249850

The author(s) shown below used Federal funds provided by the U.S.
Department of Justice and prepared the following final report:
Document Title: Police Integrity Lost: A Study of Law

Enforcement Officers Arrested
Author(s): Philip Matthew Stinson, Sr., J.D, Ph.D., John

Liederbach, Ph.D., Steven P. Lab, Ph.D., Steven
L. Brewer, Jr., Ph.D.
Document No.: 249850
Date Received: April 2016
Award Number: 2011-IJ-CX-0024
This report has not been published by the U.S. Department of Justice.
To provide better customer service, NCJRS has made this federally
funded grant report available electronically.
Opinions or points of view expressed are those

of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect
the official position or policies of the U.S.
Department of Justice.
POLICE INTEGRITY LOST: A STUDY OF
LAW ENFORCEMENT OFFICERS ARRESTED
Final Technical Report
Award Number: 2011-IJ-CX-0024

National Institute of Justice
Office of Justice Program
U.S. Department of Justice
Principal Investigator:
Philip Matthew Stinson, Sr., J.D, Ph.D.

Telephone: 419-372-0373
E-Mail: [email protected]
Co-Investigators:
John Liederbach, Ph.D.

Telephone: 419-372-1053
Steven P. Lab, Ph.D.

Telephone: 419-372-2326
Consultant:
Steven L. Brewer, Jr., Ph.D.

Telephone: 724-983-2954
Criminal Justice Program

Department of Human Services
College of Health & Human Services
Bowling Green State University
Bowling Green, OH 43403-0148
http://www.bgsu.edu/policeintegritylost
January 2016
This project was supported by Award No. 2011-IJ-CX-0024, awarded by the National Institute of
Justice, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. The opinions, findings, and
conclusions or recommendations expressed in this report are those of the authors and do not
necessarily reflect those of the Department of Justice.
This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not
been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s)
and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
1
ABSTRACT
There are no comprehensive statistics available on problems with police integrity, and no
government entity collects data on all criminal arrests of law enforcement officers in the United
States. Police crimes are those crimes committed by sworn law enforcement officers with the
general powers of arrest. These crimes can occur while the officer is either on- or off-duty and
include offenses committed by officers employed by state and local law enforcement agencies.
This study provides a wealth of data on a phenomena that relates directly to police integrity—
data that previously did not exist in any useable format.
The first goal of the study is to determine the nature and extent of police crime in the
United States. The objective for this goal is to determine the incidence and prevalence of
officers arrested. A second goal is to determine what factors influence how an agency responds
to arrests of its officers. Objectives for this goal are to determine whether certain factors
influence agency response and employment outcomes: (a) severity of crimes for which officers
are arrested; (b) level of urbanization for each employing agency; (c) geographic location for
each employing agency; (d) length of service and age of arrested officers; and, (e) criminal case
outcomes. A final goal is to foster police integrity by exploring whether officer arrests correlate
with other forms of police misconduct. Objectives for this goal are to determine whether
arrested officers were also named as a civil defendant in any 42 U.S.C. §1983 federal court
actions during their careers, and to inform practitioners and policymakers of strategies that will
better identify problem officers and those at risk for engaging in police crime and its correlates.
The advent of nationwide, objective, and verifiable data on the law-breaking behavior of
sworn officers and provides potential benefits to law enforcement agencies that connect the
technical expertise of researchers to criminal justice policymakers and practitioners. These data
2
provide direct guidance in three areas. First, the study provides agencies information on the
types of crime that are most frequently perpetrated by police officers. Second, the research
provides information on the relationship between police crimes and other types of misbehavior
that collectively comprise the problem officer. Third, nationwide data on police crimes and the
manner in which arrested officers are organizationally sanctioned provides points of comparison
for law enforcement agencies that confront these problems, as well as information on the degree
to which law enforcement agencies tend to sanction or ignore certain crimes committed by
officers.
This is a quantitative content analysis study of archived records reporting several
thousand arrests of police officers during the years 2005-2011. The primary information source
is the Google News search engine and its Google Alerts email update service. Chi-Square was
used to measure the statistical significance of the association between two variables measured at
the nominal level. Cramer’s V was utilized to measure the strength of the Chi-Square
association. Stepwise binary logistic regression was used to determine which of the predictor
variables are statistically significant in multivariate models. Classification tree analysis was
utilized to uncover the causal pathways between independent predictors and outcome variables.
The Google News searches resulted in the identification of 6,724 cases in which sworn
law enforcement officers were arrested during the years 2005 through 2011. The cases involved
the arrests of 5,545 individual sworn officers employed by 2,529 nonfederal state and local law
enforcement agencies located in 1,205 counties and independent cities in all 50 states and the
District of Columbia. The findings indicate that nonfederal law enforcement officers were
arrested nationwide during 2005-2011 at a rate of 0.72 officers arrested per 1,000 officers, and at
a rate of 1.7 officers arrested per 100,000 population nationwide.
3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...............................................................................................14
The Problem of Police Crime ..................................................................................14
The Purpose of the Study .........................................................................................16
Research Design.......................................................................................................17
Findings....................................................................................................................21
Conclusion ...............................................................................................................25
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................29
Statement of the Problem .........................................................................................33
Literature Citations and Review ..............................................................................41
Statement of Rationale for the Research ..................................................................60
METHODS ........................................................................................................................65
Coding and Content Analysis ..................................................................................65
Statistical Analysis ...................................................................................................69
Strengths and Limitations ........................................................................................72
RESULTS ..........................................................................................................................76
Part I: Full Police Crime Data Set Models...............................................................76
Part II: Sex-related Police Crime Data Set Models ...............................................104
Part III: Alcohol-related Police Crime Data Set Models .......................................124
Part IV: Drug-related Police Crime Data Set Models............................................139
Part V: Violence-related Police Crime Data Set Models .......................................151
Part VI: Profit-motivated Police Crime Data Set Models ......................................167
Part VII: Employing Law Enforcement Agencies of Arrested Officers ................177
4
CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................188
Discussion of Findings...........................................................................................189
Implications for Policy and Practice ......................................................................199
Implications for Further Research .........................................................................207
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................210
DISSEMINATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS...........................................................232
Publications ............................................................................................................232
Presentations ..........................................................................................................235
TABLES ..........................................................................................................................229
Table 1 – Arrested Officers and Agencies .............................................................238
Table 2 – Most Serious Offense Charged ..............................................................239
Table 3 – Victim Characteristics............................................................................240
Table 4 – Police Crime Arrest Cases: Bivariate Associations of Conviction ........241
Table 5 – Police Crime Arrest Cases:

Logistic Regression Model Predicting Conviction ................................................244
Table 6 – Police Crime Arrest Cases: Bivariate Associations of Job Loss ...........245
Table 7 – Police Crime Arrest Cases:

Logistic Regression Model Predicting Job Loss....................................................249
Table 8 – Police Crime:

Bivariate Associations of Sex-related Arrest Cases...............................................250

Logistic Regression Model Predicting Sex-related Arrest Cases ..........................254

Bivariate Associations of Alcohol-related Arrest Cases ........................................255

Logistic Regression Model Predicting Alcohol-related Arrest Cases ...................259
5

Bivariate Associations of Drug-Related Arrest Cases ...........................................260

Logistic Regression Model Predicting Drug-related Arrest Cases ........................263

Bivariate Associations of Violence-related Arrest Cases ......................................264

Logistic Regression Model Predicting Violence-related Arrest Cases ..................268

Bivariate Associations of Profit-motivated Arrest Cases ......................................269

Logistic Regression Model Predicting Profit-motivated Arrest Cases ..................273
Table 18 – Civil Rights Litigation as a Correlate of Police Crime:

Bivariate Associations of Being Named as a Party Defendant
Pursuant to 42 U.S.C. §1983 at Some Point during
Law Enforcement Career .......................................................................................274
Table 19 – Logistic Regression Model Predicting Being Named

as a Party Defendant in a Section 1983 Action at Some Point
during Law Enforcement Career ............................................................................277
Table 20 – Arrested Officers and Agencies in Sex-related Cases .........................278
Table 21 – Most Serious Offense Charged in Sex-related Cases ..........................279
Table 22 – Victim Characteristics in Sex-related Cases ........................................280
Table 23 – Bivariate Associations of Conviction in

Sex-related Arrest Cases ........................................................................................281
Table 24 – Sex-related Arrest Cases:

Table 25 – Bivariate Associations of Job Loss in


6
Table 27 – Bivariate Associations of Child Victims in


Logistic Regression Model Predicting Child Victims ...........................................287

Police Sexual Violence Arrest Cases .....................................................................288
Table 30 – Police Sexual Violence Arrest Cases:


Police Sexual Violence Arrest Cases .....................................................................290
Table 32 – Police Sexual Violence Arrest Cases:


Driving-While-Female Arrest Cases......................................................................292
Table 34 – Driving-While-Female Arrest Cases:


Driving-While-Female Arrest Cases......................................................................294
Table 36 – Driving-While-Female Arrest Cases:

Table 37 – Arrested Officers and Agencies in Alcohol-related Cases ..................296
Table 38 – Most Serious Offense Charged in Alcohol-related Cases ...................297
Table 39 – Victim Characteristics in Alcohol-related Cases .................................298
Table 40 – Police DUI Arrest Cases: Incident Events ...........................................299
Table 41 – Police DUI Arrest Cases: Drug-related ...............................................300

Alcohol-related Arrest Cases .................................................................................301
Table 43 – Alcohol-related Arrest Cases:

7

Alcohol-related Arrest Cases .................................................................................303
Table 45 – Alcohol-related Arrest Cases:


DUI Arrest Cases ...................................................................................................306
Table 47 – DUI Arrest Cases:

Table 48 – Bivariate Associations of Job Loss in DUI Arrest Cases ....................308
Table 49 – DUI Arrest Cases:

Table 50 – Arrested Officers and Agencies in Drug-related Cases .......................310
Table 51 – Most Serious Offense Charged in Drug-related Cases ........................311
Table 52 – Specific Drugs......................................................................................312
Table 53 – Victim Characteristics in Drug-related Cases ......................................313
Table 54 – Patterns of Drug-related Police Corruption .........................................314
Table 55 – Drug-related Arrest Cases:

CART Model Predicting Patterns of Corruption ...................................................315

Drug-related Arrest Cases ......................................................................................316


Drug-related Arrest Cases ......................................................................................318

Table 60 – Arrested Officers and Agencies in

Violence-related Cases...........................................................................................320
8
Table 61 – Most Serious Offense Charged in

Table 62 – Victim Characteristics in


Violence-related Arrest Cases................................................................................323
Table 64 – Violence related Arrest Cases:


Violence-related Arrest Cases................................................................................327
Table 66 – Violence-related Arrest Cases:


Officer-involved Domestic Violence Arrest Cases................................................331
Table 68 – Officer-involved Domestic Violence Arrest Cases:


Officer-involved Domestic Violence Arrest Cases................................................333
Table 70 – Officer-involved Domestic Violence Arrest Cases:

Table 71 – Arrested Officers and Agencies in

Profit-motived Cases ..............................................................................................336
Table 72 – Most Serious Offense Charged in

Profit-motivated Cases ...........................................................................................337
Table 73 – Victim Characteristics in Profit-motivated Cases ................................338

Profit-motivated Arrest Cases ................................................................................339
Table 75 – Profit-motivated Arrest Cases:


Profit-motivated Arrest Cases ................................................................................342
9
Table 77 – Profit-motivated Arrest Cases:

Table 78 – 200 Largest State and Local Law Enforcement

Agencies in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011
(Sorted by # of Full-Time Sworn Personnel) .........................................................345
Table 79 – Nonmetropolitan State and Local Law Enforcement

(Sorted Alphabetically by Agency Name) .............................................................351
Table 80 – Primary State Police Agencies in Study:

Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011
Table 81 – Sheriff’s Offices in Study:

Table 82 – County Police Departments in Study:

Table 83 – 500 Largest Municipal Police Departments in Study:

Table 84 – Special State & Local Law Enforcement Agencies in

Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011
FIGURES .........................................................................................................................403
Figure 1 – Police Crime Arrest Cases:

CART Model Predicting Conviction .....................................................................403
Figure 2 – Police Crime Arrest Cases:

CART Model Predicting Job Loss .........................................................................404
Figure 3 – Police Crime:

CART Model Predicting Sex-related Arrest Cases ...............................................405

CART Model Predicting Alcohol-related Arrest Cases.........................................406
10

CART Model Predicting Drug-related Arrest Cases .............................................407

CART Model Predicting Violence-related Arrest Cases .......................................408

CART Model Predicting Profit-motivated Arrest Cases .......................................409
Figure 8 – CART Model Predicting Being Named as a

Party Defendant in a Section 1983 Action at
Some Point during Law Enforcement Career ........................................................410
Figure 9 – Sex-related Arrest Cases:



CART Model Predicting Child Victims ................................................................413
Figure 12 – Police Sexual Violence Arrest Cases:

CHAID Model Predicting Conviction ...................................................................414
Figure 13 – Police Sexual Violence Arrest Cases:

Figure 14 – Driving-While-Female Arrest Cases:

CHAID Model Predicting Conviction ...................................................................416
Figure 15 – Driving-While-Female Arrest Cases:

CHAID Model Predicting Job Loss .......................................................................417
Figure 16 – Alcohol-related Arrest Cases:

Figure 17 – Alcohol-related Arrest Cases:

Figure 18 – DUI Arrest Cases:

Figure 19 – DUI Arrest Cases:

11
Figure 20 – Drug-related Arrest Cases:

Figure 21 – Drug-related Arrest Cases:

Figure 22 – Violence-related Arrest Cases:

Figure 23 – Violence-related Arrest Cases:

Figure 24 – Officer-involved Domestic Violence Arrest Cases:

Figure 25 – Officer-involved Domestic Violence Arrest Cases:

Figure 26 – Profit-motivated Arrest Cases:

Figure 27 – Profit-motivated Arrest Cases:

APPENDIX A: Employing Law Enforcement Agencies:

Rates of Officers Arrested Sorted by # of Full-Time Sworn Personnel ..........................430
Appendix A-1 – Nonmetropolitan State and Local Law Enforcement

(Sorted by # Full-Time Sworn Personnel) .............................................................430
Appendix A-2 – Primary State Police Agencies in Study:

Appendix A-3 – Sheriff’s Offices in Study:

Appendix A-4 – County Police Departments in Study:

Appendix A-5 – 500 Largest Municipal Police Departments in Study:

12
Appendix A-6 – Special State & Local Law Enforcement Agencies in

Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011
APPENDIX B: Employing Law Enforcement Agencies:

Rates of Officers Arrested Sorted by Rate per 1,000 Officers ........................................482
Appendix B-1 – 200 Largest State and Local Law Enforcement

(Sorted by Rate per 1,000 Officers) .......................................................................482
Appendix B-2 – Nonmetropolitan State and Local Law Enforcement

Appendix B-3 – Primary State Police Agencies in Study:

Appendix B-4 – Sheriff’s Offices in Study:

Appendix B-5 – County Police Departments in Study:

Appendix B-6 – 500 Largest Municipal Police Departments in Study:

Appendix B-7 – Special State & Local Law Enforcement

APPENDIX C: Employing Law Enforcement Agencies:

Rates of Officers Arrested Sorted by Rate per 100,000 Population ................................540
Appendix C-1 – 200 Largest State and Local Law Enforcement

(Sorted by Rate per 100,000 Population) ...............................................................540
Appendix C-2 – Nonmetropolitan State and Local Law Enforcement

13
Appendix C-3 – Primary State Police Agencies in Study:

Appendix C-4 – Sheriff’s Offices in Study:

Appendix C-5 – County Police Departments in Study:

Appendix C-6 – 500 Largest Municipal Police Departments in Study:

Appendix C-7 – Special State & Local Law Enforcement

APPENDIX D: State and Local Law Enforcement Agencies:

Police Crime Arrest Cases ...............................................................................................598
APPENDIX E: Entity Relationship Diagram of

