no knowledge that
he/she is being observed;
3. Duration; and
4. The method of recording the observations.
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 Types of Observation

• Structured observation. The researcher uses a

checklist as data collection tool. This checklist
specifies expected behaviors of interest and the
researcher records the frequency of the
occurrences of these behaviors.
• Unstructured observation. The researcher
observes things as they happen. The researcher
conducts the observation without any
preconceived ideas about what will be observed.
 Types of Observation
• Controlled observation
❑This is typically used in experimental research. The
researcher selects the time, place (usually a laboratory),
participants, and circumstances where the data collection
will take place. It is usually done under a standard procedure.
❑ The observer takes a non-participant role because he/she does
not interact with the participants.
❑ Advantages:
❖ provides reliable data because they are obtained through
a structured and well-defined process
❖ procedure can be replicated and the data are easier to
analyse
❖ easier to implement due to its highly structured nature
 Types of Observation
• Natural observation
❑ carried out in a non-controlled setting
❑ To a certain extent, the researcher does not control the
circumstances but allows the natural flow of events to happen.
❑ Advantages:
❖ has a greater ecological validity – the flexibility of the
findings to be generalized to a real-life contexts.
❖ also responds to other areas of inquiry not originally
intended by the researcher
❑ Disadvantages:
❖ cannot sufficiently establish causal relationship because of
the presence of extraneous variables which can affect
behavior of the participants in one way or another
 Types of Observation

•Participant observation
❑ allows the observer to become a member of the
group or community that the participants belong
❑ can be overt or covert
❑ If done overtly, the participants know the research-
related motives of your observation
❑ If done covertly, the participants are not aware of
the intention behind the observation.
Guidelines in Conducting an
Observation
 Before the Observation

1. Clarify your research objectives as these shall

guide you in what data to observe and what
type of observation to use.
2. Prepare an observation checklist or form, which
shall enumerate all that you will need in
conducting your data collection. Use the
available literature or consult experts when
developing your observation checklist or form.
 Before the Observation

3. Decide on the type of observation (participant

vs. non-participant; covert vs overt) and
collection technique that you will use (written
description, video recording, use of photographs
or artifacts). In deciding, consider your
resources and the type of data you like to obtain
from your observation.
 Before the Observation

4. Decide on the duration of observation, the

behavior or variables you like to observe, and
the time and location of the observation. These
are basic details that can have an effect on what
you will focus on in your observation.
 Before the Observation

5. Record only the data that will address your

research questions or objectives. This will help
you make a more focused and accurate
observation.
 Before the Observation

6. If your observation involves human

participants, inform them of your study prior to
your scheduled observation. In certain
communities, there may also be regulations that
should be followed before you can conduct your
observation.
 During the Observation
1. Write the date, time, and place where the
observation will be conducted. Take note as
well of the data to be collected.
2. If possible, there should be more than one
person conducting the observation. This is to
increase the reliability and validity of the
collected data.
 During the Observation
3. Explain the purpose of the observation to your
participants. This is to ensure the participants of
transparency on your part as a researcher.
4. Make sure that the participants are guaranteed
as much anonymity as possible.
5. Be accurate and objective in recording your
observations. Do not fabricate your data.
 During the Observation
6. During the observation, make sure that the
participants are aware of the purpose of your
study. This is especially important when you are
not taking the role of a complete observer or
complete participant. However, avoid causing
significant disruptions to the community or
group that you are investigating.
 During the Observation
7. Use multiple recording schemes if possible.
Aside from writing down your observations,
also consider utilizing audio and video
recording devices. This is especially important
due to the problems that may be encountered by
using a specific recording scheme. For instance,
there may be information which you might miss
when they are only written down. Meanwhile,
video and audio recording files can become
corrupted and irretrievable.
 After the Observation
1. Compile and tabulate all data that you have
obtained and save them in your computer. This
can help avoid possible loss of data which can
adversely affect your study as a whole.
2. Maintain the confidentiality of the data that
you have gathered. This serves as a way of
returning the trust your participants have given
you throughout the study.
 After the Observation
3. Review your data to determine if there is
anything you missed, so that you can address
this gap in the data before proceeding further
with your study.
 INSTRUMENTS IN
QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH

