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Module 1
Review of Chemistry

By Engr. Jan Rei C. Datinguinoo

Topic 1

INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY

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Chemistry
• It is a study of MATTER, its PROPERTIES, the changes that
matter undergoes, and ENERGY associated with these
changes
• Concerned with matter and energy and their interaction
with each other
• A branch of science that deals with the identification of
the SUBSTANCE of which matter is COMPOSED
• MATTER is anything that occupies space and has mass
– all the “stuff” in the universe

APPLICATION OF CHEMISTRY
• Identification, classification and proper handling of different
materials to be transported; handling of heat requirements
for boiler and properties of fuel needed. (MarE/ME)
• Selection of materials and designs of structures (CE)
• Modeling atomic structure and creation of programs and
websites relating to chemistry (CPE)
• Essential in the understanding of how electrons flow as basis
of electricity (ECE, EE)
• Chemical reactions involved in manufacturing of different
products (ChE)
• Design machines and other equipment (ME)
• Solutions to environmental problems (All)

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SUBSTANCE & COMPOSITION

• SUBSTANCE is a form of matter that has a definite
different composition and distinct properties such as
appearance, smell, etc.
• COMPOSITION are the types and amounts of simpler
substances that make up a sample of matter

PROPERTIES
• The characteristics that give each substance a unique
identity

• INTENSIVE PROPERTY is a property of substance

independent to the amount used to identify substances
– color, melting point, boiling point, density

• EXTENSIVE PROPERTY is a property of substance

dependent to the amount used to identify substances
– mass, volume

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PROPERTIES
• The characteristics that give each substance a unique
identity

• PHYSICAL PROPERTY properties a substance shows by

itself without interacting with another substance
– color, melting point, boiling point, density

• CHEMICAL PROPERTY properties a substance shows as it

interacts with, or transforms into, other substances
– flammability, corrosiveness

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CHANGES IN MATTER
• PHYSICAL CHANGE only changes the appearance of a
substance, not the chemical composition; Can be
separated by using physical means
• CHEMICAL CHANGE causes substances to transform
to new substances with unique physical and chemical
properties

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PHASES/STATES OF MATTER
• SOLID these have particles tightly packed together so the particles
were unable to move freely
– Fixed volume and fixed shape; has multiple visible
boundaries/surfaces
• LIQUID these have particles with more kinetic energy and can move
freely but the particles are still close enough for them to hold on to
each other
– Fixed volume but not shape; has a single visible
boundary/surface at the top
• GAS these have particles with large kinetic energy and can move
freely with the particles far from each other causing this state to
have an indefinite shape that expands to fill up its container
– No fixed volume and shape; has no visible boundary/surface

PHASES/STATES OF MATTER

https://www.vecteezy.com/free-vector/change by Vecteezy

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PHASES/STATES OF MATTER
• PLASMA is an uncommon state of matter that consists of
highly charged particles with extremely high kinetic
energy

https://publiclab.org/notes/warren/10-27-2017/scan-various-gases-in-tube-lamps-
like-neon-using-a-diy-spectrometer
https://educalingo.com/en/dic-ms/plasma

PHASES/STATES OF MATTER
• LOW TEMPERATURE PHASE CONDENSATES are states of matter within a few
degrees of absolute zero that causes separate atoms to form a clump of atom
called “super atom” in which it slows down light and it becomes a superfluid, a
substance that flows without friction
– BOSE-EINSTEIN CONDENSATE (BEC): aka Bosonic Condensate
– FERMI-DIRAC CONDENSATE (FDC): aka Fermionic Condensate

https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/106045766195224365/
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bose-Einstein_Condensate_(5828204877).jpg

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PHASES/STATES CHANGES
• Can be REVERSED by changing the temperature

https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Phase_change

VAPORIZATION TYPES
T < BP T = BP
P > VP P = VP

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Kinetic/vappre.html

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COMPONENTS OF MATTER

• PURE SUBSTANCE – is the simple form of matter

composed of elements, molecules, and compounds
– Fixed composition
– Unique set of properties
• MIXTURE – a combination of two or more substances
in which substance retain their distinct identities
– Two or more elements and/or compounds that are
physically intermingled