Stinson’s Police Crime Database .....................................................................................669
14
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This study is a quantitative content analysis of archived news articles and court records
reporting on the arrest(s) of law enforcement officers in the United States from 2005-2011.
Police crimes are those crimes committed by sworn law enforcement officers given the general
powers of arrest at the time the offense was committed. These crimes can occur while the officer
is on or off duty and include offenses committed by state, county, municipal, tribal, or special
law enforcement agencies. Police crimes damage the occupational integrity of police, the
organizational legitimacy of the employing agency, and the overall authority and legitimacy of
the law enforcement enterprise. Three distinct but related research questions are addressed in
this study. First, what is the incidence and prevalence of police officers arrested across the
United States? Second, how do law enforcement agencies discipline officers who are arrested?
And, third, to what degree do police crime arrests correlate with other forms of police
misconduct?
The Problem of Police Crime
Surprisingly little is known about the crimes committed by law enforcement officers, in
part because there are virtually no official nationwide data collected, maintained, disseminated,
and/or available for research analyses. Researchers have utilized other methodologies to study
police misconduct and crime in the absence of any substantive official data, including surveys,
field studies, quasi-experiments, internal agency records, and the investigative reports of various
independent commissions delegated to report on this phenomenon within particular jurisdictions.
These methodologies have thus far failed to produce systematic, nationwide data on police
crime.
15
The lack of data on police crime is clearly a problem, since the development of strategies
to mitigate police crime in the least requires that they be documented and described in some sort
of systematic and generalizable manner. From an organizational perspective, more
comprehensive data could provide comparisons among agencies on rates of police crime, and
subsequently contribute to the development and implementation of policies to deter police crime
and lessen damage to police-community relations in their aftermath. From a scholarly
perspective, the collection, analysis, and dissemination of more comprehensive police crime data
could instigate studies designed to identify significant correlates, explore relationships between
police crimes and more general forms of police deviance, and provide information on how police
culture and socialization potentially contribute to the problem. Scholars have yet to fully pursue
these and other important issues associated with the problem of police crime because we lack
any sort of comprehensive data on the types of crime that police commit and how frequently they
commit them.
The current study demands a conceptual framework that reflects both the broad range of
offenses committed by law enforcement officers and the generalized nature of our research
questions. Thus, the finding of the current study are organized within a conceptual framework
that incorporates five key types of police crime:
 Sex-related Police Crime
 Alcohol-related Police Crime
 Drug-related Police Crime
 Violence-related Police Crime
 Profit-motivated Police Crime
16
The study is organized around these five types of police crime. We provide data pertinent to the
three broad research questions within each area, as well as additional data that further describes
the nature and character of police crime both in general and within each of the five types. The
conceptual framework serves to organize data that describes a phenomenon that encompasses a
wide range of criminal behavior. The framework also allows for the presentation and discussion
of data specifically focused on answering the stated research questions; but also, the wealth of
data collected on police crime as part of this project that does not readily fit under one or more of
the specific research questions.
The Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the current research project is to promote police integrity by gaining a
better understanding of police crime and agency responses to officer arrests. The study provides
a wealth of data on a phenomena that relates directly to police integrity—data that law
enforcement executives did not previously have access to because they did not exist in any
useable format. The first goal of this research is to determine the nature and extent of police
crime in the United States. A second goal of this research is to determine what factors influence
how a nonfederal law enforcement organization responds to arrests of officers. A third and final
goal of the research is to foster police integrity by exploring whether police crime and officer
arrests correlate with other forms of police misconduct.
The purpose for the current study evolved from long-standing obstacles associated with
the collection of data on police crime. The underlying reasons for the current study reflect the
ongoing lack of empirical data on the crimes committed by law enforcement officers—a
situation that relates directly to the limitations of previous methodologies used to collect data on
the phenomenon. Researchers have resorted to a variety of methodologies to learn more about
17
the nature and extent of police misconduct, corruption, or crime. Empirical scholarship has
usually incorporated one or more of the following: (a) officer surveys, (b) agency records, and
(c) sociological field studies. Studies that utilize one or more of these methodologies have
clearly contributed to the knowledge base on police crime, but the methodology used in the
present study offers clear advantages in terms of both the scope and quality of potential data on
police crime.
Research Design
Data for the current study were collected as part of a project designed to locate cases in
which sworn law enforcement officers had been arrested for any type of criminal offense(s).
Data were derived from published news articles using the Google News search engine and its
Google Alerts email update service. Google Alerts searches were conducted using the same 48
search terms developed by Stinson (2009). The Google Alerts email update service sent a
message each time one of the automated daily searches identified a news article in the Google
News search engine that matched any of the designated search terms. The automated alerts
contained a link to the URL for the news articles. The articles were located, examined for
relevancy, printed, logged, and then scanned, indexed, and archived in a digital imaging database
for subsequent coding and content analyses. The present study focuses on the identification and
description of the cases in which police officers were arrested during the years 2005-2011.
Content analyses were conducted in order to code the cases in terms of (a) arrested
officer, (b) employing nonfederal law enforcement agency, (c) each of the charged criminal
offenses, (d) victim characteristics, (e) organizational adverse employment outcomes, and (f)
criminal case dispositions. Each of the charged criminal offenses was coded using the data
collection guidelines of the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) as the coding
18
protocol for each criminal offense category (see U.S. Department of Justice, 2000). Fifty-seven
criminal offenses are included in the NIBRS, consisting of 46 incident-based criminal offenses in
one of 22 crime categories as well as 11 additional arrest-based minor criminal offense
categories. In each case every offense charged was recorded on the coding instrument as well as
the most serious offense charged in each police crime arrest case. The most serious offense
charged was determined using the Uniform Crime Report’s (UCR) crime seriousness hierarchy
(see U.S. Department of Justice, 2004). An additional eight offenses were added following an
earlier pilot study (see Stinson, 2009) because police officers who were arrested often were
charged with criminal offenses not included in the NIBRS (e.g., online solicitation of a child,
indecent exposure, official misconduct / official oppression / violation of oath, vehicular hit-and-
run, perjury / false reports / false statements, criminal deprivation of civil rights).
The primary unit of analysis in this study is criminal arrest case. One of the primary
issues in coding was differentiating between arrest cases with multiple victims and officers who
were arrested on multiple occasions within the study years 2005-2011. Arrest incidents that
involved multiple victims with corresponding criminal charges were assigned an individual case
for each respective victim. Additionally, law enforcement officers who were arrested on
multiple occasions had an arrest case generated in the project database for each respective arrest.
Cases were also coded on Stinson’s (2009) typology of police crime, which posits that
most crime committed by police officers is alcohol-related, drug-related, sex-related, violence-
related, and/or profit-motivated. The types of police crime are not mutually-exclusive
categories. Rather, each type of police crime is coded as a dichotomous variable because crimes
committed by officers often involve more than one type of police crime. Additionally, cases
were coded for the presence of police sexual violence and/or driving while female encounters.
19
Police sexual violence is operationalized as “those situations in which a female citizen
experiences a sexually degrading, humiliating, violating, damaging, or threatening act committed
by a police officer through the use of force or police authority” (Kraska & Kappeler, 1995, p.
93). Driving while female is operationalized as instances where a police officer stops a female
driver under the pretext of an alleged traffic violation and then abuses the power and authority of
his position to take advantage of a vulnerable motorist (Walker & Irlbeck, 2002, 2003). In some
cases, driving while female encounters escalate into sexual harassment, sexual assault, and in
rare instances, forcible rape.
Secondary data were employed from the Census of State and Local Law Enforcement
Agencies (CSLLEA) (U.S. Department of Justice, 2008) to ascertain demographic data including
the number of full-time sworn personnel and part-time sworn personnel employed by each
agency where arrested officers served. County and independent city were used to verify location
of arrested officers’ employing law enforcement agencies, as well as for use as a key variable to
merge other data sources into the project’s master database and data set. The U.S. Department of
Agriculture’s (2003) county-level urban to rural nine-point continuum scale was used to measure
rurality. Population data from the U.S. Census Bureau’s decennial census in years 2000 and
2010 were utilized for county, independent city, and state populations.
Analytic procedures were undertaken to ensure reliability of the data. An additional
coder was employed to independently code a random sample of five percent of the total number
of cases in the study. Intercoder reliability was assessed by calculating the Krippendorf’s alpha
coefficient across 195 variables of interest in this study on a random sample (n = 290, 4.3%) of
the cases in the study (N = 6,724) (see Hayes & Krippendorff, 2007). The Krippendorf’s alpha
coefficient (Krippendorf’s α = .9153) is strong across the variables in this study. The overall
20
level of simple percentage of agreement between coders across all of the variables in this study
(97.7%) also established a degree of reliability well above what is generally considered
acceptable in content analysis research.
Chi Square was used to measure the statistical significance of the association between
two variables measured at the nominal level. Cramer’s V measures the strength of that
relationship with values that range from zero to 1.0 and allows for an assessment of the
importance of the relationship. Stepwise binary logistic regression was used to determine which
of the predictor variables are statistically significant in multivariate models. Stepwise logistic
regression models are appropriate where the study is purely exploratory and predictive.
Classification tree analysis was utilized as a statistical technique to uncover the causal pathways
between independent predictors and various outcome variables of interest, including job loss, and
conviction. This is an exploratory study because little is known empirically about police crime
arrests and the specific factors responsible for conviction and job loss subsequent to the arrest of
a sworn law enforcement officers.
Strengths and Limitations
The news search methodology utilizing the Google News search engine and the Google
Alerts email update service provided an unparalleled amount of information on police crime
arrests at law enforcement agencies across the United States. The Google News search engine
algorithm offers some clear advantages over other aggregated news databases and the
methodologies employed by previous studies that used news-based content analyses to document
cases of sex-related police misconduct. The Google Alerts email update service provides the
ability to run persistent automated queries of the Google News search engine and deliver real-
time search results.
21
There are four primary limitations of the data. First, this research study includes every
case known to the research team of a nonfederal sworn law enforcement officer who was
arrested during the years 2005-2011. Thus, this study is a census of the universe of police crime
arrest cases identified through our search methodology. We do not purport to include every
single instance of a law enforcement officer being arrested. Second, our research is limited by
the content and quality of information provided for each case. The amount of information
available on each case varied, and data for several variables of interest were missing for some of
the cases. Third, the data are limited to cases that involved an official arrest based on probable
cause for one or more crimes. We do not have any data on police officers who engaged in
criminal activity if their conduct did not result in an arrest. Fourth, we note that these data are
the result of a filtering process that includes the exercise of discretion by media sources in terms
of both the types of stories covered and the nature of the content devoted to particular stories.
Despite the noted limitations, the use of news articles as the primary data source is a long
established method of analyzing deviant/illegal police behavior (see, e.g., Lawrence, 2000;
Lersch & Feagin, 1996; Rabe-Hemp & Braithwaite, 2013; Ross, 2000).
Findings
Findings from the study provide three general observations about the nature of police
crime overall. First, police crimes are not uncommon. The study identified 6,724 arrest cases
from 2005-2011 involving 5,545 sworn law enforcement officers. The arrested sworn law
enforcement officers were employed by 2,529 state and local law enforcement agencies located
in 1,205 counties and independent cities in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Sworn law
enforcement officers were arrested at a rate of 0.72 per 1,000 officers and 1.7 per 100,000 of the
population nationwide. Second, police crime is an occupationally-derived phenomenon. Police
22
work is conducive to all sorts of criminal behavior, largely because of plentiful opportunities
provided by the nature of the work and police-citizen interactions. Third, police crime is
complex and multivariate. Police crime can be alcohol-related, drug-related, sex-related,
violence-related, or profit-motivated. These five types of police crime are not mutually
exclusive, and there are numerous significant predictors of (a) each type of police crime, (b)
adverse employment outcomes, and (c) criminal case dispositions. Distinctions between on- and
off-duty police crime are often difficult to make. Aside from these general observations, the
findings can be summarized in terms of both the full data set and the five types of police crime.
The most common most serious offense charged in the cases overall were simple assault
(13%), driving under the influence (12.5%), aggravated assault (8.5%), forcible fondling (5.2%),
and forcible rape (4.8%). Slightly more than one-half of the cases (54%) ultimately resulted in
job loss for arrested officers. The factors that influence whether an arrested officer will be
criminally convicted or lose his or her job are numerous and complex, and include both legal
factors (e.g., most serious offense charged) and extralegal factors (e.g., age, years of service as a
sworn law enforcement officer, relationship of victim to the arrested officer). In terms of case
outcomes, the events of job loss and criminal conviction are not isolated. Job loss provides a
context for the incidence of criminal conviction and vice versa. The number of cases and
officers arrested in terms of the five types of police crime were as follows:
 Sex-related police crime included 1,475 arrest cases of 1,070 sworn officers
 Alcohol-related police crime included 1,405 arrest cases of 1,283 sworn officers
 Drug-related police crime included 739 arrest cases of 665 sworn officers
 Violence-related police crime included 3,328 arrest cases of 2,586 sworn officers
 Profit-motivated police crime included 1,592 cases of 1,396 sworn officers
23
Sex-related Police Crime
The two most important points in regard to the sex-related crimes include the serious
nature of these events and the prevalence of relatively young victims. Serious cases of police
sexual violence are not isolated events. The study identified a total of 422 forcible or statutory
rapes, 352 cases of forcible fondling, and 94 sodomy arrest cases. Children seem to be
particularly vulnerable to law enforcement officers who perpetrate sex crimes. Almost one-half
of the known victims were children, and the second-most commonly occurring category in terms
of the victim's relationship to the arrested officer was an unrelated child. Arrested officers were
criminally convicted on at least one charge in four-fifths (80%) of the sex-related cases in which
conviction data were available. The simple odds of job loss are 2.8 times greater if the arrested
officer was ultimately convicted of a sex-related crime.
Alcohol-related Police Crime
Job loss in the aftermath of being arrested for an alcohol-related police crime is tied to
organizational characteristics of an arrested officer’s employing state or local law enforcement
agency. Arrested officers employed by law enforcement agencies with 1-99 full-time sworn
personnel lost their jobs in less than half (44.6%) of the alcohol-related cases, and officers
employed by agencies with 100 or more full-time sworn personnel lost their jobs in less than
one-third (29.8%) of the alcohol-related cases.
Sworn law enforcement officers engaging in drunk driving is a major problem and
concern. There were 960 cases of police DUI (driving under the influence) arrests. These police
DUI arrest cases largely provide examples of officers who have lost their exemption from law
enforcement. That is to say, state and local sworn law enforcement officers do not typically
arrest other sworn law enforcement officers, especially for drunk driving. In many of the police
24
DUI arrest cases in this study, however, the drunk driving officer did something in terms of the
incident events that led to being arrested. For example, many of the police DUI arrest cases
involved traffic accidents (51%) often resulting in victim injury (24.1%) or fatalities (4%).
Arrested officers are known to have lost their jobs as sworn law enforcement officers in less than
one-third (29.8%) of the police DUI arrest cases.
Drug-related Police Crime
Drug-related crime by sworn law enforcement officers tends to spawn all sorts of other
kinds of police misconduct and police crime. Personal use of drug does not seem to be the
primary problem in drug-related police crime. Drug-related police crime often involves drug
trafficking, facilitation of the drug trade, and shakedowns of citizens most often associated with
the trade of cocaine and crack. Taken together, cocaine and marijuana account for over one-half
of the drug-related police crime arrest cases. Well over one-half of the drug-related police crime
arrest cases were also profit-motivated police crime.
Violence-related Police Crime
Policing is often violent. A major problem identified in this study, however, is officer-
involved domestic violence. There were 961 cases of officer-involved domestic violence.
Approximately one-third of the cases involving a sworn law enforcement arrested for officer-
involved domestic violence are known to have resulted in the arrested officer losing his or her
job as a result of the arrest. When the victim is currently involved (i.e., current spouse, current
boyfriend/girlfriend), the arrested officer is less likely to be convicted than when the victim is
somebody else in officer-involved domestic violence arrest cases. The simple odds of an officer
losing his or her job after being arrested for a crime relating to officer-involved domestic
violence are greater when the relationship with the victim is more distant. Serious concerns
25
regarding compliance with the gun and ammunition prohibitions of the Lautenberg Amendment
(1996) to the Federal Gun Control Act of 1968 for persons convicted of qualifying crimes of
domestic violence are raised by officer-involved domestic violence arrest cases in this study.
There is no exception to the gun prohibition in the federal statute for sworn law enforcement
officers who have been convicted of qualifying misdemeanor crimes of domestic violence.
Profit-motivated Police Crime
Most of the profit-motivated crimes occurred at the street-level and involved patrol
personnel. These crimes are more like street crimes than white collar crimes. The most common
most serious offense charged in the profit-motivated police crime arrest cases were unclassified
thefts (16%), false pretenses (theft by deception) (12.5%), drug offenses (11.9%), robbery (6.4%)
thefts from buildings (5.8%), and extortion or blackmail (5.3%). More than two-thirds of the
sworn law enforcement officers arrested for profit-motivated crime lost their jobs (67%) and
more than half of the profit-motivated arrest cases resulted in conviction (57.4%). The single
largest predictor of job loss in profit-motivated police crime arrest cases is when the profit-
motivated crime is also drug-related.
Conclusion
Cases in which sworn law enforcement officers act as criminals—whether dealing drugs,
or driving drunk, or sexually molesting a vulnerable citizen—strike a direct blow to the law
enforcement enterprise and the essence of what it means to be a law enforcement officer: protect
and serve. These cases threaten to undermine public trust in both the authority and legitimacy of
state and local law enforcement organizations, and the work of law-abiding sworn officers who
go about their job selflessly, efficiently, and professionally every day. Police crime as a topic
26
worthy of empirical study however is not clearly understood, and would probably best be
described as untapped or at the very least not sufficiently explored.
The contrast between the topic's substantive weight and comparatively light coverage
within the scholarship is mostly due to an absence of suitable data. The traditional sources of
data and methods of study, whether official statistics, self-report surveys, or direct observations,
either do not exist in any usable format or are ill-equipped to identify, count, or provide the basis
for empirical analyses of instances in which police perpetrate crimes themselves. These cases
have thus far escaped large-scale empirical scrutiny, but they are intrinsically newsworthy
events. Those in the news media need to identify stories that will be of interest to their audience,
and cases of police crime typically include storylines that are clearly newsworthy. This project
utilized a methodology designed to capitalize on the newsworthy character of police crime,
identify these events, and subject them to analyses that have thus far been impossible. Given the
previous unavailability of data and the relative absence of empirical studies dedicated to the
topic, our work should be considered exploratory. The primary aim was to uncover cases of
police crime arrests and to provide the basis for what we hope will become an important
contribution to the establishment of a more substantive and useful line of research on the topic.
Implications for Policy and Practice
The findings of the current study have several direct implications for policy and practice
in state and local law enforcement agencies. First, employing law enforcement agencies should
have written policies to compel mandatory disclosure whenever a sworn officer is arrested for a
crime, as well as whenever a court issues an order of protection against a sworn officer. Second,
it is imperative that employing law enforcement agencies implement a policy of conducting
annual criminal background checks of all current sworn personnel to ascertain if any sworn
27
officer has been arrested or convicted of any crime. The practice of conducting annual criminal
background checks on every sworn law enforcement officer employed will ensure compliance
with the gun and ammunition prohibition provisions of the Lautenberg Amendment (1996) to the
federal Gun Control Act of 1968. Third, law enforcement agencies should have written policies
in place regarding standard agency responses to when a sworn law enforcement officer is
arrested, and the policy should address procedures for both situations where a sworn officer
employed by that agency is arrested as well as when the agency effectuates the criminal arrest of
a sworn law enforcement officer employed by some other law enforcement agency. Finally,
many arrested officers experience an unraveling of their lives, and mental health problems can be
present in some instances. Early intervention and warning systems should be utilized to track
instances of officers being arrested and officers should be referred to employee assistance
programs when appropriate.
28
Acknowledgements
Adam Watkins provided statistics expertise. Hannah Brewer, Michael Buerger, Melissa
Burek, Chris Dunn, Judith Leary, and Brooke Mathna provided technical expertise. Dan Lee,
Dennis Giever, Paul McCauley, and David Myers offered early encouragement.
The following graduate student research assistants at Bowling Green State University
worked on this project: Evin Carmack, Paige Crawford, Jacob Frankhouser, Maria Gardella,
Breanne Hitchens, Jessica Kirkpatrick, Krista Long, Matthew Roberts, Dennis Roehrig, Andrew
Rudnik, Adam Sierra, Scott Stevenson, Erin Thomson, Natalie Todak, Georgianna Whitely, and
Mallorie Wilson.
The following undergraduate student research assistants at Bowling Green State
University also worked on this project: Christy Adams, Warifa Azeez, Joelle Bridges, Zachary
Calogeras, Vincent Crews, Natalie DiChiro, Charles Eberle, Rachel Fettinger, Madeline Fisher,
Joanna Hanson, Breanne Hitchens, Ryan Hunter, Tanya Korte, Theresa Lanese, Mariah Lax,
Raven Ory, Tiffany Pleska, Ashley Roberts, Taylor Szalkowski, and Mallorie Wilson.
This project was made possible through the guidance of Chief Information Officer John
Ellinger and assistance from numerous Information Technology Services staff at Bowling Green
State University, including Adam Arthur, Chad Brandeberry, Kyle Butler, Patrick Enright, Chad
Fletcher, Michael Good, Danee Gunka, Lauren Hall, Matthew Haschak, Katrina Horvath, Margo
Kammeyer, Clinton LaForest, Bridget Place, Nick Rodgers, Thomas Shuman, Andries Smith,
Chris Wammes, and Deb Wells.
29
INTRODUCTION
Police crimes are those crimes committed by sworn law enforcement officers who are
given the general powers of arrest at the time the offense was committed. These crimes can
occur while the officer is either on- or off-duty and include offenses committed by officers
employed by state, county, municipal, tribal, or special law enforcement agencies. Anecdotes
and journalistic investigations indicate that police officers commit various criminal offenses
including larceny/theft, drug trafficking, driving while intoxicated, domestic assault, and
predatory sex offenses (see, e.g., Kappeler, Sluder, & Alpert, 1998). Further evidence of the
crimes committed by police is also contained in the reports of several independent commissions
on police misconduct (Knapp Commission, 1972; Mollen Commission, 1994; Pennsylvania
Crime Commission, 1974).
The occurrence of police crime should be a concern to police executives, scholars, and
the general public. Police crimes damage both the occupational integrity of police and the
legitimacy of the employing police agency. But, surprisingly little is known about the crimes
committed by law enforcement officers. There are no comprehensive statistics available on the
phenomena, and no government entity collects data on criminal arrests of police officers in the
United States (Anechiarico & Jacobs, 1996; Barak, 1995; Kane, 2007). There have been very
few studies that provide specific data on the nature and prevalence of police crime. Reiss' (1971)
classic field research found that officers commonly engaged in on-duty crime, mostly bribe-
taking and petty thefts; but, no other large-scale observational studies attempt to determine the
prevalence of police crime. Scholars have instead been more likely to broach the topic within
the context of more general studies on police corruption or misconduct (Fyfe & Kane, 2006).
Some studies use officer surveys to identify police attitudes toward misconduct or to measure
30
their propensity for criminal behavior under particular scenarios, but these methods are unlikely
to produce valid data on actual police crime because police tend to maintain a code of silence or
provide socially desirable responses to sensitive questions in regard to their own criminal
behavior and/or the criminal behavior of fellow officers (Fishman, 1978; Maguire & Mastrofski,
2000; Maguire & Uchida, 2000).
The lack of statistics and empirical studies on police crime is problematic. First, more
comprehensive data could be used to develop policies to deter police crimes and/or mitigate
damage to police-community relations in their aftermath. Second, data on the correlates of
police crime could provide information on the relationship between police crime and more
general forms of police deviance including corruption, discrimination, and other forms of abuse.
Third, an expansion of this line of research would provide information on the role of police
culture and socialization processes, particularly if these data include both on-duty and off-duty
crimes committed over the course of the career. Scholars have yet to fully pursue these
questions because we lack any sort of comprehensive statistics on the types of crime committed
by police and when and how often they commit them. These exploratory data are necessary to
advance the understanding of police crime.
This study is a quantitative content analysis of archived records consisting of news
articles and court records reporting the arrests of police officers during the years 2005-2011. The
overall purpose of the study is to identify and describe crimes committed by police officers.
Three distinct but related research questions guide this research study. First, what is the
incidence and prevalence of police officers arrested across the United States? Second, how do
law enforcement agencies discipline officers who are arrested? And, third, to what degree do
police crime arrests correlate with other forms of police misconduct?
31
The research questions relate to different aspects relevant to the study of police crime and
police integrity more generally. The crimes committed by police officers that are identified and
described in this study encompass the broad nature of crime in general and range from the
mundane to the most serious, a situation that reflects what Ross (2001) observed as the
multidimensional character of police crime. The wide array of criminal offenses committed by
police officers also obviously varies in terms of the research questions identified above,
including the frequency with which they occur, the frequency and types of discipline imposed,
and the degree to which they are associated with other forms of misconduct.
The study of off-duty police misconduct and crime has been complicated by a debate on
whether these concepts include acts committed while an officer is technically off-duty. Several
policing scholars emphasize the occupational origins of police crime and focus on those acts that
occur on-duty under the guise of police authority (Barker & Carter, 1994; Foster, 1966;
Stoddard, 1968) and during the course of an officer’s normal work activities (Barker, 1978;
Ross, 2001). Kappeler et al. (1998) argue that many off-duty crimes should not be considered
police crimes because they do not involve some aspect of an officer’s occupational position to
carry them out. This situation begs questions as to whether off-duty misconduct arises from
specialized law enforcement training, skills, and knowledge, or even prevailing occupational
norms that may serve to legitimize such behavior.
Fyfe and Kane (2006) make a compelling case for the inclusion of off-duty acts in their
study of career-ending police misconduct, an argument that also applies to police crimes. First,
the job provides officers unique criminal opportunities that can be taken advantage of either on-
or off-duty. Second, police officers are more likely to engage in either on- or off-duty crimes in
part because they believe their status as sworn law enforcement officers affords them some
32
degree of exemption from prosecution (see Reiss, 1971; Stinson, Liederbach, Brewer, & Todak,
2014). Third, most jurisdictions grant full law enforcement powers to off-duty sworn law
enforcement officers and permit them to carry service weapons. These factors make it difficult
to distinguish between on- and off-duty police behavior because “the knowledge, gun, and badge
that comes with being a police officer” often facilitates the off-duty crimes of police officers
(Mollen Commission, 1994, p. 30). Other studies have raised concerns about the off-duty gun-
involved misconduct of sworn officers (e.g., Commission to Combat Police Corruption, 1998a,
2001a, 2001b, 2010; Fyfe, 1980, 1987, 1988; Kane & White, 2009; Stinson, Liederbach, &
Freiburger, 2012).
The current study demands a conceptual framework that reflects both the broad range of
offenses committed by law enforcement officers and the generalized nature of our research
questions. Thus, the contents of our report are organized within a conceptual framework that
incorporates five key types of police crime:
 Sex-related Police Crime
 Alcohol-related Police Crime
 Drug-related Police Crime
 Violence-related Police Crime
 Profit-motivated Police Crime
The remainder of this report is organized around these five key types. We provide data
pertinent to the three broad research questions within each area, as well as additional data that
further describes the nature and character of police crime both in general and within each of the
five types. The conceptual framework serves to organize data that describes a phenomenon that
encompasses a wide range of criminal behavior. The framework also allows for the presentation
33
and discussion of data specifically focused on answering the stated research questions; but also,
the wealth of data collected on police crime as part of this project that does not readily fit under
one or more of the specific research questions. The latter part of this section introduces the
problems associated with these different types of police crime in sequence. Likewise, the
Literature Citations and Review section of the report presents overviews of the relevant research
literature organized in terms of the five key types of police crime. The Findings portion of this
report also incorporates the same conceptual framework and organizing themes. The final
section of the report discusses our findings and implications of the study both within and across
the key types of police crime.
Statement of the Problem
Scholars have struggled with the task of measuring police integrity because there are
virtually no official nationwide data collected, maintained, disseminated, and/or available for
research analyses (see, e.g., Anechiarico & Jacobs, 1996; Collins, 1998; Kane, 2007; Klockars,
Kutnjak Ivkovic, Harver, & Haberfield, 1997; Kutnjak Ivkovic, 2003; Sherman & Langworthy,
1979; Stinson, Liederbach, & Freiburger, 2010). Complicating the matter is the reality that
police officers are largely exempt from law enforcement because there is a reluctance to enforce
the law against fellow officers (Klockars, Kutnjak Ivkovic, & Haberfield, 2006; Reiss, 1971).
As a result, researchers have resorted to a variety of methodologies in their efforts to learn more
about the nature and extent of police crime, corruption, and misconduct. These include surveys
(e.g., Barker, 1978; Greene, Piquero, Hickman, & Lawton, 2004), quasi-experiments (e.g., Fyfe
& Kane, 2006; Kane & White, 2009, 2013), sociological field studies (e.g., Reiss, 1971;
Sherman, 1978), investigation reports of independent commissions (e.g., Christopher
Commission, 1991; Knapp Commission, 1972; Mollen Commission, 1994; e.g., Pennsylvania
34
Crime Commission, 1974), analyses of internal agency records (e.g., Fyfe & Kane, 2006; C. J.
Harris, 2009, 2011a, 2011b, 2012; Kane & White, 2009, 2013; Liederbach, Boyd, Taylor, &
Kawucha, 2007), and analysis of criminal justice system records (e.g., Collins, 1998; Kutnjak
Ivkovic, 2005).
These various methodologies have thus far failed to produce systematic, nationwide data
on police crime. These lines of literature do make clear, however, that the phenomenon covers a
wide range of criminal behavior that is difficult to generalize. Ross (2001) was among the first
to recognize the multidimensional nature of police crime. He developed a taxonomy that in part
distinguished the phenomenon in terms of four bipolar distinctions of police criminality.
Likewise, Stinson (2009) developed a typology of police crime as a means to both organize data
on the wide range of acts committed by police officers and to distinguish various types of police
crime. Stinson’s typology of police crime is incorporated in the current study. The section
below includes a statement of the problem associated with the five types of police crime
including: (a) sex-related police crime, (b) alcohol-related police crime, (c) drug-related police
crime, (d) violence-related police crime, and (e) profit-motivated police crime.
The Problem of Sex-related Police Crime
Sex-related police crimes encompass a continuum of acts ranging from less serious forms
of sexual misconduct to more egregious cases that involve violence, including acts that have
been referred to in the research literature as police sexual violence (Rabe-Hemp & Braithwaite,
2013). Police sexual violence has been defined to include acts that are officially recognized and
involve violence or the use of police force (Maher, 2003). Police sexual violence occurs when
the victim experiences “sexually degrading, humiliating, violating, damaging or threatening acts
committed by a police officer through the use of force, fear, intimidation, or police authority”
35
(Kraska & Kappeler, 1995, p. 93). Less serious forms of sexual misconduct include acts
whereby a police officer uses his or her position to “initiate or respond to some sexually-
motivated cue for the purpose of sexual gratification” (Maher, 2003, p. 357).
Opportunities for sex-related police crime abound because officers operate in a low
visibility environment with very little supervision. The potential victims of sex-related police
crime include criminal suspects but also unaccompanied victims of crime (Rabe-Hemp &
Braithwaite, 2013). Cases of sex-related police crime often do not involve direct forms of
violence, because police may be able to perpetrate these crimes on the basis of threats or other
forms of intimidation given their position of authority. Police sexual misconduct and cases of
police sexual violence are often referred to as hidden offenses, and studies on police sexual
misconduct are usually based on small samples or derived from officer surveys that are
threatened by a reluctance to reveal these cases. Rabe-Hemp and Braithwaite (2013) recently
identified the need for national level studies on the phenomenon.
The Problem of Alcohol-related Police Crime
A second type of police crime explored in this study is alcohol-related police crime. In
August 1998, the (New York City) Commission to Combat Police Corruption released a
comprehensive report on the misconduct of New York Police Department (NYPD) officers. The
Commission found that a significant number of cases arose out of misconduct that occurred
while the officers were off-duty. A large number of the misconduct cases analyzed by the
Commission to Combat Police Corruption involved off-duty officers who were intoxicated
(Commission to Combat Police Corruption, 2004). The most prevalent charges in these cases
were driving under the influence and cases where officers had consumed enough alcohol to be
considered unfit for duty. The Commission to Combat Police Corruption report indicates the
36
magnitude of alcohol-related problems among NYPD officers and suggests that these problems
primarily involve both the off-duty consumption of alcohol and cases involving police officers
who drive drunk, a phenomenon we refer to as police driving under the influence (DUI).
Following the outline of the Commission’s findings, this report describes the problem of alcohol-
related police crime in two parts: (a) police crimes that involved the consumption of alcohol, and
(b) police crimes that specifically involve cases of police DUI.
One problem for scholars interested in the study of alcohol-related police crime stems
from the fact that much of it—or at least many of the most visible cases of alcohol-related police
crime—seems to occur while police are technically off-duty (Commission to Combat Police
Corruption, 2004). Virtually all of the existing data on off-duty police misconduct and crime
describes the misbehavior of NYPD police officers. The data are based on either the findings of
independent commissions designed to investigate the city's unique cycle of police scandals or
published research derived from a data set on career-ending misconduct among NYPD officers
from 1975 to 1996 (Fyfe & Kane, 2006; Kane & White, 2009). The existing line of research
provides coverage on the off-duty misbehavior of NYPD officers, but the absence of data on the
phenomenon as it occurs elsewhere raises legitimate concerns in regard to generalizability. The
current study provides much needed data on the alcohol-related police crimes perpetrated by off-
duty police officers as these crimes occur nationwide.
Police DUI—or cases in which police are arrested for crimes associated with driving
while intoxicated—comprises the second part of our description of alcohol-related police crime.
Drunk and/or impaired driving is unquestionably an enormous societal concern (Commission to
Combat Police Corruption, 2009; Shults, Beck, & Dellinger, 2011), and evidence from anecdotes
and journalistic investigations demonstrate that some police drive while impaired themselves
37
(e.g., Castaneda, 2008; Davis, 2008; Fazlollah, 2001, 2003). Aside from anecdotes and the
reports of local journalistic investigations however, there are no systematic data on the problem
of police DUI's. There are no official statistics on the number of officers arrested for DUI-
related offenses, and only one study provides data that describe cases involving police who drive
impaired on a national scale (see Stinson, Liederbach, Brewer, & Todak, 2014). Additional data
are clearly necessary to understand and mitigate the problem.
The Problem of Drug-related Police Crime
A third type of police crime explored in this study is drug-related police crime. Police
scandals during the last two decades of the twentieth century exposed dramatic cases of drug-
related corruption in several major American cities. A report of the United States General
Accounting Office (1998) outlined several different drug-related corruption scandals across the
United States during this period. The most widely-recognized scandals occurred in Miami
(Sechrest & Burns, 1992), Los Angeles (Los Angeles Police Department, 2000), and New York
City (Baer, Jr. & Armao, 1995). The scandals within the NYPD gained particular notoriety
because of both the visibility of the NYPD and the egregious crimes perpetrated by the involved
officers. Investigations into the NYPD scandal discovered widespread drug-related corruption
including police who burglarized drug dens, trafficked in stolen drugs, and robbed drug dealers
and their customers (Baer, Jr. & Armao, 1995).
Twenty years ago the Mollen Commission (1994) highlighted the role of cocaine and
crack markets in the production of drug-related police corruption in New York City. Whereas
previous scandals usually arose within the context of payoffs tied to gambling or prostitution
rackets, the Commission described how the burgeoning narcotics trade had become the source
for more “aggressive, extortionate, and often violent” corruption that “parallel[ed] the violent
38
world of drug trafficking” (Baer, Jr. & Armao, 1995, p. 76). The Mollen Commission revealed
how drug corruption tends to instigate various forms of misconduct and in some cases violent
crimes perpetrated by police, at least as these cases unfolded within the largest police agency in
the nation during the 1980s and 1990s. The patterns identified by the Mollen Commission
suggest the need for more recent data to explore the incidence of drug-related police crime since
the 1990s, and the degree to which drug-related police crime occurs within agencies across the
nation.
The Problem of Violence-related Police Crime
A fourth type of police crime explored in this study is violence-related police crime.
Crimes committed by police officers are by their nature special and deserving of scholarly
attention because the law affords police unique rights and responsibilities, including the legal
authority to use coercive force and access to weapons not available to ordinary citizens. The
police are afforded unique opportunities for misconduct and crime that potentially involve
violence including the excessive and/or illegal use of violence against criminal suspects and
other citizens. This report describes the problem of violence-related police crime in two parts:
(a) police crimes involving violence, and (b) cases in which police are arrested for crimes
associated with domestic and/or family violence.
Police use of physical force is synonymous with police violence. Sherman (1980) defines
police violence as behavior by any officer—acting pursuant to their authority and/or power as a
sworn law enforcement officer—that includes any use of physical force (including, but not
limited to, the application of deadly force), whether justified or unjustified, against any person.
Many acts of police violence are never brought to the attention of law enforcement authorities
and never disclosed to the public.
39
A second aspect of the problem of violence-related police crime involves what is
commonly referred to as officer-involved domestic violence (Blumenstein, Fridell, & Jones,
2012; Gershon, 2000; Johnson, 1991; Johnson, Todd, & Subramanian, 2005; Sgambelluri, 2000;
Stinson & Liederbach, 2013; Wetendorf, 2000). The movement to recognize officer-involved
domestic violence gained momentum through the last two decades; and, incorporates provisions
of the 1994 Violence Against Women Act that defined domestic violence as a national crime
problem and the 1996 enactment of the Lautenberg Amendment to the federal Gun Control Act
(18 U.S.C. § 925) prohibiting individuals—including police officers—from owning or using a
firearm if they have been convicted of a misdemeanor crime of domestic violence (Lonsway &
Harrington, 2003). In 1999, the International Association of Police Chiefs promulgated a model
policy on the handling of officer-involved domestic violence cases and described domestic
violence in police families as a problem that “exists at some serious level and deserves careful
attention” (International Association of Chiefs of Police, 2003, p. 2). These and other initiatives
have worked to establish officer-involved domestic violence as an important issue for police
scholars and executives as well as the general public; but, there is still a lack of empirical data on
the phenomenon.
The Problem of Profit-motivated Police Crime
Profit-motivated police crime involves officers who use their authority of position to
engage in crime for personal gain (see, e.g., Kane & White, 2009, 2013; Stinson et al., 2010;
Stinson, Liederbach, et al., 2012; Stinson, Todak, & Dodge, 2013). The Mollen Commission
(1994) noted that greed is the primary motive behind corruption-based police crime. This is
likely true in the traditional conceptualization of police corruption in the context of, for example,
an officer accepting a bribe as payoff to refrain from law enforcement. It is less clear, however,
40
when an officer while either on- or off-duty sells drugs, shoplifts, commits burglaries or
robberies, or engages in acts of insurance fraud. Fyfe and Kane (2006) recognized this
conceptual problem and—in labeling their reconceptualization as profit-motivated police
misconduct—urged future policing scholars and police administrators to rethink the notion of
police corruption because “police corruption is not as easy to define as we formerly may have
believed” (Fyfe & Kane, 2006, p. xv). Carter (1990a, 1990b) also conceptualized drug-
motivated police corruption as characterized by a profit-driven cycle as one of two behavioral
motivations. Stinson (2009) adopted profit-motivated police crime as the fifth type of police
crime and noted that it is consistent with Ross’ (2001) taxonomy of police crime.
41
Literature Citations and Review
Our review of the relevant research literature proceeds from the general to the specific.
First, we cover scholarship relevant to the conceptualization of police crime. These studies
provide definitions for the focus of our research and an identification of the features that
distinguish the phenomenon from the more general topics of police deviance, police misconduct,
or police corruption. This part of the review also outlines studies that describe and specifically
measure the more general forms of police deviance. These studies provide data on behaviors that
sometimes—but not always—involve specific violations of the criminal law by police officers.
The second portion of the review covers research literature more relevant to each of the five key
types of police crime outlined in the preceding section of the report.
The Conceptualization of Police Crime
The study of police crime has thus far been hampered by a degree of conceptual
confusion, mostly due to the tendency of police scholars to consider crimes perpetrated by
officers within studies focused on the more generalized topics of police corruption, deviance, or
misconduct. A quick review identifies the myriad of terms used to define each of these distinct
topics. Wilson (1963) defines police criminality as “illegally using public office for private gain
without the inducement of a bribe, whereas acts of corruption do involve the acceptance of bribes
(p. 190). He further distinguishes police criminality and corruption from brutality, which
includes “mistreating civilians or otherwise infringing their civil liberties” (p. 190). Punch
(2000) distinguishes “crimes committed by criminals in uniform” from acts of police
misconduct, which involve violations of administrative rules that are typically investigated and
sanctioned internally by the police organization (pp. 302–303). Ross (2001) provides a
multidimensional taxonomy of police crimes based in part on whether the act was (a) violent, (b)
42
motivated by profit, and/or (c) perpetrated on behalf of the individual or the organization.
Sherman (1978) focuses on corruption as a form of organizational deviance, and does not
distinguish between police corruption and police crime.
Scholars have tended to consider acts of law violation together with other forms of police
deviance that do not involve specific violations of the criminal law, as well as those whose legal
status as crimes tends to shift over time, such as bribery (see, e.g., Anechiarico & Jacobs, 1996,
pp. 6–7). Fyfe & Kane (2006) point out that the various forms of police deviance are not
mutually exclusive—some forms of corruption and misconduct are police crime and all forms of
police crime constitute misconduct. Crimes, however, that do not involve the misuse of
authority cannot be defined as acts of corruption (Fishman, 1978). The distinction among the
various forms of deviance is that all police crimes involve a violation of criminal statutes and are
subject to criminal prosecution, but not all acts of police corruption or misconduct violate
criminal laws (Wilson, 1963). The conceptual confusion stems largely from the failure to
distinguish specific violations of the criminal law whether or not they constitute an abuse of
authority. The current study focuses on crimes committed by police officers that involved an
arrest on at least one criminal charge to avoid this confusion and focus scholarly attention on
behaviors that have thus far remained invisible to researchers because they have often been
lumped together with more general acts of corruption, deviance, and/or misconduct (Box, 1983;
Jupp, Davies, & Francis, 1999; Kutnjak Ivkovic, 2005).
Most of what we know about police corruption and other forms of police deviance is
from the investigations of independent commissions in the wake of police scandals including the
Knapp Commission (1972) report, the Pennsylvania Crime Commission (1974) report, and the
Mollen Commission (1994) report. These investigations were not designed to investigate police
43
crimes per se, but their findings in regard to corruption and other forms of misconduct shed some
light on the crimes committed by officers. The commissions collectively demonstrated a
problem that went well beyond the usual claim that police deviance is limited to a few “rotten
pockets” of morally deficient officers, but their findings supplied only limited information on the
true nature and extent of crimes committed by officers (Sherman, 1974, p. 7; Skogan & Frydl,
2004).
The Knapp Commission (1972) acknowledged that bribe-taking and petty thefts were
pervasive. The investigation also identified small groups of officers referred to as “meat-eaters”
who “spend a good deal of their working hours aggressively seeking out situations they can
exploit for financial gain, including gambling, narcotics, and other serious offenses” (p. 65).
Twenty years later, the Mollen Commission recognized a shift in the nature of corruption
“primarily characterized by serious criminal activity” closely associated with the drug trade,
including wide-scale drug abuse and trafficking among officers (Mollen Commission, 1994, p.
17). The trend was closely tied to an explosion of crime opportunities provided by open-air
markets for crack cocaine that sprouted during the early 1990s.
Researchers have used police agency records to study officer misconduct that in some
cases includes specific violations of the criminal law. Fyfe and Kane (2006) studied the career-
ending misconduct of a sample of 1,543 New York City Police Department officers employed
during the period 1975 through 1996 (see also Kane & White, 2009, 2013). They identified
eight separate categories of career-ending misconduct, and found that officers commonly
engaged in several different types of profit-motivated crime including bribe-taking, grand
larceny, insurance fraud, burglary, petit larceny, receiving stolen property and welfare fraud.
44
Officers also engaged in a wide variety of crimes while they were off-duty, including domestic
violence, driving while intoxicated, bar fights, and sexual offenses.
Discussions on the conceptualization of police crime lead naturally to debates on
appropriate responses to the phenomenon including various forms of organizational and court-
based dispositions. There is a limited body of empirical evidence in regard to factors that
influence the imposition of organizational sanctions in cases of career-ending police misconduct
based on the study of a sample of 1,543 NYPD officers employed from 1975 through 1996 (Fyfe
& Kane, 2006; Kane & White, 2009, 2013). The research demonstrated that the NYPD was
more likely to terminate employment in cases of serious misconduct where there was evidence
that an officer violated the criminal law and/or a major administrative policy. The NYPD
commonly used suspension(s) to respond to less serious forms of misconduct. The best
predictors of career-ending police misconduct were disciplinary and reliability problems at
previous jobs, prior criminal involvement, and the mean number of complaints against an
individual officer per year. Overall, the imposition of some form of organizational discipline
was most likely in cases where officers: (a) exhibited serious behavioral problems, and (b)
violated rules that “conflicted with the proper functioning of the organization” (Kane & White,
2013, p. 163).
The existing research on organizational dispositions—based almost exclusively on the
experience of NYPD officers—remains difficult to interpret in regard to generalizability and how
police agencies nationwide respond to cases of police misconduct. The logical source of data on
organizational dispositions are agency records and personnel files; but, these data are not
commonly made available to researchers, the media, or the public. Kane and White (2013)
summarize some more general limitations associated with the use of agency records in the study
45
of organizational responses to police misconduct. These data are in some ways inherently biased
since they largely represent the organizational perspective on the process of discipline. Agency
records also commonly present an incomplete picture of the disciplinary process. For example,
police organizations often suggest resignation as an alternative to termination for officers
involved in serious forms of misconduct, a situation that threatens the validity of data based
exclusively on the final documented organizational disposition of these sorts of cases. Problems
associated with generalizability and an overall dearth of data are exacerbated in regard to the
issue of legal rather than organizational dispositions. We are aware of no existing studies
focused on the legal disposition of police crime cases in terms of the imposition of adverse
employment outcomes aside from those derived from data collected as part of the current project
(e.g., Stinson, Liederbach, et al., 2013, 2012; Stinson, Brewer, Mathna, Liederbach, &
Englebrecht, 2014; Stinson & Liederbach, 2013; Stinson, Liederbach, Brewer, & Mathna, 2014;
Stinson, Liederbach, Brewer, & Todak, 2014; Stinson et al., 2010; Stinson, Todak, & Dodge,
2015; Stinson, Reyns, & Liederbach, 2012; Stinson & Watkins, 2014). One primary goal of this
project is to describe and analyze the organizational and legal disposition of cases of police
crime, including officers arrested for crimes that related to sex, alcohol, drugs, violence, and/or
were profit-motivated.
In Garrity v. New Jersey (1967) the United States Supreme Court discussed the
difference between adverse employment actions in the nature of disciplinary investigations
against officers for police misconduct and initiation of criminal proceedings against a police
officer for the same underlying event. The Court held that a police officer is required to answer
questions truthfully in internal disciplinary investigations where the officer would be subject to
termination for failing to answer the questions, but that statements made in that context by a
46
police officer cannot then be used in any criminal proceeding against the officer because the
statements were coerced. As a result, many investigations into police misconduct that potentially
involve police crime are stymied because a decision must be made by police administrators
whether to (a) elect to gather information by questioning an officer in a disciplinary matter, or
(b) forego any questions of an officer administratively and proceed with a criminal investigation
against the officer. If the second option is elected, then the officer would be entitled to the right
against self-incrimination that is afforded to any suspect or defendant in a criminal investigation
pursuant to the Court’s holding in Miranda v. Arizona (1966). In some instances, law
enforcement agencies simply allow an officer to resign in lieu of initiation of criminal
proceedings against a sworn officer as an effort by the agency to quietly resolve a matter without
public disclosure of police misconduct.
Review on Sex-related Police Crime
The first type of police crime explored in this study is sex-related police crime.
Scholarship on the topic has been comparatively sparse. Early studies focused broadly on
behaviors that constituted police sexual misconduct and acts such as on-duty consensual sex
between officers and female adult citizens. Barker (1978) surveyed police officers who indicated
that consensual sex on-duty was quite prevalent, especially in patrol cruisers. Sapp (1994)
provided data derived from in-depth interviews of police. The study included qualitative—
sometimes lurid—descriptions of seven different forms of police sexual misconduct, including
cases wherein police spent entire shifts seeking opportunities to view unsuspecting females
partially clad or nude, the sexual harassment of crime victims and criminal suspects, and sexual
contacts between officers and underage females. Some of the behaviors described within the
47
Sapp study clearly involved sexual coercion rather than consensual sex between police and
willing citizens.
Kraska and Kappeler's (1995) exploratory study on police sexual violence incorporates a
wide continuum of behaviors that range from comparatively unobtrusive forms of sex-related
misconduct (e.g. voyeurism and other invasions of privacy) to obtrusive forms of sexual violence
(e.g. sexual assault and rape). Kraska and Kappeler study the phenomenon within the context of
existing police scholarship and scholarship derived from the feminist literature that more clearly
defines police sexual violence as a form of gender bias and the systematic differential treatment
of females in the criminal justice system. They identified 124 cases of police sexual violence
through both published news reports and federal lawsuits arising under 42 U.S.C. §1983
involving police accused of sexual misconduct. Close to one-third of the cases (30%) identified
involved rape and/or sexual assault. More than one-half of the cases involved strip searches.
Published news reports tended to identify more serious forms of police sexual violence, while
cases that involved strip searches and less serious acts were more likely to be identified through
the federal lawsuit data. Cases of police sexual violence were widely dispersed geographically,
and Kraska and Kappeler (1995) suggest that the cases identified in their study were likely the
“tip of the iceberg” (p. 97). They indicated that the organizational and occupational culture of
policing provides officers ample opportunity to engage in sex-related misconduct and crime, and
note the obstacles to reporting these forms of misconduct confronted by victims including the
fear of retaliation and forms of secondary victimization similar to that experienced more
generally by victims of sexual assaults (see, e.g., LaFree, 1989).
More recently, Maher provided data on police sexual misconduct derived from surveys of
both officers (Maher, 2003) and police chiefs (Maher, 2008). Surveys of officers demonstrate
48
that they believe less serious forms of sexual misconduct occur frequently, and are facilitated by
the opportunity structure provided by the job. The majority of officers indicated that they had
not been pressured to engage in acts of sexual misconduct, but, they were unlikely to report less
serious forms of the phenomenon. Surveyed police chiefs believed that less serious forms of
sexual misconduct were common and serious forms of sexual misconduct and crime were rare.
The data suggest that most police agencies do not have any written policies that expressly
prohibit sexual misconduct (Maher, 2008). Walker and Irlbeck (2002) describe cases that they
refer to as "driving while female," wherein police initiate bogus traffic stops to harass,
intimidate, and/or sexually assault female motorists.
Rabe-Hemp and Braithwaite (2013) recently published a study focused on police sexual
violence and the problem of officer shuffle, wherein police involved in various forms of sexual
misconduct and crime escape punishment and maintain their law enforcement career through
employment with another police agency. Data were derived through a content analysis of
published newspaper accounts of police sexual violence from 1996-2000. They identified 106
cases of police sexual violence. Close to one-half (41.5%) of the cases involved repeat police
perpetrators. Repeat offenders were more likely than first time offenders to victimize juveniles.
Review on Alcohol-related Police Crime
The second type of police crime covered in this study is alcohol-related police crime.
This report describes the problem of alcohol-related police crime in terms of both the off-duty
consumption of alcohol and the phenomenon of police DUI. As we previously described,
virtually all of the existing empirical data on off-duty police misconduct describes the
misbehavior of NYPD officers primarily through the reports of the Commission to Combat
Police Corruption (1998b, 2004). The Commission recommended specific policies designed to
49
mitigate problems associated with off-duty alcohol abuse, including provisions to expand the
definition of unfit for duty to include intoxicated off-duty officers and prohibitions against
carrying an off-duty weapon while intoxicated (Commission to Combat Police Corruption,
1998b). Fyfe and Kane's (2006) classification of police misconduct includes driving while
intoxicated within the category of off-duty public order crimes, but they do not provide specific
data that distinguishes misconduct that includes the abuse of alcohol. Kane and White (2009)
provide several descriptions of cases that involved intoxicated off-duty officers engaged in bar
fights, drunk driving, and personal disputes.
Despite the findings of Kane and White (2009), the lack of existing scholarship on
alcohol-related police misconduct and crime is even more acute in the specific case of police
DUI. Reviews of the empirical literature failed to uncover any scholarly research specifically
focused on the phenomenon of police DUI other than the research by Stinson, Liederbach,
Brewer, and Todak (2014) using data from the current study on police crime. Some recent
evidence indicates that officers and agencies often minimize or ignore the problem of impaired
driving among police. A Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) survey reported that over one-third of
responding state and local police agencies would consider police applicants with a prior DUI
conviction (Reaves, 2012). Additionally, a majority of officers responding to a survey on police
integrity said they would not report a fellow officer who had a minor traffic accident while
driving under the influence of alcohol (Klockars, Kutnjak Ivkovic, Harver, & Haberfield, 2000).
Recent journalistic investigations in Milwaukee (Barton, 2011), Denver (McGhee, 2011), and
New York City (Paddock & Lesser, 2010) reported disturbing cases in which police found to
have driven drunk were either not arrested and/or otherwise minimally punished.
50
Scholars have long recognized the existence of alcohol-related problems in policing and
have identified factors that seem to promote excessive drinking among police (Dietrich & Smith,
1986; Dishlacoff, 1976; Hurrell, Jr. et al., 1984; Violanti, Marshall, & Howe, 1985). Violanti et
al. (2011) group these factors in terms of (a) officer demographics, (b) stress, and (c) police
culture. Excessive alcohol consumption is certainly due at least in part to demographics and the
over-representation of young males among police officers, in particular patrol officers. Men are
more likely to have problems with alcohol than women, and alcohol use disorders are most
prevalent among 18-24 year-olds (National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 2008).
Age and gender have also been specifically correlated with drinking and driving. Alcohol
dependence at the age of 21 has been found to significantly predict persistent driving while
drinking episodes (Begg, Langley, & Stephenson, 2003) and young adult males have been found
to be significantly more likely to engage in driving while drinking than other cohorts (Chou et
al., 2006).
There is an extensive line of research on how stress may influence excessive drinking
among police. Abdollahi (2002) provides a comprehensive overview of this literature in terms of
factors that include (a) intra-interpersonal stressors, (b) job-related stressors, and (c)
organizational stressors. Violanti et al.'s (2011) survey of police found that stress derived from
failed interpersonal relationships increased the likelihood of hazardous drinking behavior,
especially among male officers. A number of studies attribute excess alcohol consumption to the
failure to properly cope with stress that is related more specifically to the job, including those
derived from a perceived lack of organizational support and problematic encounters with citizens
(Anshel, 2000; Ayres, Flanagan, & Ayres, 1992; Kohan & O’Connor, 2002). Leino et al. (2011)
recently explored how job-related exposure to violence and the absence of adequate debriefing
51
procedures may increase levels of drinking among police. Swatt, Gibson, and Piquero (2007)
utilize Agnew's general strain theory to explain how anxiety/depression mediate the relationship
between work-related strain and drinking prevalence among police officers.
Studies focused on the drinking behavior of police also underscore the impact of police
culture. Police culture has been referred to as essentially a drinking culture that often includes
frequent social interactions that involve the consumption of alcohol (Violanti et al., 1985).
Various occupational factors have been found to increase the risk of alcohol and drug problems
(Fennell, Rodin, & Kantor, 1981; Hingson, Mangione, & Barrett, 1981). Indeed, Macdonald,
Wells, and Wild (1999) specifically found that the existence of a drinking subculture at work was
associated with the development of alcohol problems. Lindsey and Shelley (2009) found that
police officers most at risk for drinking problems admitted that fitting in was the primary reason
they engaged in alcohol consumption. Officers may also be discouraged from reporting problem
drinking or drunk driving among fellow officers in order to uphold other widely-recognized
values shared among police including secrecy and solidarity (Banton, 1964; Skolnick, 1994).
Review on Drug-related Police Crime
The third type of police crime covered in this study is drug-related police crime. This
line of research covers three relevant issues including (a) the etiology of drug-related
misconduct, (b) the classification of drug-related misconduct, and (c) the prevalence of drug use
by police. Police scholars typically attribute drug-related corruption to factors associated with
the organization of police work and the occupational culture of police. Stoddard (1968)
emphasizes the role of police culture and the nature of police work in the causation of what he
referred to as blue coat crime. Kraska and Kappeler (1988) underscore the prevalence of on-the-
job opportunities for patrol officers to become involved in the drug trade in some fashion,
52
including lack of direct supervision, drug availability, and exposure to drug users and dealers.
The report of the General Accounting Office (1998) highlights the influence of deviant police
subcultures that both promote drug corruption and protect police who adhere to deviant
subcultural norms such as secrecy, loyalty, and cynicism about police work and the criminal
justice system. Carter and Stephens (1994) view substance abuse as primarily a “job-related
condition” among police, particularly those working undercover vice in drug-infested beats (p.
107).
Carter (1990b) provides the most often cited classification scheme for drug-related
corruption. His typology identifies two forms of drug corruption. Type 1 or traditionally-
conceptualized drug corruption involves officers motivated by illegitimate goals including
personal profit. This form of drug corruption includes the extortion and robbery of drug dealers
and the acceptance of bribes to protect them. Type 2 drug corruption is comprised of officers
motivated by organizationally-derived legitimate goals ostensibly tied to the arrest and
conviction of dealers and users. This form of drug corruption includes perjury, violations of
criminal procedure, and the planting of criminal evidence. Aside from its utility as an
organization scheme, Carter's typology demonstrates how the drug trade tends to give rise to
many different forms of police crime. The drug trade provides opportunities for personal gain
through payoffs, shakedowns, robberies, and opportunistic thefts, as well as types of misconduct
tied to drug enforcement goals and violations of the rights of criminal defendants including
perjury and the planting of evidence. Officers who are recreational drug users expose
themselves to street-level dealers and associated manipulation and coercion (Kappeler et al.,
1998). Carter's (1990b) conclusions about the impact of these markets on the nature of police
corruption closely mirror those of the Mollen Commission (1994) by noting that “the nature of
53
corruption has changed, particularly with respect to police drug users, the emergence of crack
houses as easy targets, and the frustration with drug-law enforcement associated with the
extraordinarily high volume of drug traffic” (Carter, 1990b, pp. 96–97).
Very little is known about the prevalence of drug use among police officers
(Mieczkowski, 2002). Kraska and Kappeler (1988) provide what is widely-cited as the only
empirical description of on-duty drug use by police through their study of one medium-sized
police agency. They found that 20% of the officers used marijuana on duty at least two times per
month, and that 10% had used other non-prescribed controlled substances while on duty,
including hallucinogens, stimulants, and/or barbiturates. The study provides initial evidence to
suggest that the problem of on-duty drug use by police is not limited to large urban departments,
although data derived from a much larger sample of agencies is needed to assess the prevalence
of drug use among police across various types of jurisdictions.
Official drug tests provide another source of data on the degree to which police use drugs,
but most of this evidence describes testing results from a single agency, and no entity collects
comprehensive data on the number of police who test positive overall. One journalistic
investigation reported a 1.1% failure rate (75 officers) among Boston Police Department police
tested from 1999-2006, as well as the failure of 14 Los Angeles Police Department officers drug
tested from 2000-2006. Over 81% of the positive tests in Boston involved the use of cocaine,
and police executives indicated that they believed cocaine had surpassed marijuana as the drug of
choice among police (Smalley, 2006). More recent data derived from self-report surveys of
officers in a single agency in Australia suggest that police use a wider variety of drugs including
marijuana, amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy, heroine, ketamine, and non-prescribed steroids
(Gorta, 2009).
54
Lersch and Mieczkowski (2005a) report results of drug tests conducted in a large police
agency in the Eastern United States in which very few officers tested positive (~ .005%).
Scholars often point out, however, that official drug tests are likely influenced by (a)
“announcement effects” and the fact that officers employed by these agencies are aware of
testing protocols (Lersch & Mieczkowski, 2005a, p. 292), and (b) the method of drug testing.
Cocaine is the most frequently detected drug based on hair analysis, and marijuana is the most
frequently detected drug based on urinalysis (Lersch & Mieczkowski, 2005a; Mieczkowski,
2002; Mieczkowski & Lersch, 2002).
Review on Violence-related Police Crime
The fourth type of police crime explored in this study is violence-related police crime.
According to Sherman (1980), police use of physical force is synonymous with police violence,
defining police violence as behavior by any police officer—acting pursuant to their authority
and/or power as a sworn law enforcement officer—that includes any use of physical force
(including, but not limited to, the application of deadly force), whether justified or unjustified,
against any person. Based on Sherman’s definition, explanations for police violence in the
existing literature have been quite varied (e.g., Alpert & MacDonald, 2001; Garner, Maxwell, &
Heraux, 2002; Griffin & Bernard, 2003; Lersch & Mieczkowski, 2005b; Manzoni & Eisner,
2006; Terrill & Mastrofski, 2002; Terrill, Paoline, & Manning, 2003; Terrill & Reisig, 2003).
Stinson, Reyns, and Liederbach (2012) use data from the current study to identify and describe
cases that involve the criminal misuse of conductive energy devices—purportedly a less-than-
lethal alternative to firearms—so studies that describe the factors that influence police use of
force more generally during citizen encounters seem particularly relevant.
55
Police scholars have examined the factors that influence the use of force more generally
since the 1960s, and quantitative studies have focused on the relationship between police force
and a wide range of predictors including situational, individual, organizational, and community-
level variables. Overall, virtually all studies that compare situational factors to others such as
officer, organizational, and community-level factors have found that situational factors exert the
most powerful influence on the decision to use coercive force (Skogan & Frydl, 2004). Police
are more likely to resort to violence in encounters that include physically aggressive suspects and
citizens who resist officer attempts to control the situation. Researchers have most often
investigated the influence of situational factors in cases that involve the use of deadly force by
police (e.g., Alpert & Smith, 1999; Binder & Scharf, 1982; Blumberg, 1983; Fyfe, 1981). This
line of research has primarily emphasized the direct relationship between the level of situational
risk faced by an officer and the specific decision to employ deadly force. Situational risk refers
to the immediate scenario within which police must decide to shoot or not shoot. Did the suspect
assault the police? Was the suspect armed? Did the suspect shoot at police? These situational
factors appear to explain the use of deadly force more directly than other variables. Terrell's
(2003) research based on observational data suggests that situational factors are also the primary
determinants of the use of non-deadly force by police. He examined the relationship between
five levels of suspect resistance (none, passive, verbal, defensive, and active), and four levels of
non-lethal force (none, verbal, restraint, and impact) and found that force levels were
significantly related to levels of suspect resistance.
The review to this point has outlined prior research that examines the general use of
police force and its predictors, whether situational, individual, organizational, and/or community-
level factors. Distinctions as to whether the use of police force in a particular case will be
56
defined as “justified” or “excessive” or perhaps even “criminal” are subjective and are made
case-by-case based largely on the discretionary decisions of actors within the criminal justice
system, including police and prosecutors. Most states provide guidelines for the police use of
force in existing criminal codes, and local prosecutors may choose to prosecute police who
engage in behavior that violates the criminal law. The level of force used to complete an arrest
or otherwise protect public safety must be commensurate with the crime committed and
proportionally related to its necessity (Cheh, 1996; Klockars, 1996). Police officers who use
“excessive” levels of force may be criminally prosecuted for a range of offenses including
homicide, manslaughter, and assault. Comprehensive statistics on the criminal prosecution of
police are generally neither maintained nor available to scholars or the public, so an empirically-
based identification of the specific factors that distinguishes cases on the basis of whether force
was “justified” or “criminal” is not currently possible. One primary goal of the this project is to
utilize media-based data in order to identify and describe cases of violence-related police crime
that are distinguished by the fact that they involved the criminal arrest of a police officer(s) and
were thus defined by the system as “criminal,” at least prior to the adjudication phase of the case.
This type of police crime also incorporate cases that involve police arrested for crimes
associated with domestic and/or family violence, a phenomenon increasingly referred to in the
research literature as officer-involved domestic violence. There have been very few empirical
studies designed to estimate the prevalence of officer-involved domestic violence—all of them
based on self-administered surveys of police and/or their spouses. Johnson (1991) reported that
40% of responding officers admitted that they had behaved violently toward their spouse at least
once during the previous six months, and 20% of the spouses in a concurrent survey reported that
their spouse had abused either them or their children in the previous six months. Neidig, Russell,
57
and Seng (1992) and Neidig, Seng, and Russell (1992) reported that 41% of responding male
officers admitted that at least one incident of physical aggression occurred in their marital
relationship during the previous year, and 8% of those reported the occurrence of “severe”
physical aggression including choking, strangling, and/or the use or threatened use of a knife or
gun (Neidig, Russell, et al., 1992, p. 32). Reported rates of officer-involved domestic violence
are highest among officers who are currently divorced or separated from their spouses.
The literature on officer-involved domestic violence is filled with anecdotes that
underscore the occupationally-derived etiology of violence within police families. Factors
associated with police culture and the job that have been discussed within the context of officer-
involved domestic violence include: (a) violence exposure, (b) authoritarianism, and (c) problem
drinking. Researchers suspect higher rates of domestic violence among police most exposed to
work-related violence based on studies that document a relationship between violence exposure
and the personal well-being of police officers; and, the research literature on the relationship
between work and family and the possibility of spillover effects (Johnson et al., 2005; Mullins &
McMains, 2000). Officer surveys identify violence exposure as one of the most significant
work-related stressors for police (Gershon, 2000), and studies based on clinical trials describe
links between police stress and poor family functioning (Neidig, Russell, et al., 1992). Police
training in authoritarian styles and the regular exercise of coercive force may influence marital
interactions and promote domestic and/or family violence (Greene-Forsythe, 2000; Johnson,
1991; Johnson et al., 2005; Sgambelluri, 2000).
Police are trained to exert power and use coercive force to accomplish their goals and
gain compliance from citizens (Bittner, 1978; Skolnick, 1994). The regular exercise of coercion
and authoritarianism may spillover to the home in cases where police treat family members as
58
criminal suspects. Johnson (1991) identified a link between authoritarian spillover and high
levels of strain in police families; and, Johnson et al.'s (2005) survey of police indicates that
authoritarian spillover mediates the relationship between exposure to violence on the job and
domestic violence among police. Problem drinking is another aspect of the work-family
spillover that may contribute to the incidence of violence in police families. The research that
associates officer-involved domestic violence with problem drinking cite many of the same
occupationally-derived factors covered in the previous section on alcohol-related police crime
including (a) intra-interpersonal stressors, (b) job-related stressors, and (c) organizational
stressors.
Much of the remaining research literature on officer-involved domestic violence focuses
on the unique vulnerabilities of domestic violence victims in police families and factors that
conspire to discourage exposure of these crimes and contribute to the hidden nature of the
problem. While scholars have long demonstrated that victims of domestic and/or family
violence are often reluctant to officially report these crimes, the fact that perpetrators of officer-
involved domestic violence are police themselves creates particular problems and barriers to
reporting. First, they must consider the fact that perpetrators possess and are trained to use lethal
weapons. Second, police perpetrators are likely to know the location of domestic violence
shelters and have professional experience that can be used to manipulate the system and shift
blame to the victim (Gershon, 2000; National Center for Women & Policing, 2005). Third,
decisions to report incidents of officer-involved domestic violence are also likely influenced by
the cultural values of secrecy and loyalty, wherein police (and their families) are expected to
“never blow the whistle” and expose police perpetrators (Johnson et al., 2005; Shernock, 1995,
p. 623). Fourth, domestic violence victims in police families also may be concerned about
59
consequences associated with provisions of the Lautenberg Amendment (1996) that prohibit
police from owning or using a gun if they are convicted of a misdemeanor crime of domestic
violence.
Review on Profit-motivated Police Crime
The Mollen Commission (1994) found that greed is the primary motive behind police
crime that constitutes corruption. This is true if police corruption is conceptualized in the
traditional context of acts such as accepting bribes to refrain from law enforcement. It is,
however, “less clear whether officers who perform robberies or burglaries, shoplift, sell drugs, or
engage in welfare or insurance fraud during their off-duty time are engaging in a variety of
police corruption” (Fyfe & Kane, 2006, p. xv). Fyfe and Kane (2006) reconceptualized these
actions as “profit-motivated misconduct” and noted that “police corruption is not as easy to
define as we formerly may have believed (p. xv). Similarly, Carter (1990b, pp. 89–90)
conceptualized police corruption as being characterized by a “profit-driven cycle.” The
classification of some police crime as profit-motivated is also found in Ross’ (2001) taxonomy of
police crime, where the second of four dichotomous distinctions is between “economically-
motivated and noneconomically-motivated police behavior” (p. 184).
Using the same data set as Fyfe and Kane (2006), Kane and White (2013) explored the
nature of the career-ending police misconduct in the NYPD and found that the profit-motivated
cases (N = 387) included bribe-taking (18.6%), grand larceny (17.1%), insurance fraud (8.6%),
burglary (7.3%), petit larceny (7.3%), receiving stolen property (3.9%), government fraud
(3.1%), gratuities (2.6%), gambling (1.8%), illegal operation (1.8%), and other profit-motivated
misconduct (27.4%) such as extortion, robbery, abusing official resources (p. 73, Table 4.2).
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Stinson and colleagues found that profit-motivated police crime is a quantifiable variable
that helps explains the nature of police crime across the life course of officers’ law enforcement
careers in a variety of contexts at nonfederal law enforcement agencies across the United States.
Whereas less experienced police officers are more likely to commit violent crimes, those officers
who commit profit-motivated crimes are more likely to be experienced officers late in their
policing career and more likely to be supervisors and/or administrators (Stinson et al., 2010).
Likewise, crime by policewomen is most often profit-motivated (Stinson, Todak, et al., 2013).
Crime by school resource officers typically is not profit-motivated police crime (Stinson &
Watkins, 2014). Profit-motivated police crimes are more likely to be committed while on-duty
and less likely to be committed while an officer is off-duty (Stinson, Liederbach, et al., 2012).
Statement of Rationale for the Research
The purpose of the current research project is to promote police integrity by gaining a
better understanding of police crime and agency responses to officer arrests. The study is
providing a wealth of data on a phenomena that relates directly to police integrity—data that
police executives did not previously have access to because they did not exist in any useable
format.
The first goal of this research is to determine the nature and extent of police crime in the
United States. Objectives for this goal are to: (a) identify and describe the incidence of officers
arrested during each year in the study period; and (b) identify and describe the prevalence of
officers arrested over the course of the study period.
A second goal of this research is to determine what factors influence how a police
organization responds to arrests of officers. Objectives for this goal are to: (a) identify, describe,
and analyze the severity of crimes for which police officers are arrested and determine whether
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severity of crime influences employment outcomes; (b) identify and analyze the level of
urbanization for each employing police organization by using a 9-level urban-to-rural continuum
scale to determine whether an agency’s degree of urbanization or rurality influences agency
response and employment outcomes; (c) identify and analyze the geographic location (region,
division, and state) for each employing police organization to determine whether geographic
disparity influences agency response and employment outcomes; (d) identify and analyze length
of service and age of arrested officers to further investigate whether age in years and/or years of
service influence agency response and employment outcomes; and (e) identify and analyze
criminal case outcomes for each officer arrested to determine whether this factor influences
agency response and employment outcomes.
A third and final goal of the research is to foster police integrity by exploring whether
police crime and officer arrests correlate with other forms of police misconduct. Objectives for
this goal are to: (a) identify and analyze whether the arrested officers in our database were also
named individually as a defendant in any federal court civil actions pursuant to 42 U.S.C. §1983
during the life course of their law enforcement careers; and (b) inform police practitioners and
policymakers of strategies derived from the project’s findings that could improve early
intervention systems and other internal controls to better identify problem officers and those at
risk for engaging in police misconduct – including engaging in police crime creating potential
agency exposure to civil liability – and its correlates.
The rationale for the current study evolved from long-standing obstacles associated with
the collection of data on police crime. The underlying reasons for the current study reflect the
ongoing lack of empirical data on the crimes committed by police—a situation that relates
directly to the limitations of previous methodologies used to collect data on the phenomenon.
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Researchers have resorted to a variety of methodologies to learn more about the nature and
extent of police misconduct, corruption, and/or crime; but, empirical scholarship has usually
incorporated one or more of the following: (a) officer surveys, (b) agency records, and (c)
sociological field studies. Studies that utilize one or more of these methodologies have clearly
contributed to the knowledge base on police crime, but the methodology used in the present
study offers clear advantages in terms of both the scope and quality of potential data on police
crime. The first part of this section provides a brief overview of those limitations by method.
This overview is followed by a concise description of the advantages of our methodology. These
advantages provide the basis of and rationale for our research on police crime.
Limitations of Surveys, Agency Records, and Field Research
Surveys have been perhaps the most commonly utilized method to collect data on the
closely related problems of police corruption and police misconduct. Since the phenomena of
police crime, police corruption, and police misconduct are analogous and sometimes
overlapping, some survey research does provide limited insight into the measurement of police
crime. There are two primary limitations associated with the utilization of surveys in regard to
the study of police crime, corruption, and misconduct. The first problem relates to gaining
access to police organizations to collect data on these issues. Researchers have long reported
problems in gaining access and maintaining access to law enforcement agencies for research
purposes (see, e.g., Kutnjak Ivkovic, 2005; Lundman & Fox, 1978, 1979), so researchers have
been afforded comparatively few opportunities to openly ask police officers about their
perceptions of or tolerance for various forms of misconduct—let alone their perpetration of
actual criminal behavior (Barker, 1978; Kutnjak Ivkovic, 2003). In fact, none of the survey
research reported in the literature directly measures police crime. Rather, the studies measure
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correlates of police crime and tend to indicate the level of tolerance for such misconduct within
some police agencies (see, e.g., Fishman, 1978). The second limitation of surveys in regard to
the study of police crime involves validity and problems associated with the propensity to
provide socially desirable responses to inquiries about misconduct, wrongdoing, and/or criminal
behavior. There are some indications that police administrators and other police personnel may
be less than truthful in responding to surveys by exaggerating (Maguire & Uchida, 2000). There
are obvious problems associated with asking police officers to complete questionnaires with
items on the nature and extent of police offending, because it is widely assumed that officers will
maintain a code of silence and fail to disclose the nature and extent of police crime through a
survey format (Fishman, 1978).
Researchers have also utilized agency and other official records to study issues associated
with police misconduct, corruption, and crime. This line of research includes numerous cross-
sectional studies based on small single agency samples of police officers. More recently, Fyfe
and Kane (2006) provide longitudinal data on the misconduct and crime of police based on
official agency records derived from the NYPD. The NYPD data compared the personal and
career histories of all 1,543 NYPD officers who were involuntarily separated from the NYPD for
cause from 1975 to 1996 with a random sample of their police academy classmates. The study
methodology offers unique opportunities to describe and measure police misconduct and crime
from single agencies over comparatively long time periods. Studies based on agency records
have two primary limitations. First, similar to officer surveys, these data require difficult to
obtain access to a police organization. Most police agencies are obviously reluctant to disclose
official records of officer misconduct and crime to researchers. As a result, studies based on
agency records almost invariably describe the misbehavior and crime of officers from a single
64
police agency, a situation that leads to issues in regard to the generalizability of studies based on
data from a single police agency. A second limitation of using agency records is that they result
from a filtering process within the organization that created the records. That is to say, agency
records are the version of events from the perspective of the organization.
Reiss' (1971) classic research on the behavior of police officers in Chicago, Boston, and
Washington DC stands as the only published study that utilized field observations to specifically
describe various forms of police misconduct and crime. Reiss found that roughly 20% of
observed police engaged in on-duty crime, not including assaults and syndicated crime. Most of
the observed police crime was limited to thefts. Large scale observational studies of police are
costly and difficult to conduct, so only a small number have been completed (Bayley &
Garofalo, 1989; see, .e.g., Black & Reiss, 1967; Frank, Novak, & Smith, 2001; Liederbach,
2005; Liederbach & Frank, 2003; Mastrofski et al., 1998). Small scale observation studies are
nonsystematic and often involve ride-along observations in one single agency. Field
observations are also limited by the danger of reactivity, wherein officers may alter their
behavior because of the presence of a civilian observer. Reactivity poses clear problems in the
collection of observational data on police misconduct, corruption, and/or crime.
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METHODS
Data for the current study were collected as part of a project commenced in the year 2004
designed to locate cases in which sworn law enforcement officers had been arrested for any type
of criminal offense(s). Data were derived from published news articles using the Google News
search engine and its Google Alerts email update service. Google Alerts searches were
conducted using the same 48 search terms developed by Stinson (2009). The Google Alerts
email update service sent a message each time one of the automated daily searches identified a
news article in the Google News search engine that matched any of the designated search terms.
The automated alerts contained a link to the URL for the news articles. The articles were
located, examined for relevancy, printed, logged, and then scanned, indexed, and archived in a
digital imaging database for subsequent coding and content analyses. The present study focuses
on the identification and description of the cases in which police officers were arrested during
the years 2005-2011.
Coding and Content Analysis
Content analyses were conducted in order to code the cases in terms of (a) arrested
officer, (b) employing nonfederal law enforcement agency, (c) each of the charged criminal
offenses, (d) victim characteristics, (e) organizational adverse employment outcomes, and (f)
criminal case dispositions. Each of the charged criminal offenses was coded using the data
collection guidelines of the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) as the coding
protocol for each criminal offense category (see U.S. Department of Justice, 2000). Fifty-seven
criminal offenses are included in the NIBRS, consisting of 46 incident-based criminal offenses in
one of 22 crime categories as well as 11 additional arrest-based minor criminal offense
categories. In each case every offense charged was recorded on the coding instrument as well as
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the most serious offense charged in each police crime arrest case. The most serious offense
charged was determined using the Uniform Crime Report’s (UCR) crime seriousness hierarchy
(see U.S. Department of Justice, 2004). An additional eight offenses were added following an
earlier pilot study (see Stinson, 2009) because police officers who were arrested often were
charged with criminal offenses not included in the NIBRS (e.g., online solicitation of a child,
indecent exposure, official misconduct / official oppression / violation of oath, vehicular hit-and-
run, perjury / false reports / false statements, criminal deprivation of civil rights).
The primary unit of analysis in this study is criminal arrest case. One of the primary
issues in coding was differentiating between arrest cases with multiple victims and officers who
were arrested on multiple occasions within the study years 2005-2011. The remainder of this
paragraph presents hypothetical situations to demonstrate the unit of analysis in this study.
Assume, for example, that an officer was arrested for assaulting his wife. That is coded as one
arrest case (arrest case #1). If the same officer was again arrested a week later for violating an
order of protection (arrest case #2) that was issued by a court judge following the officer’s first
arrest, the second arrest was treated as a separate case in this study. If that same officer was
arrested a few months later for drunk driving, that too was recorded as a new arrest case (arrest
case #3). The officer was suspended from his employment immediately following his arrest for
DUI. For the purposes of this hypothetical, assume that the same officer was acquitted at trial in
all three of those arrest cases (that is, arrest case #1, arrest case #2, and arrest case #3) and
returned to duty as a police officer. Two years later, let’s assume that the same officer was
arrested for sex crimes involving a 14 year-old victim (arrest case #4) and 15 year-old victim
(arrest case #5). Further assume that the officer was convicted in the case involving the 14 year-
old victim (arrest case #4), and the charges were dismissed by the prosecutor in the criminal case
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involving the 15 year-old victim (arrest case #5). Following the officer’s conviction (in arrest
case #4), the officer was fired from the police department. By coding each arrest case separately,
the criminal case dispositions in each case as well as the adverse employment actions attached to
each arrest case can be documented for analysis.
Cases were also coded on Stinson’s (2009) typology of police crime, which posits that
most crime committed by police officers is alcohol-related, drug-related, sex-related, violence-
related, and/or profit-motivated.1 The types of police crime are not mutually-exclusive
categories. Rather, each type of police crime is coded as a dichotomous variable because crimes
committed by officers often involve more than one type of police crime. In a case where an
officer was arrested and charged with the forcible rape of a female motorist during a traffic stop,
for example, the case would be coded in this study as both sex-related and violence-related.
Additionally, cases were coded for the presence of police sexual violence and/or driving while
female encounters. Police sexual violence is operationalized as “those situations in which a
female citizen experiences a sexually degrading, humiliating, violating, damaging, or threatening
act committed by a police officer through the use of force or police authority” (Kraska &
Kappeler, 1995, p. 93). Driving while female is operationalized as instances where a police
officer stops a female driver under the pretext of an alleged traffic violation and then abuses the
power and authority of his position to take advantage of a vulnerable motorist (Walker & Irlbeck,
2002, 2003). Walker and Irlbeck (2002) conceptualized the problem of driving while female as a
parallel to the problem of racial profiling of African-American motorists often referred to as
driving-while-black (cf. D. A. Harris, 1997, 1999). In the context of driving while female
encounters, an officer typically asks for sexual favors in exchange for dropped charges or in lieu
1
A sixth type of police crime not yet explored is revenge-motivated police crime.
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of being taken to jail in a forced quid pro quo. In some cases, driving while female encounters
escalate into sexual harassment, sexual assault, and in rare instances, forcible rape.
Cases were coded on numerous variables relating to police DUI arrest cases (see Stinson
et al., 2010), off-duty police crimes (see Stinson, Liederbach, et al., 2012), drug-related police
crimes and drugs of abuse (see Stinson, Liederbach, et al., 2013), and officer-involved domestic
violence (see Stinson & Liederbach, 2013). Cases were also coded to assess each arrested
officer’s history of being named as a party-defendant in federal civil rights litigation pursuant to
42 U.S.C. §1981 (asserting a denial of equal rights under the law), 42 U.S.C. §1983 (asserting a
civil rights deprivation under the color of law), and 42 U.S.C. §1985 (asserting a conspiracy to
interfere with civil rights). The master name index in the federal court’s Public Access to Courts
Electronic Records (PACER) system to search and cross-reference the names of each arrested
officer in our database to measure official capacity civil rights litigation as a correlate of police
misconduct. Data from PACER were also recorded on civil actions removed from state trial
courts to a United States District Court pursuant to the provisions of 28 U.S.C. §1441 (removal
of civil actions).
Secondary data were employed from the Census of State and Local Law Enforcement
Agencies (CSLLEA) to ascertain demographic data including the number of full-time sworn
personnel and part-time sworn personnel employed by each agency where arrested officers
served. There are 52 agencies included in this study that were not listed in the 2008 wave of the
CSLLEA. County (and independent city) five-digit FIPS identifier numbers were used to verify
location of arrested officers’ employing law enforcement agencies, as well as for use as a key
variable to merge other data sources into the project’s master database and data set. The U.S.
Department of Agriculture’s (2003) county-level urban to rural nine-point continuum scale was
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used to measure rurality. Population data from the U.S. Census Bureau’s decennial census in
years 2000 and 2010 were utilized for county, independent city, and state populations.
Reliability
Analytic procedures were undertaken to ensure reliability of the data. An additional
coder was employed to independently code a random sample of five percent of the total number
of cases in the study. Intercoder reliability was assessed by calculating the Krippendorf’s alpha
coefficient across 195 variables of interest in this study on a random sample (n = 290, 4.3%) of
the cases in the study (N = 6,724) (see Hayes & Krippendorff, 2007). Krippendorf’s alpha is
often recognized as the standard reliability statistic for content analysis research (Riffe, Lacy, &
Fico, 2005). The Krippendorf’s alpha coefficient (Krippendorf’s α = .9153) is strong across the
variables in this study (see Krippendorff, 2013). The overall level of simple percentage of
agreement between coders across all of the variables in this study (97.7%) also established a
degree of reliability well above what is generally considered acceptable in content analysis
research (see Riffe et al., 2005).
Statistical Analysis
Chi Square is used to measure the statistical significance of the association between two
variables measured at the nominal level. Cramer’s V measures the strength of that relationship
with values that range from zero to 1.0 and allows for an “assessment of the actual importance of
the relationship” (Riffe et al., 2005, p. 191). Stepwise binary logistic regression is used to
determine which of the predictor variables are statistically significant in multivariate models.
Stepwise logistic regression models are appropriate where the study is purely exploratory and
predictive (Menard, 2002). This is an exploratory study because little is known empirically
about police sexual misconduct arrests and the specific factors responsible for conviction and/or
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job loss subsequent to the arrest of a police officer for sex-related crimes. Summary statistics are
also reported for evaluation of regression diagnostics and each logistic regression model.
Classification tree analysis—also known as decision trees—is utilized as a statistical
technique to uncover the causal pathways between independent predictors and one of Stinson’s
(2009) types of police crime versus other types of police crime, job loss, and conviction. This
approach moves beyond the simple one-way additive relationship of linear statistical models by
identifying the hierarchical interactions between the independent predictors and their
compounding impact. Classification trees examine the entire data set and produce a graphical
output that ranks the variables by statistical importance. The most influential variable is
represented at the top of the tree (known as the root node). This variable is used to split the data
in a recursive manner through the creation of subsets into the lower branches of the tree.
Variable selection and splitting criteria are driven by the algorithm of the tree program. Decision
tree techniques have received attention due to their ability to handle interaction effects in data
without being bound to statistical assumptions (Sonquist, 1970). Classification tree analysis has
been used to examine police practices including career-ending police misconduct (Kane &
White, 2013), police drug corruption arrests (Stinson, Liederbach, et al., 2013), fatal and nonfatal
incidents involving conductive energy devices (White & Ready, 2009), and police drunk driving
(Stinson, Liederbach, Brewer, & Todak, 2014). This study utilizes two decision tree predictive
analytic algorithms: Classification and Regression Trees (CART) and Chi-Square Additive
Interaction Detection (CHAID).
CART is a classification procedure that produces a binary decision tree and restricts
partitioning at each node to two nodes, thus producing binary splits for each child node
(Dension, Mallick, & Smith, 1998). Breiman, Friedman, Olshen, and Stone’s (1984) CART
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algorithm uses an extensive and exhaustive search of all possible univariate splits to determine
the splitting of the data for the classification tree. Partitioning will continue until the algorithm is
unable to produce mutually exclusive and homogenous groups (De’ath & Fabricius, 2000;
Dension et al., 1998). After creating an exhaustive tree, CART will prune nodes that do not
significantly contribute to overall prediction.
The CHAID algorithm differs from other classification tree algorithms through the
inclusion of multiple measurement levels for the independent variables. The algorithm can
compute nominal, ordinal, and interval levels for both independent and dependent variables.
Therefore, the independent variables can have different levels of measurement. If a ratio level
variable is included in the analysis, the program will convert the variable into a categorical
variable. Kass (1980) was concerned with the computation time when running decision trees and
therefore, created his algorithm with time in mind (Wilkinson, 1992). He created an algorithm
that partitioned the data in a timely manner without losing its ability to uncover interactions and
lose predictive power. Because of this, computation time is saved and CHAID can search
through large data sets to produce T without adding significant computation time.
The CART algorithm was primarily used in this study because it fit our problems and
produced optimal decision trees for most of the models by minimizing the generalization error
(see, e.g., Rokach & Maimon, 2005, p. 167). CHAID was selected for a few decision tree
models due to CART’s inability to partition the data. Since CART only produces binary splits
certain subsets of data are unable to be partitioned into an interpretable tree. The CHAID
algorithm conducts exhaustive searches of the data, which allows smaller data sets to be
partitioned into trees.
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The predictive power of logistic regression and classification tree models is assessed
through the area under the curve (AUC) component of the receiver operating characteristic
(ROC). The AUC assesses the predictive accuracy of a statistical model and serves as the
preferred method for assessing and comparing models (Bewick, Cheek, & Ball, 2004; Dolan &
Doyle, 2000). The ROC curve considers the sensitivity versus 1- specificity, a representation of
the true positive rate versus the false positive rate (TPR vs. FPR). The curve is displayed
graphically by plotting the true positive rate (TFP) on the y-axis and the false positive rate (FPR)
on the x-axis. ROC curves are interpreted through the AUC, a score that ranges from zero to
one. A straight line through a ROC curve is the equivalent of 0.5 and suggests that the model is
no better at prediction than flipping a coin. A score of one indicates that the model is able to
accurately predict all cases. The AUC is interpreted as a proportional reduction of error (PRE)
measure of explained variation by calculating RROC