DOCUMENTARY PHYSIOLOGICAL
INTERVIEWS OBSERVATIONS QUESTIONNAIRES TESTS
ANALYSES MEASURES

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 Questionnaire
• A questionnaire is a paper-based or electronic tool
for collecting information about a particular
research interest.
•most commonly used instrument in research
• It is a list of questions or indicators about a
particular topic, with spaces provided for the
response to each question, and intended to be
answered by a number of persons.
 Questionnaire
• In quantitative research, a questionnaire typically
uses a scale.
• In quantitative research, questionnaires convert
responses into numerical values (always, frequently,
sometimes, seldom, and rarely = 5,4,3,2,1).
Three (3) Types of Questionnaires
1. Structured . These questionnaires provide possible
answers and respondents just have to select from
them. It uses closed-ended questions or indicators
and are easier to standardize as well as to code and
interpret objectively.
2. Unstructured. These questionnaires do not provide
options and the respondents are free to give
whatever they want and also allows the participants
to respond to open-ended questions.
3. Semi-structured. These have characteristics of both
structured and unstructured types. They are
composed of both closed and open-ended questions.
 Advantage Disadvantages
• It can help collect data quickly from • The questions that it contains can be
a large number of participants. interpreted differently by the
• It can encourage the participants to participants, and this scenario is
be open to the researcher since their beyond your control as a researcher.
identity can be made anonymous. • To fix this, the researchers need to
• It has flexibility because the explain its content to the
respondent can answer it in their participants,
own convenient time. • Some participants may be unable to
• It is less expensive, yields more complete or return the
honest responses, guarantees questionnaires on the set deadline.
confidentiality, and minimizes • Questionnaires may lack depth as
biases based on question-phrasing they do not allow further probing
modes. into the answers of the participants.
Types of Questions
Types of Questions
Types of Questions
Types of Questions
Types of Questions
 Questionnaire vs Survey
• Questionnaire – refers to an instrument of data
collection that contains a list of ready-made
questions.
• Survey – refers to a process of collecting, recording,
and analyzing data. It also deals with various
aspects of the research process such as research
design, instrument construction, and sampling.
Thus, it is a traditional way of conducting
descriptive research.
 INSTRUMENTS IN
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RESEARCH

DOCUMENTARY PHYSIOLOGICAL
INTERVIEWS OBSERVATIONS QUESTIONNAIRES TESTS
ANALYSES MEASURES

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 Test
• Psychological tests – these include personality
inventories and projective techniques.
• Personality inventories are self-reported measures
that assess the differences in personality traits,
needs, or values of people. They involve gathering
information from a person through questions or
statements that require responses or reactions
• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
• Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS).
 Test
• Projective techniques – the subject is presented with
a stimulus designed to be ambiguous or vague in
meaning. The person is then asked to describe the
stimulus or tell what the stimulus appears to
represent
• Rorschach Inkblot Test – participants are presented with cards
that contain designs which are actually inkblots
• Thematic Apperception Test – consists of a set of pictures about
which the subjects are asked to tell a story or what they think
is happening.
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RESEARCH

DOCUMENTARY PHYSIOLOGICAL
INTERVIEWS OBSERVATIONS QUESTIONNAIRES TESTS
ANALYSES MEASURES

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 PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES
• The technique applied for physiological measures
involves the collection of physical data from the
subjects. It is considered more accurate and
objective than other data-collection methods.
• However, skills and expertise are needed to enable the
researcher to use and manipulate the measurement
devices.
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Objectives:
The learners are expected to:
1. choose appropriate quantitative research design
2. describe sampling procedure and the sample
3. construct an instrument and establish its validity and
reliability
4. describe intervention (if applicable)
5. plan data collection procedure
6. plan data analysis using statistics and hypothesis
testing (if appropriate)
7. present written research methodology
 SURVEY

Validity is a subjective process.

 SURVEY

I know the types of validity.