COMPONENTS OF MATTER
• ATOM is the smallest reacting particles of matter
– It is the basic unit of an element that can enter chemical reaction
– Comes from the Greek word “atomos” which means “uncuttable” or “indivisible”
• ELEMENT is the simplest type of substance with unique physical and chemical properties
– An element consists of only one type of atom
– It cannot be broken down into any simpler substances by physical or chemical
means.
– 118 elements, 91 occur naturally
– Common elements
• Carbon (found in charcoal)
• Copper (found in pipes, jewelry, etc.)
• Aluminum (used in household utensils)
– Element in and out fashion
• Silicon (used in multibillion-dollar semiconductors)
• Lead (banned in the U.S. due to its toxicity)

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PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

• Arrangement
– Horizontal: Increasing Atomic Number & Mass
– Vertical: Have Similar Chemical Properties\
• DMITRI MENDELEEV develops the periodic table
• Elements are separated by a diagonal line from Boron to
Polonium. Elements found around the diagonal are called
METALLOIDS or SEMI-METALS like B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, and
Te
• METALS are found on the left side of the diagonal line
while NON-METAL are above and to the right of the
stairway

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PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

Periods and Groups
• PERIODS are the horizontal rows in periodic table
• GROUPS are also known as families; are the vertical columns in
periodic table
Main Divisions in Periodic Table
• MAIN GROUP ELEMENTS are the elements found in Groups 1A to
8A
• TRANSITION ELEMENTS are elements found sandwiched between
the main group elements, from Groups 1B to 8B
• INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS are elements found below the
periodic table and “inserts” between Ba-Hf and Ra-Rf
– LANTHANIDE SERIES are elements from Lanthanum to Lutetium
– ACTINIDE SERIES are elements from Actinide to Lawrencium

PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

Common Group Names
• ALKALI METALS are elements of group 1/IA/IA of the periodic
table: Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr

http://myscienceschool.org/index.php?/archives/11327-WHAT-ARE-ALKALI-METALS.html

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PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

Common Group Names
• ALKALI EARTH METALS are elements of group 2/IIA/IIA of
the periodic table: Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra

https://sites.google.com/site/alh3252carbon/metals/alkaline-earth-metals

PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

Common Group Names
• ICOSAGENS are also known as Triels, non-IUPAC series name
for elements in group 13/IIIA/IIIB: B, Al, Ga, In, Tl, Nh

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boron_group

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PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

Common Group Names
• CRYSTALLOGENS are also known as Tetrels, non-IUPAC series
name for elements in group 14/IVA/IVB: C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Fl

https://fphoto.photoshelter.com/image/I0000.9jMVwhf0OI

PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

Common Group Names
• PNICTOGENS are also known as Nitrogen Group, non-IUPAC
series name for elements in group 15/VA/VB: N, P, As, Sb, Bi,
Mc

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pnictogen

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PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

Common Group Names
• CHALCOGENS are elements of group 16/VIA/VIB: O, S, Se, Te,
Po, Lv

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcogen

PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

Common Group Names
• HALOGENS are elements of group 17/VIIA/VIIB: F, Cl, Br, I,
At, Ts

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halogen
https://www.thoughtco.com/fluorine-element-facts-606534
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/202873158201441309/

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PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

Common Group Names
• NOBLE GAS is also known as Inert Gas Group, composed of
elements in group 18/VIIIA or 0/VIIIB

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noble_gas

PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

Common Group Names
• COINAGE METALS are non-IUPAC series name for metals
commonly used in making coins: Cu, Ag, Au

https://favpng.com/png_view/bars-gold-bar-clip-art-png/P8Dfb5Y1

http://chemindigest.com/copper-the-element-we-can-count-on/
https://frontierpreciousmetals.com/product/1-oz-silver-bar/

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COMPONENTS OF MATTER
• MOLECULE is a structure that consists of two or more
atoms that are chemically bound together and
thus behaves as an independent unit.
• COMPOUND is a substance composed of two or
more elements which are chemically combined.
– They have properties different from which they
are formed
Questions:
• Are all compounds can be considered as molecules?
• Are all molecules can be considered as compounds?