2
 2( AUC  .5) (Menard, 2010).
Strengths and Limitations
The news search methodology utilizing the Google News search engine and the Google
Alerts email update service provided an unparalleled amount of information on police crime
arrests at law enforcement agencies across the United States. The Google News search engine
algorithm offers some clear advantages over other aggregated news databases and the
methodologies employed by previous studies that used news-based content analyses to document
cases of sex-related police misconduct. The Google Alerts email update service provides the
ability to run persistent automated queries of the Google News search engine and deliver real-
time search results. The Google News search engine draws content from more than 50,000 news
sources (Bharat, 2012) and allows for access to a larger number of police misconduct cases than
would be available through other methods (Payne, 2013).
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There are four primary limitations of the data. First, this research study includes every
case known to the research team of a nonfederal sworn law enforcement officer who was
arrested during the years 2005-2011. Thus, this study is a census of the universe of police crime
arrest cases identified through our search methodology. We do not purport to include every
single instance of a law enforcement officer being arrested. Second, our research is limited by
the content and quality of information provided for each case. The amount of information
available on each case varied, and data for several variables of interest were missing for some of
the cases. This is especially true for victim-related variables in this study as news organizations
generally do not report the names and other personally identifiable information (e.g., victim age,
relationship to the accused) of rape victims (Denno, 1993). Third, the data are limited to cases
that involved an official arrest based on probable cause for one or more crimes. We do not have
any data on police officers who engaged in criminal activity if their conduct did not result in an
arrest. Finally, we note that these data are the result of a filtering process that includes the
exercise of discretion by media sources in terms of both the types of stories covered and the
nature of the content devoted to particular stories (Carlson, 2007). Ready, White, and Fisher
(2008), however, found that news coverage of officer misconduct is consistent with official
police records of these events. Research also suggests that police agencies are not especially
effective at controlling media accounts of officer misconduct (Chermak, McGarrell, &
Gruenewald, 2006). Despite the noted limitations, the use of news articles as the primary data
source is a long established method of analyzing deviant/illegal police behavior (see, e.g.,
Lawrence, 2000; Lersch & Feagin, 1996; Rabe-Hemp & Braithwaite, 2013; Ross, 2000).
Efforts were made to minimize the limitations inherent in utilizing open source
information for data collection and quantitative analyses. Online news sources were limited to
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the news articles published by reputable news sources. We did not rely on blog entries and other
self-published information. Whenever possible data sources were triangulated for each instance
where an arrest case of a sworn law enforcement officer was reported. Triangulation included
reliance on multiple published news articles, videos from television news programs, and online
criminal court records. Efforts were made to verify case information by at least two separate
sources whenever possible.
As LaFree and Dugan (2007) noted, even with data triangulation there are two serious
drawbacks in use of open source data culled from online news sources. First, news reporting on
police crime is inherently biased toward publication of only the most newsworthy forms of crime
by sworn law enforcement officers. In some instances arrests of officers were not reported in the
news, because the arrestee’s employment as a law enforcement officer was unknown to news
reporters. Indeed, sometimes the only aspect making an arrest newsworthy is the fact that a law
enforcement officer was arrested. Second, our database lacks information on many aspects of
the crimes reported in online open source news publications. There is a lack of uniformity from
article to article and across the census of articles collected about each case and arrest. There was
journalistic consistency whereby news articles typically included some or all of the following
data: name of the officer arrested, officer’s employer, officer’s age and years of service as a
sworn law enforcement officer and types of criminal offense(s) charged. Often times the
information regarding crime victims in these cases were vague, typically to protect the identity of
victims of domestic violence or sexual assault, and when the victim was a child. News articles
as a primary source of arrest data is merely a substitute for better data sources that either do not
exist or are not readily available to researchers. There are no official data collected, tabulated,
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archived, or published that would provide the same level of information as analyzed in this
study.
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RESULTS
The results of the study are organized in seven parts. Part I presents the full police crime
data set models. Part II presents the sex-related police crime data set models. Part III presents
the alcohol-related police crime data set models. Part IV presents the drug-related police crime
data set models. Part V presents the violence-related police crime data set models. Part VI
presents the profit-motivated police crime data set models. Part VII presents the employing law
enforcement agencies in terms of rates of police crime per agency, per 1,000 officers, and per
100,000 population.
Part I: Full Police Crime Data Set Models
The Google News searches resulted in the identification of 6,724 cases in which sworn
law enforcement officers were arrested during the time period January 1, 2005, through
December 31, 2011. The cases involved the arrests of 5,545 individual sworn officers employed
by 2,529 nonfederal state, local, and special (e.g., school district police, college/university police,
park police, and constables) law enforcement agencies located in 1,205 counties and independent
cities in all 50 states and the District of Columbia.2 Of these, 674 (12.1%) of the officers have
more than one case (although X = 1.21, Mdn = 1.00, Mode = 1, SD = .870) because they have
had more than one victim (one criminal case per victim) and/or were arrested on more than one
occasion.
More than half of the criminal cases resulted in the arrested officer losing his or her job
(n = 3,628, 54.0%) as a result of being arrested. The known final adverse employment outcomes
include cases where no adverse action was taken against the arrested officer (n = 868, 12.9%),
cases where the officer was suspended from their job (n = 2,228, 33.1%) as a sworn officer for a
2
Cities in the Commonwealth of Virginia are not in counties. The cities of Baltimore, Maryland, St. Louis,
Missouri, and Carson City, Nevada, are also independent cities that are separate from counties.
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period of time, cases where the officer resigned (n = 1,709, 25.4%), and cases where the officer
was terminated (n = 1,919, 28.5%). Less than half of the police crime arrest cases resulted in
known criminal conviction (n = 2,846, 42.3%) on at least one offense charged against the
arrested officer.
Arrested Officers, Employing Law Enforcement Agencies, and Criminal Offenses Charged
Table 1 presents information on the arrest cases in terms of the arrested officers and their
employing nonfederal law enforcement agencies. Most of the cases involve male officers (n =
6,357, 94.5%). The modal category for known officer age at time of arrest is 36-39 years of age
(n = 1,081, 16.1%). The youngest officer(s) were age 19 at time of arrest, and the oldest
officer(s) were 79 years old ( X age = 37.34, Mdn age = 37, Mode age = 39, SD = 8.576 years).
The modal category for known years of service at time of arrest is three to five years (n = 954,
14.2%). Most of the cases involve police employed in a patrol or other street-level rank such as
nonsupervisory officers, deputies, troopers, and detectives (n = 5,464, 81.3%). Other arrest cases
involve line and field supervisors (n = 881, 13.1%) (i.e., corporals, sergeants, and lieutenants), as
well as police managers and executives (n = 379, 5.6%) (i.e., captains, majors, colonels, deputy
chiefs and chief deputies, and chiefs and sheriffs). More than half of the arrest cases involve
crimes that were committed while an officer was on-duty (n = 3,931, 58.5%). Two-thirds of the
cases (n = 4,447, 66.1%) involve arrests made of officers by a law enforcement agency other
than the arrested officer’s employing law enforcement agency.
Most of the arrest cases involve sworn officers employed by municipal police
departments (n = 4,915, 73.1%) or sheriff’s offices (n = 1,109, 16.5%). Arrested officers were
also employed by primary state police agencies (n = 269, 4.0%), county police departments (n =
226, 3.4%), special police departments (n = 174, 2.6%) (e.g., park police departments, school
78
district police departments, college/university police departments, etc.), or other nonfederal law
enforcement agencies (n = 31, 0.4%) (e.g., constable agencies, tribal police departments, and
regional police departments). The modal category for agency size by number of officers
employed is 1,000 or more full-time sworn officers (n = 1,857, 27.6%) and zero part-time sworn
officers (n = 5,008, 74.5%). Most of the arrested officers were employed by a law enforcement
agency located in a nonrural metropolitan county (n = 5,711, 84.9%). The employing agencies
are located throughout the United States, including in Southern states (n = 2,906, 43.2%),
Northeastern states (n = 1,430, 21.3%), Midwestern states (n = 1,380, 20.5%), and Western
states (n = 1,008, 15.05%).
Table 2 presents the cases in terms of the most serious offense charged. There are 61
separate offense categories represented as the most serious offense charged in the arrest cases in
years 2005-2011. Most common as the most serious offense charged in a case are simple
(misdemeanor) assault (n = 877, 13.0%), driving under the influence (n = 841, 12.5%),
aggravated (felonious) assault (n = 572, 8.5%), forcible fondling (n = 352, 5.2%), forcible rape
(n = 322, 4.8%), and drug offenses (n = 308, 4.6%). Other noteworthy crimes that were the most
serious offense charged in cases include murder and nonnegligent manslaughter (n = 125, 1.9%),
burglary (n = 112, 1.7%), robbery (n = 109, 1.6%), thefts from buildings (n = 103, 1.5%),
statutory rape (n = 100, 1.5%), extortion and blackmail (n = 95, 1.4%), forcible sodomy (n = 94,
1.4%), obstruction of justice (n = 93, 1.4%), pornography and obscene material (n = 86, 1.3%),
and criminal deprivation of civil rights (n = 84, 1.2%).
Victims of Police Crime
Table 3 presents information on the characteristics of the victims in police crime arrest
cases in years 2005-2011. Over half of the known victims of police crime are female (n = 2,246,
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33.4%, valid 61.2%). The modal category for victim age is 25-32 years old (although X age =
24.16, Mdn age = 20, Mode age = 15, SD = 14.134 years). Victim age is missing data in a large
number of cases (n = 4,876, 72.5%). In many cases (n = 2,142, 31.9%) we were able to
determine if the victim was an adult (n = 3,051, 45.3%, valid 76.5%) or a child (n = 939, 14.0%,
valid 23.5%) but were unable to determine the exact age of a victim. The youngest victims were
infants under the age of one year old (n = 10, 0.1%, valid 0.5%) and the oldest victims were age
92 (n = 4, 0.1%, valid 0.2%).
The relationship of the victim and the arrested officer could not be determined in a large
number of arrest cases (n = 2,790, 41.5%). Many of the known victims are adult strangers or
nonstranger acquaintances (n = 2,237, 33.3%, valid 56.9%) or a child unrelated (n = 673, 10.0%,
valid 17.1%) to the arrested officer. Other victims are a current spouse (n = 346, 5.1%, valid
8.8%), former spouse (n = 68, 1.0%, valid 1.7%), a current girlfriend or boyfriend (n = 202,
3.0%, valid 5.1%), a former girlfriend or boyfriend (n = 136, 2.0%, valid 3.5%), or a child or
stepchild of the arrested officer (n = 177, 2.7%, valid 4.5%). The victims in some of the arrest
cases are also police officers (n = 229, 3.4%, valid 5.8%). In those cases where the victim was
also a police officer, most of the crimes occurred while the officer who was arrested was off-duty
(n = 179, 78.2%), where χ2 (1, N = 3,967) = 30.746, p < .001, V = .088.
Predicting Conviction
Bivariate analyses were conducted as part of the regression diagnostics and to assess the
associations between various independent variables and the dependent predictor variables of
interest. Chi-Square associations are statistically significant at the p < .05 level for 90
independent variables, individually, and the dependent variable, criminal conviction on any
offense charged. See Table 4. The strongest bivariate predictors of an officer being convicted
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on any offense charged are (a) most serious offense charged, where χ2 (67, N = 3,934) = 394.757,
p < .001, V = .317; (b) age of the victim, where χ2(1, N = 3,934) = 110.509, p = .005, V = .305;
and (c) victim’s relationship to the arrested officer, where χ2(1, N = 3,934) = 114.234, p < .001, V
= .219.
Multivariate analyses were conducted to further investigate the relationship between the
outcome variable, criminal conviction on any offense charged, and various predictor variables.
Table 5 presents a backward stepwise binary logistic regression model predicting criminal
conviction on any offense charged. Bivariate correlations computed for each of the independent
variables revealed that none of the variables were highly correlated with each other.
Multicollinearity is not a problem in the model as indicated by no tolerance statistics below .575
and no variance inflation factors exceeding 1.386. A Durbin-Watson score of 1.754 indicates
that there is no autocorrelation in the model. Regression results indicate that the overall model
of 16 predictors is statistically reliable in distinguishing between officers who were convicted on
any offense charged and officers who were not convicted on any charge. The model correctly
classified 71.2% of the cases (AUC = 718, 95% CI [.697, .740], RROC
2
= .436). Wald statistics
indicate that all of the independent variables in the model significantly predict conviction versus
nonconviction.
Odds ratio interpretations provide context for prediction of criminal case outcomes.
Twelve independent variables in this model predict when an officer is more likely to be
convicted of a crime. For example, the simple odds of an officer being convicted on any offense
charged are 13 times greater if the arrest case involved a drug shakedown, controlling for all
other variables in the model. The simple odds of an officer being convicted are 6.9 times greater
if the arrest case was officer-involved domestic violence and the victim died of the injuries,
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controlling for all other variables in the model. Also, the simple odds of an officer being
convicted are about 1.9 times greater if the officer was arrested for driving under the influence
while driving a personally-owned vehicle, controlling for all other variables. Four independent
variables in the model predict when an officer is less likely to be convicted of any offense
charged in their arrest case. Among these, for every one step increase in an arrested officer’s
rank at time of their arrest, the simple odds of conviction go down by 9.2%, controlling for all
other variables in the model. The simple odds of conviction go down by 29% if an officer was
suspended from his or her law enforcement job following their being arrested. Also, the simple
odds that an arrested officer will be convicted go down by 38.8% if the officer was arrested for a
crime related to officer-involved domestic violence and the victim suffered nonfatal injuries.
Decision trees were used to derive the casual pathways between independent predictors
and the case dispositions using the CART algorithm. The CART analysis includes a total of
3,934 cases. Figure 1 presents the results of this analysis. The tree had an overall classification
score of 74.6% (AUC = .694, 95% CI [.676, .713], RROC

