1.

1. The big bang theory states particles apparently inflated, expanded and cooled, going from very,
very small and very, very hot, to the size and temperature of our current universe
2. Universe- 13.8 billion years old
Solar system- 4.571 billion years old
Earth- 4.543 billion years old
3. Star formation and life cycle

4. Kepler's third law says how fast different planets move. A planet that is farther from the Sun
moves slower than a planet that is closer to the Sun. If a person multiplies the time (T) it takes for
a planet to go around the Sun by itself (T2), that number is proportional to the distance (d) of a
planet to the Sun multiplied by itself twice (d3).
5. Protoplanet Earth started as a giant cloud of molecular dust collapsed, forming one or more stars.
Then a cloud of gas forms around the new star. As a result of gravity and other forces, the dust
and other particles in this cloud collide and stick together forming larger masses. While some of
these objects break apart on impact, a number of them continue to grow. Once they reach a certain
size – around a kilometer – these objects are large enough to attract particles and other small
objects with their gravity. They continue to get larger until they form protoplanets. Some
protoplanets continue colliding and growing until they form planets while others stay that size. As
the protoplanets grew to become planets, parts of them melted due to radioactivity, gravitational
influences, and collisions. Where the objects had melted, the composition of the planets changed.
Heavier elements sank, forming the cores of the planets, and lighter objects rose to the surface.
This process is called planetary differentiation and explains why planets have heavy cores.
Astronomers have discovered that even some asteroids have differentiated, so their cores are
heavier than their surfaces.
6. Earth’s original atmosphere was probably just hydrogen and helium, because these were the main
gases in the dusty, gassy disk around the Sun from which the planets formed. The Earth and its
atmosphere were very hot. Molecules of hydrogen and helium move really fast, especially when
 warm. Actually, they moved so fast they eventually all escaped Earth's gravity and drifted off into
space. Earth’s original atmosphere was probably just hydrogen and helium, because these were
the main gases in the dusty, gassy disk around the Sun from which the planets formed. The Earth
and its atmosphere were very hot. Molecules of hydrogen and helium move really fast, especially
when warm. Actually, they moved so fast they eventually all escaped Earth's gravity and drifted
off into space.
7. Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to
synthesize foods from carbon dioxide and water. Photosynthesis in plants generally involves the
green pigment chlorophyll and generates oxygen as a byproduct.

2. Earth’s systems
1. Atmo- Contains all the air in the Earth’s system
2. Hydro-Contains all the solid, liquid, and gaseous water of the planet
3. Geo-Contains all the cold, hard solid land of the planet’s crust
4. Cryo-Sum of all the ice in the world
5. Bio-Contains all the planet’s living things
6. Anthro-Encompasses the total human presence throughout the Earth

1. We already know this hoe

2. An open system is defined as a “system in exchange of matter with its environment,
presenting import and export, building-up and breaking-down of its material
components.” Closed systems, on the other hand, are held to be isolated from their
environment.
3. Evaporation: This is when warmth from the sun causes water from oceans, lakes,
streams, ice and soils to rise into the air and turn into water vapour (gas). Water vapour
droplets join together to make clouds!
Condensation: This is when water vapour in the air cools down and turns back into
liquid water.
Precipitation: This is when water (in the form of rain, snow, hail or sleet) falls from
clouds in the sky.
Collection: This is when water that falls from the clouds as rain, snow, hail or sleet,
collects in the oceans, rivers, lakes, streams. Most will infiltrate (soak into) the ground
and will collect as underground water.

The water cycle is powered by the sun's energy and by gravity. The sun kickstarts the
whole cycle by heating all the Earth's water and making it evaporate. Gravity makes the
moisture fall back to Earth.

4. Carbon enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide from respiration (breathing) and
combustion (burning).
 Carbon dioxide is absorbed by producers (life forms that make their own food e.g. plants) to
make carbohydrates in photosynthesis . These producers then put off oxygen.

Animals feed on the plants. Thus passing the carbon compounds along the food chain. Most of
the carbon these animals consume however is exhaled as carbon dioxide. This is through the
process of respiration. The animals and plants then eventually die.

Animals feed on the plants. Thus passing the carbon compounds along the food chain. Most of
the carbon these animals consume however is exhaled as carbon dioxide. This is through the
process of respiration. The animals and plants then eventually die.