COMPONENTS OF MATTER

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COMPOUND AND ITS COMPOSITION

COMPONENTS OF MATTER

https://edu.rsc.org/cpd/atoms-molecules-and-ions/3010574.article

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TYPES OF MIXTURES
• HOMOGENOUS MIXTURE
– Has no visible boundaries because the components are mixed as individual
atoms, ions, and molecules like seeawater
– Has a UNIFORM COMPOSITION, meaning that the composition is constant
with time and all throughout the mixture
• SOLUTION is a type of homogeneous mixture involving a liquid or solid that is
soluble in another liquid or solid forming a stable mixture that does not
separate over time and cannot be separated by normal filtration
– LIQUID SOLUTION is a solution in which liquid is the dominant phase
– AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS are liquid solutions with water as the dissolving
media
– SOLID SOLUTION is a solution in which liquid is the dominant phase like
metal alloys
• GASEOUS MIXTURES are mixtures in which gas is the dominant phase like air

TYPES OF MIXTURES
• HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURE
– Has one or more visible boundaries between the components
– Has a NON-UNIFORM COMPOSITION, meaning that the
composition varies with time and all throughout the mixture like
rocks
• SUSPENSION is a heterogeneous mixture involving large particles
that can settle into layers within a container if they are left standing
and can be separated by normal filtration
• COLLOID is a microscopically heterogeneous but macroscopically
homogeneous mixture involving particles intermediate in size,
around 10-9 to 10-6 m in size, that can be mixed such that they
remain evenly distributed without settling out but centrifugation
can be used to separate its components

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TYPES OF COLLOIDS
• EMULSION is a colloidal mixture of two or more liquids that
are normally immiscible to each other, examples are
mayonnaise and lotions
• GEL is the colloidal mixture of a solid and a liquid producing a
substance similar in consistency to liquids but can retain its
own shape, examples are gelatin and jelly
• AEROSOL is a colloidal mixture of liquid or solid to gas
producing a particulate matter floating around the air or other
gasses, examples are fogs, cloud, mist and smoke
• SOL is a colloidal mixture of small solid particles in a
continuous medium, either liquid or solid, examples are ink,
blood, paints, ores and gems

COMPONENTS OF MATTER
Matter

Pure Substance Mixture

Elements Molecules Homogeneous Heterogeneous

Compounds Solution Gaseous Mixture Colloid Suspension

Emulsion
Aqueous Solid

Aerosol

Gel

Sol

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PHYSICAL SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

• Sedimentation is a process of separating suspended
solids from a mixture by gravity leaving the settled
solids called sediments

https://byjus.com/chemistry/sedimentation/

PHYSICAL SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

• Decantation is the
process of gradually
pouring a mixture
that undergoes
sedimentation from
one container to
another without
disturbing the
sediments
https://byjus.com/chemistry/decantation/

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PHYSICAL SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

• Filtration separates the solid,
called residue that is being
suspended in liquid media
using a filter media (filter
paper or membrane) leaving
a solid-free fluid called
filtrate

https://www.dreamstime.com/illustration/filtration.html

PHYSICAL SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

• Centrifugation is the process of separating a suspended
solid from a liquid by whirling the mixture at high speed;
supernatant is the fluid after centrifugation while the
pellet are the solid separated

https://www.fishersci.se/se/en/scientific-products/centrifuge-guide/centrifugation-theory.html

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PHYSICAL SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

• Evaporation is process of separating dissolved solids
in a liquid mixture retaining the solids

https://classnotes.org.in/class-6/science/separation-of-substances/evaporation-distillation/

PHYSICAL SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

• Distillation is the
purification of a liquid
by heating it to its
boiling point, causing
vaporization, and then
condensing the vapors
into the liquid state,
called distillate, and
collecting the liquid.
Separation of two or
more liquids requires http://jupiter.plymouth.edu/~wwf/distillation.htm
that they have different
boiling temperatures.

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PHYSICAL SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

• Sublimation is a process of
separating solid solutions
with one solid component
have the ability to turn into
gas without melting and
can be recovered by
cooling

https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/105271710024774155/

PHYSICAL SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

• Extraction is the removal of one substance from a
mixture because of its greater solubility in a given
solvent; the substance with the desired component is
called extract while the substance from which the
desired component come from is called the raffinate

https://chemicalengineeringworld.com/liquid-liquid-extraction/

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PHYSICAL SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

• Chromatography is the process of separating substances in a
mixture dissolved in a liquid or a gas, or which is itself a liquid
or a gas, according to their chemical interactions with the
surface or column used
• Stationary phase is the surface or column into which the
sample is placed
• Mobile phase is the liquid or gas in which the mixture will be
dissolved
• Because the strength of the interactions between the
different components in the stationary is different than that
of the mobile phase, the components will travel along it at
varying speeds, reaching different points along the stationary
phase and can thus be separated.