2
= .388) and selected the variable most
serious offense charged as the splitting criterion. Officers who were charged with offenses
scores over 18 were convicted of a crime in 77.8% of the cases (node 2). In contrast, officers
who were charged with offenses scores equal to or less than 18 were convicted in 53.9% of the
cases (node 1). The second tier of the decision tree includes four additional splits in the data.
Node 2 is further separated by the variable most serious offense charged; these scores are all
greater than 18. Officers who received an offense score between 19 and 68 were convicted of a
crime in 80.4% of the cases. Officers who had a score above 68 were only convicted in 63.7% of
the cases.3
3
The numerical scoring for this variable (V183, most serious offense charged) is misleading to the extent that the
categorical variable was created by taking the 65 dichotomous offense variables (V15 through V80) and making a
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Node 1 was further separated by the variable victim’s relationship to the offender. In the
cases where victims were a stranger or an unrelated child the officers were convicted in 60.3% of
the cases. In cases that involved victims who were a current spouse to the offender, relative,
child or stepchild, current and or former boyfriend/girlfriend, the officers were convicted in
43.4% of the cases. The tree also included the following variables in tiers three through five:
gender of the victim, geographic division, victim’s relationship to the offender, state, profit-
motivated versus other crime type, and age categorical.
Predicting Job Loss
The next set of models predict job loss after an officer has been arrested for committing
one or more crimes. At the bivariate level, Chi-Square associations are statistically significant at
the p < .05 level for 120 independent variables, individually, and the dependent variable job loss.
See Table 6. The job loss variable is a binary variable that was created by recoding the variables
for involuntary termination (V100)—that is, an officer was fired—and resignation (V101)—that
is, an officer quit his or her job as a sworn officer—after being arrested. The recoded
dichotomous variable for job loss is coded as 0 = kept job, and 1 = lost job. Cases where we
were unable to determine the final adverse employment outcome were coded as 0 = kept job. As
such, for this dichotomous recoded variable the absence of information as to an officer having
lost their job was treated as if the officer kept their job after being arrested for some criminal
offense(s).4 The strongest bivariate predictors of an officer losing their job as a sworn law
new 65-category variable for the most serious offense charged in each case. Since the research assistant coders were
already familiar with the specific offenses (that is, V15-V80), we continued to use the labels of 15-80 for the 65
offense categories in V183.
4
The research interest with this variable is in sworn law enforcement officers who lost their jobs (either through
involuntary termination or voluntary resignation). A coding protocol decision was made to focus on what our data
would support, which is job loss. We operationalize kept job as those cases where the arrested officer is not known
by us to have lost their job. Data collection efforts on this variable often resulted in missing data from the open
source information because in many jurisdictions final adverse employment outcomes are treated as confidential
personnel records.
83
enforcement officer following a criminal arrest are (a) most serious offense charged, where χ2 (1,
N = 6724) = 752.849, p < .001, V = .335; (b) age of victim, where χ2 (1, N = 6,724) = 111.533, p
= .008, V = .247; and (c) victim’s relationship to the arrested officer, where χ2 (1, N = 6,724) =
173.685, p < .001, V = .210.
Table 7 presents a backward stepwise binary logistic regression model predicting job
loss. Bivariate correlations computed for each of the independent variables revealed that none of
the variables in the model were highly correlated with each other. Multicollinearity is not a
problem as indicated by no tolerance statistics below .592 and no variance inflation factors
higher than 1.689. There is no autocorrelation in the model as measured by the Durbin-Watson
score of 1.646. Logistic regression results indicate that the multivariate model of 11 predictors is
statistically reliable in distinguishing between officers who kept their jobs after being arrested
and officers who lost their jobs after being arrested, although the model only correctly classified
68.7% of the cases (AUC = .638, 95% CI [.625, .652], RROC

2
= .276). Wald statistics indicate that
all of the independent variables in the model significantly predict whether an officer lost their or
kept their job subsequent to being arrested.
Predictors of the final adverse employment outcomes are aided by interpretation of the
odds ratios. Seven of the independent variables in the model predict when an officer is more
likely to lose their job after being arrested. The simple odds that an officer will lose their job
(through either involuntary termination or voluntary resignation) are approximately 2.5 times
greater if the arrested officer has been sued in federal court pursuant to 42 U.S.C. §1983
(deprivation of rights under color of law) at some point during his or her law enforcement career.
The federal civil rights civil action(s) may or may not be related to the underlying incident(s)
leading to an officer’s criminal arrest, and the federal lawsuit(s) may have been filed before
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and/or after an officer’s date of arrest. The type of crime(s) for which an officer was arrested
impacts on job loss. For example, the simple odds that an officer will lose their job are 1.3 times
greater if the offense was a sex-related crime. Similarly, the simple odds that an officer will lose
their job increase by 73% if the crime involved police sexual violence. Likewise, the simple
odds that an officer will lose their job increase by about 54% if the arrest case is alcohol-related.
Four of the independent variables in the logistic regression model predict when an officer
is more likely to keep their job in the aftermath of being arrested. Adverse employment
outcomes short of termination predict the final adverse employment outcome. If an officer was
suspended from their job after being arrested, then the simple odds of losing their job go down
by 61.5%. Likewise, the simple odds of an officer losing their job after being arrested decrease
by 65.4% if the officer was reassigned to another position within the employing law enforcement
agency after being arrested. Two variables related to the nature of the incident resulting in an
officer’s arrest also predict that an officer will not ultimately lose their job as a sworn law
enforcement officer as a result of being arrested. The simple odds that an officer will lose their
job decrease by 48.8% if the crime involves family violence. As to drug offenses, the simple
odds that an officer will lose their job decrease by 95.6% if the criminal case involves marijuana.
Figure 2 presents the results of predicting job loss and included a total of 6,724 arrest
cases. The tree had an overall classification score of 71.0% (AUC = .766, 95% CI [.754, .777],
2
RROC = .532) and selected the variable sex-related police crime versus other police crime as the
splitting criterion. Officers who were involved in sex-related cases (node 1) lost their job in
72.1% of the cases. In contrast, officers who were involved in a criminal case that was not sex-
related (node 2) lost their job in 48.9% of the cases.
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The sex-related cases in node 1 were partitioned by the variable officer was suspended for
a period of time. Officers who had been previously suspended lost their job in 66.3% of the
cases and officers who were not previously suspended lost their job in 82.1% of the cases. The
cases that were not sex-related in node 2 were partitioned by the variable profit-motivated police
crime versus other crime. Officers who were involved in a profit-motivated case lost their job in
67.7% of the cases and officers who were not involved in a profit-motivated case lost their job in
40.9% of cases. The tree also included the following variables in tiers three through nine:
internal versus organization, geographic division, state, official capacity versus individual
capacity, age categorical, victim’s relationship to the offender, driving under the influence,
urban/rural continuum, years of service categorical, part-time sworn personnel, drug-related
police crime versus other crime, officer was reassigned to another position in the agency, age of
the victim, full-time sworn personnel, and gender of the victim.
Predicting Sex-related Police Crime
In this section, models predict sex-related arrest cases versus other types of arrest cases.
Preliminarily, at the bivariate level, Chi-Square associations are statistically significant at the p <
.05 level for 117 independent variables and the dependent variable, sex-related arrest cases
versus other types of crimes. See Table 8. The strongest bivariate predictor of sex-related police
crime is the most serious offense charged, where χ2 (63, N = 6,724) = 5322.861, p < .001, V =
.890, indicating that there is a very high correlation between outcome variable (sex-related police
crime arrest cases, which is a true dichotomy) and the predictor variable (most serious offense
charged, which is a categorical variable with up to 65 levels of offenses). The most serious
offense charged variable was coded based on the hierarchy of offenses in the Uniform Crime
Reports. The very high bivariate correlation here is because the second most serious offense on
86
the UCR hierarchy is rape, and rape is the most serious offense charged (n = 322, 21.8%) within
the sex-related arrest cases (N = 1475). Other strong bivariate associations of sex-related police
crime arrest cases include (a) age of the victim, where χ2 (79, N = 1,848) = 592.004, p < .001, V
= .566; (b) relationship of the victim to the arrested officer, where χ2 (7, N = 3,934) = 909.238, p
< .001, V = .481; (c) years of difference in age between the arrested officer and their victim,
where χ2 (103, N = 6,724) = 1,406.902, p < .001, V = .457; (d) gender of the victim, where χ2 (1,
N = 3,668) = 651.711, p < .001, V = .422; and (e) child victims, where χ2 (1, N = 3,990) =
684.979, p < .001, V = .414.
Moderate bivariate associations of sex-related arrest cases include (a) driving while
female encounters, where χ2 (1, N = 6,724) = 587.698, p < .001, V = .296; (b) citizen complaint
as the method of crime detection, where χ2 (1, N = 6,724) = 520.439, p < .001, V = .278; (c)
profit-motivated police crime, where χ2 (1, N = 6,724) = 492.036, p < .001, V = .271; (d)
violence-related police crime, where χ2 (1, N = 6,724) = 357.899, p < .001, V = .231; and (e)
alcohol-related police crime, where χ2 (1, N = 6,724) = 260.078, p < .001, V = .197.
A backward stepwise binary logistic regression model predicting sex-related police crime
arrest cases versus other types of police crime arrest cases is presented in Table 9. Bivariate
correlations computed for each of the independent variables in the model revealed that none of
the variables were highly correlated with each other. Multicollinearity is not a problem as
indicated by no tolerance statistics below .312 and no variance inflation factors higher than
3.207. The Durbin-Watson score of 1.643 indicates that there is no autocorrelation in the model.
Regression results indicate that the overall model of 14 predictors is statistically reliable in
distinguishing between sex-related police crime arrest cases and police crime arrest cases
involving other types of crime. The model correctly classified 88.7% of the cases (AUC = .939,
87
2
95% CI [.931, .947], RROC = .878). Wald statistics indicate that all of the independent variables
in the regression model significantly predict sex-related police crime arrest cases.
Interpretation of odds ratios provides context for prediction of sex-related police crime
arrest cases. Five of the independent variables in the model predict sex-related police crime
arrest cases versus other types of police crime arrest cases, four of which are interpreted in the
sentences that follow. Duty status predicts sex-related police crime. The simple odds that an
arrested officer’s case involves a sex-related offense increase by 57% if the officer was on-duty
at the time of commission of the crime(s) charged. The method of crime detection also predicts
sex-related arrest cases. The simple odds that an officer’s arrest is sex-related are approximately
6.2 times greater is the method of crime detection is a citizen complaint, controlling for all other
variables in the model. Since sex crimes are typically committed out of public view it makes
sense that the primary method of crime detection for sex crimes is by way of a citizen complaint
as opposed to other methods of crime detection.
Two predictors involve characteristics of the victim of an officer’s sex-related arrest case.
The simple odds that the victim is a child are 5.6 times greater if the arrest case is sex-related
versus some other type of crime. The relationship of the victim to the arrested officer also
predicts sex-related police crime arrest cases versus other types of police crime arrest cases.
Victim relationship is an eight category variable, and the precise interpretation is difficult in a
logistic regression model. Literally, the simple odds that an officer’s arrest case is sex-related go
up by 40.7% for every one unit increase in victim relationship (but this is a nominal-level
measure and the practical interpretation is lacking). In other words, the likelihood of a police
crime arrest case being sex-related increases as you move from the victim being a spouse,
through other levels of relation, toward victims who are strangers or nonstranger acquaintances.
88
Ten of the independent variables in the logistic regression model predict that a police
crime arrest case will be some type of crime other than a sex-related one. For example, the
simple odds that an arrest case is sex-related decrease by 96.9% if the victim is male. Family
violence cases are typically not also sex-related crimes. The simple odds that a crime is sex-
related decrease by 73.3% if the crime involves family violence. Also, the simple odds that a
crime is sex-related decrease by 77% if the arrest case is officer-involved domestic violence
where the officer is accused of using his hands/fists as a weapon. Alcohol-related or profit-
motivated police crime arrest cases are not typically also sex-related crimes. The simple odds
that an arrest case is sex-related decrease by 75.4% if the case is alcohol-related, whereas the
simple odds that an arrest case is sex-related decrease by 88.6% if the case is profit-motivated.
Finally, the simple odds of an arrest case being sex-related decrease by 51.5% if the arrested
officer has been sued in federal court pursuant to 42 U.S.C. §1983 at some point during his or
her law enforcement career.
Figure 3 presents the results of predicting sex-related cases versus other crime types and
included a total of 6,724 arrest cases. The tree had an overall classification score of 89.6%
2
(AUC = .895, 95% CI [.884, .907], RROC = .790) and selected the variable victim age
(categorical) as the splitting criterion. Cases that involved the victims from the age of birth to 19
(node 1) were sex-related 68.4% of the time and cases that involved victims 20 years or older
(node 2) were sex-related in only 14.7 % of the cases.
The victim age categories in node 1 were partitioned by the variable gender of the victim.
Cases that involved a female victim were sex-related 84.2% of the time and cases that involved
male victims were sex-related in only 34.1% of the cases. The victim age categories in node 2
were partitioned by the variable driving while female encounter. Cases that stemmed from
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driving while a female encounter were sex-related 95.7% of the time and cases that did not
involve a female encounter were only sex-related in 12.3% of the cases. The tree also included
the following variables in tiers three through five: victim’s relationship to the offender and
alcohol-related versus not alcohol-related.
Predicting Alcohol-related Police Crime
The next set of models predict alcohol-related police crime arrest cases versus other types
of police crime arrest cases. Table 10 presents statistically significant Chi-Square bivariate
associations at the p < .05 level for 116 independent variables and the dependent variable,
alcohol-related arrest cases versus other types of arrest cases. The strongest bivariate predictor
of alcohol-related police crime arrests is the most serious offense charged, where χ2 (63, N =
6,724) = 3906.421, p < .001, V = .762. This very strong bivariate association is likely due to
alcohol-related incidents typically falling within relatively few offense categories (e.g., driving
under the influence, public drunkenness, disorderly conduct, etc.) for a large number of the
alcohol-related arrest cases. Other moderate bivariate associations of alcohol-related police
crime arrest cases include (a) duty status, where χ2 (1, N = 6724) = 630.074, p < .001, V = .306;
(b) victim age, where χ2 (79, N = 1,848) = 172.884, p < .001, V = .306; and (c) individual versus
official capacity, where χ2 (1, N = 6,724) = 619.269, p < .001, V = .303.
Table 11 presents a backward stepwise binary logistic regression model predicting
alcohol-related police crime arrest cases. Bivariate correlations computed for each of the
independent variables in the model revealed that none of the variables were highly correlated
with each other. Multicollinearity is not a problem as indicated by no tolerance statistics below
.392 and no variance inflation factors higher than 2.552. The Durbin-Watson score of 1.612
indicates that there is no autocorrelation in the model. Logistic regression results indicate that
90
the overall model of 17 predictors is statistically reliable in distinguishing between alcohol-
related police crime arrest cases and police crime arrest cases involving other types of police
crime. The model correctly classified 88.1% of the cases (AUC = .802, 95% CI [.781, .823],
2
RROC = .604).
Odds ratio interpretations provide context for prediction of alcohol-related police crime
arrest cases. Seven of the independent variables in the model predict when an arrest case is more
likely to be alcohol-related. Two of these predictors are independent variables relating to the
underlying nature of the criminal behavior. The first relates to drug usage. The simple odds that
an officer’s arrest case will be alcohol-related are 5 times greater if the arrest incident involves
marijuana. This can be explained to the extent that imbibing in alcoholic beverages and smoking
marijuana often co-occur in social settings. The second relates to sexual violence. The simple
odds that an officer’s arrest case will be alcohol-related are 1.6 times greater if the incident also
involves police sexual violence. This specific finding is counterintuitive for two reasons. First,
police sexual violence invokes some aspect of an officer’s official status as a sworn law
enforcement officer and most of the police sexual violence arrest cases involved on-duty (n =
516, 82.8%) criminal behavior, where χ2 (1, N = 6,724) = 481.979, p < .001, V = .268. Second,
most of the alcohol-related arrests in this study occur off-duty (n = 1,235, 87.9%). Events
occurring in the aftermath of an officer’s commission of criminal offense(s) also predict alcohol-
related police crime. The simple odds that an officer’s arrest case will be alcohol-related are
approximately 1.2 times greater if there an ensuing scandal or cover up of the incident at the law
enforcement agency employing the arrested officer.
Ten of the independent variables in the logistic regression model predict when it is
unlikely that an officer’s arrest case will be alcohol-related. Alcohol-related crimes by police
91
officers tend to occur off-duty. The simple odds that an officer’s arrest case will be alcohol-
related decrease by 91.9% if the officer was on-duty when the crime occurred. Interestingly,
although acts of police sexual violence predict alcohol-related crime arrests, that is not the case
for other types of sex-related crime or violence-related crime. The simple odds that an officer’s
arrest case will be alcohol-related decrease by 74.3% if the crime is sex-related. Similarly, the
simple odds that an officer’s arrest case will be alcohol-related decrease by 29.7% if the crime is
violence-related. Finally, crimes by police officers involving child victims are typically not
alcohol-related offenses. The simple odds of an officer’s arrest case being alcohol-related go
down by 73.4% if the victim of the crime is a child.
Figure 4 presents the results of predicting alcohol-related cases versus other crime types
and included a total of 6,724 cases. The tree had an overall classification score of 89.3% (AUC
= .901, 95% CI [.893, .910], RROC

2
= .802) and selected the variable internal crime versus
organizational crime as the splitting criterion. Cases that involved a crime by the organization
against the officer (node 1) were alcohol-related 98.6% of the time and cases that internal crimes
against the organization (node 2) were alcohol-related in only 18.3 % of the cases.
A crime by the organization against the officer (node1) was a terminal node and was
unable to be partitioned further. Crimes by the officer against the organization in node 2 were
partitioned by the variable duty status. Cases that involved off-duty officers at the time of the
offense were alcohol-related 26.7% of the time and cases that involved on-duty officers were
alcohol-related in only 6% of the cases. The tree also included the following variables in tiers
three through ten: age of victim, profit-motivated versus not profit-motivated, violence-related
versus other crime type, official misconduct / official oppression / violation of oath, sex-related
92
versus other crime type, internal versus organizational, drug-related versus other crime type,
false report / false statement, and method of crime detection: citizen complaint.
Predicting Drug-related Police Crime
The models in this section predict drug-related police crime arrests versus other types of
police crime arrest cases. Table 12 presents statistically significant Chi-Square bivariate
associations at the p < .05 level for 88 independent variables and the dependent variable, drug-
related arrest cases versus other types of arrest cases. Here again, the strongest bivariate
predictor of drug-related police crime arrests is the variable most serious offense charged, where
χ2 (63, N = 6,724) = 3127.330, p < .001, V = .682. Many, but not all, of the drug-related cases
include specific drug offenses (coded as V23 in this data set), which explains this very strong
bivariate correlation. Other moderate bivariate associations of drug-related police crime arrest
cases include (a) profit-motivated police crime, where χ2 (1, N = 6,724) = 580.101, p < .001, V =
294; (b) violence-related police crime, where χ2 (1, N = 6,724) = 331.322, p < .001, V = .222; (c)
age of the victim, where χ2 (79, N = 1,848) = 140.050, p < .001, V = .275; and (d) officer-
involved domestic violence resulting in fatal injuries to a victim, where χ2 (1, N = 3,840) =
3.840, p = .050, V = .240.
Table 13 presents a backward stepwise binary logistic regression model predicting drug-
related police crime arrest cases. Bivariate correlations computed for each of the independent
variables in the model revealed that none of the variables were highly correlated with each other.
Multicollinearity is not a problem in this model as indicated by no tolerance statistics below .662
and no variance inflation factors higher than 1.512. The Durbin-Watson score of 1.654 indicates
that there is no autocorrelation in the model. Logistic regression results indicate that the overall
model of ten predictors is statistically reliable in distinguishing between drug-related police
93
crime arrest cases and police crime arrest cases involving other types of police crime. The model
correctly classified 97.9% of the cases (AUC = .645, 95% CI [.622, .668], RROC
2
= .290).
Odd ratio interpretations provide context for prediction of drug-related police crime arrest
cases. Nine of the independent variables in the logistic regression model predict when an arrest
case is more likely to be drug-related. Three other types of police crime also predict drug-related
police crime arrests. The simple odds that an arrest case will be drug-related are 36.7 times
greater if the crime is also profit-motivated. This finding suggests that much of the drug-related
police crime involves the drug trade. Some drug-related police crime, however, is not related to
the drug trade. For example, the simple odds that an arrest case will be drug-related are 3.6
times greater if the crime is also alcohol-related. Likewise, the simple odds that an officer’s
arrest case will be drug-related is about 3 times greater if the crime is also sex-related. Several
of the predictors of drug-related police crime are specific criminal offenses. The simple odds
that an arrest case will be drug-related are 15.7 times greater if the officer is charged with
perjury, false reports, or false statements. Similarly, the simple odds that an officer’s arrest case
will be drug-related are 12.3 times greater if the officer is charged with obstruction of justice.
Two specific sex-related criminal offenses also predict drug-related police crime. The simple
odds of an officer’s arrest case being drug-related are 9.4 times greater if the officer is charged
with pornography or obscene materials. Also, the simple odds that an arrest case will be drug-
related is 2 times greater if the officer is charged with forcible rape. One other predictor is
noteworthy in that the simple odds of an officer’s arrest case being drug-related are 3.7 times
greater if an arrested officer’s arrest case involves a DUI-related traffic accident.
Figure 5 presents the results of predicting drug-related cases versus other crime types and
included a total of 6,724 cases. The tree had an overall classification score of 89.6% (AUC =
94
.862, 95% CI [.849, .876], RROC

2
= .724) and selected the variable profit-motivated versus other
types of police crime as the splitting criterion. Cases that were profit-motivated (node 1) were
drug-related 27.5% of the time and cases that were not profit-motivated (node 2) were drug-
related in only 5.9 % of the cases.
The not profit-motivated cases (node 1) were partitioned by the variable violence-related
police crime versus other crime. Cases that were not violence-related were drug-related 12.8%
of the time and cases that were violence-related were drug-related in only 1.5% of the cases. The
profit-motivated cases (node 2) were partitioned by the variable weapons law violation. Cases
that involved officers who had a weapons law violation were drug-related 55.5% of the time and
cases that did not involve a weapons law violation were drug-related in only 24.9% of the cases.
The tree also included the following variables in tiers three through six: age of victim, sex-
related versus other crime type, method of crime detection: citizen complaint, state, and gender
of victim.
Predicting Violence-related Police Crime
The models in this section predict violence-related police crime arrest cases versus other
types of police crime arrest cases. Bivariate Chi-Square associations are statistically significant
at the p < .05 level for 131 independent variables and the dependent variable, violence-related
arrest cases versus other types of arrest cases. See Table 14. As in previous prediction models,
the strongest bivariate predictor of violence-related police crime is the most serious offense
charged, where χ2 (63, N = 6,724) = 4883.929, p < .001, V = .852. This indicates a very high
correlation between the outcome variable, violence-related arrest cases, and the predictor
variable, most serious offense charged. A large number of the violence-related arrest cases
involve a relatively small number of offense categories for the most serious offense charged
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variable (e.g., aggravated assault, simple assault, murder and nonnegligent manslaughter,
forcible rape, etc.). Strong bivariate associations of violence-related police crime arrest cases
include citizen complaint as the method of crime detection, where χ2 (1, N = 6,724) = 1327.054,
p < .001, V = .444. Moderate associations of violence-related arrest cases include (a) years
difference in victim age, where χ2 (103, N = 6,724) = 879.176, p < .001, V = .362; (b) age of the
victim, where χ2 (79, N = 1,848) = 166.314, p < .001, V = .300; and (c) victim relationship to the
arrested officer, where χ2 (7, N = 3,934) = 206.633, p < .001, V = .229.
A backward stepwise binary logistic regression model predicting violence-related police
crime arrest cases versus other types of police crime arrest cases is presented in Table 15.
Bivariate correlations computed for each of the independent variables in the model revealed that
none of the variables were highly correlated with each other. Multicollinearity is not a problem
as indicated by no tolerance statistics below .471 and no variance inflation factors higher than
2.123. Autocorrelation is also not a problem in the model as indicated by the Durbin-Watson
score of 1.608. Logistic regression results indicate that the overall model of 11 predictors is
statistically reliable in distinguishing between violence-related police crime arrest cases and
other types of police crime arrest cases. The model correctly classified 83.4% if the cases (AUC
= .844, 95% CI [.826, .862], RROC

2
= .688). Wald statistics indicate that all of the independent
variables in the logistic regression model significantly predict violence-related police crime
arrest cases.
Odds ratio interpretations provide context for prediction of violence-related police crime
arrest cases. Five of the independent variables in the logistic regression model predict when a
police crime arrest case is more likely to be violence-related. Six of the independent variables
predict when a police crime arrest case is less likely to be violence-related. Some interesting
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patterns emerge. For example, the simple odds that an officer’s arrest case will be violence-
related increase by 5.8% for every one year increase in the officer’s age at time of arrest. On the
other hand, the simple odds that an officer’s arrest case will be violence-related decrease by
3.9% for every one year increase in years of service as a sworn officer at time of arrest.
Although at first glance this seems counterintuitive, it is easily at least partially explained by
noting that not all police officers start their law enforcement careers at the same age. Many
violence-related instances of police crime come to the attention of law enforcement authorities
through citizens. The simple odds of an officer’s arrest case being violence-related are almost
1.3 times greater if the method of crime detection is a citizen complaint. Most violence-related
police crime is not also profit-motived, as the simple odds that an officer’s arrest case will be
violence-related go down by 98.2% if the crime is also profit-motivated.
Figure 6 presents the results of predicting violence-related cases versus other crime types
and included a total of 6,724 cases. The tree had an overall classification score of 84.6% (AUC
= .882, 95% CI [.874, .891], RROC

2
= .764) and selected the variable citizen complaint as the
method of crime detection as the splitting criterion. Cases that involved a citizen complaint
(node 1) were violence-related 68.1% of the time and cases that did not involve a citizen
complaint were only violence-related in 22.9% of the cases.
Cases that involved citizen complaints in node 1 were partitioned by the variable profit-
motivated police crime versus other types of crime. Cases that were profit-motivated were
violence-related 16.9% of the time and cases that were not profit-motivated were violence-
related in 76.8% of the cases. Cases that did not involve a citizen complaint in node 2 were
partitioned by the variable victim age (categorical). Cases that involved crimes from 12-15
years of age were violence-related in 15.8 of the cases and for age birth to 11 and 16 or older
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were violence-related in 74% of the cases. The tree also included the following variables in tiers
three through five: driving under the influence, drug-related crime versus other crime type,
intimidation, and victim’s relationship to the offender.
Predicting Profit-motivated Police Crime
In this section, models predict profit-motived police crime versus other types of police
crime arrest cases. Table 16 presents statistically significant Chi-Square bivariate associations at
the p < .05 level for 127 independent variables and the dependent variable, profit-motivated
police crime arrest cases versus other types of arrest cases. As in the other models using the full
data set in this study, there is a very strong correlation between the variable most serious offense
charged and the dependent variable. At the bivariate level for the association between the most
serious offense charged and profit-motivated arrest cases, χ2 (1, N = 6,724) = 4449.343, p < .001,
V = .813. Other strong to moderate bivariate associations of profit-motivated police crime
include (a) duty status, where χ2 (1, N = 6,724) = 633.147, p < .001, V = .307; (b) age of the
victim, where χ2 (79, N = 1,848) = 211.386, p < .001, V = .338; (c) violence-related police crime,
where χ2 (1, N = 6,724) = 1280.268, p < .001, V = .436; (d) drug-related police crime, where χ2
(1, N = 6,724) = 580.101, p < .001, V = .294; (e) alcohol-related police crime, where χ2 (1, N =
6,724) = 498.804, p < .001, V = .272; (f) official capacity, where χ2 (1, N = 6,724) = 540.962, p <
.001, V = .284; and (g) sex-related police crime, where χ2 (1, N = 6,724) = 492.371, p < .001, V =
.271.
Table 17 presents a backward stepwise binary logistic regression model predicting profit-
motivated police crime arrest cases. Bivariate correlations computed for each of the independent
variables in the model revealed that none of the variables were highly correlated with each other.
Multicollinearity is not a problem as indicated by no tolerance statistics below .362 and no
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variance inflation factors higher than 2.790. The Durbin-Watson score of 1.776 indicates that
there is no autocorrelation in the model. Logistic regression results indicate that the overall
model of ten predictors is statistically reliable in distinguishing between profit-motivated police
crime arrest cases and police crime arrest cases involving other types of crime. The model
2
= .740).
Prediction of profit-motivated police crime arrest cases are explained through
interpretation of odds ratios. Five of the independent variables in the model predict when an
officer’s arrest is more likely to be profit-motivated police crime versus other types of police
arrest cases. The simple odds of a case being profit-motivated are 4.9 times greater if the crime
came to the attention of law enforcement by a citizen complaint. These are not the types of
crimes found on patrol by the police. More often than not profit-motivated police crime is crime
that occurs while on-duty. The simple odds that an arrest case will be profit-motivated are 1.5
times greater if the crime occurred while on-duty. Profit-motivated police crime predicts when
an arrested officer is at risk of being sued in his or her official capacity for civil rights violations.
Specifically, the simple odds that an arrest case will be profit-motivated are 4.2 times greater if at
some point during an officer’s law enforcement career he or she was named as a party-defendant
in a federal court civil action pursuant to 42 U.S.C. §1985 for a conspiracy to interfere with civil
rights. Children are rarely the victim of profit-motivated police crime as the simple odds go up
by 7.9% for every one year increase in the age of the victim at time of an officer’s crime
commission. Two independent variables in the model predict when a police crime arrest case is
less likely to be profit-motivated. Profit-motivated police crime is rarely sex-related or violence-
related. The simple odds of a profit-motivated police crime arrest case decrease by 90.4% if an
officer’s arrest case is sex-related and decrease by 94% if it is violence-related.
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Figure 7 presents the results of predicting profit-motivated crime and included a total of
6,724 police crime arrest cases. The tree had an overall classification score of 88.6% (AUC =
.908, 95% CI [.900, .917], RROC

2
= .816) and selected the variable violence-related police crime
versus other crime as the splitting criterion. Cases that were violence-related (node 1) were
profit-motivated 4.9% of the time and cases that were not violence-related (node 2) were profit-
motivated in 42% of the cases. The cases that were violence-related in node 1 were partitioned
by the variable drug-related police crime versus other types of crime. Cases that did not involve
a drug crime were only profit-motivated 2.5% of the time and cases that involved a drug crime
were profit-motivated in 63.6% of the cases. Cases that were not violence-related in node 2 were
further partitioned by the variable victim age. Cases that involved victims from birth to the age
of 20 were only profit-motivated 2.9% of the time and cases that involved victims older than 20
years old were profit-motivated in 47% of the cases. The tree also included the following
variables in tiers three through four: gender of victim, alcohol-related crime versus other crime
type, and sex-related crime versus other crime type.
Predicting Federal Civil Rights Litigation pursuant to 42 U.S.C. §1983
The final area of prediction using the full data set for model building examines arrested
officers who have also at some point in their law enforcement career been sued in federal court at
least once pursuant to 42 U.S.C. §1983. Table 18 presents statistically significant Chi-Square
bivariate associations at the p < .05 level for 96 independent variables and the dependent
variable, arrested officer named as a party defendant in a federal civil action pursuant to 42
U.S.C. §1983 at some point during career. The strongest bivariate predictors of Section 1983
litigation are several other caused of action, including (a) 42 U.S.C. §1997 (civil plaintiff is an
institutionalized person) civil defendant, where χ2 (1, N = 6,724) = 1247.262, p < .001, V = .431;
100
(b) 42 U.S.C. §1985 (conspiracy to interfere with civil rights) civil defendant, where χ2 (1, N =
6,724) = 632.692, p < .001, V = .307; and (c) 42 U.S.C. §1981 (equal rights under the law) civil
defendant, where χ2 (1, N = 6,724) = 435.624, p < .001, V = .255. Civil rights litigation
originally filed by a plaintiff in a state trial court and later removed by defense counsel to a
federal district court pursuant to 28 U.S.C. §1441 is also a strong bivariate predictor, where χ2 (1,
N = 6,724) = 1192.487, p < .001, V = .421.
Other moderate bivariate associations of Section 1983 federal court civil actions are (a)
age of victim, where χ2 (79, N = 1,848) = 159.139, p < .001, V = .293; (b) officer’s years of
service at time of arrest, where χ2 (43, N = 4,780) = 250.387, p < .001, V = .229; (c) the state
where the officer’s employing law enforcement agency is located, where χ2 (50, N = 6,724) =
346.944, p < .001, V = .227; and (d) the most serious offense charged, where χ2 (63, N = 6,724) =
320.050, p < .001, V = .218.
A backward stepwise binary logistic regression model predicting arrested officers being
named as a party defendant in federal civil rights litigation pursuant to 42 U.S.C. §1983 at some
point during their policing career is presented in Table 19. Bivariate correlations computed for
each of the independent variables in the model revealed that none of the variables were highly
correlated with each other. None of the tolerance scores in the regression model are below .334
and no variance inflation factors are above 2.995, indicate that multicollinearity is not a problem.
The Durbin-Watson score of 1.580 indicates that there is no autocorrelation. Binary logistic
regression results indicate that the overall model of 16 predictors is statistically reliable in
distinguishing between arrested officers who were sued in federal court pursuant to Section 1983
and those arrested officers who never have been named as a party defendant in Section 1983
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federal civil rights litigation. The model correctly classified 76.4% of the cases (AUC = .743,
95% CI [.723, .764], RROC

2
= .486).
Fourteen of 16 independent variables in the binary logistic regression model predict when
an arrested officer is likely to be named as a party defendant in a 42 U.S.C. §1983 federal court
civil action at some point during his or her career as a sworn nonfederal law enforcement officer.
Many of the federal court civil actions analyzed in this research study had nothing to do with the
incident for which an officer was arrested. Some of the civil litigation occurred years or even
decades prior to an officer being arrested for some crime(s). In other instances federal civil
rights litigation directly arose out of the same operative facts as in an officer’s criminal case.
Federal civil rights civil actions often include averment of more than one cause of action
in the complaint filed in a federal district court. In many instances, the officers in this study were
sued more than once for a variety of civil rights causes of action. Here, the simple odds that an
arrested officer will be named as a party defendant in Section 1983 civil litigation are 51.5 times
greater if the same officer has been named as a defendant in a civil action pursuant to 42 U.S.C.
§1981 for denial of equal rights under the law.
The simple odds that an officer will be sued in their official capacity pursuant to Section
1983 are about 2 times greater if the officer was on-duty at time of committing the crime(s) for
which they were arrested. The longer an officer has been employed by a law enforcement
agency, the more likely they are at risk of being sued in their official capacity in a federal court
civil rights civil action. The simple odds of being named in a Section 1983 civil action increase
by 6.9% for every one year increase in years of service at time of arrest. There is often collateral
damage to others in an officer’s employing law enforcement agency as indicated by the odds
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being 9.7 times greater that an officer will be sued under Section 1983 if the officer’s supervisor
was disciplined and/or reassigned as fallout from the arrest of the subordinate officer.
The nature of the criminal offenses in an officer’s arrest case provide context for
predicting when an officer is likely to be sued in a Section 1983 civil action. The simple odds of
being named as a party defendant in a Section 1983 civil action at some point during an officer’s
law enforcement career are 1.1 times greater if an officer is arrested for kidnapping or abduction,
one time greater if charged with a crime involving family violence, 6.4 times greater if arrested
for crime involving cocaine, 1.54 times greater if arrested for a crime stemming from a “driving
while female” encounter, and go up by 99.8% if arrested for murder or nonnegligent
manslaughter.
Figure 8 presents the results of predicting a 42 U.S.C. §1983 civil defendant included a
total of 6,724 arrest cases. The tree had an overall classification score of 78.2% (AUC = .722,
95% CI [.708, .737], RROC