 SURVEY

I know how to differentiate the

types of validity.
Validity and Reliability of the Instrument

•There are three (3) ways of developing

an instrument for quantitative research.
•Adopting an instrument - used in well-
known institutions or reputable studies
and publication, no need to spend time
establishing its validity and reliability
• modify an existing instrument
• create your own instrument
 Validity of the Instrument

• Validity – is the ability of an instrument to

measure what it needs to measure, when a
study investigates the common causes of
absences, the content of the instrument must
focus on these variables and indicators.
 TYPES OF
VALIDITY

Criterion-
Content Construct
Face Validity related
Validity Validity
Validity

Concurrent

Predictive
 Face Validity
• aka Logical Validity
• An instrument has face validity when it “appears” to
measure the variables being studied.
• involves an analysis of whether the instrument is using
a valid scale
• The procedure calls only for intuitive judgement
(subjective process).
• The researcher determines face validity by looking at
the features of the instrument.
• font size, font style, spacing, paper size and other details
that will not distract the respondents while answering the
questionnaire.
Google
 Content Validity
• It is any information that makes one aware of whether the
results from the test correspond to what the researcher
expects.
• This is determined by studying the questions to see whether
they are able to elicit the necessary information.
• An instrument with high content validity has to meet the
objectives of the research.
• This type of validity is not measured by measured a
numerical index, but relies instead on logical judgement
(subjective process) as to whether the test measure what it is
supposed to measure.
• This judgement is based solely on a systematic comparison
of the test to the behavior it is intended to measure.
 Content Validity
• Content validity is measured by subjecting the
instrument to an analysis by a group of experts who
are knowledgeable about subject both in theory and
practice (Three to five experts would suffice). The
experts assess the items of the questionnaire and
determine if the items measure the variables being
studied. The expert’s criticisms will considered in
the revision of the instrument.
 Construct Validity
• A construct is often an intangible or abstract variable
such as personality, intelligence, or moods.
• This refers to whether the test corresponds to its
theoretical construct. It is concerned with the extent to
which a particular measure relates to the other measures
and its consistency with the theoretically-derived
hypothesis.
• Therefore, the process of construct-validation is theory-
laden. Factor analysis, a refined statistical procedure, is
used to analyse the interrelationships of behavioural
data and is particularly relevant to construct validity.
 Criterion-related Validity

• aka Equivalence Test

• This type is an expression of how scores from the
test are correlated with an external criterion.
• This means that the instrument produces results
similar to those of another instrument in measuring
a certain variable.
 Criterion-related Validity
• Concurrent – It deals with the measures that can be
administered and validated at the same time. It is
determined by administering both the new test and
standardized test to a group of respondents, then
finding the correlation between the two sets of the
scores.
• An instrument has concurrent validity when it is able
to predict results similar to those of a test already
validated in the past.
• Validity is established with an accepted and availed
second test that measures what the researcher is trying
to measure.
 Criterion-related Validity
• Example:
The Stanford-Binet V, a widely accepted
standardized IQ test, is used to determine the IQ of
Nursing students. A researcher published a design
for a short screening test that measures the same. The
scores on the Stanford-Binet V and the short
screening test are compared to assess the relationship
between scores.
 Criterion-related Validity
•Predictive – It refers to how well the test predicts
some future behavior of the examinees.
• An instrument has predictive validity when it
produces results similar to those of another
instrument that will be used in the future.
•This is particularly useful and important for
aptitude tests which attempts to predict how well
test-takers will do in some future setting.
 SCENARIO
• You are conducting a study on the writing skills of
students.
• You first decide to use a 10-item true-or-false test.
• This may ensure face validity as it “appears” to
measure one’s knowledge of writing.
• However, it lacks content, construct, and criterion
validities.
 SCENARIO
•This type of instrument lacks construct validity
since it does not measure actual writing skills such
as content knowledge, cohesiveness and
organization, and facility with the language.
• These are variables which are considered constructs
since they are highly abstract.
• You may rework the test to focus on the grammar
skills of students.
 SCENARIO
•Still, this test then lacks content validity, since it
fails to cover other items under writing skills.
• These include sentence structure, organization, and
content relevant to the topic.
• To be considered, these items must be taken note of in
an actual writing test, thus helping address the
instrument’s lack of content validity.
 SCENARIO
•It must now be checked if the instrument has
predictive validity as well as concurrent validity.
• It must be able to predict the academic performance of
students in their English subjects; this is a measure of
predictive validity.
• In addition, the instrument must also produce results similar
to those of an English writing test which has been previously
administered. This will prove that the most recent writing test
administered has concurrent validity.
 SURVEY