3. Earth’s structures

1. Inner and outer core/ Fe-Ni

The outer core of the Earth is a fluid layer about 2,400 km (1,500 mi) thick and composed of
mostly iron and nickel that lies above Earth's solid inner core and below its mantle. Its outer
boundary lies 2,890 km (1,800 mi) beneath Earth's surface. Fe-Ni - iron-nickel alloy
2. Mantle/Asthenosphere/Peridotite
Mantle is the part of the earth between the core and the the crust is the mantle. It is about 1,800
miles(2,900 km) thick and makes up nearly 80 percent of the Earth's total volume.The mantle is
made up of magma and rock. The asthenosphere is the highly viscous, mechanically weak and
ductilely deforming region of the upper mantle of the Earth. It lies below the lithosphere, at
depths between approximately 80 and 200 km below the surface. Peridotite is a dense,
coarse-grained igneous rock consisting mostly of the minerals olivine and pyroxene. Peridotite is
ultramafic, as the rock contains less than 45% silica. It is high in magnesium, reflecting the high
proportions of magnesium-rich olivine, with appreciable iron
3. Oceanic crust/basalt/continental crust/granite
Oceanic crust is about 6 km (4 miles) thick. It is composed of several layers, not including the
overlying sediment. The topmost layer, about 500 metres (1,650 feet) thick, includes lavas made
of basalt (that is, rock material consisting largely of plagioclase [feldspar] and pyroxene). Basalt
is a dark-colored, fine-grained, igneous rock composed mainly of plagioclase and pyroxene
minerals. It most commonly forms as an extrusive rock, such as a lava flow, but can also form in
small intrusive bodies, such as an igneous dike or a thin sill. Continental crust is the layer of
igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks that forms the continents and the areas of shallow
seabed close to their shores, known as continental shelves. Granite is a common type of felsic
intrusive igneous rock that is granular and phaneritic in texture. Granites can be predominantly
white, pink, or gray in color, depending on their mineralogy
4. Seismic waves
Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the Earth's layers, and are a result of
 earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, magma movement, large landslides and large man-made
explosions that give out low-frequency acoustic energy
4. Plate Tectonics
1. James Hutton uniformitarianism
The theory that changes in the earth's crust during geological history have resulted from the
action of continuous and uniform processes.
2. Alfred Wegener
Continental drift is the theory that the Earth's continents have moved over geologic time relative
to each other, thus appearing to have "drifted" across the ocean bed
3. Harry Hess
Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic crust is
formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge
4. Cox and Dalrymple
A geomagnetic reversal is a change in a planet's magnetic field such that the positions of
magnetic north and magnetic south are interchanged.
5. Vine and Matthews
Rock that makes up the ocean floor lies in a pattern of magnetized “stripes.” These stripes hold a
record of reversals in Earth's magnetic field. The rock of the ocean floor contains iron. The rock
began as molten material that cooled and hardened.
6. Glomar Challenger
The Deep-Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) was a scientific program for drilling cores of sediment
and basaltic crust beneath the deep oceans and recovering them for study. The drilling began in
1968, using the ship Glomar Challenger, and ended in 1983.
7. Divergent/Convergent/Transform Boundaries
In plate tectonics, a divergent boundary or divergent plate boundary is a linear feature that exists
between two tectonic plates that are moving away from each other. Convergent boundaries are
areas on Earth where two or more lithospheric plates collide. A transform fault or transform
boundary is a plate boundary where the motion is predominantly horizontal
8. Andean/Island-Arc/Continental Collision/Hot Spots
The Andes mountains. Island arcs are long chains of active volcanoes with intense seismic
activity found along convergent tectonic plate boundaries. Continental collision is a phenomenon
of the plate tectonics of Earth that occurs at convergent boundaries. hot spots are volcanic
regions thought to be fed by underlying mantle that is anomalously hot compared with the
surrounding mantle.
9. Mid-Atlantic Ridge/ East African Rift Valley
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a mid-ocean ridge, a divergent tectonic plate or constructive plate
boundary located along the floor of the Atlantic Ocean, and part of the longest mountain range in
the world. The East African Rift is an active continental rift zone in East Africa
10. San Andreas Fault The San Andreas Fault is a continental transform fault that extends roughly
1,200 kilometers through California
11. Plates/Plate thickness Plate boundaries are commonly associated with geological events such as
earthquakes and the creation of topographic features such as mountains, volcanoes, mid-ocean
 ridges, and oceanic trenches. Tectonic plates may include continental crust or oceanic crust, and
most plates contain both.
12. Convection Currents molten rock deep within the earth circulates by convection currents. The
rock is in a semi-liquid state and should behave like any other fluid, rising up from the bottom of
the mantle after becoming hotter and less dense from the heat of the earth's core.
Alonzo’s Oil

Lorenzo's Oil, is an educational 1992 drama. The movie is based on the real quest of two
parents in the 1980s, determined to find a treatment for their young son Lorenzo. Sadly
as of the 1980’s, it was untreatable . Lorenzo’s condition, ALD (Adrenoleukodystrophy)
is a genetic condition, in which the body can't break down very long-chain fatty acids
(VLCFAs), causing saturated VLCFAs to build up in the brain, nervous system and adrenal
gland. ALD, was most likely untreatable because the disease was so rare. It occurs 1 in
18,000 It was so uncommon that Lorenzo’s family had to go to multiple doctors before
they even got a diagnosis. Lorenzo’s Oil highlights how Alonzo’s catastrophic illness,
affects all his family members.

Gel Electrophoresis

Gel electrophoresis is a laboratory method used to separate mixtures of DNA, RNA, or proteins
according to molecular size. In gel electrophoresis, the molecules to be separated are pushed by
an electrical field through a gel that contains small pores. The molecules travel through the pores
in the gel at a speed that is inversely related to their lengths. This means that a small DNA
molecule will travel a greater distance through the gel than will a larger DNA molecule.
Gel electrophoresis can also be used to determine the gender. Males will have one band and
females will have two.

What is a karyotype?