2
= .444) and selected the variable official capacity versus individual
capacity as the splitting criterion. Arrested officers who were acting in their individual capacity
during commission of the crime for which they were arrested (node 1) were named as party
defendants in federal court Section 1983 civil actions at some point during their law enforcement
careers 16.7% of the time. Arrested officers who were acting in their official capacity during
commission of the crime for which they were arrested (node 2) were named as party defendants
in federal court Section 1983 civil actions at some point during their law enforcement careers
32.4% of the time.
The criminal cases where an officer was acting in an individual capacity (in node 1) were
partitioned by the variable years of service. Officers who has served as a sworn officer seven
and one-half years or less at time of arrest were named as Section 1983 civil defendants at some
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point during their career in 11.3% of the criminal cases, whereas officers who had served more
than seven and one-half years at time of arrest were named as Section 1983 civil defendants at
some point during their law enforcement career in 20.6% of the criminal cases. Criminal cases
that involved officers operating in their official capacity (in node 2) were further partitioned by
the variable violence-related police crime versus other types of crime. As to the violence-related
criminal cases, 43.8% of the cases involved arrested officers who – at some point during their
law enforcement career – were sued in federal court pursuant to Section 1983, but only 22.9% of
the cases that were not violence-related involved an officer who was at some point named as a
federal court Section 1983 civil defendant. The tree also included the following variables in tiers
three through ten: geographic division, rank, most serious offense charged, state, discussion of an
agency scandal/ cover up, years of service, years of service, age of victim, type of agency, and
urban/rural continuum.
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Part II: Sex-related Police Crime Data Set Models
There are 1,475 cases in the data set where sworn law enforcement officers were arrested
for sex-related crimes during the years 2005-2011. The sex-related police crime arrest cases
involve 1,070 individual officers employed by 795 nonfederal state, local, special, constable, and
tribal law enforcement agencies located in 550 counties and independent cities in 48 states (all
except Maine and Wyoming) and the District of Columbia. Of these, 191 of the arrested officers
have more than one case ( X = 1.38, Mdn = 1.00, Mode = 1, SD = 1.288) because they have
more than one victim (one criminal case per victim) and/or were arrested for a sex-related crime
on more than one occasion during the study period years.
The majority of sex-related police crime arrest cases involve an officer who is known to
have ultimately lost their job (n = 1,063, 72.1%) as a sworn officer after being charged with one
or more crimes. The known final employment outcomes in the sex-related arrest cases include
those in which there was no known adverse employment action taken against the officer (n = 96,
6.5%), cases resulting in the officer only being suspended for a period of time (n = 316, 21.4%),
cases in which the officer was separated through voluntary resignation (n = 505, 34.2%), and
those cases in which the officer was separated through involuntary termination (n = 558, 37.8%).
More than half the sex-related police crime arrest cases resulted in criminal conviction (n = 791,
53.6%, valid 80.2%) on one or more offenses charged, however the final criminal case
disposition is unknown (n = 489, 33.2%) in one-third of the sex-related arrest cases.
Officers Arrested for Sex-related Police Crime, Offenses Charged & Employing Agencies
Table 20 presents information on the sex-related arrest cases in terms of the arrested
officers and their employing nonfederal law enforcement agencies. Almost all of the sex-related
arrest cases involve male officers (n = 1,467, 99.5%) who were arrested. The modal category for
105
known officer age at time of arrest for sex-related cases is 36-39 years of age (n = 261, 17.6%).
The youngest officer arrested for a sex-related crime was age 19 at time of arrest, and the oldest
arrested officer was 74 years old ( X age = 37.88, Mdn age = 38.00, Mode age = 39, SD = 8.636
years). The modal category for known years of service at time of arrest for a sex-related crime is
3-5 years ( X years of service = 9.81 years, Mdn = 8.00 years, Mode = 2 years, SD = 7.650
years). Most of the sex-related arrest cases involve sworn officers employed in patrol or street-
level nonsupervisory positions, including officers, deputies, troopers, and detectives (n = 1,221,
82.8%). Almost half of the sex-related arrest cases involves sex crimes that occurred while on-
duty (n = 682, 46.2%). The majority of the cases (n = 919, 62.3%) involve arrests made by some
law enforcement agency other than the department where the arrested officer was employed.
Most of the sex-related arrest cases involve sworn officers employed by municipal police
departments (n = 1,040, 70.5%) or sheriff’s offices (n = 280, 19.0%). Officers arrested for sex-
related crimes were also employed by primary state police agencies (n = 61, 4.1%), county police
departments (n = 30, 2.0%), or other types of nonfederal law enforcement agencies (n = 64,
4.4%). The modal category for agency size by number of full-time sworn personnel is 1,000 or
more sworn officers (n = 349, 23.6%). Most of the employing law enforcement agencies were
located in a nonrural metropolitan county or independent city (n = 1,229, 83.3%). The
employing agencies are located throughout the United States, including in Southern states (n =
658, 44.6%), Western states (n = 316, 21.4%), Northeastern states (n = 259, 17.6%), and
Midwestern states (n = 242, 16.4%).
Table 21 presents the sex-related arrest cases in terms of the most serious offense
charged. There are 40 separate offense categories represented as the most serious offense
charged in sex-related police crime arrest cases during the years 2005-2011. Most common in
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the sex-related cases as the most serious offense charged are forcible fondling (n = 352, 23.9%),
forcible rape (n = 322, 21.8%), statutory rape (n = 100, 6.8%), unclassified sex crimes (n = 98,
6.6%), forcible sodomy (n = 94, 6.4%), pornography and obscene material (n = 86, 5.8%),
intimidation and harassment (n = 52, 3.5%), online solicitation of a child (n = 44, 3.0%), and
prostitution (n = 42, 2.8%).
Victims of Sex-related Police Crime
Victim characteristics in sex-related police crime arrest cases in years 2005-2011 are
presented in Table 22. Victim information is particularly difficult to ascertain from news reports
and even official court records (when available) in criminal cases involving sex offenses. For
example, exact victim age is unknown (n = 661, 44.8%) due to missing data. We were, however,
able to determine whether the victim of a sex-related case was a child (birth to 17 years of age)
or an adult (ages 18 and older). Almost half of the known victims are children (n = 721, valid
52.4%). Most of the victims of sex-related police crime arrest cases are either an unrelated child
(n = 527, valid 39.3%) or an adult who is a stranger or nonstranger acquaintance (n = 658, valid
49.1%).
Predicting Conviction in Sex-related Police Crime Arrest Cases
The regression models in this section predict criminal conviction on any offense charged
in sex-related police crime arrest cases. Conviction data are available on two-thirds (n = 986,
66.8%) of the sex-related arrest cases. Of those sex-related cases with known criminal case
outcomes, most of the officers arrested for sex-related crimes were convicted (n = 791, 80.2%)
on at least one criminal offense charged against the arrested officer. Bivariate associations are
presented in Table 23. Chi-Square associations are statistically significant at p < .05 for 23
independent variables and the dependent variable, conviction on any offense charged. There are
107
four bivariate associations of moderate strength as indicated by Cramer’s V scores for the
statistically significant Chi-Square associations. They are age of the victim, where χ2 (50, N =
541) = 86.980, p = .001, V = .401; the State where the arrested officer’s employing law
enforcement agency is located, where χ2 (48, N = 986) = 80.347, p = .002, V = .285; years of
service at time of arrest, where χ2 (34, N = 820) = 52.020, p = .025, V = .252; and victim’s
relationship to the arrested officer, where χ2 (7, N = 905) = 36,740, p < .001, V = .201.
conviction in sex-related police crime arrest cases. Bivariate correlations computed for each of
the independent variables in the model revealed that none of the variables were highly correlated
with each other. Multicollinearity is not a problem as indicated by no tolerance scores below
.905 and no variance inflation factors above 1.105. The Durbin-Watson score is 1.587 and
indicates that autocorrelation is not a problem. Logistic regression results indicate that the
overall model of four predictors is statistically reliable in distinguishing between conviction and
nonconviction in sex-related police crime arrest cases. Wald statistics indicate that all of the
independent variables in the binary logistic regression model significantly predict conviction in
sex-related police crime arrest cases. The regression model correctly classified 83.7% of the
cases (AUC = .673, 95% CI [.621, .725], RROC

2
= .346).
Context for prediction of conviction in sex-related police crime arrest cases is provided
by interpretation of odds ratios. The greatest predictor conviction is being charged with
pornography and obscene material offenses. The simple odds of conviction in sex-related police
crime arrest cases are 4.6 times greater if the arrested officer is charged with crimes involving
pornography and obscene material. Job loss also predicts conviction in sex-related cases as the
simple odds of conviction are 4.2 times greater if the final adverse employment action against the
108
officer is job loss through either involuntary termination or voluntary resignation. Officers
arrested for sex-related crimes involving a child are more likely to be convicted than officers
whose victims are adults. The simple odds of conviction are 1.1 times greater in sex-related
police crime arrest cases where the victim is a child. Years of service at time of arrest is also a
slight predictor of conviction. The simple odds of conviction in sex-related police crime arrest
cases goes up by 5.8% for every one year increase in years of service at time of arrest.
Figure 9 presents the results of predicting conviction and included a total of 986 arrest
2
RROC = .424) and selected the variable job lost as the splitting criterion. Officers who had lost
their job (node 1) were convicted in 83.8% of the cases. In contrast, officers who kept their job
(node 2) were convicted in 63.6% of the cases. The officers who lost their job in node 1 were
partitioned by the variable victim’s relationship to the offender. Cases that involved a victim
who was an unrelated child, a child or stepchild of the offender or former boy/girlfriend of the
offender had a conviction rate of 91.3%. In contrast, cases that involved a victim who was a
current spouse, other relative of the offender, stranger to the offender, current boy/girlfriend of
the offender, or ex-spouse of the offender had a conviction rate of 63.6%. The officers who kept
their job subsequent to being arrested in node 2 were partitioned by the variable age of victim.
Officers were convicted 56% of the time when the victim was 19 years of age or older and were
convicted 72% of the time when the victim was younger than 19 years of age. The tree also
included the following variables in tiers three: state, years of service, and rank.
Predicting Job Loss in Sex-related Police Crime Arrest Cases
This section presents the regression models predicting job loss as the final adverse
employment action taken against an officer following his or her arrest for a sex-related police
109
crime. Chi-Square associations are presented in Table 25. Bivariate associations are statistically
significant at the p < .05 level for each of 35 independent variables and the dependent variable,
job lost. There are, however, only four bivariate associations of moderate strength as indicated
by the Cramer’s V scores for the statistically significant Chi-Square statistics. They are the year
when the officer was arrested, where χ2 (6, N = 1,475) = 135.487, p < .001, V = .303; the State
where the arrested officer’s employing law enforcement agency is located, where χ2 (48, N =
1,475) = 111.725, p < .001, V = .275; years of service at time of arrest, where χ2 (36, N = 1,195)
= 62.775, p = .004, V = .229; and officer age at time of his or her arrest, where χ2 (46, N = 1,397)
= 68.062, p = .019, V = .221.
loss in sex-related police crime arrest cases. Bivariate correlations computed for each of the
independent variables in the regression model indicate that none of the variables are highly
correlated with each other. Multicollinearity is not a problem in the model as indicated by no
tolerance scores below .649 and no variance inflation factors above 1.541. The Durbin-Watson
score of 1.634 indicates that autocorrelation is not a problem. Logistic regression results suggest
that the overall model of nine predictors is statistically reliable for sex-related police crime arrest
cases in distinguishing between officers who kept their jobs after being arrested and officers who
lost their job. Wald statistics indicate that all of the independent variables in the model
significantly predict job loss in sex-related police crime arrest cases. The regression model
2
= .544).
Interpretation of odds ratios provides context for prediction of job loss in sex-related
police crime arrest cases. Six of the independent variables in the logistic regression model
predict when an officer is more likely to lose his or her job as a sworn law enforcement officer
110
after being arrested for a sex-related police crime. The single largest predictor of job loss in sex-
related criminal cases is conviction on at least one of the charged offenses. The simple odds of
job loss are 2.8 times greater when the officer is convicted of a sex-related crime. Characteristics
of the sex-related crimes also predict job loss. Sex-related crimes are committed by officers both
on- and off-duty. The simple odds of job loss are 1.4 times greater if the sex-related crime was
committed by an officer in his or her official capacity as a sworn law enforcement officer.
Similarly, the simple odds of job loss are 1.7 times greater if the sex-related crime(s) for which
an officer was arrested involved a driving while female encounter. Officers arrested for sex-
related police crimes are prone to commit other types of police misconduct; the simple odds of
job loss are 1.2 times greater if at some point during the officer’s career he or she was named as
a party defendant in federal civil rights litigation pursuant to 42 U.S.C. §1983. Some of the
predictors in the model show when an officer is less likely to lose his job as a sworn law
enforcement officer subsequent to an arrest for committing a sex-related crime. Older officers
are less likely to lose their jobs; the simple odds of job loss go down by 3.5% for every one year
increase in the officer’s age at time of arrest. Oddly, the simple odds of job loss decrease by
85.5% if the sex-related crime for which the officer was arrested also involves marijuana.
Figure 10 presents the results of predicting job loss and included a total of 1,475 arrest
2
RROC = .572) and selected the variable year of arrest as the splitting criterion. Officers who were
arrested before 2007 (node 1) lost their job in 55.5% of the cases. In contrast, officers who were
arrested after 2007 (node 2) lost their job in 82.7% of the cases. The officers arrested prior to
2007 in node 1 were partitioned by the variable officer was suspended. Officers who had been
previously suspended lost their job in 43.2% of the cases and officers who had not been
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suspended lost their jobs in 73% of the cases. The officers arrested after the year 2007 in node 2
were partitioned by the variable criminal conviction. Officers who were convicted lost their jobs
in 84.9% of the cases and officers who were not convicted lost their job in 71.3% of cases. The
tree also included the following variables in tiers three through five: being named as a 42 U.S.C.
§1983 civil defendant (at some point during an officer’s law enforcement career), urban/rural
continuum, geographic division, state, method of crime detection, citizen complaint as method of
crime detection, the number of part-time sworn personnel employed by the arrested officer’s
employing law enforcement agency, and the number of full-time sworn personnel employed by
the arrested officer’s employing law enforcement agency.
Predicting Child Victims in Sex-related Police Crime Arrest Cases
The next set of regression models predict child victims in sex-related police crime arrest
cases. Bivariate associations are presented in Table 27. Chi-Square calculations are statistically
significant at p < .05 for 54 independent variables and the dependent variable, child victim
(where adult victim = 0 and child victim = 1). Three of the bivariate associations are strong as
indicated by Cramer’s V scores where V > .40. They are crimes committed in the arrested
officer’s official capacity, where χ2 (1, N = 1,377) = 330.080, p < .001, V = .490; duty status at
time of commission of the crime, where χ2 (1, N = 1,377) = 323.355, p < .001, V = .485; and
crimes that are acts of police sexual violence, where χ2 (1, N = 1,377) = 290.300, p < .001, V =
.459. The bivariate associations of adult versus child victim are of moderate strength in 14
instances, including among others, statutory rape, where χ2 (1, N = 1,377) = 179.498, p < .001, V
= .361; the criminal offense of official misconduct, official oppression, or violation of oath,
where χ2 (1, N = 1,377) = 161.527, p < .001, V = .342, and driving while female encounters,
where χ2 (1, N = 1,377) = 142.850, p < .05, V = .322.
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A backward stepwise logistic regression model predicting child victims in sex-related
police crime arrest cases is presented in Table 28. Bivariate correlations computed for each of
the independent variables in the logistic regression model revealed that none of the variables are
highly correlated with each other. Multicollinearity is not a problem as indicated by no tolerance
scores below .449 and no variance inflation factors above 2.229. The Durbin-Watson score of
1.664 indicates that autocorrelation is not a problem. Logistic regression results indicate that the
overall model of 20 predictors is statistically reliable in distinguishing between sex-related police
crime arrest cases with adult victims and sex-related police crime arrest cases with child victims.
The model correctly classified 85.9% of the cases (AUC = .920, 95% CI [.902, .938], RROC
2
=
.844). Wald statistics indicate that all of the independent variables in the logistic regression
model significantly predict child victims in sex-related police crime arrest cases.
Odds ratio interpretations provide context for prediction of child victims in sex-related
police crime arrest cases. Eight of the 20 predictors in the logistic regression model indicate
when the victim of a sex-related police crime arrest case is more likely to be a child than an
adult. Certain types of sex crimes tend to involve child victims. The simple odds of the victim
being a child are 2.9 times greater if the arrested officer is charged with crimes involving
pornography and obscene material. Similarly, the simple odds of the victim being a child are 2.2
times greater if the arrested officer was charged with an unclassified sex crime (that is, a sex-
related criminal offense not specifically included in the coding protocol for this study) such as
promoting the sexual performance of a child, child enticement, corruption of a minor, or sexual
coercion. Crimes involving fondling often involve a child victim; the simple odds of the victim
being a child are 2.4 times greater if the arrested officer is charged with offenses relating to
forcible fondling. The gender of the victim also predicts child victims. The simple odds that the
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victim is a child are more than five times greater if the victim is male. Sex-related police crime
arrest cases are more likely to result in a criminal conviction if the victim is a child; the simple
odds of the victim being a child were 1.2 times greater if the arrested officer is convicted on at
least one offense charged. Finally, the simple of odds of the victim being a child increased
17.2% if the crime for which an officer was arrested involved family violence.
Some of the independent variables in the logistic regression model predict when the
victim is less likely to be a child. The victims of sex-related police crime arrest cases are less
likely to be a child in cases where the arrested officer is employed by a large police department
in a metropolitan (that is, urban or suburban) county or independent city. The simple odds of the
victim being a child decrease by 17.7% for every one unit increase in the size of the arrested
officer’s employing law enforcement agency (on a ten-point scale) based on the number of sworn
personnel. Likewise, the simple odds of a child victim decrease by 17.6% for every one unit
increase in rurality (on a nine-point scale) based on the population of the county where the
arrested officer’s employing agency is located. Duty status at time of commission of the crime
for which an officer was arrested also predicts whether the victim of a sex-related police crime
arrest case is an adult or child. The simple odds of the victim being a child decrease by 83.4% if
the arrested officer was on-duty when the crime for which he was arrested was allegedly
committed. The on-duty sex-related crimes of the arrested officers are more likely to involve an
adult victim if the offenses are also violence-related crimes. For example, the simple odds of the
victim being a child decrease by 62.7% if the crime is an act of police sexual violence. The odds
ratios are similar if the arrested officer is charged with aggravated assault, kidnapping,
abduction, or false imprisonment, or intimidation / harassment in sex-related police crime arrest
cases.
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Figure 11 presents the results of predicting child victims for the sex-related cases and
included a total of 1,377 police crime arrest cases. The tree had an overall classification score of
79.8% (AUC = .835, 95% CI [.814, .857], RROC

2
= .670) and selected the variable official capacity
versus individual capacity as the splitting criterion. Officers operating in their individual
capacity (node 1) had child victims in 72.8% of the cases. In contrast, officers operating in an
official capacity (node 2) had child victims in 23.9% of the cases. The officers who were
operating in an individual capacity (node 1) were partitioned by the variable
kidnapping/abduction. Cases involving a kidnapping or abduction had child victims in 14.3% of
the cases. Cases that did not involve a kidnapping or abduction had child victims in 76% of the
cases. The officers who were operating in an official capacity (node 2) were partitioned by the
variable gender of victim. Cases that involved a female victim were also child victims in 19.4%
of the cases and cases with a male victim were also a child victim in 66.2% of the cases. The
tree also included the following variables in tier three through five: indecent exposure, violence-
related crime versus other crime type, driving while female encounter, state, and urban/rural
continuum.
Predicting Conviction in Police Sexual Violence Arrest Cases
This section presents regression models that predict criminal conviction on any offense
charged in sex-related police crime arrest cases involving police sexual violence. Conviction
data are available in more than two-thirds (n = 431, 69.3%) of the police sexual violence cases.
In the police sexual violence cases with known criminal case dispositions, the majority of the
arrest cases resulted in criminal conviction (n = 345, valid 80%) on at least one offense charged
against the arrested officer. Bivariate associations are presented in Table 29. Chi-Square
associations are statistically significant at p < .05 for 13 independent variables and the dependent
115
variable, conviction on any offense charged. Only three of the bivariate associations are of
moderate strength as indicated by Cramer’s V scores. They are job lost, where χ2 (1, N = 431) =
22.139, p < .001, V = .227; victim’s relationship, where χ2 (6, N = 427) = 20.988, p = .002, V =
.222; and year of arrest, where χ2 (6, N = 431) = 18.185, p = .006, V = .205.
conviction in sex-related police crime arrest cases involving acts of police sexual violence.
Bivariate correlations computed for each of the independent variables in the model revealed that
none of the variables were highly correlated with each other. Multicollinearity is not a problem
as indicated by no tolerance scores below .983 and no variance inflation factors above 1.018.
Autocorrelation is not a problem as indicated by the Durbin-Watson score of 1.562. Logistic
regression results indicate that the overall model of four predictors is statistically reliable in
distinguishing between conviction and nonconviction in police sexual violence arrest cases.
Wald statistics indicate that all of the independent variables in the model significantly predict
conviction in police sexual violence arrest cases. The binary logistic regression model correctly
classified 80.8% of the cases (AUC = .711, 95% CI [.647, .774], RROC
2
= .422).
Interpretation of the odds ratios provide context for prediction of criminal conviction in
police sexual violence arrest cases. Three of the four independent variables in the regression
model predict when conviction is more likely. Here again, sex-related arrest cases involving a
child victim are more likely to result in the arrested officer’s criminal conviction. The simple
odds of conviction are 2.7 times greater if the victim of a sex-related arrest case involving police
sexual violence is a child. The type of sex offense predicts whether an officer arrested for acts of
police sexual violence will be convicted of a crime. The simple odds of conviction are 2.1 times
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greater if the officer was arrested for forcible sodomy. Conversely, the simple odds of
conviction decrease by 54.1% if the officer was arrested for forcible fondling.
Figure 12 presents the results of predicting conviction in police sexual violent arrest cases
and included a total of 431 police crime arrest cases. The CHAID tree had an overall
classification score of 80.0% (AUC = .680, 95% CI [.615, .746], RROC

2
= .360) and selected the
variable job lost as the splitting criterion. Officers who had kept their job (node 1) were
convicted in 56.4% of the cases. In contrast, officers who lost their job (node 2) were convicted
in 83.5% of the cases. The officers who kept their job in node 1 were not partitioned by another
variable. The officers who lost this job in node 2 were partitioned by the variable forcible
fondling. Cases that did not involve forcible fondling resulted in conviction in 88.3% of the
cases and cases that involved forcible fondling resulted in conviction in 77.2% of the cases. The
tree also included the variable adult victim versus child victim in tier 3.
Predicting Job Loss in Police Sexual Violence Arrest Cases
Regression models predicting job loss as the final adverse employment outcome taken
against an officer following his or her arrest for sex-related crimes involving acts of police
sexual violence are presented in this section. Chi-Square associations are presented in Table 31.
Bivariate associations are statistically significant at p < .05 for each of 28 independent variables
and the dependent variable, job loss. Six of the bivariate associations are of moderate strength as
indicated by the Cramer’s V scores for the statistically significant Chi-Square statistics. They are
the State where the arrested officer’s employing law enforcement agency is located, where χ2
(45, N = 622) = 78.683, p = .001, V = .356; years of service at time of arrest, where χ2 (29, N =
495) = 61.583, p < .001, V = .353; year of arrest, where χ2 (6, N = 622) = 60.900, p < .001, V =
.313; internal crime against the organization, where χ2 (1, N = 622) = 60.900, p < .001, V = .290,
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conviction, where χ2 (1, N = 431) = 22.139, p < .001, V = .227; and years of service (categorical
variable), where χ2 (10, N = 622) = 25.372, p = .005, V = .202.
A backward stepwise binary logistic regression model predicting job loss in cases
involving acts of police sexual violence is presented in Table 32. Bivariate correlations for each
of the independent variables in the regression model indicate that none of the variables are highly
correlated with each other. Multicollinearity is not a problem in the model as indicated by no
tolerance scores below .966 and no variance inflation factors above 1.035. The Durbin-Watson
score of 1.562 indicates that autocorrelation is not a problem in the model. Logistic regression
results indicate that the overall model of six predictors is statistically reliable for cases of police
sexual violence in distinguishing between officers who kept their job after being arrested and
officers who lost their job. Wald statistics indicate that all of the independent variables in the
binary logistic regression model significantly predict job loss in sex-related police crime arrest
cases involving acts of police sexual violence. The regression model correctly classified 89.5%
of the cases (AUC = .735, 95% CI [.651, .819], RROC

2
= .470).
Context is provided for prediction of job loss in sex-related arrest cases involving police
sexual violence through interpretation of odds ratios. Four of the independent variable in the
logistic regression model predict when an officer is more likely to lose his or her job as a sworn
officer after being arrested for a sex-related crime involving an act of police sexual violence.
Conviction predicts job loss in police sexual violence arrest cases. The simple odds of job loss
are 4.7 times greater if the officer is convicted of at least one criminal offense charged in the case
involving police sexual violence. Predatory behavior in police sexual violence arrest cases also
predicts job loss. The simple odds of job loss are 2.2 times more likely if the police sexual
violence arrest case also involves a driving while female encounter. Police sexual violence cases
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are crimes against persons and rarely, if ever, constitute an internal crime against the
organization or a crime by the organization against the officer. As such, the simple odds of job
loss increase by 29.7% if the crime involving police sexual violence is neither an internal or
organizational crime. The simple odds of job loss in police sexual violence arrest cases increase
by 89.4% for every one unit categorical increase in the number of part-time sworn officers
employed by the same law enforcement agency as the arrested officer. Two of the independent
variables in the model predict when an officer is more likely to keep his or her job after being
arrested for a crime involving police sexual violence. The longer an officer has been employed
the less likely they are to lose their job. The simple odds of job loss in police sexual violence
arrest cases go down by 23% for every one unit (three year) categorical increase in years of
service at time of arrest. The years of service categorical variable groups years of service in
three-year increments. Also, the simple odds of job loss in police sexual violence arrest cases
decrease by 91.8% if the arrested officer is also charged with a weapons law offense.
Figure 13 presents the results of predicting job loss and included a total of 622 cases.
The tree had an overall classification score of 84.1%, (AUC = .794, 95% CI [.748, .840], RROC
2
=
.496) and selected the variable year of arrest as the splitting criterion. Officers who were
arrested before the year 2007 (node 1) lost their job in 60.2% of the cases. In contrast, officers
who were arrested after the year 2007 (node 2) lost their job in 86.4% of the cases. The officers
arrested prior to the year 2007 in node 1 were partitioned by the variable suspended for a period
of time. Officers who had been previously suspended lost their job in 48.4% of the cases and
officers who had not been suspended lost their jobs in 76.8% of the cases. The officers arrested
after the year 2007 in node 2 were partitioned by the variable criminal conviction versus
nonconviction. Officers who were convicted lost their jobs in 89.4% of the cases and officers
119
who were not convicted lost their job in 72.1% of cases. The tree also included the following
variables in tiers three through four: geographic division and state.
Predicting Conviction in Driving While Female Police Crime Arrest Cases
Driving while female encounters are those incidents where a police officer initiates a
bogus traffic stop to harass, intimidate, and/or sexually assault female motorists. The regression
models in this section predict conviction in sex-related police crime arrest cases involving
driving while female encounters (N = 174). Criminal case final disposition data are available in
a majority of the driving while female cases (n = 126, 72.4%). Of those cases with known
criminal case outcomes, most of the officers were convicted (n = 103, valid 81.7%) on at least
one criminal offense charged against the arrested officer. Bivariate associations are presented in
Table 33. Chi-Square associations are statistically significant at p < .05 for 18 independent
variables and the dependent variable, conviction on any offense charged. The bivariate
association for conviction and the number of full-time sworn officers employed (categorical) is
strong, where χ2 (9, N = 126) = 22.232, p = .008, V = .420. There are eight bivariate associations
of moderate strength: age (categorical), where χ2 (8, N = 126) = 18.588, p = .017, V = .384; year
of officer’s arrest, where χ2 (6, N = 126) = 14.407, p = .025, V = .338; alcohol-related police
crime arrest cases, where χ2 (1, N = 126) = 9.895, p = .002, V = .280; burglary, where χ2 (1, N =
126) = 9.101, p = .003, V = .269; internal versus organizational crime, where χ2 (1, N = 126) =
7.204, p = .007, V = .239; sexual assault with an object, where χ2 (1, N = 126) = 6.081, p = .014,
V = .220; rank by function, where χ2 (1, N = 126) = 5.769, p = .016, V = .214; and, forcible
fondling, where χ2 (1, N = 126) = 5.277, p = .022, V = .205.
Table 34 presents a backward stepwise logistic regression model predicting conviction in
sex-related police crime arrest cases involving driving while female encounters. Bivariate
120
correlations computed for each of the independent variables in the model revealed that none of
the variables were highly correlated with each other. Multicollinearity is not a problem as
indicated by no tolerance scores below .962 and no variance inflation factors above 1.040. The
Durbin-Watson score is 1.700 indicating that autocorrelation is not a problem in the model.
Logistic regression results indicate that the overall model of five predictors is statistically
reliable in distinguishing between conviction and nonconviction in sex-related police crime
arrest cases involving a driving while female encounter. Wald statistics indicate that all of the
independent variables in the binary logistic regression model significantly predict conviction in
driving while female encounter cases. The regression model correctly classified 85.7% of the
cases (AUC = .831, 95% CI [.741, .921], RROC

2
= .662).
Context for prediction of conviction in sex-related police crime arrest cases involving
driving while female encounters is provided by interpretation of odds ratios. Two of the
independent variables in the model predict when the odds of conviction increase. The simple
odds of conviction in driving while female encounter arrest cases is 3.2 times greater if the
arrested police officer has been sued in federal court pursuant to 42 U.S.C. §1983 (civil action
for deprivation of rights) at some point during his or her law enforcement career. Driving while
female encounter arrest cases involve crimes against a person and do not involve crimes against
the organization or crimes by the organization against the officer. This is demonstrated where
the simple odds of conviction increase by 23% if the driving while female encounter arrest case
involves a crime against a person and is neither an internal or organizational crime. The other
three independent variables in the logistic regression model predict when the odds of conviction
decrease in sex-related police crime arrest cases involving driving while female encounters. The
simple odds of conviction in driving while female cases decrease by 87.1% if the officer is
121
charged with the criminal offense of sexual assault with an object. Similarly, the simple odds of
conviction decrease by 73.4% in driving while female cases if the arrested officer is charged with
the criminal offense of forcible fondling. Additionally, the simple odds of conviction in driving
while female encounter arrest cases decrease by 93.3% if the crime is also alcohol-related.
Figure 14 presents the results of predicting conviction and included a total of 126 cases.
The tree had an overall classification score of 81.7% (AUC = .736, 95% CI [.637, .835], RROC
2
=
.472) and selected the variable year of arrest as the splitting criterion. Officers who were
arrested in the year 2005 (node 1) were convicted in 66.7% of the cases. Officers who were
arrested during years 2006-2011 were convicted in 90.1% of the cases. The officers who kept
their job, in node 1, were not partitioned by another variable. The officers who lost their jobs, in
node 2, were partitioned by the variable 42 U.S.C. §1983 civil defendant at some point during an
officer’s law enforcement career. Cases that did not involve an officer who had been named as a
party-defendant pursuant to 42 U.S.C. §1983 in a federal court civil rights lawsuit (at some point
during his or her law enforcement career) resulted in conviction in 81.6% of the cases. In
contrast, cases that involved an officer who had at some point been sued pursuant to 42 U.S.C.
§1983 resulted in conviction in 97.7% of the cases.
Predicting Job Loss in Driving While Female Police Crime Arrest Cases
This section presents the regression models for predicting job loss as the final adverse
employment actions taken against an officer following his arrest for a sex-related police crime
arrest case involving a driving while female encounter. Chi-Square associations of job loss are
presented in Table 35. Four of the bivariate associations of job loss are strong as indicated by
the Cramer’s V score > .400. They are: the State where the officer’s employing law enforcement
agency is located, where χ2 (33, N = 174) = 53.896, p = .012, V = .557; victim age difference,
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where χ2 (28, N = 174) = 51.795, p = .004, V = .546; officer’s years of service, where χ2 (22, N =
144) = 42.173, p = .006, V = .541; and age, where χ2 (33, N = 168) = 47.043, p = .054, V = .529.
There are also five bivariate associations of job loss that are of moderate strength: victim age
(categorical), where χ2 (7, N = 174) = 22.217, p = .002, V = .357; year of arrest, where χ2 (6, N =
174) = 15.536, p = .016, V = .299; rank, where χ2 (4, N = 174) = 14.145, p = .007, V = .285;
internal versus organizational crime, where χ2 (1, N = 174) = 13.514, p < .001, V = .279; and,
indecent exposure, where χ2 (1, N = 174) = 12.402, p < .001, V = .267.
loss in sex-related police crime arrest cases involving driving while female encounters. There
are only two independent variables in the model predicting job loss. Neither of the independent
variables are highly correlated with each other. Multicollinearity is not a problem, but the
tolerance scores and variance inflation factors = 1 for both independent variables in the model.
Autocorrelation is not a problem as indicated by a Durbin-Watson score of 1.587. Logistic
regression results indicate that the overall model of two predictors is statistically reliable in
distinguishing between cases where officers who lost their jobs and officers who kept their jobs
after being arrested for sex-related police crimes involving a driving while female encounter.
Wald statistics indicated that the independent variables in the model significantly predict job
loss. The regression model correctly classified 93.3% of the cases (AUC = .766, 95% CI [.671,
.860], RROC
2
= .532).
Context for prediction of job loss in sex-related police crime arrest cases involving
driving while female encounters is provided by interpretation of odds ratios. The cases involving
driving while female encounters are crimes against persons. The simple odds of job loss go up
by 42.9% in driving while female encounter arrest cases when the underlying nature of the crime
123
is not an internal crime against the organization nor a crime by the organization against the
officer. The difference in age between the age of the arrested officer and the age of the victim
also predicts job loss in these cases. The simple odds of job loss in sex-related police crime
arrest cases involving driving while female encounters go down by 6.9% for every one year
increase in the difference in age between the age of the arrested officer and the age of the victim.
Figure 15 presents the results of predicting job loss and included a total of 174 arrest
2
RROC = .552) and selected the variable internal crime versus organizational crime as the splitting
criterion. Officers who committed an internal crime or crime against the organization (node 1)
lost their job in 73.4% of the cases. In contrast, officers committed a crime against a person
(node 2) lost their job in 93.7% of the cases. The officers who committed either an internal
crime or crime against the organization in node 1 were partitioned by the variable victim age
difference. Cases that involved a victim age difference that was unknown resulted in job loss in
84.6% of the cases. In contrast, cases that involved a known victim age difference (that is, the
difference in years between the age of the arrested officer and the age of the victim) resulted in
job loss in 51.9% of the cases. The officers who committed crimes against a person in node 2
were partitioned by the variable official misconduct. Officers who were not charged with the
crime of official misconduct lost their jobs in 97% of the cases and officers who were charged
with the crime of official misconduct lost their jobs in 86.2% of the cases.
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Part III: Alcohol-related Police Crime Data Set Models
There are 1,405 cases in the data set where sworn officers were arrested for alcohol-
related crimes during the years 2005-2011. The alcohol-related police crime arrest cases involve
1,283 individual officers employed by 814 nonfederal state, local, special, constable, and tribal
law enforcement agencies located in 564 counties and independent cities in all 50 states and the
District of Columbia. Of these, 81 of the arrested officers had more than one case ( X = 1.10,
Mdn = 1.00, Mode = 1, SD = .452), because they had more than one victim (one criminal case
per victim) and/or were arrested for an alcohol-related crime on more than one occasion during
the study period years.
More than one-third of the alcohol-related arrest cases involve an officer who is known to
have lost his or her job (n = 533, 37.9%) subsequent to being arrested. The known final
employment outcomes in the alcohol-related arrest cases include those in which there was no
known adverse employment action taken against the arrested officer (n = 260, 18.5%), cases
resulting in the arrested officer being suspended for a period of time (n = 612, 43.6%), cases in
which the arrested officer was separated through voluntary resignation (n = 263, 18.7%), and
cases in which the arrested officer was separated through involuntary termination (n = 270,
19.2%). Relatively few of the alcohol-related DUI arrest cases are known to have resulted in
criminal conviction (n = 492, 35.0%, valid 75.2%) on at least one criminal offense charged
against the arrested officer.
Included in the alcohol-related police crime arrest cases are 960 driving under the
influence (DUI) arrests during the years 2005-2011. The alcohol-related police DUI arrest cases
involve 924 individual officers employed by 621 nonfederal state, local, special, constable, and
tribal law enforcement agencies located in 464 counties and independent cities in all 50 states
125
and the District of Columbia. Of these, 27 of the arrested officers had more than one alcohol-
related DUI case ( X = 1.04, Mdn = 1.00, Mode = 1, SD = .256), because they had more than
one victim (one criminal case per victim) and/or were arrested for an alcohol-related DUI on
more than one occasion during the study years while employed as a sworn law enforcement
officer.
Less than one-third of the officers arrested for DUI are known to have lost their job (n =
303, 31.6%) after being arrested. The known final employment outcomes in the alcohol-related
DUI arrest cases include those cases in which there was no adverse employment action taken
against the arrested officer (n = 202, 21.0%), cases resulting in the arrested officer being
suspended for a period of time (n = 455, 47.4%), cases in which the arrested officer was
separated through voluntary resignation (n = 167, 17.4%), and those cases in which the arrested
officer was separated through involuntary termination (n = 136, 14.2%). Less than one-third of
the alcohol-related DUI arrest cases resulted in criminal conviction (n = 303, 31.6%, valid
80.2%). The final disposition in the criminal cases is unknown (n = 582, 60.6%), however, in
many of the DUI cases.
Officers Arrested for Alcohol-related Police Crime, Offenses Charged & Employers
Table 37 presents information on the alcohol-related arrest cases in terms of the arrested
officers and their employing nonfederal law enforcement agencies. The majority of the alcohol-
related cases involve male officers (n = 1,314, 93.5%) who were arrested. The youngest officer
arrested for an alcohol-related crime was age 20 at time of arrest, and the oldest arrested officer
was 66 years old ( X age = 36.70, Mdn age = 37.00, Mode age = 38, SD = 8.379 years). Most of
the alcohol-related arrest cases involve sworn officers employed in patrol or street-level
nonsupervisory positions, including officers, deputies, troopers, and detectives (n = 1,138,
126
81.0%). Most of the alcohol-related cases involved crimes committed while the officer was off-
duty (n = 1,235, 87.9%). The majority of the alcohol-related cases involve arrests made by some
other law enforcement agency (n = 1,009, 71.8%) and were not arrests made by the agency
where the arrested officer was employed.
Most of the alcohol-related arrest cases involve officers employed by municipal police
departments (n = 1,028, 73.2%) or sheriff’s offices (n = 214, 15.2%). Officers arrested for
alcohol-related crimes were also employed by primary state police agencies (n = 74, 5.3%),
county police departments (n = 54, 3.8%), special police departments (n = 24, 1.7%), tribal
police departments (n = 7, 0.5%), or other types of nonfederal law enforcement agencies. The
modal category for agency size by number of full-time sworn personnel is 1,000 or more sworn
officers (n = 399, 28.4%). Most of the employing law enforcement agencies were located in a
nonrural metropolitan county or independent city (n = 1,212, 86.3%). The employing law
enforcement agencies are located throughout the United States, including in Southern states (n =
548, 39.0%), Midwestern states (n = 358, 25.5%), Northeastern states (n = 309, 22.0%), and
Western states (n = 190, 13.5%).
Table 38 presents the alcohol-related arrest cases in terms of the most serious offense
charged. There are 38 separate offense categories representing the most serious offense charged
in alcohol-related police crime arrest cases during the years 2005-2011. Most common are DUI
(n = 817, 58.1%), simple assault (n = 149, 10.6%), aggravated assault (n = 103, 7.3%), weapons
law violations (n = 47, 3.3%), forcible fondling (n = 27, 1.9%), disorderly conduct (n = 27,
1.9%), murder and nonnegligent manslaughter (n = 26, 1.9%), forcible rape (n = 26, 1.9%), and
destruction of property / vandalism (n = 23, 1.6%).
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Victims of Alcohol-related Police Crime
Table 39 presents victim characteristics in alcohol-related police crime arrest cases
during years 2005-2011. Many of the arrest cases—including most of the DUI cases not
involving traffic accidents and injuries—do not involve crimes with victims. Where victim
information is relevant and available in alcohol-related arrest cases, the victims are most often
female (n = 263, valid 52.1%) and adults age 18 or older (n = 495, valid 87.8%). Most of the
known victims are either strangers to the arrested officer or nonstranger acquaintances (n = 382,
valid 69.1%). Sometimes alcohol-related police crime arrest cases involve victims who are also
police officers (n = 58, 4.1%, valid 10.4%).
Incident Events in Police DUI Arrest Cases
Table 40 presents the DUI arrest cases in terms of DUI event incidents and
characteristics. Some of the arrest cases involved officers who were DUI while actually on-duty
in a police vehicle (n = 42, 4.4%), in a police vehicle while out of the officer’s jurisdiction (n =
28, 2.9%), or off-duty in a take-home police vehicle (n = 78, 8.1%). Some of the arrest cases
involved officers who refused to perform field sobriety tests (n = 81, 8.4%) when stopped for
suspicion of DUI and/or refused to consent to a blood-alcohol content (BAC) test (n = 195,
20.3%). Many of the police DUI arrest cases involved traffic accidents (n = 492, 51.2%), often
resulting in victim injuries (n = 231, 24.1%) and fatalities (n = 39, 4.1%). Some of the DUI-
related traffic accidents happened when an intoxicated officer flipped his or her car (n = 33,
3.4%) or crashed into another vehicle causing the other vehicle to flip (n = 4, 0.4%). Some
inebriated officers fled the scene (n = 103, 10.7%) after being involved in a DUI-related traffic
accident, and many of those officers were subsequently criminally charged with vehicular hit-
and-run (n = 76, 7.9%). A few of the officers were involved in a DUI-related traffic accident
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while attempting to flee and evade the police (n = 10, 1.0%). Other officers were arrested for
DUI after causing a traffic accident while driving in the wrong direction on a roadway (n = 17,
1.8%) or denied being the driver after being involved in a DUI-related traffic accident (n = 12,
1.3%). Several of the traffic accidents involved an officer who was drunk while driving a
motorcycle (n = 15, 1.6%). A few of the DUI-related traffic accidents occurred while the drunk
officer was also engaged in family violence (n = 10, 1.0%)
Drugs in Police DUI Arrest Cases
Although there is a separate part reporting drug-related arrest cases, police DUI arrest
cases that are drug-related (n = 49, 5.1% of the DUI cases) are reported in this section. The
specific drugs involved in the drug-related DUI arrest cases are presented in Table 41. The most
common drugs include “other” depressants (that is, depressants other than GHB and
benzodiazepines, such as Ambien) (n = 15, 30.6%), oxycodone (n = 8, 16.3%), cocaine (n = 5,
10.2%), hydrocodone (n = 4, 8.2%), “other” narcotics (e.g., fentanyl, Demoral, methadone,
Darvon, etc.) (n = 4, 8.2%), benzodiazepines (n = 4, 8.2%), amphetamine / methamphetamine (n
= 3, 6.1%), and marijuana (n = 3, 6.1%). The drug-related DUI arrest cases include officers
arrested for DUI while on-duty (n = 16, 32.7%), although the majority of the drug-related DUI
cases involved an arresting agency that was not the officer’s employer (n = 34, 69.4%).
Predicting Conviction in Alcohol-related Police Crime Arrest Cases
The regression models in this section predict criminal conviction on one or more offenses
charged against an arrested officer in alcohol-related police crime arrest cases versus
nonconviction on any offense charged. Bivariate Chi-Square associations are statistically
significant at p < .05 for 25 independent variables and the dependent variable, conviction on any
offense charged. See Table 42. There are two bivariate associations of moderate strength as
129
indicated by Cramer’s V scores. They are the state where the arrested officer’s employing law
enforcement agency is located, where χ2 (48, N = 654) = 95.625, p < .001, V = .382; and victim’s
relationship to the arrested officer, where χ2 (7, N = 331) = 23.297, p = .002, V = .265.
conviction in alcohol-related police crime arrest cases. Bivariate correlations computed for each
of the independent variables in the logistic regression model revealed that none of the variables
were highly correlated with each other. Multicollinearity is not a problem as indicated by no
tolerance scores below .849 and no variance inflation factors above 1.177. Autocorrelation is
also not a problem as indicated by a Durbin-Watson score of 2.027. Logistic regression results
indicate that the overall model of six predictors is statistically reliable in distinguishing between
conviction in alcohol-related police crime arrest cases and nonconviction in alcohol-related
police crime arrest cases. The model correctly classified 77.0% of the cases (AUC = .688, 95%
CI [.641, .734], RROC