I know the difference of validity

from reliability.
 SURVEY

I know the methods for

establishing reliability.
 SURVEY

I know how to differentiate the

methods for establishing
reliability.
 Reliability of the Instrument

• Reliability – refers to the consistency of

results. A reliable instrument yields the
same results for individuals who take the
test more than once.
 Methods in
Establishing
Reliability

Test-retest or Internal Equivalent

Inter-rater
Stability Test Consistency Forms
Reliability
Reliability Reliability Reliability

Kappa
Split Half
Coefficient

Kuder-
Richardson test

Cronbach’s
Alpha
Example:

A lady who is monitoring her weight

uses a weighing scale. Early in the
morning, her weight is 65 lbs; in the
afternoon, it is 68 lbs; and it is 70 lbs in
the evening. In this case, the weighing
scale is not reliable since it yields
different results.
 Methods in Establishing Reliability
1. Test-retest or Stability Test. The same test is given to a
same group of respondents twice. The scores in the first
tests are correlated with the scores in the second test.
• When there is a high correlation index, it means that
there is also a high reliability of the test. It is often
ideal to conduct the retest after a short period of time
(e.g. two weeks) in order to record a higher correlation
between the variables tested in the study.
Problems to consider
• some students may remember some of the items during the
first test administration
• the scores may differ not only because of the unreliability
of the test but also of the students themselves may have
changes ins some ways.
 Weaknesses Identified in Using the
Test-Retest Method
• Even if test-retest correlation can be computed, its interpretation is not
necessarily straightforward. A low test-retest correlation may not indicate
that the reliability of the test is low but may instead signify that the
underlying theoretical framework has changed. The longer the time
interval between measurements, the more likely that the concept has
changed.
• Reactivity refers to the fact that sometimes, the very process is not done
logically, and sometimes, a phenomenon can induce change in itself.
• Overestimation due to memory, the person’s mental recollection of
his/her responses which he/she gives during the first measurement is
quite likely to influence the responses which he/she gives during the
second measurement. Memory effects may influence reliability estimates.
 Methods in Establishing Reliability
2. Internal Consistency. If the test in question is designed
to measure a single basic concept, it is reasonable to
assume that a respondent who gets one item right is
likely to correctly answer another item that is similar.
• In other words, items sought must be correlated with each
other and the test should be internally consistent.
A. Split Half
• It is a method of establishing internal consistency wherein a test
is given only one to the respondents.
• If, for example, the test has 100 items, it is divided into either:
• a first half and a second half, or
• a half containing all odd-numbered items and the other half containing all even-
numbered items.
• The scores of the two halves are then correlated using the Spearmen-
Brown prophecy formula:
2r
rSB =
1+r