PHYSICAL SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/class-11-chemistry-india/xfbb6cb8fc2bd00c8:in-
in-organic-chemistry-some-basic-principles-and-techniques/xfbb6cb8fc2bd00c8:in-in-
methods-of-purification-of-organic-compounds/a/principles-of-chromatography

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PHYSICAL SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

https://byjus.com/chemistry/adsorption-chromatography/

Topic 2

UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

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PHASES/STATES OF MATTER
• SIGNIFICANT FIGURES & SCI NOTATION
• DENSITY SPGR
• PRECISION, ACCURACY, ERROR
• UNITS MEASUREMENTS

ATOMIC MASS AND ISOTOPES

LENGTH MASS
• 1 m = 100 cm • 1 oz = 28.349 g
• 1 ft = 0.3048 m • 1 kg = 2.2 lbs
• 1 ft = 12 in • 1 tonne (MT, metric ton) =
• 1 in = 2.54 cm 1000 kg
• 1 yd = 3 ft • 1 ton (short ton) = 2000 lb
• 1 mile = 1760 yd
TIME
VOLUME • 1 min = 60 s
• 1 cm3 = 1 mL • 1 hr = 60 min
• 1 m3 = 1000 L • 1 hr = 3600 s
• 1 gal = 4 qt = 8 pt = 4.55 L • 1 day = 24 hrs

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• A patient is given an antibiotic intravenously. The rate of infusion is set so that the
patient receives 1.15 mg of antibiotic per minute. How many milligram of
antibiotic are received after 35 minutes of infusion?
• Red blood cell has a diameter of 7.5 μm. What is the diameter of the cell in inches?
• The beds in your dorm room have extra-long mattresses. These mattresses are 80
inches long and 39 inches wide. What is the area of the mattress top in square
meters?
• The height of the Angel falls is 3212 ft. Express the quantity in miles.
• To wire a stereo equipment, you need 325 cm of speaker wire that sells for
$0.15/ft. What is the price of the wire?
• Mercury thermometers have been phased out because of the toxicity of the vapor.
A common replacement of mercury in glass is the organic liquid isoamyl benzoate
which boils at 262°C. What is the boiling point in °F and K?
• At what temperature are Celsius and Fahrenheit the same?

Topic 3

ATOMIC THEORY AND STRUCTURE

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DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

Postulates:
• All matter consists of indivisible particles called “atoms”.
• Atoms of the same element are similar in shape and mass
but differ from the atoms of the other element.
• Atoms cannot be created nor destroyed.
• Atoms of the same element can combine in more than
one ratio to form two or more compounds.
• The atom is the smallest unit of matter that can take part
in a chemical reaction.

DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

Modern Interpretation
• An element is composed of tiny particles called atoms.
• In ORDINARY chemical reaction, atoms move from a
substance to another but no atom of any element disappears
or is CHANGED INTO AN ATOM OF ANOTHER ELEMENT.
• Compounds are formed when two or more atoms of different
elements combine.
• Different combination of atoms produces different
compounds with varying properties.
• Atoms of different element have different masses.
• Dalton was the first person to recognize the distinction
between atom and compound.

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FUNDAMENTAL LAWS

• LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS explains that there is no detectable change

in mass in ordinary chemical reaction therefore, mass before reaction equals
mass after reaction
“Mass in an isolated system is neither created nor destroyed by chemical
reactions or physical transformation”
• LAW OF CONSTANT COMPOSITION or LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS
explains that different samples of the same compound always contains the
same elements in the same proportions by mass
– Proposed by Joseph Proust in 1799
– Ex: 61% Cl, 39% Na is always NaCl
• LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS explains that if two elements can combine
to form more than one compound, the masses of one element that combine
with a fixed mass of the second element are in a ratio of small whole numbers
– Ex: Combinations of H & O produces many substances unique to one
another