2
= .376). Wald statistics indicate that all of the independent variables in the
binary logistic regression model significantly predict conviction in alcohol-related police crime
arrest cases.
Context for prediction of conviction in alcohol-related police crime arrest cases is
provided by interpretation of odds ratios. Four of the independent variables in the model predict
when conviction in alcohol-related cases is more likely than not. The simple odds of conviction
in an alcohol-related arrest cases are 2.6 times greater if the arrested officer was arrested for DUI
while driving a personally-owned vehicle (that is, not a police vehicle). The simple odds of
conviction in alcohol-related arrest cases increase by 78.1% if the officer was arrested by a law
enforcement agency that is not his or her employing agency. The simple odds of conviction in
alcohol-related police crime arrest cases are two times more likely if the crime(s) for which the
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officer was arrested is also sex-related. Final adverse employment outcomes also predict
conviction in alcohol-related arrest cases. The simple odds of conviction in alcohol-related arrest
cases are 1.5 times greater if the arrested officer ultimately loses his or her job as a sworn law
enforcement officer after being arrested. Two of the independent variables in the model predict
when conviction in alcohol-related police crime arrest cases is less likely to occur. The simple
odds of conviction in an alcohol-related case go down by 93% if the crime(s) for which the
officer was arrested involved a driving while female encounter. The simple odds of conviction
in alcohol-related arrest cases goes down by 63.8% if the crime(s) for which the officer was
arrested constituted officer-involved domestic violence where the officer used his or her hands or
fist as a weapon.
Figure 16 presents the results of predicting conviction and included a total of 654 police
crime arrest cases. The tree had an overall classification score of 76.8% (AUC = .721, 95% CI
[.673, .768], RROC

2
= .442) and selected the variable victim’s relationship to the offender as the
splitting criterion. Cases that involved victims who were a stranger, unrelated child, ex-spouse,
former boy/girlfriend, or a child/stepchild (node 1) received convictions in 77.5% of the cases.
In contrast, cases that involved victims who were a current spouse, current boy/girlfriend, or
relative of the offender (node 2) received convictions in 54.7% of the cases. Cases in node 1
were further partitioned by the variable job lost. Officers who had not lost their job were
convicted in 71.3% of the cases and officers who had lost their job were convicted in 83% of the
cases. Cases in node 2 were not further partitioned. The tree also included the following
variables in tiers three through four: state and geographic division.
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Predicting Job Loss in Alcohol-related Police Crime Arrest Cases
The next set of models predict job loss in alcohol-related police crime arrest cases. Chi-
Square bivariate associations presented in Table 44 are statistically significant at p < .05 for 53
independent variables and the dependent variable, job loss. The strength of the statistically
significant bivariate association is weak in 50 of the 53 predictors of job loss in alcohol-related
arrest cases. There is a moderate bivariate association in the alcohol-related cases between job
loss and each of the following three independent variables: the difference in years between the
age of the arrested officer and the victim, where χ2 (67, N = 1,405) = 125.538, p < .001, V = .299;
the state where the arrested officer’s employing law enforcement agency is located, where χ2 (50,
N = 1,405) = 106.935, p < .001, V = .276; and, victim age (categorical), where χ2 (9, N = 1,405)
= 59.634, p < .001, V = .206.
loss in the aftermath of an officer’s arrest for an alcohol-related crime. Bivariate correlations
computed for each of the independent variables in the logistic regression model revealed that
none of the variables in the model were highly correlated with each other. None of the tolerance
statistics were below .806 and none of the tolerance statistics were above 1.240. The Durbin-
Watson score of 1.782 indicates that there is no autocorrelation in the model. Logistic regression
results indicate that the multivariate model of seven predictors is statistically reliable in
distinguishing between officers who kept their job as a sworn law enforcement officer after being
arrested for an alcohol-related crime and those officers who lost their job as a sworn officer
subsequent to being arrested through either voluntary resignation or involuntary termination as a
final adverse employment outcome. The logistic regression model correctly classified 71.6% of
the cases (AUC = .661, 95% CI [.620, .702], RROC

2
= .322). Wald statistics indicate that all of the
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independent variables in the binary logistic regression model significantly predict whether an
officer will keep or lose his or her job as a sworn law enforcement officer after being arrested for
an alcohol-related crime.
Context for prediction of job loss in alcohol-related police crime arrest cases is provided
by interpretation of the odds ratios in the binary logistic regression model. Five of the seven
independent variables in the model predict when an officer is more likely to lose his or her job as
a sworn officer after being arrested for an alcohol-related crime. The simple odds of job loss in
alcohol-related arrest cases are 5.5 times greater if at some point during the officer’s law
enforcement career, the officer was named as a party-defendant in a civil rights lawsuit that was
originally filed in a state trial court and removed by the civil defendant to a United States District
Court pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 1441. If the alcohol-related crime for which an officer was
arrested is also violence-related, then the simple odds of job loss are 1.4 times greater than if the
officer’s alcohol-related crime was not also violence-related. Similarly, the simple odds of job
loss are 2.5 times greater if an officer was arrested for an alcohol-related crime that was also sex-
related. Duty status also predicts job loss in alcohol-related police crime arrest cases, as the
simple odds of job loss are 1.9 times greater if the officer was arrested for an alcohol-related
crime that occurred while the officer was on-duty. As with many of the other prediction models,
conviction predicts job loss. The simple odds of job loss in alcohol-related arrest case are 1.6
times greater if an arrested officer is ultimately convicted of at least one of the criminal offenses
for which they were prosecuted in a criminal court. Two of the independent variables in the
logistic regression model predict a decrease in the likelihood of job loss following an arrest for
an alcohol-related police crime. If an officer was reassigned from one position to another
position in the officer’s employing law enforcement agency subsequent to being arrested for an
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alcohol-related crime, then the simple odds of job loss decrease by 84.9%. Also, the method of
crime detection predicts job loss in alcohol-related arrest cases, as the simple odds of job loss
decrease by 65.1%.
Figure 17 presents the results of predicting job loss and included a total of 1,405 cases.
2
=
.420) and selected the variable sex-related crime versus other crime type as the splitting criterion.
Officers who were not involved in a sex-related case (node 1) lost their job in 35.5% of the cases.
In contrast, officers involved in a sex-related case (node 2) lost their job in 75.6% of the cases.
The officers who were convicted in node 1 were partitioned by the variable number of full-time
sworn personnel. Officers in police departments from 1-99 sworn officers lost their job in 44.7%
of the cases and officers in departments from 100-1000+ sworn officers lost their job in 29.8% of
the cases. The cases in node 2 were not partitioned further. The tree also included the following
variables in tiers three through five: organization versus against citizenry, victim age categorical,
years of service categorical, geographic division, case disposition, officer was convicted of a
crime, and state.
Predicting Conviction in Police DUI Arrest Cases
This section includes regression models predicting criminal conviction in an arrest case
on at least one offense charged against an officer arrested for driving under the influence (DUI).
Bivariate Chi-Square associations presented in Table 46 are statistically significant at p < .05 for
22 independent variables and the dependent variable, conviction on any offense charged. The
statistically significant bivariate association is strong for the State where the arrested officer’s
employing law enforcement agency is located, where χ2 (46, N = 378) = 85.253, p < .001, V =
.475. The statistically significant bivariate association is moderate for Geographic Division,
134
where χ2 (8, N = 378) = 25.595, p = .001, V = .260, as well as Geographic Region, where χ2 (3, N
= 378) = 18.376, p < .001, V = .220. The statistically significant bivariate associations are weak
for each of the other 19 independent variables and the dependent variable.
conviction in police DUI arrest cases. Bivariate correlation computations for each of the
independent variables in the model revealed that none of the variables were highly correlated
with each other. None of the tolerance scores were below .936 and none of the variance inflation
factors were above 1.068, indicating that multicollinearity is not a problem in the model.
Autocorrelation is not a problem as indicated by the Durbin-Watson score of 2.155. Binary
logistic regression results indicate that the overall model of six predictors is statistically reliable
in distinguishing between conviction and nonconviction in police DUI arrest cases. The model
2
= .410). Wald
statistics indicate that all of the independent variables in the logistic regression model
significantly predict conviction in police DUI arrest cases.
Interpretation of the odds ratios provide context for prediction of conviction in police
DUI arrest cases. Two of the independent variables in the logistic regression model predict when
conviction is more likely than not in police DUI cases. The simple odds of conviction are 1.3
times greater if the arrested officer was involved in a DUI-related traffic accident resulting in his
or her arrest. Once again, job loss predicts conviction, as the simple odds of conviction are 1.4
times greater if the arrested officer ultimately loses his or her job as a final adverse employment
action in the aftermath of being arrested for DUI. The four other independent variables in the
model predict when criminal conviction in a police DUI arrest case is less likely to occur. If an
officer arrested for DUI was also charged with a liquor law violation, then the simple odds of
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conviction on at least one criminal offense charged decreased by 94.5%. The simple odds of
conviction decreased by 61.3% if the officer was acting in his or her official capacity as a sworn
law enforcement officer when arrested for DUI. In cases where an officer denied driving after
being involved in a DUI-related traffic accident, the simple odds of conviction decreased by
94.3%. In some instances, officers who were arrested for DUI refused to submit to a blood-
alcohol content (BAC) test. The simple odds of conviction decreased by 53.9% when an officer
arrested for DUI refused to submit to a BAC test.
Figure 18 presents the results of predicting conviction and included a total of 390 cases.
The tree had an overall classification score of 80.3% (AUC = .747, 95% CI [.684 .809], RROC
2
=
.494) and selected the variable geographic division as the splitting criterion. Cases from East
North Central, West North Central, and East South Central geographic divisions (node 1) had
convictions in 92.6% of the cases. In contrast, cases from New England, South Atlantic, Pacific,
Middle Atlantic, Mountain, and West South Central divisions (node 2) had convictions in 72.6%
of the cases. The cases in node 1 were not partitioned further. The cases in node 2 were
partitioned by the variable state. Cases in Massachusetts, Florida, South Carolina, North
Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Washington, Texas, New Hampshire, Oregon, New
Mexico, Connecticut, and Montana had convictions in 55.7% of the cases. Cases in California,
New York, New Jersey, Virginia, West Virginia, Colorado, Arkansas, Nevada, Maryland,
Georgia, Maine, Arizona, Idaho, Utah, Oklahoma, Hawaii, Delaware, Vermont, and the District
of Columbia had convictions in 88.1% of the cases. The tree did not have any additional
variables.
136
Predicting Job Loss in Police DUI Arrest Cases
The next set of models predict job loss in police DUI arrest cases. Chi-Square bivariate
associations presented in Table 48 are statistically significant at the p < .05 level for 29
independent variables and the dependent variable, job loss. There is a moderate bivariate
association between job loss and each of the following three independent variables: the State in
which the arrested officer’s employing law enforcement agency is located, where χ2 (50, N =
960) = 107.344, p < .001, V = .334; the difference in years between the age of the arrested officer
and the age of the victim, where χ2 (54, N = 960) = 80.423, p = .011, V = .289; and, Geographic
division, where χ2 (8, N = 960) = 38.273, p < .001, V = .200.
A backward stepwise binary logistic regression model predicting job loss in police DUI
arrest cases is presented in Table 49. Bivariate correlations computed for each of the
independent variables in the logistic regression model revealed that none of the variables in the
model were highly correlated with each other. None of the tolerance scores were below .841 and
none of the tolerance scores were above 1.190, indicating that multicollinearity is not a problem.
The Durbin-Watson score of 1.975 indicates that there is no autocorrelation in the model. Binary
logistic regression results indicate that the multivariate model of eight predictors is statistically
reliable in distinguishing between officers who kept their jobs and officers who lost their jobs
after being arrested for DUI. The logistic regression model only correctly classified 66.9% of
the cases (AUC = .718, 95% CI [.666, .770], RROC

2
= .436). Wald statistics indicate that all of the
independent variables in the logistic regression model significantly predict whether an officer
will keep or lose his or her job after being arrested for DUI.
Interpretation of odds ratios provides context for prediction of job loss as a final adverse
employment action against an officer after being arrested for DUI. Six of the independent
137
variables in the logistic regression model predict when an officer is more likely than not to lose
his or her job after being arrested for DUI. The simple odds of job loss are 7.5 times greater if an
officer was involved in a DUI-related traffic accident after driving in the wrong direction on a
roadway. If an officer was charged with murder or nonnegligent manslaughter in a DUI arrest
case, the simple odds of job loss are 2.5 times greater. The simple odds of job loss are 1.9 times
greater if the officer was acting in his or her official capacity when arrested for DUI. If the DUI
arrest case incident was also violence-related, then the simple odds of job loss are 1.4 times
greater. Here again, conviction predicts job loss, as the simple odds of job loss are 1.3 times
greater if an officer arrested for DUI was ultimately convicted of one or more criminal offenses
arising out of the incident. Experienced police officers are more likely to lose their jobs after
being arrested for DUI than are inexperienced officers, as the simple odds of job loss increased
by 4.3% for every one unit categorical (3 year) increase in years of service at time of arrest. Two
of the independent variables in the logistic regression model predict when job loss is less likely
to occur subsequent to an officer’s arrest for DUI. The simple odds of job loss decreased by
13.8% for every one unit categorical increase in the number of full-time sworn personal
employed by the arrested officer’s employing law enforcement agency. Some law enforcement
agencies require their officers to be available at all times, 24/7. The simple odds of job loss
subsequent to an officer’s off-duty DUI arrest decreased by 89.5% if the officer’s employing
agency requires 24/7 availability.
2
RROC = .358) and selected the variable geographic division as the splitting criterion. Officers
from New England, West North Central, South Atlantic, and Mountain division states (node 1)
138
lost their job in 41.8% of the cases. In contrast, officers from East North Central, Pacific, Middle
Atlantic, West South Central, and East South Central divisions (node 2) lost their job in 25.7% of
the cases. Cases in node 1 were partitioned by the variable state. Officers from Minnesota,
Connecticut, Rhode Island, West Virginia, Montana, Nevada, North Dakota, Maryland,
Wyoming, Maine, Iowa, Kansas, Delaware, Idaho, and Nebraska lost their job in 19.8% of the
cases. Officers from Massachusetts, Florida, South Carolina, Colorado, Georgia, New Mexico,
North Carolina, Virginia, Arizona, South Dakota, New Hampshire, Missouri, District of
Columbia, Utah, and Vermont lost their job in 48.5% of the cases. Cases in node 2 were
partitioned by the variable state. Officers from; Illinois, Texas, Michigan, Tennessee,
Pennsylvania, Oklahoma, and Alabama lost their job in 37.4% of the cases. Officers from Ohio,
Indiana, California, New York, Louisiana, Wisconsin, New Jersey, Kentucky, Washington,
Arkansas, Oregon, Mississippi, Alaska, and Hawaii lost their job in 18.4% of the cases. The tree
also included the following variables in tiers three though five: age (categorical) and state.
139
Part IV: Drug-related Police Crime Data Set Models
The data set includes 739 cases in which sworn law enforcement officers were arrested
for drug-related crimes during the time period January 1, 2005, through December 31, 2011.
The drug-related arrest cases involve 665 individual sworn officers employed by 432 nonfederal
state, local, special, constable, and tribal law enforcement agencies located in 323 counties and
independent cities in 45 states and the District of Columbia (all except Alaska, Maine, Montana,
North Dakota, and Vermont). Of these, 44 (6.6%) of the arrested officers have more than one
case ( X = 1.11, Mdn = 1.00, Mode = 1, SD = .724) because they have more than one victim
(one criminal case per crime victim) and/or were arrested for a drug-related crime on more than
one occasion.
The majority of drug-related arrest cases involved an officer who is known to have
ultimately lost their job (n = 520, 70.4%) as a sworn law enforcement officer as a result of being
arrested. The known final employment outcomes in the drug-related cases include those in
which there was no known adverse employment action (n = 64, 8.7%), where the officer was
suspended (n = 155, 21.0%) for a period of time, where the officer was separated through
voluntary resignation (n = 220, 29.8%), and those cases where the officer was separated through
involuntary termination (n = 300, 40.6%). Approximately two-thirds of the drug-related police
crime arrest cases resulted in a criminal conviction against the arrested officer (n = 485, 65.6%)
on at least one offense.
Officers Arrested for Drug-related Police Crime, Offenses Charged & Employing Agencies
Table 50 presents information on the drug-related arrest cases in terms of the arrested
officers and their employing nonfederal law enforcement agencies. Most of the drug-related
cases involve male officers (n = 701, 94.9%). The modal category for known officer age at time
140
of arrest is 36-39 years of age (n = 136, 18.4%). The youngest officer was age 20 at time of
arrest, and the oldest officer was 76 years old ( X age = 37.18, Mdn age = 36, Mode age = 28,
SD = 8.182 years). The modal category for known years of service at time of arrest is three to
five years (n = 116, 15.7%). Most of the drug-related arrest cases involve sworn officers
employed in patrol or street-level rank including nonsupervisory officers, deputies, troopers, and
detectives (n = 629, 85.1%). Other drug-related cases involve arrested line and field supervisors
(n = 74, 10.0%) (i.e., corporals, sergeants, and lieutenants), as well as police executives and
managers (n = 36, 4.9%) (i.e., captains, majors, deputy chiefs and chief deputies, and chiefs and
sheriffs). Well over half of the drug-related arrest cases involve crimes that were committed
while on-duty (n = 444, 60.1%) working in official capacity as a sworn officer. Many of the
drug-related cases (n = 527, 71.3%) involve an officer who was arrested by a law enforcement
agency other than the arrested officer’s employing nonfederal law enforcement agency.
Most of the drug-related arrest cases involve sworn officers employed by municipal
police departments (n = 527, 71.3%) or sheriff’s offices (n = 139, 18.8%). Officers arrested for
drug-related crimes were also employed by primary state police agencies (n = 23, 3.1%), county
police departments (n = 25, 3.4%), special law enforcement agencies (n = 20, 2.7%), constable
agencies (n = 4, 0.5%), and a tribal police department (n = 1, 0.1%). The modal category for
agency size by number of sworn officers employed is 1,000 or more full-time sworn officers (n =
236, 31.9%) and zero part-time sworn officers (n = 551, 74.6%). Most of the officers arrested in
drug-related criminal cases were employed by a law enforcement agency located in a nonrural
metropolitan county or independent city (n = 611, 82.7%). The employing law enforcement
agencies are located throughout the United States, including in the Southern states (n = 346,
141
46.8%), Northeastern states (n = 154, 20.8%), Midwestern states (n = 145, 19.6%), and Western
states (n = 94, 12.7%).
Table 51 presents the drug-related cases in terms of the most serious offense charged.
There are 37 separate offense categories represented as the most serious offense charged in drug-
related police crime arrest cases during the years 2005-2011. Most common in the drug-related
cases as the most serious offense charged are drug offenses (n = 308, 41.7%), robbery (n = 60,
8.1%), driving under the influence (n = 38, 5.1%), unclassified theft/larceny offenses (n = 33,
4.5%), theft from a building (n = 28, 3.8%), and burglary (n = 26, 3.5%).
Specific Drugs and Classes of Drugs in the Drug-related Police Crime Arrest Cases
Table 52 presents information on the specific drugs as well as classes of drugs in the
drug-related police crime arrest cases from years 2005-2011. In some cases it was not possible
to determine specific drugs, or even classes of drugs, involved in the criminal behavior resulting
in an officer’s arrest for a drug-related crime. All classes of commonly abused drugs are found,
except inhalants, in the drug-related police crime arrest cases, including stimulants (n = 308,
41.7%), narcotics, (n = 197, 26.7%), cannabis (n = 177, 24.0%), depressants (n = 45, 6.1%),
anabolic steroids (n = 44, 5.9%), and hallucinogens (n = 23, 3.1%). Some of the drug-related
arrest cases involve two classes of drugs (n = 105, 14.2%), three classes of drugs (n = 22, 3.0%),
or four classes of drugs (n = 13, 1.8%).
Twenty specific drugs were mentioned in the case article narratives and/or court records
of drug-related arrest cases analyzed in the current study. The most common drugs in these
cases are cocaine (n = 233, 31.5%), marijuana (n = 177, 24.0%), oxycodone (n = 89, 12.0%),
hydrocodone (n = 69, 9.3%), crack (n = 58, 7.8%), amphetamine and methamphetamine (n = 53,
7.2%), heroin (n = 50, 6.8%), unclassified narcotics (n = 29, 3.9%), anabolic steroids not
142
including testosterone (n = 29, 3.9%), unclassified depressants (n = 26, 3.5%), benzodiazepines
(n = 19, 2.6%), and testosterone (n = 17, 2.3%). Some of the drug-related arrest cases involve
four or more specific drugs (n = 22, 3.0%), three specific drugs (n = 35, 4.7%), two specific
drugs (n = 136, 18.4%), or one specific drug (n = 415, 56.2%). In some drug-related cases it was
not possible to determine any specific drug (n = 131, 17.7%).
Victims of Drug-related Police Crime
Victim characteristics in drug-related police crime arrest cases in years 2005-2011 are
presented in Table 53. Victim information was not ascertainable in many of the drug-related
police crime arrest cases. As such, missing data limits the findings as to victims of the drug-
related cases. Over half of the known victims of drug-related police crime are male (n = 57,
52.3%). The modal category for known victim age is 20-24 (n = 8). Most of the known victims
were adults (n = 129, 90.2%) and almost none of the victims of drug-related police crime were
also known to be police officers (n = 4, 2.9%). The relationship of the victim and the arrested
officer could not be determined in most of the drug-related arrest cases (n = 601, 81.3%). Of
known victims, most are strangers or nonstranger acquaintances (n = 112, 81.2%) to the arrested
officer.
Predicting Patterns of Drug-related Corruption in Police Crime Arrest Cases
Table 54 presents patterns of drug-related corruption in police crime arrest cases during
the years 2005-2011. The arrested officers were charged with drug-related crimes that involved
a variety of recognized patterns of drug corruption, including drug trafficking (n = 299, 40.5%),
personal use of drugs (n = 235, 31.8%), crimes that facilitate the drug trade (n = 172, 23.3%),
drug-related shakedowns and thefts (n = 171, 23.1%), drug thefts from police evidence rooms (n
= 60, 8.1%), drug-related falsification (n = 58, 7.8%), forged prescriptions (n = 33, 4.5%),
143
planting evidence (n = 33, 4.5%), and crimes that involve sexually-motivated drug corruption (n
= 25, 3.4%). Drug-related shakedowns included thefts from street-level drug dealers (n = 75),
thefts during warrantless searches (n = 69), thefts during traffic stops of cars and from drug
couriers (n = 58), off-duty robberies (n = 35), illegitimate raids and searches (n = 33), and
shakedowns and thefts during dispatched calls for service (n = 16). Some of the drug-related
police crime arrest cases did not involve any patterns of drug corruption (n = 59, 8.0%). The
largest number of the drug-related cases included one pattern (n = 316, 42.8%) or two patterns (n
= 192, 26.0%) of drug corruption. A smaller percentage of the cases involved three patterns (n =
72, 9.7%), four patterns (n = 56, 7.6%), or five or more patterns (n = 44, 5.9%) of drug
corruption criminal activities.
Some of the drug-related police crime arrest cases also involved other types of police
crime, including those that are also profit-motivated (n = 438, 59.3%), violence-related (n = 132,
17.9%), alcohol-related (n = 38, 5.1%), and/or sex-related (n = 37, 5.0%). Many of the drug-
related police crime arrest cases also involve at least one other type of police crime (n = 513,
69.4%).
CART procedures were utilized to identify the causal pathways between the statistically
significant variables to create classification estimates for six of the most prevalent forms of
misconduct including drug trafficking, the three most prevalent types of theft/shakedown, drug
use, and facilitation of the drug trade. Cocaine was the strongest predictor for three of the six
decision trees where specific drugs were the independent variables. The CART analysis also
identified numerous other drugs that all significantly contributed to classification estimates
beyond the splitting criterion. The following drugs were represented in nodes below the splitting
criterion: hydrocodone, heroin, marijuana, crack, anabolic steroids (other than testosterone),
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phencyclidine and analogs, oxycodone, and cocaine. The CART models presented in Table 55
had varying levels of predictive power AUC of .685 to .792. The models that examined drug
trafficking and facilitation of the drug trade had poor predictive power. In contrast, the models
that examined various forms of theft/shakedown had the highest levels of predictive power. The
tree predicting theft/shakedowns of street level dealers had the highest predictive power (AUC =
.792, 95% CI [.740, .844], RROC

2
= .584). Cocaine was identified as the strongest predictor and,
therefore, was selected as the splitting criterion for the data. The remaining branches of the tree
were based on the responses to the splitting criterion. Marijuana and heroin were statistically
significant, but only in cases where cocaine was present.
A second set of decision tree analyses predicted the various patterns of corruption using
drug classes instead of specific drugs is also presented in Table 55. Stimulants were selected as
the splitting criterion, and were the strongest predictor for facilitation of the drug trade, drug
trafficking, and shakedowns and thefts from car stops and drug couriers. Narcotics were the
strongest predictor for drug use. Cannabis were the strong predictor for shakedowns and thefts
from warrantless searches/seizures and street level dealers. CART trees that utilized drug classes
as predictors had a large range of predicted power. The tree predicting facilitation of the drug
trade had a low AUC score of .654, suggesting that the tree is barely able to predict 50% of the
cases correctly. The trees predicting the specific types of shakedowns each have AUC scores
that exceed 0.75. The strongest tree predicted thefts/shakedowns from street-level dealers based
on cannabis as the strongest predictor and splitting variable (AUC = .755, 95% CI [.697, .814],
2
RROC = .510).
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Predicting Conviction in Drug-related Police Crime Arrest Cases
The regression models in this section predict criminal conviction on one or more offenses
charged in drug-related police crime arrest cases versus nonconviction on any offense.
Conviction data are available on approximately three-fourths of the drug-related cases (n = 562,
76.0%). Of those, most of the officers arrested in a drug-related case were convicted (n = 485,
valid 86.3%) on at least one criminal offense charged in the case. Bivariate Chi-Square
associations are statistically significant at the p < .05 level for 28 independent variables and the
dependent variable, conviction on any offense charged. See Table 56. There are four bivariate
moderate associations as indicated by the Cramer’s V scores for the statistically significant Chi-
Square statistics. They are victim relationship to the arrested officer, where χ2 (6, N = 129) =
15.398, p = .017, V = .345; the state where the arrested officer’s employing agency is located,
where χ2 (43, N = 562) = 65.220, p = .016, V = .341; the number of years difference in age
between the arrested officer’s age at time of arrest and the age of their victim, where χ2 (25, N =
562) = 63.847, p < .001, V = .337; and, the age of the victim (in a categorical age recoded
variable), where χ2 (9, N = 562) = 47.832, p < .001, V = .292.
conviction in drug-related police crime arrest cases. Bivariate correlations computed for each of
the independent variables in the logistic regression model revealed that none of the variables
were highly correlated with each other. Multicollinearity is not a problem as indicated by no
tolerance scores below .928 and no variance inflation factors above 1.077. Autocorrelation is
also not a problem as indicated by a Durbin-Watson score of 1.799. Logistic regression results
indicate that the overall model of five predictors is statistically reliable in distinguishing between
conviction in drug-related police crime arrest cases and nonconviction in drug-related police
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crime arrest cases. The model correctly classified 85.3% of the cases (AUC = .849, 95% CI
[.761, .937], RROC

2
= .698). Wald statistics indicate that all of the independent variables in the
binary logistic regression model significantly predict conviction in drug-related police crime
arrest cases.
Odds ratio interpretations provide context for prediction of conviction on one or more
criminal offenses charged in drug-related police crime arrest cases. The simple odds of
conviction are 3.5 times greater if the officer ultimately loses their job as a sworn law
enforcement officer subsequent to an arrest for a drug-related crime. Conversely, the simple
odds of conviction decrease by 87.3% if the officer was suspended from their job as a sworn law
enforcement officer after being arrested in a drug-related criminal case. If an officer is charged
with obstruction of justice in a drug-related criminal case, the simple odds of conviction decrease
by 81.8%. It is possible in drug-related cases where an officer is charged with obstruction of
justice that criminal courts are skeptical of the officer’s criminality.
The relationship of the victim in a drug-related police crime arrest case also impacts on
whether an arrested officer will be convicted of at least one criminal offense charged in the case.
The simple odds of conviction increase by 60.1% for every one step increase in our categorical
variable of victim relationship. In that eight-category variable, 1 = victim is current spouse of the
arrested officer, and 8 = stranger or nonstranger acquaintance to the arrested officer. Thus, an
officer is more likely to be convicted in a drug-related police crime arrest case the more distant
the relationship is between the arrested officer and their victim in a drug-related crime. The
simple odds of conviction decrease by 9.1% for every one step increase in the categorical age of
the victim in a drug-related police crime arrest case. That is to say, generally, as victim age goes
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up, the likelihood of conviction of one or more criminal offenses charged in a drug-related police
crime case goes down.
2
RROC = .520) and selected the variable officer was suspended as the splitting criterion. Officers
who had been previously suspended (node 1) were convicted in 80.9% of the cases. In contrast,
officers who were not previously suspended (node 2) were convicted in 48.9% of the cases. The
officers who had been previously suspended in node 1 were partitioned by the variable job loss.
Officers who lost their job were convicted in 85.7% of the cases and officers who did not lose
their job were suspended in only in 67.9% of the cases. The officers who had not been
previously suspended in node 2 were partitioned by the variable profit-motivated police crime
versus other crime. Officers who were involved in a profit-motivated case were convicted in
96.4% of the cases and officers who were not involved in a profit-motivated case were convicted
in 86.1% of cases. The tree also included the following variables in tiers two through four:
stimulants, arresting agency, drug/narcotic violation, and drugs: selling, dealing, or trafficking.
Predicting Job Loss in Drug-related Police Crime Arrest Cases
In this section, the models predict job loss in the drug-related police crime arrest cases.
More than two-thirds of drug-related arrest cases are known to have resulted in the arrested
officer losing his or her job (n = 520, 70.4%) as a sworn law enforcement officer subsequent to
being arrested. Chi-Square bivariate associations are statistically significant at the p < .05 level
for 41 independent variables and the dependent variable, job loss. See Table 58. The strength of
the statistically significant bivariate association is, however, weak in 38 of the 41 predictors.
There is a moderate association that is statistically significant between job loss and officer’s age
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at time of arrest, where χ2 (45, N = 739) = 62.818, p = .041, V = .303; year of officer’s arrest
(during the study period of officers who were arrested during the years 2005 through 2011),
where χ2 (6, N = 739) = 56.885, p < .001, V = .277; and, difference in years between the age of
the arrested officer at time of arrest and the age of the victim in a drug-related police crime arrest
case, where χ2 (26, N = 739) = 39.386, p = .045, V = .231.
loss subsequent to an officer’s arrest for a drug-related crime. Bivariate correlations computed
for each of the independent variables in the logistic regression model revealed that none of the
variables in the model were highly correlated with each other. None of the tolerance statistics
are below .892, and none of the variance inflation factors are higher than 1.121, indicating that
multicollinearity is not a problem. The Durbin-Watson score of 1.791 indicates that there is no
autocorrelation in the model. Logistic regression results indicate that the multivariate model of
nine predictors is statistically reliable in distinguishing between officers who kept their job after
being arrested for a drug-related crime and officers who lost their jobs after being arrested
through either involuntary termination or voluntary resignation. The model correctly classified