Where :
r – the correlation coefficient computed for split halves
rSB – the estimated reliability of the entire test
B. Kuder-Richardson Test
• This method measures the extent to which items in one form of a test
share commonalities with one another as do the items of an
equivalence test form. This is also called item-total correlation.
• It tests reliability in terms of instruments of a dichotomous nature,
such as yes or no tests.
• It requires one administration of the test, a determination of whether
an individual test-taker correctly answers each item or not, and the
computation of the standard deviation of the distribution.
• When the reliability coefficient is high, the test items are said to be
homogenous.
• The internal consistency method takes into account the test itself and
its administration.
• The consistency of test scores is determined over different parts of
the test.
C. Cronbach’s Alpha
• Measures reliability with respect to each item and construct
being examined by the instrument.
 Methods in Establishing Reliability
3. Equivalent Forms Reliability
• It is measured by administering two tests identical in all
aspects except the actual wording of items.
• In short, the two test have the same coverage, difficulty level,
test type, and format.
• An example of a procedure involving equivalent forms
reliability is administering a pre-test and post-test.
 Methods in Establishing Reliability
4. Inter-rater Reliability
• It measures the consistency of scores assigned by two or more
raters on a certain set of rules. The Kappa coefficient is one of
the most popular statistical tools in measuring inter-rater
reliability.
• The higher the value of the Kappa coefficient, the more
reliable is the instrument.
• A coefficient value of at least 0.70 indicates that the
instrument is reliable.
Objectives:
The learners are expected to:
1. choose appropriate quantitative research design
2. describe sampling procedure and the sample
3. construct an instrument and establish its validity and
reliability
4. describe intervention (if applicable)
5. plan data collection procedure
6. plan data analysis using statistics and hypothesis
testing (if appropriate)
7. present written research methodology
Planning the Data Collection
• The researcher should clarify whether the type of
data to be collected is textual or numerical.
• The researcher must also have a timeline in
collecting the data from the subjects or
respondents for practical purposes.
• When the collection of data is planned properly,
it will serve as a motivation to the researcher, and
will help save money, time, effort, and energy.
 The People
• After identifying the characteristics of the subjects or
participants, secure the approval and endorsement of the proper
authorities for the conduct of the study (i.e., allow the allow
distribution of the survey questionnaires or conduct of the
interview).
• This is done by submitting a letter seeking approval which also
identifies the person who will collect the data, conduct the
interview, or observe the person/s under study.
• There are time that the researcher himself/herself will do all
tasks related to the research, but there are also times when
he/she cannot do these tasks alone, and he/she needs somebody
or a group of enumerators to assist him/her.
 The Finances
• All research undertakings have financial requirements. The
amount varies depending on the type of study to be conducted.
• It is important to properly plan the amount for the production of
the instrument and the research study, the travel expenses in
going to the participants or to the venue where the research is to
be conducted, honoraria, and other incremental expenses.
 The Schedule
• A good projection of when to start, how much time to consumed
in going from one participant to the other, when to retrieve
questionnaires or data, when to do follow-ups, and the like are
factors to consider in formulating or finalizing the schedule.
• Are you going to collect the data during the morning or
afternoon? Do you have enough free time to do the data
collection?
 Miscellaneous
• The researcher must consider the following –
• what to wear during the data collection;
• what to do to ensure that the participants are safe;
• how to motivate and encourage participants to
answer all the items in the instruments; and
• what to do to build rapport and gain the trust and
cooperation of the participants.
Objectives:
The learners are expected to:
1. choose appropriate quantitative research design
2. describe sampling procedure and the sample
3. construct an instrument and establish its validity and
reliability
4. describe intervention (if applicable)
5. plan data collection procedure
6. plan data analysis using statistics and hypothesis
testing (if appropriate)
7. present written research methodology
Objectives:
The learners are expected to:
1. choose appropriate quantitative research design
2. describe sampling procedure and the sample
3. construct an instrument and establish its validity and
reliability
4. describe intervention (if applicable)
5. plan data collection procedure
6. plan data analysis using statistics and hypothesis
testing (if appropriate)
7. present written research methodology
References:
• Barrot, J.S. (2017). Practical research 2 for senior high school. Quezon City, Philippines: C&E
Publishing, Inc.
• Cristobal Jr, A.P. & Cristobal, M.C.D.(2017). Practical research 2 for senior high school. Quezon City,
Philippines: C&E Publishing, Inc.
• Melegrito M.L.F.(2016). Applied research: an introduction to quantitative research methods and
report writing. Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing House.
• Samosa, R . (n.d.)Digging - up the Principles and Concepts of Practical Research: A Quantitative Approach
• Subong, P.E. n.d. Statistics for Research. Manila, Philippines: Rex Bookstore.
• https://www.timeatlas.com/excel-random-names-numbers/
• https://onlinecourses.science.psu.edu/stat506/node/27
• https://www.randomizer.org/
• https://www.slideshare.net/ludymae/chapter-8sample-sampling-techniques
• https://www.slideshare.net/SunilKumar148/sampling-and-sample-types
• http://research-methodology.net/sampling-in-primary-data-collection/multi-stage-sampling/