ATOMIC MODEL
PLUM PUDDING MODEL / RAISIN BREAD MODEL (1897)
• JOSEPH JOHN THOMSON discovered electron and concluded that they
were a component of every atom
• CATHODE RAY TUBE EXPERIMENT / CATHODE RAY EXPERIMENT involves
the use of a vacuum tube with a cathode and a holed anode inside where
the electron pass through hitting a phosphor coating that glows when an
electron struck it

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ATOMIC MODEL
NUCLEAR MODEL (1910)
• ERNEST RUTHERFORD discovered the nucleus having a proton and
concluded that they were a component of every atom
• GEIGER-MARSDEN EXPERIMENT / GOLD FOIL EXPERIMENT uses a
gold foil being hit with alpha particles in which some of the alpha
particle bounces off or is being deflected at an angle after hitting a
positively charged particle in the gold foil

ATOMIC MODEL
PLANETARY MODEL / HYDROGEN MODEL (1913)
• NEILS BOHR postulated that electrons revolves
in circular orbits around the nucleus which are
restricted by the quantization of angular
momentum
• This is the first model based on quantum
mechanics of an atom.
• Main Points of the Model
– Electrons orbit the nucleus in orbits that
have a set size and energy or being
quantized
– Energy of orbit is related to the size
– Radiation is absorbed or emitted when
electrons move from one orbit to another

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ATOMIC MODEL

SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL (1915)

• ARNOLD SOMMERFELD was
a physicist and
mathematician who
describes the orbits as
elliptically shaped rather
than circular as what Bohr
proposed

ATOMIC MODEL
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL /
ELECTRON CLOUD MODEL (1926)
• Also called “Modern Atomic Model”
• ERWIN SCHRÖDINGER is an Austrian
physicist who proposed that electrons
has no exact orbit or path to take, but
rather, electron moves randomly,
thus, predicting the odds of the
location of the electron where it is
mostly dense, known as electron
cloud, is the correct model

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ATOMIC MODEL

JAMES CHADWICK (1932) is an English physicist who

was awarded with the 1935 Nobel Prize in Physics for
his discovery of neutron

https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1935/chadwick/biographical/

QUANTUM CHEMISTRY
• HEISENBURG UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE states that it is impossible to
know simultaneously both the momentum (defined as mass times
velocity) and the position of a particle with certainty
– The “dot-on-fan analogy”
• ELECTRON DENSITY gives the probability that an electron will be
found in a
particular region of an atom
• ATOMIC ORBITAL is the distribution of the electron density or the
probability of locating the electron in space as described by the
SCHRÖDINGER’S EQUATION
– Represents a NUMERICAL VARIABLE, NOT AN ACTUAL PATH of
electrons

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QUANTUM CHEMISTRY
QUANTUM NUMBERS are required to describe the distribution of
electrons in hydrogen and other atoms derived from the mathematical
solution of the Schrödinger equation for the hydrogen atom
• PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER (n)
– Can have integral values 1, 2, 3, and so forth
– Gives the “size” (average distance of an electron from nucleus) of
the orbital
– Determines the energy of the orbital
• ANGULAR MOMENTUM QUANTUM NUMBER (l)
– Gives the “shape” (3D possible location with higher electron
density) of the orbital
– Can only have values from 0 to (n – 1)
– Can either be s (spherical, l = 0), p (principal, l = 1), d (diffuse, l =
2), f (fundamental, l = 3)

QUANTUM CHEMISTRY
QUANTUM NUMBERS are required to describe the
distribution of electrons in hydrogen and other atoms derived
from the mathematical solution of the Schrödinger equation
for the hydrogen atom
• MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER (ml)
– Describes the orientation of electron in space
– Values can only be from
– Ex: p has -1, 0, and +1 orientations
• ELECTRON SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER (ms)
– Describes the spin of electrons due to magnetic field
– Can only be +½ or –½

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QUANTUM CHEMISTRY

QUANTUM CHEMISTRY
• Energy distribution in atomic orbital: the lower n and l, the
lower the energy of the electron, the stable the electron
• ELECTRON CONFIGURATION shows the distribution of
electrons in each orbitals