2
all of the independent variables in the model significantly predict whether an officer lost or kept
their job as a sworn law enforcement officer after being arrested for a drug-related police crime.
Predictors of the final adverse employment outcomes in the drug-related police crime
arrest cases are aided by interpretation of the odds ratios. Five of the independent variables
predict when an officer is more likely to lose his or her job as a sworn law enforcement officer
after being arrested for a drug-related crime. The simple odds of job loss are 5.6 times greater if
the arrested officer has been sued (at some point during their law enforcement career) in a state
149
court for civil rights violations and the civil action was removed from state court to a federal
district court pursuant to 28 U.S.C. §1441 because the lawsuit raised a federal question. These
are cases where a cause of action arose under 42 U.S.C. §1983 (civil action for deprivation of
civil rights under the color of law) that were originally filed in a state trial court and later
removed by defense counsel to a United States District Court because the claim involves a
federal statute or constitutional tort. Almost one-third of the drug-related police crime arrest
cases (n = 232, 31.4%) involve an officer who has been sued in federal court pursuant to 42
U.S.C. §1983 at some point during their police career. The class of drug involved in the arrest
case also impacts on the final adverse employment outcome (job loss). The simple odds of job
loss are almost 3.3 times greater if the drug-related police crime arrest case involved a narcotic.
Also, the level of rurality in the location of the arrested officer’s employer predicts job loss. The
simple odds of job loss after being arrested for a drug-related police crime are approximately 1.6
times greater if the employing law enforcement agency is located in a nonmetropolitan (that is,
rural) county or independent city.
Four of the independent variables in the logistic regression model predict when an officer
is more likely to keep his or her job subsequent to being arrested for a drug-related police crime.
The simple odds of job loss decrease by 73.8% if the drug-related crime is also alcohol-related.
Certain crimes predict a decrease in likelihood of job loss following an officer’s arrest for a drug-
related crime. The simple odds of job loss decrease by 82.1% if the officer is charged with
counterfeiting and/or forgery offenses. Similarly, the simple odds of job loss decrease by 69.4%
if the drug-related police crime case includes an allegation of falsification by the arrested officer.
If the arrested officer’s chief is under scrutiny as a result of the drug-related police crime case,
then the simple odds of job loss for the arrested officer go down by 62.8%.
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2
RROC = .466) and selected the variable year of arrest as the splitting criterion. Officers who were
arrested before the year 2007 (node 1) lost their job in 54.0% of the cases. In contrast, officers
who were arrested after 2007 (node 2) lost their job in 78.7% of the cases. The officers arrested
prior to the year 2007 in node 1 were not partitioned by any variable. The officers arrested after
the year 2007 in node 2 were partitioned by the variable criminal conviction. Officers who were
convicted lost their jobs in 81.1% of the cases and officers who were not convicted lost their job
in 57.4% of cases. The tree also included the following variables in tiers three through six:
profit-motivated crime versus other crime type, officer was suspended for a period of time, year
of arrest, and age.
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Part V: Violence-related Police Crime Data Set Models
There are 3,328 cases in the data set where nonfederal sworn law enforcement officers
were arrested for violence-related crimes during the years 2005-2011. The violence-related
arrest cases involve 2,586 individual officers employed by 1,445 nonfederal state, local, special,
constable, tribal, and regional law enforcement agencies located in 805 counties and independent
cities in 49 states (all except Wyoming) and the District of Columbia. Of those, 407 of the
arrested officers had more than one case ( X = 1.29, Mdn = 1.00, Mode = 1, SD = 1.044),
because they had more than one victim (one criminal case per victim) and/or were arrested for a
violence-related crime on more than one occasion during the study period years of 2005-2011.
More than half of the violence-related arrest cases involve an officer who is known to
have lost his or her job (n = 1,748, 52.5%) subsequent to being arrested. The known final
employment outcomes in the violence-related arrest cases include those in which there was no
known adverse employment action taken against the arrested officer (n = 419, 12.6%), cases
resulting in the arrested officer being suspended from his or her job for a period of time (n =
1,161, 34.9%), cases in which the arrested officer was separated through voluntary resignation (n
= 767, 23.0%), and cases in which the arrested officer was separated through involuntary
termination of employment (n = 981, 29.5%). Less than half of the violence-related arrest cases
are known to have resulted in criminal conviction of the arrested officer (n = 1,316, 39.5%) on at
least one criminal offense, although the conviction rate is higher (66.3%) in the cases where the
criminal case disposition is known.
Included in the violence-related police crime cases are a subset of 961 officer-involved
domestic violence arrest cases. The officer-involved domestic violence cases involve 849
individual officers employed by 604 nonfederal state, local, special, tribal, and regional law
152
enforcement agencies located in 436 counties and independent cities in 49 states (all except
Wyoming) and the District of Columbia. Of these, 89 of the arrested officer had more than one
officer-involved domestic violence arrest case ( X = 1.13, Mdn = 1.00, Mode = 1, SD = .449),
because they had more than one victim and/or were arrested for a crime involving officer-
involved domestic violence (while still employed as a sworn law enforcement officer) on more
than one occasion during the years 2005-2011.
Just over one-third of the officer-involved domestic violence arrest cases involve an
officer known to have lost his or her job (n = 360, 37.5%) as a sworn law enforcement officer
after being arrested. The known final employment outcomes in the officer-involved domestic
violence arrest cases include those in which there was no known adverse employment action
taken against the arrested officer (n = 148, 15.4%), cases that resulted in the arrested officer
being suspended from his or her job for a period of time (n = 453, 47.1%), cases in which the
arrested officer was separated from his or her employing law enforcement agency through
voluntary resignation (n = 150, 15.6%), and cases in which the arrested officer was separated
through involuntary termination of employment (n = 210, 21.9%).
Officers Arrested for Violence-related Police Crime, Offenses Charged & Employers
Table 60 presents information on the violence-related police crime arrest cases in terms
of the arrested officers and their employing law enforcement agencies. Most of the violence-
related cases involve male officers (n = 3,194, 96.0%) who were arrested. The youngest officer
arrested for a violence-related crime was age 19 at time of arrest, and the oldest officer was 74
years old ( X age = 36.00, Mdn age = 36.00, Mode age = 35, SD = 8.232 years). Most of the
violence-related arrest cases involve sworn officers employed in patrol or street-level
nonsupervisory positions (n = 2,797, 84.0%). Less than two-thirds of the violence-related police
153
crime arrest cases involved crimes committed while the officer was off-duty (n = 2,155, 64.8%).
Similarly, less than two-thirds of the violence-related arrest cases involve arrests effectuated by
some other law enforcement agency (n = 2,100, 63.1%) and were not arrested by representatives
of the agency where the arrested officer was employed.
Most of the violence-related police crime arrest cases involved officers employed by
municipal police departments (n = 2,504, 75.2%) or sheriff’s offices (n = 523, 15.7%). Officers
arrested for violence-related crimes were also employed by primary state police agencies (n =
118, 3.5%), county police departments (n = 90, 2.7%), special police departments (n = 77, 2.3%),
constable agencies (n = 6, 0.2%), tribal police departments (n = 9, 0.3%), or a regional police
department (n = 1, 0.0%). The modal category for agency size by number of full-time sworn
personnel is 1,000 or more sworn officers (n = 987, 29.7). Most of the employing law
enforcement agencies were located in a nonrural metropolitan county or independent city (n =
2,880, 86.5%). The agencies employing officers arrested for violence-related police crime are
located throughout the United States, including in Southern states (n = 1,386, 41.6%),
Northeastern states (n = 715, 21.5%), Midwestern states (n = 664, 20.0%), and Western states (n
= 563, 16.9%).
Table 61 presents the violence-related police crime arrest cases in terms of the most
serious offense charged. There are 40 separate criminal offense categories representing the most
serious offense charged in each of the violence-related cases during the years 2005-2011. Most
common offenses are simple assault (n = 870, 26.4%), aggravated assault (n = 570, 17.1%),
forcible fondling (n = 352, 10.6%), forcible rape (n = 322, 9.7%), intimidation and harassment (n
= 200, 6.0%), murder and nonnegligent manslaughter (n = 104, 3.1%), unclassified offenses (n =
154
99, 3.0%), forcible sodomy (n = 94, 2.8%), robbery (n = 92, 2.8%), and criminal deprivation of
civil rights (n = 61, 1.8%).
Victims of Violence-related Police Crime
Table 62 presents victim characteristics in violence-related police crime arrest cases
during the years 2005-2011. More than half of the cases involve a crime victim who is female (n
= 1,841, 55.3%, known 62.1%). Most of the victims are adults (n = 2,416, 72.6%, known
78.1%) and are not law enforcement officers (n = 2,912, 87.5%, known 93.8%). Slightly more
than half of the victims are strangers or nonstranger acquaintances (n = 1,668, 50.1%, valid
54.3%) to the officer who was arrested. Some of the victims of violence-related police crime
arrest cases were family members of the arrested officer, including current spouse (n = 336,
10.1%), former spouse (n = 59, 1.8%), child or stepchild (n = 159, 4.8%), or some other relative
(n = 84, 2.5%). Other victims include a child unrelated to the arrested officer (n = 451, 13.6%),
current girlfriend or boyfriend (n = 195, 5.9%) and former girlfriend or boyfriend (n = 118,
3.5%).
Predicting Conviction in Violence-related Police Crime Arrest Cases
In this section the regression models predict conviction in violence-related police crime
arrest cases. Bivariate Chi-Square associations presented in Table 63 are statistically significant
at p < .05 for 75 independent variables and the dependent variable, conviction on any offense
charged. Five of the bivariate associations are of moderate strength as indicated by the Cramer’s
V score, including job loss, where χ2 (1, N = 1,984) = 254.985, p < .001, V = .358; victim age,
where χ2 (73, N = 962) = 96.014, p = .037, V = .316; the State in which the arrested officer’s
employing law enforcement agency is located, where χ2 (49, N = 1,984) = 98.550, p < .001, V =
155
.223; sex-related, where χ2 (1, N = 1,984) = 85.756, p < .001, V = .208; and, the relationship of
the victim to the arrested officer, where χ2 (7, N = 1,855) = 77.089, p < .001, V = .204.
conviction in violence-related police crime arrest cases. Computation of bivariate correlations
for each of the independent variables in the model revealed that none of the variables were
scores below .779 and no variance inflation factors above 1.285. The Durbin-Watson score of
1.748 indicates that autocorrelation is not a problem. Logistic regression results indicate that the
overall model of ten predictors is statistically reliable in distinguishing between conviction and
nonconviction in violence-related police crime arrest cases. The binary logistic regression model
2
= .482). Wald
statistics indicate that all of the independent variables in the model significantly predict criminal
conviction in violence-related police crime arrest cases.
Interpretation of the odds ratios in the logistic regression model provide context for
prediction of conviction in violence-related police crime arrest cases. Nine of the independent
variables in the regression model predict when conviction is more likely to occur when an officer
was charged with one or more violence-related criminal offenses. The serious nature of the
crimes for which officers were arrested impacts on criminal conviction. The simple odds of
conviction are more than 11 times greater if the arrested officer was charged with either burglary
or driving under the influence while driving a personally-owned vehicle. Similarly, the simple
odds of conviction are eight times greater if the officer was arrested for pornography or obscene
material. The simple odds of conviction in violence-related police crime arrest cases are 2.9
times greater if the officer was arrested for criminal deprivation of civil rights, and 1.7 times
156
greater if the arrested officer was charged with forcible sodomy. If the violence-related crime for
which an officer was arrested is also sex-related, then the simple odds of conviction are 87%
more likely than if the crime was not sex-related. Also, the level of an officer’s experience as a
sworn law enforcement officer predicts conviction because it is a factor considered by the courts
in criminal case adjudication. The simple odds of conviction in violence-related cases go up by
4.9% for every one unit categorical (three year) increase in years of service as a sworn officer at
time of the officer’s arrest. The simple odds of conviction in violence-related police crime arrest
cases are 6.3 times greater if the underlying incident was officer-involved domestic violence
resulting in fatal injuries to the victim. As with most other prediction models in this study, job
loss predicts criminal conviction, as the simple odds of conviction in violence-related police
crime arrest cases is 4.5 times greater if the officer ultimately lost his or her job as a sworn law
enforcement officer after being arrested. There is one independent variable in the logistic
regression model that predicts when the odds of criminal conviction decrease; the simple odds of
conviction in violence-related cases decrease by 8.3% for every one categorical unit increase in
the number of full-time sworn personnel employed by the arrested officer’s employing law
enforcement agency. The odds of conviction in violence-related police crime arrest cases go
down as the size of the arrested officer’s employing agency goes up.
Figure 22 presents the results of predicting conviction and included a total of 654 police
officers. The tree had an overall classification score of 76.8% (AUC = .721, 95% CI [.673,
.768], RROC
2
= .442) and selected the variable victim’s relationship to the offender as the splitting
criterion. Cases that involved victims who were a stranger or nonstranger acquaintance,
unrelated child, ex-spouse, former boyfriend or girlfriend, or a child/stepchild (node 1) to the
offender resulted in a conviction in 77.5% of the cases. In contrast, cases that involved victims
157
who were a current spouse, current boyfriend or girlfriend, or some other relative of the offender
(node 2) resulted in a conviction in 54.7% of the cases. Cases in node 1 were further partitioned
by the variable job loss. Officers who lost their job were convicted in 83% of the cases and
officers who did not lose their job were convicted in only in 71.3% of the cases. Cases in node 2
were not partitioned further. The tree also included the following variables in tiers two through
four: geographic region and state.
Predicting Job Loss in Violence-related Police Crime Arrest Cases
The next set of regression models predict job loss in violence-related police crime arrest
cases. Chi-Square bivariate associations presented in Table 65 are statistically significant at p <
.05 for 90 independent variables and the dependent variable, job loss. The strength of the
statistically significant bivariate associations is moderate for each of 8 independent variables and
job loss: conviction, where χ2 (1, N = 1,984) = 254.985, p < .001, V = .358; sex-related, where χ2
(1, N = 3,328) = 284.771, p < .001, V = .293; victim age, where χ2 (76, N = 1,463) = 100.641, p =
.031, V = .224; victim’s relationship to the arrested officer, where χ2 (7, N = 3,070) = 153.358, p
< .001, V = 224; police sexual violence, where χ2 (1, N = 3.328) = 151.504, p < .001, V = .213;
Year of arrest, where χ2 (49, N = 3,328) = 151.504, p < .001, V = .210; the difference in years
from the age of the arrested officer to the age of the victim, where χ2 (99, N = 3,328) = 140.586,
p = .004, V = 206; and, forcible fondling, where χ2 (1, N = 3,328) = 137.226, p < .001, V = .203.
loss as a final adverse employment action against an officer after being arrested for a violence-
related crime. Bivariate correlations for each of the independent variables in the model indicate
that none of the variables are highly correlated with each other. Multicollinearity is not a
problem as indicated by no tolerance scores below .572 and no variance inflation factors above
158
1.747. Autocorrelation is not a problem as indicated by a Durbin-Watson score of 1.715.
Logistic regression results indicate that the overall model of eleven predictors is statistically
reliable in distinguishing between officers who kept their job after being arrested and officers
who lost their job after being arrested in a violence-related arrest case. Wald statistics indicate
that all of the independent variables in the model significantly predict job loss in violence-related
cases. The binary logistic regression model correctly classified 79.5% of the cases (AUC = .768,
95% CI [.744, .791], RROC

2
= .536).
Context for prediction of job loss in violence-related police crime arrest cases is provided
through interpretation of the odds ratios. Five of the independent variables in the logistic
regression model predict when an officer is more likely to lose his or her job as a sworn law
enforcement officer after being arrested for a violence-related criminal offense. The year of the
arrest (within the time period years, 2005-2011) predicts job loss, but this is likely an artifact of
the data and potentially resulting from one of several threats to internal validity. The simple
odds of job loss are 2.8 times greater if the violence-related crime for which the officer was
arrested involved police sexual violence. The relationship of the arrested officer to his or her
victim in violence-related police crime arrest cases predicts job loss, as the simple odds of job
loss increase by 24.4% for every one unit categorical increase on the eight-point scale of victim
relationship (but it is a nominal level variable, so the practical interpretation is imprecise). On
that variable (V85 on the coding instrument) the categories are 1 = victim is current spouse, 2 =
victim is former spouse, 3 = victim is current girlfriend or boyfriend, 4 = victim is former
girlfriend or boyfriend, 5 = victim is child or stepchild, 6 = victim is other relative, 7 = victim is
an unrelated child, and 8 = victim is a stranger or nonstranger acquaintance. As for most of the
other prediction models in this study, conviction predicts job loss and job loss predicts
159
conviction. Here, the simple odds of job loss are 6 times greater in violence-related cases if the
arrested officer is ultimately convicted in criminal court of at least one of the offenses charged
against the officer. Some of the officers in the current study who were arrested were also named
as a party-defendant in one or more federal court civil actions alleging civil rights violations at
some point during an officer’s career as a sworn law enforcement officer. In this model, the
simple odds of job loss in violence-related arrest cases are 2.4 times greater if the arrested officer
was sued (at some point during the officer’s law enforcement career) in a state court civil action
that was removed to a United States District Court pursuant to 28 U.S.C. §1441.
Six of the independent variables in the logistic regression model predict when job loss is
less likely to occur in violence-related police crime arrest cases. As age goes up, the likelihood
of job loss goes down: the simple odds of job loss go down by 10% for every one categorical
unit (3 year) increase in the age of the officer at time of his or her arrest for a violence-related
crime. The officer’s status at time of committing the crime for which he or she was arrested also
predicts job loss. The simple odds of job loss decrease by 48.9% if the officer was acting in his
or her official capacity as a sworn law enforcement officer when he or she committed the
violence-related crime for which the officer was arrested. The employing agency’s response also
predicts, in terms of adverse employment actions short of job loss after an officer’s arrest, when
job loss is unlikely. The simple odds of job loss decrease by 70.6% if an officer was reassigned
to another position within the agency after being arrested for a violence-related crime. Similarly,
the simple odds of job loss decrease by 76.8% if an officer was suspended from his or her job for
a period of time after being arrested for a violence-related crime. Interestingly, the simple odds
of job loss go down by 94.2% if the violence-related arrest case also involved the drug cannabis.
The sex of the victim in a violence-related police crime arrest case also predicts job loss, as the
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simple odds of job loss in a violence-related case goes down by 43.6% if the victim is male (and
not a female). Conversely stated, job loss subsequent to an arrest for a violence-related police
crime is more likely if the crime victim is a woman or girl than a man or boy.
Figure 23 presents the results of predicting job loss and included a total of 3,328 cases.
2
=
.512) and selected the variable criminal conviction as the splitting criterion. Officers who were
convicted (node 1) lost their job in 55.6% of the cases. In contrast, officers who were not
convicted (node 2) lost their job in 41.7% of the cases. The officers who were convicted in node
1 were partitioned by the variable sex-related police crime versus other crime type. Officers
arrested in a sex-related case lost their job in 75.1% of the cases and officers arrested for crimes
that were not sex-related lost their job in 45.4% of the cases. The officers who were not
convicted in node 2 were partitioned by the variable sex-related versus other crime type. Here,
officers arrested for a sex-related case lost their job in 68.1% of the cases and officers arrested
for crimes that were not sex-related lost their job in 34.1% of the cases. The tree also included
the following variables in tiers three through five: year, officer was suspended for a brief period
of time, 42 U.S.C. §1983 civil defendant, duty status, simple assault, victim age categorical, age
(of the officer), and years of service categorical.
Predicting Conviction in Officer-involved Domestic Violence Arrest Cases
The regression models in this section predict conviction in officer-involved domestic
violence arrest cases. Bivariate Chi-Square associations presented in Table 67 are statistically
significant at p < .05 for 26 independent variables and the dependent variable, conviction on any
offense charged. There was a strong bivariate association between conviction and the State in
which the arrested officer’s employing law enforcement agency is located, where χ2 (46, N =
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497) = 80.273, p = .001, V = .402. There was a moderate bivariate association between
conviction and each of the following independent variables: job loss, where χ2 (1, N = 497) =
62.928, p < .001, V = .356; sex-related, where χ2 (1, N = 497) = 34.222, p < .001, V = .356;
simple assault, where χ2 (1, N = 497) = 29.509, p < .001, V = .244; victim age (categorical),
where χ2 (9, N = 497) = 28.296, p = .001, V = .239; victim’s relationship to the arrested officer,
where χ2 (7, N = 480) = 27.127, p < .001, V = .238; geographic division, where χ2 (8, N = 497) =
24.938, p = .002, V = .224; and, forcible fondling, where χ2 (1, N = 497) = 24.159, p < .001, V =
.220.
conviction in officer-involved domestic violence arrest cases. Bivariate correlations computed
for each of the independent variables in the model revealed that none of the variables were
scores below .775 and no variance inflation factors above 1.290. Autocorrelation is not a
problem as indicated by a Durbin-Watson score of 1.956. Logistic regression results indicate
that the overall model of ten predictors is statistically reliable in distinguishing between criminal
conviction and nonconviction in officer-involved domestic violence arrest cases. Wald statistics
indicate that all of the independent variables in the model significantly predict conviction in
officer-involved domestic violence arrest cases. The logistic regression model correctly
classified 76.9% of the cases (AUC = .820, 95% CI [.782, .858], RROC
2
= .640).
Interpretation of the odds ratios provides context for prediction of conviction on at least
one criminal offense charged against an officer in officer-involved domestic violence arrest
cases. Eight of the independent variables in the model predict when an officer is more likely to
be convicted versus nonconviction. The outcomes in officer-involved domestic violence arrest
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cases demonstrate that the criminal courts are not willing to tolerate certain things from officers
who are arrested. The simple odds of conviction in an officer-involved domestic violence arrest
case are 18.1 times greater if the officer was charged with the offense of obstruction of justice.
Similarly, the simple odds of conviction are 7.8 times greater in officer-involved domestic
violence arrest cases if the officer was charged with vandalism (e.g., destruction of property,
criminal mischief). The simple odds of conviction are 3.6 times greater in cases involving
officer-involved domestic violence if the incident is also sex-related. The victim’s relationship
to the arrested officer in officer-involved domestic violence arrest cases also predicts conviction.
The simple odds of conviction increase by 14.2% for every one unit categorical increase on the
eight-point scale of victim relationship. The interpretation of victim relationship can be better
explained in the regression tree analysis directly below.
There are several variables specific to cases involving officer-involved domestic violence
that predict the odds of criminal conviction. First, the simple odds of conviction are 1.2 times
greater if the officer uses or threatens to use a personally-owned gun. Second, the simple odds of
conviction are 3.7 times greater if the arrested officer violated a domestic order of protection.
Third, the simple odds of conviction are 6.7 times greater if the victim of the officer-involved
domestic violence is fatally injured as a result of the crime for which the officer was arrested.
Conversely, the simple odds of conviction decrease by 44.4% if the victim of an officer-involved
domestic violence arrest case is injured (nonfatal injuries). Once again, in this model job loss
predicts conviction. The simple odds of conviction are three times greater if the arrested officer
ultimately loses his or her job in the aftermath of being arrested in a case of officer-involved
domestic violence. Lastly, the location geographically predicts the criminal case disposition in
officer-involved domestic violence arrest cases. Logistic regression provides no meaningful
163
interpretation of the odds ratio for geographic region within the United States, and the regression
tree analysis in the next paragraph provides context for interpretation of geographic location.
2
RROC = .562) and selected the variable job lost as the splitting criterion. Officers who had not lost
their job (node 1) were convicted in 36.2% of the cases. In contrast, officers who lost their job
(node 2) were convicted in 71.5% of the cases. Cases in node 1 were further partitioned by the
variable year of arrest. Officers who were arrested during years 2005-2006 were convicted in
63.5% of the cases and officers who were arrested in years 2007-2011 were convicted in 26% of
the cases. Cases in node 2 were further separated by the variable geographic division. Cases
from the East North Central, West North Central, and Middle Atlantic divisions of the United
States had convictions in 85% of the cases. In contrast, cases from the Pacific, East South
Central, South Atlantic, West South Central, New England, and Mountain divisions of the
country had convictions in 62.5% of the cases. The tree also included the following variables in
tier three: state and victim’s relationship to the offender.
Predicting Job Loss in Officer-involved Domestic Violence Arrest Cases
The set of regression models in this section predict job loss in officer-involved domestic
violence arrest cases. Chi-Square bivariate associations presented in Table 69 are statistically
significant at p < .05 for 40 independent variables and the dependent variable, job loss. The
strength of the statistically significant bivariate associations is moderate for each of six
independent variables and job loss: criminal conviction, where χ2 (1, N = 497) = 62.928, p <
.001, V = .356; the difference in years between the age of the arrested officer and the age of the
victim, where χ2 (65, N = 961) = 85.555, p = .045, V = .298; the State in which the arrested
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officer’s employing law enforcement agency was located, where χ2 (49, N = 961) = 81.166, p =
.003, V = .291; sex-related, where χ2 (1, N = 961) = 51.384, p < .001, V = .231; year of arrest,
where χ2 (6, N = 961) = 41.162, p < .001, V = .207; and, forcible fondling, where χ2 (1, N = 961)
= 39.122, p < .001, V = .202.
loss as a final adverse employment action against an officer after being arrested for an offense
relating to officer-involved domestic violence. Bivariate correlations for each of the independent
variables in the model indicate that none of the variables are highly correlated with each other.
Multicollinearity is not a problem as indicated by no tolerance scores below .883 and no variance
inflation factors above 1.132. Autocorrelation is not a problem as indicated by a Durbin-Watson
score of 1.941. Logistic regression results indicate that the overall model of nine predictors is
statistically reliable in distinguishing between police crime arrest cases where officers kept their
job and cases where officers lost their job after being arrested for an incident of officer-involved
domestic violence. Wald statistics indicate that all of the independent variables in the model
significantly predict job loss in officer-involved domestic violence arrest cases. The logistic
regression model correctly classified 72.2% of the cases (AUC = .800, 95% CI [.762, .839], RROC
2
= .600).
Interpretation of odds ratios in officer-involved domestic violence arrest cases provides
context for prediction of job loss. Duty status predicts job loss, as the simple of job loss are 5.3
times greater if the officer was on-duty when he or she was alleged to have committed officer-
involved domestic violence that resulted in the officer’s arrest. The simple odds of job loss in
officer-involved domestic violence arrest cases are 1.6 times greater if the arrested officer used
other body parts (not hands or fist) as a weapon against the crime victim. The simple odds of job
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loss go down by 50.9% in officer-involved domestic violence arrest cases if the officer was
charged with simple (misdemeanor) assault. The simple odds of job loss are 4.4 times greater if
the officer arrested in an officer-involved domestic violence case was convicted of at least one
criminal offense. The simple odds of job loss, however, decreased by 49% if an officer arrested
for a crime stemming from officer-involved domestic violence was suspended from his or her job
as a sworn officer for a period of time after being arrested. Officers arrested for crimes relating
to officer-involved domestic violence are more likely to lose their job as a sworn law
enforcement officer if their employing law enforcement agency is located in a rural area. The
simple odds of job loss increase by 52.1% for every one unit increase in rurality of the county (or
independent city) where the officer’s employing agency is located. Here again we also see a
relationship between job loss in a police crime arrest case and instances where officers have been
sued in federal court at some point during their career for violating someone’s civil rights. The
simple odds of job loss in police crime arrest cases stemming from officer-involved domestic
violence are 2.1 times greater if at some point during the arrested officer’s career, that officer
was sued in a state court for violating someone’s civil rights and the civil case was removed by a
civil defendant to a United States District Court pursuant to the provisions of 28 U.S.C. §1441.
2
RROC = .478) and selected the variable case disposition: officer was convicted of a crime as the
splitting criterion. Officers who were convicted of at least one criminal offense charged (node 1)
lost their job in 51.8% of the cases. In contrast, officers who were not convicted of any offense
charged (node 2) lost their job in 25% of the cases. The officers who were convicted in node 1
were further partitioned by the variable year of arrest. Officers arrested during the years 2005-
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2007 lost their job in 37.8% of the cases and officers arrested during years 2008-2011 lost their
job in 61.4% of the cases. The officers who were not convicted in node 2 were partitioned by the
variable full-time sworn personnel. Arrested officers employed by law enforcement agencies
with 1-249 sworn officers lost their job in 32.5% of the cases and arrested officers employed by
agencies with 250-1000+ sworn officers lost their job in 16.7% of the cases. The tree also
included the following variables in tiers three through five: age categorical and geographic
division.
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Part VI: Profit-motivated Police Crime Data Set Models
There are 1,592 cases in the data set in which sworn nonfederal law enforcement officers
were arrested for profit-motivated crimes during the period January 1, 2005, through December
31, 2011. The profit-motivated arrest cases involve 1,396 individual officers employed by 782
state, local, special, constable, and tribal law enforcement agencies located in 531 counties and
independent cities in 47 states and the District of Columbia (all states except Idaho, Maine, and
North Dakota). Of these 1,396 officers who were arrested for profit-motivated crimes, 94 of the
arrested officers have more than one case ( X = 1.14, Mdn = 1.00, Mode = 1, SD = .808) because
they have more than one crime victim (one criminal case per crime victim) and/or were arrested
for a profit-motivated crime on more than one occasion during the study years 2005-2011. More
than two-thirds of the profit-motivated criminal cases involved an arrested officer who is known
to have lost his or her job (n = 1,080, 67.9%). The known final adverse employment outcomes
in these cases include no action against the arrested officer (n = 135, 8.5%), suspended (n = 376,
23.6%), voluntarily resigned (n = 503, 31.6%), and involuntarily terminated (n = 577, 36.3%).
More than half of the profit-motivated arrest cases resulted in a conviction (n = 914, 57.4%) on
one or more offenses charged in the case.
Officers Arrested for Profit-motivated Police Crime, Offenses & Employing Agencies
Table 71 presents descriptive information on the profit-motivated police crime arrest
cases in terms of the arrested officer and the offenses charged, as well as information on the
employing law enforcement agency and the arresting law enforcement agency. Most of the
profit-motivated arrest cases involve male officers (n = 1,497, 94.1%). The modal category for
known officer age at time of arrest is ages 36-39 (n = 244, 15.3%). The youngest officer arrested
for a profit-motivated police crime was 20 years old at time of arrest, and the oldest was 79 years
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old ( X age = 38.01, Mdn age = 37,00, Mode age = 41, SD = 9.097 years). The modal category
for known years of service as a sworn law enforcement officer at time of arrest is 3-5 years (n =
197, 12.4%) ( X years of service = 10.90, Mdn years of service = 10.00, Mode years of service =
4, SD = 7.808 years). Most of the profit-motivated police crime arrest cases involve sworn
officers in patrol and street-level ranks, including nonsupervisory officers, deputies, troopers,
and detectives (n = 1,243, 78.1%). Other profit-motivated police crime arrest cases include mid-
rank line and field supervisors (n = 208, 13.1%) and high-ranking police managers and
executives (n = 140, 8.8%). More than two-thirds of the profit-motivated arrest cases involve
crimes that were committed while on-duty (n = 1,093, 68.7%). Even so, two-thirds of the cases
(n = 1,081, 67.9%) involve an arrest made by some law enforcement agency other than the
agency employing the arrested officer.
Most of the profit-motivated police crime arrest cases involve officers employed by
municipal police departments (n = 1,162, 73.0%) or sheriff’s offices (n = 251, 15.8%). The
arrest cases also involve officers who were employed by primary state police agencies (n = 62,
3.9%), county police departments (n = 66, 4.2%), special police departments (n = 42, 2.6%),
constable agencies (n = 7, 0.4%), and tribal police departments (n = 1, 0.1%). The modal
category for size of the employing law enforcement agency by the number of full-time sworn
officers employed is 1,000 or more full-time sworn officers (n = 495, 31.1%) and zero part-time
sworn officers (n = 1,209, 76.1%). The majority of officers arrested in profit-motivated police
crime arrest cases were employed by a nonfederal law enforcement agency located in a nonrural
metropolitan county or independent city (n = 1,312, 82.5%). The employing agencies are located
throughout the United States, including agencies in the Southern states (n = 726, 45.6%),
169
Northeastern states (n = 362, 22.8%), Midwestern states (n = 329, 20.7%), and Western states (n
= 174, 10.9%).
Table 72 presents the profit-motivated police crime arrest cases in terms of the most
serious offense charged in each case. There are 46 separate criminal offense categories
represented as the most serious offense charged in the profit-motivated police crime arrest cases
in years 2005-2011. Most common as the most serious offense charged in the profit-motivated
cases are unclassified thefts (n = 255, 16.0%), false pretenses (known as theft by deception in
Model Penal Code states) (n = 199, 12.5%), drug offenses (n = 189, 11.9%), robbery (n = 103,
6.4%), thefts from buildings (n = 92, 5.8%), and extortion and blackmail (n = 85, 5.3%).
Victims of Profit-motivated Police Crime
Table 73 presents victim characteristics in profit-motivated police crime arrest cases in
years 2005-2011. Victim information was not ascertainable from the source documents in many
of the profit-motivated police crime arrest cases. Most of the known victims are male (n = 195,
83.3%). Almost none of the known victims are children under the age of 18 (98.2% of the
known victims are adults age 18 or older). Most of the known victims are strangers or
nonstranger acquaintances (n = 350, 21.9%) to the arrested officer.
Predicting Conviction in Profit-motivated Police Crime Arrest Cases
In this section the regression models predict criminal conviction on any offense charged
in profit-motivated police crime arrest cases versus nonconviction. Conviction data are available
on over two-thirds of the profit-motivated cases (n = 1,105, 69.5%). Of those cases with known
criminal case outcomes, most of the officers arrested for profit-motivated crimes were convicted
(n = 914, valid 82.7%) on at one offense charged in the case. Bivariate Chi-Square associations,
presented in Table 74, are statistically significant at the p < .05 level for 49 independent variables
170
and the dependent variables, conviction on any offense charged. There are six bivariate
associations of moderate strength as indicated by the Cramer’s V scores for the statistically
significant Chi-Square statistics. The statistically significant bivariate associations of moderate
strength are the victim’s relationship to the arrested officer, where χ2 (6, N = 266) = 25.017, p <
.001, V = .307; age of the officer at time of arrest, where χ2 (49, N = 1,010) = 85.828, p = .001, V
= .292; the State where the arrested officer’s employing law enforcement agency is located,
where χ2 (47, N = 1,105) = 88.251, p < .001, V = .283; years of service at time of arrest, where χ2
(39, N = 799) = 62.423, p = .010, V = .280; job loss, where χ2 (1, N = 1,105) = 82.094, p < .001,
V = .273; and categorical age, where χ2 (10, N = 1,105) = 44.496, p < .001, V = .201.
conviction in profit-motivated police crime arrest cases. Bivariate correlations computed for
each of the independent variables in the logistic regression model revealed that none of the
variables were highly correlated with each other. Multicollinearity is not a problem as indicated
by no tolerance scores below .696 and no variance inflation factors above 1.436. The Durbin-
Watson score of 1.659 indicates that autocorrelation is not a problem in the model. Logistic
regression results indicate that the overall model of nine predictors is statistically reliable in
distinguishing between conviction in profit-motivated police crime arrest cases and
nonconviction in profit-motivated police crime arrest cases. The model correctly classified

2
all of the independent variables in the binary logistic regression model significantly predict
conviction in profit-motivated police crime arrest cases.
Odds ratio interpretations provide context for prediction of conviction in profit-motivated
police crime arrest cases. The single largest predictor of conviction in the profit-motivated arrest
171
cases is whether the officer’s crime involved a drug-related shakedown. The simple odds of
conviction are 109 times greater if the profit-motivated police crime involved a drug-related
shakedown. Job loss also predicts conviction in profit-motivated police crime arrest cases. The
simple odds of conviction in a profit-motivated case are 23.2 times greater if the arrested officer
ultimately losses their job (either through involuntary termination or through voluntary
resignation) as the final adverse employment outcome following an officer’s arrest for a profit-
motivated police crime. Violence-related police crime also predicts criminal conviction in
profit-motivated police crime arrest cases. The simple odds of conviction are 4.3 times higher if
an officer’s profit-motivated police crime is also violence-related. The type of nonfederal law
enforcement agency employing the arrested officer and the State where the employing agency is
located also predict criminal conviction in profit-motivated police crime arrest cases. The simple
odds of conviction in profit-motivated police crime arrest cases increase by 68% for every one
unit increase in agency type. Agency type is a categorical variable where 1 = primary state
police agency, 2 = primary state police agency, 3 = sheriff’s office, 4 = county police
department, 5 = municipal police department, 6 = special police department, 7 = constable
agency, 8 = tribal police department, and 9 = regional police department. As a literal
interpretation (remembering that this variable is a nominal-level measurement), that means as
you move away from primary state police agencies to other types of police departments, the
greater the likelihood of conviction. There is no practical interpretation of the odds ratio for
State where the officer’s employing nonfederal law enforcement agency was located, other than
to note that the simple odds of conviction in profit-motivated police crime arrest cases varies
from State to State.
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Several variables in the logistic regression model predict when criminal conviction (on
any offense charged in the case against the arrested officer) is less likely. Here, the number of
part-time sworn officers employed by the agency where the arrested officer works predicts
conviction. The simple odds of conviction go down by 27.2% for every one unit categorical
increase in the number of part-time sworn officers employed by the agency. The media and
public perception surrounding an officer’s arrest for profit-motivated police crime also impacts
on conviction. The simple odds of conviction goes down by 96.3% if the arrested officer’s chief
is under scrutiny as a result of the officer’s arrest for a profit-motivated police crime. Although
in the same model profit-motivated police crime arrest cases that involve a drug-related
shakedown increases the simples odds of conviction, drug-related shakedowns in the form of off-
duty robberies decreases the odds of conviction. The simple odds of conviction decrease by
98.9% if the officer’s profit-motivated police crime arrest case involves a drug-related
shakedown in the form of an off-duty robbery. Finally, the age of the victim in a profit-
motivated police crime arrest case predicts the likelihood of conviction. The simple odds of
conviction decrease by 30% for every one unit categorical increase in the age of the victim in a
profit-motivated police crime arrest case.
Figure 26 presents the results of predicting conviction for the profit-motivated cases and
included a total of 1,105 police crime arrest cases. The tree had an overall classification score of
85.2% (AUC = .781, 95% CI [.744, .818], RROC

2
= .562) selected the variable job loss as the
splitting criterion. Officers who had not lost their job (node 1) were convicted in 62.4% of the
cases. In contrast, officers who lost their job (node 2) were convicted in 87.9% of the cases. The
officers who had not lost their job in node 1 were partitioned by the variable year of arrest.
Officers who were arrested from 2005-2006 were convicted in 83.6% of the cases. Officers who
173
were arrested in years 2007-2009 were convicted in 34.2% of the cases and officers who were
arrested in years 2010- 2011 were convicted in 59.9% of the cases. The officers who had lost
their job in node 2 were partitioned by the variable urban/rural continuum. Officers who were
employed by agencies located metropolitan counties (or independent cities) of 250,000 to 1
million; a nonmetropolitan county with an urban population of 20,000 or more, not adjacent to a
metro area; county in a metropolitan areas of fewer than 250,000 population, adjacent to a
metropolitan area; or a nonmetropolitan county with an urban population of 20,000 or more,
adjacent to a metropolitan area were convicted in 79.6% of the cases. Officers who were
employed by a law enforcement agency located in a county within a metropolitan area of 1
million population or more; nonmetropolitan county with an urban population 2,500 to 19,999,
adjacent to a metropolitan area; nonmetropolitan county with urban population of 2,500 to
19,999, not adjacent to a metropolitan area; nonmetropolitan county completely rural or less than
2,500 urban population, not adjacent to a metropolitan area; nonmetropolitan county completely
rural or less than 2,500 urban population, adjacent to a metropolitan area were convicted in
92.6% of the cases. The tree also included the following variables in tier three: drug/narcotic
violation, urban/rural continuum, arresting agency, and geographic region.
Predicting Job Loss in Profit-motivated Police Crime Arrest Cases
In this section the regression models predict job loss following an officer’s arrest for a
profit-motivated police crime. Bivariate Chi-Square associations are statistically significant at
the p < .05 level for 47 independent variables and the dependent variable, job loss binary (coded
as 0 = kept job and 1 = lost job) and are presented in Table 76. There are five bivariate
associations of moderate strength as indicated by the Cramer’s V scores for the statistically
significant Chi-Square statistics. They are: year of arrest, where χ2 (6, N = 1,591) = 155.340, p <
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.001, V = .312; State where the arrested officer’s employing law enforcement agency is located,
where χ2 (47, N = 1,591) = 126.335, p < .001, V = .282; whether the officer was convicted (for
any offense charged in the arrest case), where χ2 (1, N = 1,105) = 82.094, p < .001, V = .273;
whether the officer was suspended for a period of time following his or her arrest for a profit-
motivated crime, where χ2 (1, N = 1,591) = 87.439, p < .001, V = .234; and, years of service as a
sworn law enforcement officer at time of arrest, where χ2 (39, N = 1,126) = 56.457, p = .035, V =
.224.
loss in profit-motivated police crime arrest cases. None of the independent variables are highly
correlated with each other, as indicated by bivariate correlations that were computed for each of
the independent variables in the logistic regression model. Multicollinearity is not a problem as
indicated by no tolerance scores below .766 and no variance inflation factors above 1.306.
Autocorrelation is not a problem in the model as indicated by a Durbin-Watson score of 1.523.
Logistic regression results indicate that the overall model of seven predictors is statistically
reliable in distinguishing between officers who lost their jobs after being arrested in a profit-
motivated police crime case, and others who kept their jobs after being arrested in a profit-
motivated police crime case. Wald Statistics indicate that all of the independent variables in the
model significantly predict job loss in profit-motivated police crime arrest cases. The model
2
= .336).
Context for prediction of job loss in profit-motivated police crime arrest cases is provided
through interpretation of odds ratios. Five of the independent variables in the logistic regression
model predict when an officer is more likely to lose his or her job as a sworn law enforcement
officer after being arrested for a profit-motivated police crime. The single largest predictor of
175
job loss is when the profit-motivated crime is also drug-related. The simple odds of job loss are
45.6 times greater in a profit-motivated police crime arrest case if the case also involves drug
selling, dealing, and/or trafficking. Conviction also predicts job loss, but here again it is not
possible to establish causal order between conviction and job loss with this data set. The simple
odds of job loss are ten times greater in profit-motivated police crime arrest cases if the arrested
officer is ultimately convicted on one or more criminal offenses charged in the case. Profit-
motivated crimes that are committed by an officer in their official capacity as a sworn law
enforcement officer (as opposed to profit-motivated crimes committed by an officer in their
individual capacity) also predict job loss. The simple odds of job loss are nine times greater in
profit-motivated police crime arrest cases if the crime was committed by the arrested officer in
their official capacity. Similarly, profit-motivated crimes that are also internal crimes against the
organization (that is, a crime against the arrested officer’s employing law enforcement agency)
increase the simple odds of job loss by 46.4%. The geographic location of the arrested officer’s
employing law enforcement agency also predicts job loss in profit-motivated police crime arrest
cases. The simple odds of job loss increase by 69.5% in profit-motivated cases with every one
unit increase in the category of geographic division across the United States. There is no
practical interpretation of the odds ratio, however, for geographic division in this binary logistic
regression model.
Two independent variables in the logistic regression model predict when an officer is
going to keep their job as a sworn law enforcement officer after being arrested in a profit-
motivated police crime arrest case. The first of these is when an officer is charged with the
offense of obstruction of justice in a profit-motivated case, where the simple of job loss decrease
by 93.5%. In some of the profit-motivated police crime arrest cases there was discussion in the
176
news article narratives of an agency scandal or cover up in the aftermath of an officer being
arrested. The simple odds of job loss decrease by 92.5% in profit-motivated police crime arrest
cases if there is discussion of a scandal or cover up at the employing officer’s law enforcement
agency.
Figure 27 presents the results of predicting conviction for the profit-motivated cases and
included a total of 1,591 arrest cases. The tree had an overall classification score of 76.6%
(AUC = .788, 95% CI [.763, .812], RROC