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QUANTUM CHEMISTRY

QUANTUM CHEMISTRY

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QUANTUM CHEMISTRY

QUANTUM CHEMISTRY

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QUANTUM CHEMISTRY

QUANTUM CHEMISTRY

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QUANTUM CHEMISTRY

QUANTUM CHEMISTRY

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COMPONENTS OF ATOM
• ELECTRON (e–) is the negatively charged particle
• NUCLEUS contains all the positive charge and essentially all the mass of
the atom; consists of protons and neutrons
– PROTON (p+) is the positively charged particle located inside the
nucleus
– NEUTRON (n0) is the uncharged dense particles located inside the
nucleus
• In a NEUTRAL ATOM, p+ = e–

Particle Charge Mass (amu) Mass (gram)

Proton + 1.00728 ≈ 1 1.673E-24
Neutron 0 1.00866 ≈ 1 1.675E-24
Electron - 0.00055 ≈ 0 9.109E-28

COMPONENTS OF ATOM

Atomic/Nuclear Symbol

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COMPONENTS OF ATOM
•

COMPONENTS OF ATOM

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COMPONENTS OF ATOM

COMPONENTS OF ATOM

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COMPONENTS OF ATOM

CHARGED ATOMS

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CHARGED ATOMS

CHARGED ATOMS
If both mass number and number of neutron aree not
given, use the atomic number in the periodic table aas
mass number

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CHARGED ATOMS

CHARGED ATOMS

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CHARGED ATOMS

CHARGED ATOMS

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CHARGED ATOMS

CHARGED ATOMS

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PURPOSE OF NEUTRONS

What do you think is the primary purpose of neutrons?

How does this particle makes the atom stable?

ATOMIC MASS AND ISOTOPES

• Isobars – are atoms (nuclides) of different chemical elements that
have the same number of nucleons or total mass number
• Isotones – are atoms (nuclides) of different chemical elements that
have the same number of neutrons but different protons
• Isotopes – are atoms (nuclides) having the same number of protons
but different neutrons
• Atomic mass – is the relative atomic mass or average atomic mass
of an atom; is the average mass of all the isotopes of a certain type;
it is a weighted average that takes into account the abundances of
all of the different isotopes
• Isotopic Mass – refers to the atomic mass of each isotopes of an
element
• Isotopic Abundance – mass percentage of an isotope in a naturally
occurring element

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ATOMIC MASS AND ISOTOPES

Calculation of Atomic Mass

AM = 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜

• Ex: Carbon has three known isotopes: C-12, C-13 and

C-14. If the isotopic abundances are 98.89%, 1.1%
and 0.01%, respectively, what is the average atomic
mass of carbon?

ATOMIC MASS AND ISOTOPES

AM = 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜

AM = 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 − 12 × 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 − 12

+ 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 − 13 × 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 − 13
+ 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 − 14 × 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 − 14

AM = 12 × 0.9889 + 13 × 0.011 + 14 × 0.0001

AM of C = 12.0112 amu

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ATOMIC MASS AND ISOTOPES

Ex: Bromine is a red-orange liquid with an average atomic

mass of 79.90 amu. Its name is derived from the Greek
name “bromos”, which means “stench”. It has two naturally
occurring isotopes: Br-79 (78.92 amu) and Br-81 (80.92
amu). What is the abundance of the heavier isotope?
• Given: AM=79.90 amu; isotopic mass of Br-79 = 78.92
amu; isotopic mass of Br-81 = 80.92 amu
• Find: % abundance of Br-79, % abundance of Br-81
AM = 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜

ATOMIC MASS AND ISOTOPES

Ex: Bromine is a red-orange liquid with an average atomic mass of
79.90 amu. Its name is derived from the Greek name “bromos”, which
means “stench”. It has two naturally occurring isotopes: Br-79 (78.92
amu) and Br-81 (80.92 amu). What is the abundance of the heavier
isotope?
AM = 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑟 − 79 × 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑟 − 79
+ 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑟 − 81 × 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑟 − 81

79.9 = 78.92 × 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑟 − 79 + 80.92

× 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑟 − 81
Let x = isotopic ratio of Br-81; 1-x = isotopic ratio of Br-79
79.9 = 78.92 1 − 𝑥 + 80.92𝑥
x = 0.49 = 49%

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