2
= .576) and selected the variable case disposition:
officer was convicted of a crime as the splitting criterion. Officers who were convicted (node 1)
lost their job in 54.8% of the cases. In contrast, officers who were not convicted (node 2) lost
their job in 87.9% of the cases. The officers who were convicted in node 1 were partitioned by
the variable year of arrest. Officers who were arrested from 2005-2007 were convicted in 51.8%
of the cases and officers who were arrested in years 2008-2011 were convicted in 81.3% of the
cases. Officers who were not convicted in node 2 were partitioned by the variable discussion of
an agency scandal or cover up. Officers involved in cases that discussed an agency scandal or
cover up lost their job in 24.2% of the cases. In contrast, officers who were not involved in cases
that involved some sort of an agency scandal or cover up lost their job in 60.8% of the cases.
The tree also included the following variables in tiers three though five: geographic division,
year, state, discussion of an agency scandal or cover up, years of service, and type of agency.
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Part VII: Employing Law Enforcement Agencies of Arrested Officers
The 6,724 police crime arrest cases in this study involve 5,545 individual sworn law
enforcement officers employed by 2,529 nonfederal law enforcement agencies located in
headquartered in 1,166 counties and independent cities in all 50 states and the District of
Columbia.5 In this part the unit of analysis is changed from arrest case to arrested individual
officer. The purpose of changing the unit of analysis to individual officers is to provide rates of
officers arrested per agency, per 1,000 officers, and per 100,000 population. Individual
nonfederal sworn law enforcement officers were arrested at a rate of 0.72% officers arrested per
1,000 officers, and at a rate of 1.7 officers arrested per 100,000 population nationwide.
We urge caution on one critically important point: the tables (and table appendices)
presented in this part of the report, and the data from which they were compiled, cannot support
a direct comparison of one agency to another nor indeed any cluster of agencies to others.
Though it is a natural tendency to make such comparisons, the many localized conditions
invisible to the research team in our data sources prevent accurate comparisons. Among the
factors that data sources do not (and likely often cannot) discern are whether an officer’s arrest
was instigated by his or her own department as a result of its internal standards for conduct and
integrity; whether the arrested officer’s criminal offense(s) would not have resulted in the
officer’s arrest if it had been less publicly visible; and whether arrests of police officers by
outside law enforcement agencies were made at the request of an officer’s employing agency or
5
In Part I of this report we identified 2,529 nonfederal law enforcement agencies located in 1,205 counties and
independent cities across the United States. In coding of police crime arrest cases for this study, the counties where
an employing law enforcement agency was located were logged for both (a) the county (or independent city) where
the employing agency was headquartered, and (b) the county (or independent city) where the arrested officer was
stationed. In the case of a state trooper, for example, the county would be recorded for the location of the agency
headquarters as well as the county where the arrested trooper’s assigned barracks was located.
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in spite of attempts by that agency to conceal the offense(s) and/or protect the officer’s (and thus,
the employing agency’s) public image.
Rates of Officers Arrested in the 200 Largest Agencies
Table 78 presents the 200 largest employing state and local law enforcement agencies in
terms of rates of officers arrested during the study period years 2005-2011. The table is sorted
by the number of full-time sworn officers employed from largest agency to the smallest agency
within the largest 200 agencies represented in the study. The same table is also presented in
alternative versions as Appendix B-1 (200 largest agencies in the study sorted by rates of officers
arrested per 1,000 officers) and Appendix C-1 (200 largest agencies in the study sorted by rates
of officers arrested per 100,000 population). The ten large agencies with the highest rates of
officers arrested per 1,000 officers are New Orleans Police Department (rate of 44.21 officers
arrested per 1,000 officers), Milwaukee Police Department (rate of 36.74 officers arrested per
1,000 officers), Memphis Police Department (rate of 29.70 officers arrested per 1,000 officers),
New Mexico State Police (rate of 24.62 officers arrested per 1,000 officers), Pittsburgh Police
Department (rate of 23.57 officers arrested per 1,000 officers), Shreveport Police Department
(rate of 23.48 officers arrested per 1,000 officers), Polk County (FL) Sheriff’s Office (rate of
21.67 officers arrested per 1,000 officers), Kern County (CA) Sheriff’s Office (rate of 21.48
officers arrested per 1,000 officers), Indianapolis Police Department (rate of 20.87 officers
arrested per 1,000 officers), and Minneapolis Police Department (rate of 19.96 officers arrested
per 1,000 officers). See Appendix B-1.
The ten large agencies with the highest rates of officers arrested per 100,000 population
are New Orleans Police Department (rate of 18.32 officers arrested per 100,000 population),
Baltimore Police Department (rate of 8.86 officers arrested per 100,000 population), Milwaukee
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Police Department (rate of 7.70 officers arrested per 100,000 population), Norfolk Police
Department (rate of 5.77 officers arrested per 100,000 population), Memphis Police Department
(rate of 4.96 officers arrested per 100,000 population), Washington Metropolitan Police
Department (rate of 4.82 officers arrested per 100,000 population), Shreveport Police
Department (rate of 4.71 officers arrested per 100,000 population), Philadelphia Police
Department (rate of 4.33 officers arrested per 100,000 population), Jackson Police Department
(rate of 4.67 officers arrested per 100,000 population), and Indianapolis Police Department (rate
of 3.65 officers arrested per 100,000 population. See Appendix C-1.
Rates of Officers Arrested in Nonmetropolitan Agencies
Table 79 presents the employing law enforcement agencies located in nonmetropolitan
(rural) counties and independent cities in terms of rates of officers arrested during the study
period years 2005-2011. The table is sorted by agency name in alphabetical order. The same
table information is also presented in alternative versions as Appendix A-1 (sorted by the number
of full-time sworn personnel employed), Appendix B-2 (sorted by rate of officers arrested per
1,000 officers), and Appendix C-2 (sorted by rate of officers arrested per 100,000 population).
The law enforcement agencies located in nonmetropolitan counties and independent cities
with the highest rates of officers arrested per 1,000 officers are Mounds (IL) Police Department
(rate of 2000.00 officers arrested per 1,000 officers) and Atwater (MN) Police Department,
Berlin Borough (PA) Police Department, Berlin Heights (OH) Police Department, Bowman (SC)
Police Department, Burr Oak (MI) Police Department, Cooter (MO) Police Department, Elgin
(ND) Police Department, Hamburg (IA) Police Department, Lamoure (ND) Police Department,
Lockhart (AL) Police Department, Marion Township (WI) Police Department, Nicholas County
(KY) Sheriff’s Office, Oakwood (OH) Police Department, Perryville (KY) Police Department,
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Petroleum County (MT) Sheriff’s Office, Pineview (GA) Police Department, Tipton (OK) Police
Department, Turkey Creek (LA) Police Department, Wakeman (OH) Police Department, Wilson
(KS) Police Department, and Zolfo Springs (FL) Police Department (each with a rate of 1000.00
officers arrested per 1,000 police officers). See Appendix B-2.
The law enforcement agencies located in nonmetropolitan counties and independent cities
with the highest rates of officers arrested per 100,000 population are Petroleum County (MT)
Sheriff’s Office (rate of 202.43 officers arrested per 100,000 population), Terrell County (TX)
Sheriff’s Office (rate of 101.63 officers arrested per 100,000 population), Talbot County (GA)
Sheriff’s Office (rate of 43.70 officers arrested per 100,000 population), La Salle County (TX)
Sheriff’s Office (rate of 43.57 officers arrested per 100,000 population), Elgin (ND) Police
Department (rate of 41.77 officers arrested per 100,000 population), Griggs County (ND)
Sheriff’s Office (rate of 41.32 officers arrested per 100,000 population), Crystal City (TX) Police
Department (rate of 34.26 officers arrested per 100,000 population), Mounds (IL) Police
Department (rate of 32.46 officers arrested per 100,000 population), Pulaski County (IL)
Sheriff’s Office (rate of 32.46 officers arrested per 100,000 population), and Carter County (MO)
Sheriff’s Office (rate of 31.92 officers arrested per 100,000 population). See Appendix C-2.
Rate of Officers Arrested in Primary State Police Agencies
Table 80 presents the employing primary state police agencies in terms of rates of
officers arrested during the study period years 2005-2011. The table is sorted by agency name in
alphabetical order. The same table information is also presented in alternative versions as
Appendix A-2 (sorted by the number of full-time sworn personnel employed), Appendix B-3
(sorted by rate of officers arrested per 1,000 officers), and Appendix C-3 (sorted by rate of
officers arrested per 100,000 population).
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The five primary state police agencies with the highest rates of officers arrested per 1,000
officers are New Mexico State Police (rate of 24.62 officers arrested per 1,000 officers),
Arkansas Highway Patrol (rate of 13.42 officers arrested per 1,000 officers), South Carolina
Highway Patrol (rate of 10.34 officers arrested per 1,000 officers), Mississippi Highway Safety
Patrol (rate of 10.10 officers arrested per 1,000 officers), and Rhode Island State Police (rate of
9.95 officers arrested per 1,000 officers). See Appendix B-3. The five primary state police
agencies with the highest rates of officers arrested per 100,000 population are New Mexico State
Police (rate of 0.63 officers arrested per 100,000 population), Delaware State Police (rate of 0.33
officers arrested per 100,000 population), New Hampshire State Police (rate of 0.23 officers
arrested per 100,000 population), South Carolina Highway Patrol (rate of 0.22 officers arrested
per 100,000 population), and Mississippi Highway Safety Patrol (rate of 0.20 officers arrested
per 100,000 population). See Appendix C-3.
Rates of Officers Arrested in Sheriff’s Offices
Table 81 presents the employing sheriff’s offices in terms of rates of officers arrested
during the study period years 2005-2011. The table is sorted by agency name in alphabetical
order. The same table information is also presented in alternative versions as Appendix A-3
(sorted by the number of full-time sworn personnel employed), Appendix B-4 (sorted by rate of
officers arrested per 1,000 officers), and Appendix C-4 (sorted by rate of officers arrested per
100,000 population).
The sheriff’s offices with the highest rates of officers arrested per 1,000 officers are
Nicholas County (KY) Sheriff’s Office (rate of 1000.00 officers arrested per 1,000 officers),
Petroleum County (MT) Sheriff’s Office (rate of 1000.00 officers arrested per 1,000 officers),
Carter County (MO) Sheriff’s Office (rate of 666.67 officers arrested per 1,000 officers), Oregon
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County (MO) Sheriff’s Office (rate of 400.00 officers arrested per 1,000 officers), Talbot County
(GA) Sheriff’s Office (rate of 375.00 officers arrested per 1,000 officers), Baker County (GA)
Sheriff’s Office (rate of 333.33 officers arrested per 1,000 officers), Butler County (AL)
Sheriff’s Office (rate of 333.33 officers arrested per 1,000 officers), Gallatin County (IL)
Sheriff’s Office (rate of 333.00 officers arrested per 1,000 officers), Griggs County (ND)
Sheriff’s Office (rate of 333.00 officers arrested per 1,000 officers), and Guadalupe County
(NM) Sheriff’s Office (rate of 333.00 officers arrested per 1,000 officers). See Table B-4.
The sheriff’s offices with the highest rates of officers arrested per 100,000 population are
Petroleum County (MT) Sheriff’s Office (rate of 202.43 officers arrested per 100,000
population), Terrell County (TX) Sheriff’s Office (rate of 101.63 officers arrested per 100,000
officers), Talbot County (GA) Sheriff’s Office (rate of 43.70 officers arrested per 100,000
officers), La Salle County (TX) Sheriff’s Office (rate of 43.57 officers arrested per 100,000
officers), Griggs County (ND) Sheriff’s Office (rate of 41.32 officers arrested per 100,000
officers), Pulaski County (IL) Sheriff’s Office (rate of 32.46 officers arrested per 100,000
officers), Carter County (MO) Sheriff’s Office (rate of 31.92 officers arrested per 100,000
officers), Baker County (GA) Sheriff’s Office (rate of 28.98 officers arrested per 100,000
officers), Lake County (CO) Sheriff’s Office (rate of 27.36 officers arrested per 100,000
officers), and Henry County (VA) Sheriff’s Office (rate of 25.85 officers arrested per 100,000
population).
Rates of Officers Arrested in County Police Departments
Table 82 presents the employing county police departments in terms of rates of officers
arrested during the study period years 2005-2011. The table is sorted by agency name in
alphabetical order. The same table information is also presented in alternative versions as
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Appendix A-4 (sorted by the number of full-time sworn personnel employed), Appendix B-5
The county police departments included in the study with the highest rate of officers
arrested per 1,000 officers are Polk County (GA) Police Department (rate of 85.71 officers
arrested per 1,000 officers), Oldham County (KY) Police Department (rate of 64.52 officers
arrested per 1,000 officers), Dougherty County (GA) Police Department (rate of 42.55 officers
arrested per 1,000 officers), Horry County (SC) Police Department (rate of 37.04 officers
arrested per 1,000 officers), Kauai (County) (HI) Police Department (rate of 24.00 officers
arrested per 1,000 officers), Indianapolis (IN) Metropolitan Police Department (rate of 20.86
officers arrested per 1,000 officers), Fulton County (GA) Police Department (rate of 15.50
officers arrested per 1,000 officers), Maui (County) (HI) Police Department (rate of 15.20
officers arrested per 1,000 officers), Gaston County (NC) Police Department (rate of 15.04
officers arrested per 1,000 officers), and Roanoke County (VA) Police Department (rate of 14.81
officers arrested per 1,000 officers). See Appendix B-5.
The county police departments included in the study with the highest rates of officers
arrested per 100,000 population are Polk County (GA) Police Department (rate of 7.23 officers
arrested per 100,000 population), Kauai (County) (HI) Police Department (rate of 4.47 officers
arrested per 100,000 population), Indianapolis (IN) Metropolitan Police Department (rate of 3.65
officers arrested per 100,000 population), Horry County (SC) Police Department (rate of 3.34
officers arrested per 100,000 population), Oldham County (KY) Police Department (rate of 3.32
officers arrested per 100,000 population), Maui (County) (HI) Police Department (rate of 3.23
officers arrested per 100,000 population), Honolulu (City and County) (HI) Police Department
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(rate of 2.73 officers arrested per 100,000 population), Savannah-Chatham (GA) Metropolitan
Police Department (rate of 2.26 officers arrested per 100,000 population), Prince George’s
County (MD) Police Department (rate of 2.20 officers arrested per 100,000 population),
Roanoke County (VA) Police Department (rate of 2.17 officers arrested per 100,000 population),
and Charlotte-Mecklenburg (NC) Police Department (rate of 2.17 officers arrested per 100,000
population). See Appendix C-5.
Rates of Officers Arrested in 500 Largest Municipal Police Departments
Table 83 presents the 500 largest employing municipal police departments in terms of
rates of officers arrested during the study period years 2005-2011. The table is sorted by agency
name in alphabetical order. The same table information is also presented in alternative versions
as Appendix A-5 (sorted by the number of full-time sworn personnel employed), Appendix B-6
The large municipal police departments included in the study with the highest rates of
officers arrested per 1,000 officers are Hackensack (NJ) Police Department (rate of 76.92
officers arrested per 1,000 officers), Norwich (CT) Police Department (rate of 61.73 officers
arrested per 1,000 officers), Riviera Beach (FL) Police Department (rate of 55.56 officers
arrested per 1,000 officers), Lorain (OH) Police Department (rate of 50.0 officers arrested per
1,000 officers), Charleston (WV) Police Department (rate of 49.45 officers arrested per 1,000
officers), Schenectady (NY) Police Department (rate of 48.19 officers arrested per 1,000
officers), Edinburg (TX) Police Department (rate of 45.45 officers arrested per 1,000 officers),
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Cleveland (TN) Police Department (rate of 44.94 officers arrested per 1,000 officers), Muskogee
(OK) Police Department (rate of 44.44 officers arrested per 1,000 officers), and New Orleans
(LA) Police Department (rate of 44.21 officers arrested per 1,000 officers). See Appendix B-6.
The large municipal police departments with the highest rates of officers arrested per
100,000 population are New Orleans (LA) Police Department (rate of 18.32 officers arrested per
100,000 population), Portsmouth (VA) Police Department (rate of 10.47 officers arrested per
100,000 population), Baltimore (MD) Police Department (rate of 8.86 officers arrested per
100,000 population), Milwaukee (WI) Police Department (rate of 7.70 officers arrested per
100,000 population), Clarksville (TN) Police Department (rate of 7.54 officers arrested per
100,000 population), Kansas City (KS) Police Department (rate of 6.35 officers arrested per
100,000 population), Petersburg (VA) Police Department (rate of 6.17 officers arrested per
100,000 population), Macon (GA) Police Department (rate of 5.79 officers arrested per 100,000
population), Norfolk (VA) Police Department (rate of 5.77 officers arrested per 100,000
population), and Muskogee (OK) Police Department (rate of 5.63 officers arrested per 100,000
population). See Appendix C-6.
Rates of Officers Arrested in Special State and Local Law Enforcement Agencies
Table 84 presents the special state and local employing law enforcement agencies in
terms of rates of officers arrested during the study period years 2005-2011. The table is sorted
by agency name in alphabetical order. The same table information is also presented in
alternative versions as Appendix A-6 (sorted by the number of full-time sworn personnel
employed), Appendix B-7 (sorted by rate of officers arrested per 1,000 officers), and Appendix
C-7 (sorted by rate of officers arrested per 100,000 population).
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The special law enforcement agencies with the highest rates of officers arrested per 1,000
officers are Connally I.S.D. (TX) Police Department (rate of 333.33 officers arrested per 1,000
officers), Grambling State University (LA) Police Department (rate of 222.22 officers arrested
per 1,000 officers), Ennis I.S.D. (TX) Police Department (rate of 200.00 officers arrested per
1,000 officers), Ventura College (CA) Police Department (rate of 200.00 officers arrested per
1,000 officers), California Exposition and State Fair (CA) Police (rate of 166.67 officers arrested
per 1,000 officers), Lancaster I.S.D. (TX) Police Department (rate of 166.67 officers arrested per
1,000 officers), University of Maryland Eastern Short (MD) Public Safety (rate of 166.67
officers arrested per 1,000 officers), University of West Alabama (AL) Police (rate of 166.67
officers arrested per 1,000 officers), Greenville Technical College (SC) Public Safety (rate of
111.11 officers arrested per 1,000 officers), and Lehigh-Northampton Airport Authority (PA)
Police Department (rate of 111.11 officers arrested per 1,000 officers). See Appendix B-7.
The special law enforcement agencies included in the study with the highest rates of
officers arrested per 100,000 population are University of Tennessee at Knoxville (TN) Police
(rate of 10.47 officers arrested per 100,000 population), University of West Alabama (AL) Police
(rate of 7.27 officers arrested per 100,000 population), Tuskegee University (AL) Police
Department (rate of 4.66 officers arrested per 100,000 population), Grambling State University
(LA) Police Department (rate of 4.28 officers arrested per 100,000 population), University of
Maryland Eastern Shore (MD) Public Safety (rate of 3.78 officers arrested per 100,000
population), Georgia Public Safety Training Center (GA) (rate of 3.78 officers arrested per
100,000 population), Ohio Department of Natural Resources (OH) Office of Law Enforcement
(rate of 3.24 officers arrested per 100,000 population), Virginia Marine Resources Commission
(VA) (rate of 3.02 officers arrested per 100,000 population), Brigham Young University – Idaho
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(ID) Police Department (rate of 2.66 officers arrested per 100,000 population), and Missouri
University of Science and Technology (MO) Police Department (rate of 2.21 officers arrested
per 100,000 population).
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CONCLUSION
Cases in which sworn law enforcement officers act as criminals—whether dealing drugs,
or driving drunk, or sexually molesting a vulnerable citizen—strike a direct blow to the law
enforcement enterprise and the essence of what it means to be a law enforcement officer: protect
and serve. These cases threaten to undermine public trust in both the authority and legitimacy of
state and local law enforcement organizations, and the work of law-abiding sworn officers who
go about their job selflessly, efficiently, and professionally every day. Police crime as a topic
worthy of empirical study however is not clearly understood, and would probably best be
described as untapped or at the very least not sufficiently explored.
The contrast between the topic's substantive weight and comparatively light coverage
within the scholarship is mostly due to an absence of suitable data. The traditional sources of
data and methods of study, whether official statistics, self-report surveys, or direct observations,
either do not exist in any usable format or are ill-equipped to identify, count, or provide the basis
for empirical analyses of instances in which police perpetrate crimes themselves. These cases
have thus far escaped large-scale empirical scrutiny, but they are intrinsically newsworthy
events. Those in the news media need to identify stories that will be of interest to their audience,
and cases of police crime typically include storylines that are clearly newsworthy. This project
utilized a methodology designed to capitalize on the newsworthy character of police crime,
identify these events, and subject them to analyses that have thus far been impossible. Given the
previous unavailability of data and the relative absence of empirical studies dedicated to the
topic, our work should be considered exploratory. The primary aim was to uncover cases of
police crime arrests and to provide the basis for what we hope will become an important
contribution to the establishment of a more substantive and useful line of research on the topic.
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The remainder of this section is divided into several parts. We initially discuss our
findings in terms of both some general observations on the entire data set and selected results
within the types of police crime that we believe justify further comment. The second section
covers implications for policy and practice. Here, we discuss noteworthy results in regard to the
analyses on final adverse employment actions, or the sorts of discipline imposed (if any) by
police organizations in cases of police crime. The points on final adverse employment outcomes
provides context for the identification and discussion of specific recommendations to law
enforcement agencies based on our research. The final section is a discussion on the
implications of our study for research.
Discussion of Findings
The identification of notable general observations in regard to the entire data set is
complicated by the scope of the study and this report—the research study covers seven calendar
years and describes 6,724 criminal cases involving the arrest of 5,545 individual police officers
who perpetrated a wide range of criminal acts under varying circumstances. The arrested
officers were employed by 2,529 state and local law enforcement agencies (see Appendix D)
located in 1,205 counties and independent cities in all 50 states and the District of Columbia.
The project has revealed and confirmed at least three comprehensive truths about police crime.
The first general observation is that police crimes are not uncommon. Police officers get
arrested for crimes with some regularity in jurisdictions around the nation, including rural areas,
small towns, suburbs, and large urban centers. Law enforcement officers in the current study
were arrested at a rate of 0.72 officers arrested per 1,000 officers, and at a rate of 1.7 officers
arrested per 100,000 population nationwide. Of course, only a small percentage of the total
number of law enforcement officers will ever be arrested for a criminal offense, but our data
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directly contradicts some of the prevailing assumptions and the proposition that only a small
group of rotten apples perpetrate the vast majority of police crime. Those assumptions relate to
previous studies, journalistic investigations, and special commissions that described the
misconduct of a single and/or handful of rogue officers operating within a single and/or handful
of jurisdictions. The assumption that only a small group of rogue officers perpetrate crimes also
presumably stems from traditional notions and public expectations regarding the straight-laced,
law-abiding police persona. In contrast, our method provided for the identification of an
unprecedented number of police crimes that occurred within virtually every sort of place, and the
opportunity to draw some conclusions about how often these events occur across the nation. The
data demonstrate that police crimes are not isolated events, and that hundreds of police officers
every year get arrested for crimes including assault, rape, robbery, and murder across the United
States.
The second general observation is that police crime is occupationally-derived. That is,
the cases identified in our research are largely the product of opportunities and other factors
inherent within the context of police work. Scholars have long recognized the occupationally-
derived sources of police misconduct, including the reality that patrol officers operate within a
context of low supervision, low public visibility, and face-to-face encounters in which officers
enjoy considerable power and authority over vulnerable citizens. Our methodology involved the
collection of data derived from published news stories that detailed these events rather than
summary statistics or official reports, so the research team was able to discern how on-the-job
realities contributed to the perpetration of these crimes. For example, the news accounts detailed
how the existence of illicit markets for cocaine and face-to-face encounters with drug dealers
facilitate opportunities for officers to engage in drug use, shakedown citizens who deal drugs,
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and/or deal drugs themselves. The news accounts also describe how this context facilitates and
promotes sex-related police crime, whereby police sexually abuse vulnerable citizens they
encounter through their work, including young female drivers, prostituted women, or youths
involved in police explorer programs. Evidence of the occupationally-derived context of these
events is not limited to on-duty crimes. Almost 60% of all of the cases identified in the study
occurred when the officer was technically off-duty. The data demonstrate that the source of a
significant portion of these so-called off-duty crimes also lies within the context of police work
and the perpetrator's role as a police officer, including instances where off-duty officers flash a
badge, an official weapon, or otherwise use their power, authority, and the respect afforded to
them as a means to commit crime. More broadly, the data show that police crime is not solely or
even primarily the product of deviant or defective people; but rather, deviant or defective people
who work within an occupational context that provides them unique and unprecedented
opportunities to perpetrate crimes whether they are on or off-duty.
The third general observation is that police crime is a complex and multi-dimensional
phenomenon both within and across the five types of police crime: alcohol-related, drug-related,
sex-related, violence-related, and profit-motivated police crime. The complex and multi-
dimensional character of police crime was initially underscored within the context of the Mollen
Commission's two-year investigation of drug corruption in New York City during the 1980s and
early 1990s. The Commission identified a complex web of relationships among the operation of
drug markets, drug corruption, and a long list of associated crimes perpetrated by police. Our
data confirmed these observations across jurisdictions throughout the nation; we found that drug-
related police crime tends to spawn the perpetration of various other kinds of criminal behavior
by police. Perhaps more importantly, both the findings of the Mollen Commission and those of
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our own research suggest that the complexity of relationships involved in drug-related police
crime extends to other kinds of police crime and the nature of the phenomenon in general. For
example, the overall complexity of police crime is also demonstrated by the absence of any
clearly discernible line between criminal behavior that occurs on- and off-duty. More evidence
is provided by the analyses linking police crime arrests to federal civil rights lawsuits. These
analyses suggest that at least a portion of those police arrested for a criminal offense are problem
officers that exhibit shortcomings in other aspects of the job. Finally, and perhaps most clearly,
the multi-dimensional character of police crime is demonstrated within the complex web of
statistically significant relationship among variables in our data. For example, Chi-square
analyses involving the entire data set identified 90 variables that were significantly associated
with conviction, and 120 variables that were significantly associated with job loss. The
multivariate analyses identified 16 significant predictors of conviction and 11 significant
predictors of job loss. These points demonstrate the difficulties inherent in both the
identification of clear-cut explanations of police crime and the interpretation of statistical models
designed to isolate these relationships. Perhaps scholarship on the topic needs to start with the
premise that recognizes the multivariate complexity of police crime and the difficulties
associated with both explaining its etiology; and by extension, the formulation of mitigation
strategies.
Sex-related Police Crime
Two points of discussion in regard to the sex-related police crimes include the serious
nature of these offenses and the characteristics of the victims. There were a total of 1,475 cases
of sex-related police crime that ranged widely in seriousness from peeping tom cases to those
that involved murder. Perhaps most notable however is the fact that almost 30% of all the sex-
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related cases were classified as cases of police sexual violence. A review of the most serious
offenses charged in the cases reveals the serious and often-times egregious nature of these
events. There were a total of 422 forcible and statutory rapes, 352 cases of forcible fondling, and
94 sodomy cases. The proportion of cases that involved sexual violence and the most serious
kinds of sex-related offenses was larger than expected based on the existing research and the
comparative absence of empirical studies on the problem of police sexual violence. The large
proportion of serious cases in our data was clearly influenced in part by methodology, since
news-based searches probably tend to capture cases that compelled an arrest because they were
egregious and could not be ignored. No matter the methodology used to identify them, the sheer
number of egregious cases constitutes prima facie evidence that these are not isolated events and
should be the subject of additional organizational resources and empirical scrutiny.
The second concern in regard to sex-related crimes is the age of the victims. Children
seem to be particularly vulnerable to police who perpetrate sex-related crimes. Almost one-half
of the known victims of sex-related crimes were children, and the second-most commonly
occurring category in terms of the victim's relationship to the arrested officer was an unrelated
child. Certain types of sex crime tend to involve victims who are children, including crimes
involving pornography, obscene material, fondling, and promoting the sexual performance of a
child.
The sources of sex-related crimes against children are often occupationally derived. For
example, the news-based content analyses identified various scenarios in which adults allowed
sworn law enforcement officers both access and opportunity to victimize children under their
care, presumably because they trusted them. The criminal courts seemed to respond to these
cases severely, as a clear majority of the sex-related cases with known dispositions included a
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conviction on at least one charge. The likelihood of conviction increased in cases that involved
younger victims, suggesting the expression of some form of moral outrage against police who
use their power and position to victimize children.
Alcohol-related Police Crime
There were 1,405 cases of alcohol-related police crime identified in the study. There
were 960 cases where police were arrested for driving under the influence, and the most serious
offense charged in close to 60% of the alcohol-related cases was DUI. Thus, police DUI is the
major issue of concern in regard to alcohol-related police crime. The study seems to identify
cases where an officer did something that compelled an official law enforcement response rather
than some type of professional courtesy and non-arrest; there are comparatively few run-of-the-
mill cases of DUI in our data. Some of the incident events that accompanied the DUI and seem
to have influenced an arrest included a traffic accident, injuries (sometimes fatal), hit-and-run,
and refusals to cooperate with BAC and/or field sobriety tests. These cases seemed to compel
police action and an arrest because they required some sort of official documentation (e.g., a
traffic accident report), included independent witnesses or victims, or were so egregious that
police ignored the fact that they involved fellow police officers. Moreover, most of these cases
involved a law enforcement agency other than the arrested officer's employer, suggesting that
professional courtesies are more likely to occur among police who work together. In many
instances, it should be noted however, when an officer was suspected of driving under the
influence (and employed by the same agency as the officer conducting the traffic stop or
handling a DUI traffic accident investigation), an outside agency was often brought in to conduct
field sobriety tests and effectuate the arrest of an intoxicated officer. Police DUI criminal case
outcomes seem to be significantly influenced by the geographic location of the case. State
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location was the most influential predictor of conviction. State-level reforms of DUI laws
obviously influence cases outcomes overall, so it seems likely that legislative changes also
influence the disposition of cases of police DUI.
Drug-related Police Crime
There were 739 cases of drug-related police crime. In many ways, our findings both
confirm and extend the findings of the Mollen Commission in regard to the etiology and impact
of drug-related police crime in New York City several decades ago. For example, while all
classes of commonly abused drugs were present, stimulants including cocaine and crack were the
most prevalent category of drug involved in these cases. Cocaine was involved in close to one-
third of all the drug-related cases; and taken together cocaine and crack were involved in almost
40% of all the drug-related cases. Moreover, cocaine was the strongest predictor for three of six
decision trees to predict various forms of drug-related misconduct and crime. We found that—
similar to New York City during the 1990s—officers involved in drug-related corruption around
the nation often perpetrate various other kinds of crimes including drug trafficking, facilitation of
the drug trade, shakedowns, and other forms of theft. Less than one-third of the drug-related
cases involved the personal use of drugs by police officers. Our study also seems to suggest the
potential for ongoing problems associated with offenses related to opioid analgesics including
oxycodone and hydrocodone. More than 20% of all the drug-related cases involved either of
these two prescription pain killers. Significant public attention has recently focused on problems
related to opioid analgesics, including increases in overdose deaths and prescription violations
involving these powerful drugs. Our data suggest that these issues also impact police officers
and the nature and character of drug-related police crime.
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In terms of criminal case outcomes, police who perpetrate drug-related crimes are
significantly more likely to be convicted if the officer ultimately loses their job subsequent to the
drug-related arrest. More broadly, we found that job loss predicts conviction in just about every
sort of case of police crime, including those that are sex-related, alcohol-related, drug-related,
violence-related, and profit-motivated. The two primary outcomes analyzed in this study
including criminal case disposition and employment outcome are not isolated events. Job loss
and conviction influence one another in almost every case of police crime. Job loss provides a
context to interpret the perceived need for a criminal conviction and vice versa.
Violence-related Police Crime
There were 3,328 violence-related police crimes identified in the study. These cases
involved the most serious types of violent crime including 104 cases of murder or nonnegligent
manslaughter and 92 robberies; but, they most commonly involved either a simple assault (n =
870) or aggravated assault (n = 570). Less than one-half of the violence-related cases are known
to have resulted in a criminal conviction on at least one charge. But, if the case also involved the
perpetration of a sex-related crime the odds of conviction increase significantly. Moreover,
criminal convictions in violence-related police crimes seem to follow patterns that are consistent
with those of violent crimes in general. For example, cases of violence-related police crime are
significantly less likely to result in conviction if the officer knows the victim. This was also the
case for alcohol-related police crimes, suggesting that in some ways court outcomes in cases of
police crime are influenced by the same factors that shape court outcomes for any other type of
defendant.
Officer-involved domestic violence has become an important topic of concern for
scholars and police executives, and there were 961 cases of the officer-involved domestic
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violence included within the violence-related police crimes. Conviction on at least one charge is
significantly more likely in cases that involve fatal injuries and/or those that involved a violation
of a protection order. Other factors that increase the odds of conviction appear to relate to
factors other than the specific act of domestic violence, including obstruction, vandalism, or if
the case also involves a sex-related offense.
Profit-motivated Police Crime
There were 1,592 cases of profit-motivated police crime identified in the study. There
were 46 different offense categories for the most serious offense charged in these cases, but the
most serious offense charged in about 40% of these cases was unclassified theft, false
pretense/swindle, and/or thefts that involved a drug violation. Most of these cases also occurred
on the street-level—almost 80% of the profit-motivated crimes were perpetrated by officers in a
patrol or other street-level function. Thus, the profit-motivated police crimes in our study more
closely resembled the types of thefts perpetrated by traditional street-level criminals rather than
business executives, professionals, or other societal elites who are commonly the subject of
white-collar crime research. A conviction on at least one criminal charge in the profit-motivated
cases depended significantly on whether the case involved a drug-related shakedown. The
simple odds of conviction are 109 times greater if a profit-motivated case involved a drug-related
shakedown. Similar to other types of police crime, profit-motivated cases that involved an
officer who ultimately lost their job were significantly more likely to result in a criminal
conviction on at least one charged offense.
Civil Rights Litigation as a Correlate of Police Crime
The study included analyses that involved a cross-check of the names of each of the
arrested officers against the master name index in the federal court's PACER system. These
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analyses were used to explore whether arrested officers had ever been named in their official
capacity as a party defendant in a 42 U.S.C. §1983 federal court civil action at some point during
their law enforcement career, and to identify the factors that predict these actions. More
broadly, these analyses can be used to identify arrested officers who could potentially be
described as problem-prone since the federal lawsuit(s) may be indicative of performance
problems in a variety of job-related functions. We are aware of no previous empirical studies
that attempt to link the perpetration of police crimes to other forms of misconduct using the
PACER database. These types of analyses could potentially lead to new and improved
mechanisms to identify and mitigate various forms of police misconduct.
We found that many of the incidents giving rise to the federal court civil actions occurred
years or even decades prior to the arrest, and the lawsuits often had nothing to do with the
incident that prompted the arrest. Thus, the arrest case and the civil lawsuit(s) potentially
indicate the existence of problems across multiple job-related functions, or at least separate
instances of the same types of problems over time. The analyses designed to predict being
named as a party-defendant in federal court civil actions involving claims pursuant to 42 U.S.C.
§1983 seem to indicate at least three important facts. First, officers who are ultimately named as
defendants in §1983 federal court civil actions tend to get sued more than once for a variety of
civil rights causes of action. These lawsuits are not often isolated events. Second, officers who
perpetrate crimes while on-duty are significantly more likely to have been named as a Section
1983 defendant. These are officers whose misconduct tends to occur on-the-job and within their
official capacity, so their misdeeds are more likely to be the subject of civil rights litigation and
defined as involving a specific denial of a citizen's civil rights acting within their state actor role
as a police officer. Third, certain types of police crime tend to predict prior federal civil rights
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litigation. Many of these predictors seemed to be acts that were predatory or at least in some
ways violent or aggressive, including crimes involving cocaine, murder, non-negligent
manslaughter, kidnapping/abduction, and cases of family violence. More research focused on
the link between police crime and prior federal civil rights litigation is obviously necessary in
order to more fully identify, describe, and explore these relationships.
Implications for Policy and Practice
Mechanisms designed to identify and mitigate police misconduct include those that
originate both internal and external to the law enforcement organization. External controls
include local government, citizen review boards, the media, civil lawsuits, and the criminal
courts among others. These external controls clearly maintain certain advantages in terms of the
identification and mitigation of police misconduct. For example, the media often serves to
identify potential cases of misconduct. Likewise, local governments can and often do influence
the budget of law enforcement agencies. So too, civilian review boards have the potential to
integrate citizens and grass-roots organizations into the process of police discipline and reform.
The various external controls, however, do share some problems. Civilian review of the street-
level decisions of sworn law enforcement officers may engender a loss of trust and hesitancy in
situations that require immediate judgments. Likewise, street-level law enforcement officers will
probably mistrust any sort of external control. Also, external controls are in most cases limited
because they do not exert direct control over the policies and disciplinary processes of state and
local law enforcement organizations.
Internal mechanisms to control police misconduct originate from within each law
enforcement organization and primarily involve strategies to develop professionalism through
hiring and training; and, the creation, maintenance, and enforcement of procedures and rules that
200
comprise much of the bureaucracy of the police organization. The advantages of internal
controls are clear: members of the organization including law enforcement executives, first-line
supervisors, and internal affairs units are likely in the best position to identify and punish most
types of police crime. Thus, one of the primary goals of our research was to determine the
degree to which state and local law enforcement organizations identify and respond to cases of
police crime. These data are substantive in terms of policy and practice because they provide a
point of reference in terms of how frequently agencies identify police crimes through an arrest
and opportunities to assess the typical discipline imposed by law enforcement organizations in
these cases—and ultimately, the basis upon which to devise strategies to improve the internal
control of police misconduct.
Our data indicate that in most cases of police crime the arrest is made by a law
enforcement agency other than the officer's employing agency. Two-thirds of the 6,724 police
crime arrest cases originated from an arrest made by an agency other than the employing agency.
Why do employing law enforcement agencies often fail to make the arrest in cases of police
crime? The content analyses identified clear cases in which the employing agency should have
made the arrest and failed to do so. Policing scholars have always recognized that police do not
typically arrest other police officers. Sworn officers are likely to use their discretion and extend
a professional courtesy to other law enforcement officers, especially co-workers or in some cases
their close friends. These kinds of cases represent a failure of internal control and demonstrate
what has sometimes been referred to as a fox in the henhouse problem, one that illustrates the
need for some type of external controls of police misconduct and crime. One the other hand, the
low proportion of arrests made by the employing agency may also be legitimate. For example,
officers in many cases do not live within the jurisdictions they police, or they may live within the
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jurisdiction but choose to perpetrate their crimes elsewhere. The content analyses also identified
many arrest cases in which law enforcement executives purposively contacted other state and
local law enforcement agencies to investigate suspected police crimes or arrest one of their own
sworn officers to promote objectivity and limit the potential for bias in the investigation.
Clearly, determinations in regard to whether agencies can be relied upon to identify cases and the
overall effectiveness of internal mechanisms of control in this regard cannot be made solely on
the basis of whether the employing agency made the arrest in a case of police crime.
The ultimate internal control involves the imposition of progressive discipline and final
adverse employment outcomes, including reassignment, suspension, resignation, and termination
from the job. Very little is known about the operation of internal mechanisms of control and the
imposition of adverse employment outcomes in cases of police crime beyond perhaps studies
focused on a single police agency. The next part of this section is a discussion on the imposition
of adverse employment outcomes in terms of both the entire data set and selected results within
the types of police crime that we believe justify further comment. We then provide specific
recommendations to law enforcement agencies based on some of these findings.
Overall, sworn state and local law enforcement officers are known to have lost their job
as a result of the arrest in slightly more than one-half of the cases (54%). Clearly, law
enforcement organizations do not automatically terminate sworn officers who perpetrate crimes.
The organizational response to police crime varies rather widely across alcohol-related, drug-
related, sex-related, violence-related, and profit-motivated police crime. An arrest in and of
itself matters much less than the type of underlying criminal behavior that prompted the arrest.
For example, sworn law enforcement officers were known to have lost their job as a result of an
arrest in only 38% of the alcohol-related cases, while officers were known to have lost their job
202
as a result of the arrest in 72% of the sex-related cases and 70% of the drug-related cases. The
percentage of cases in which officers were known to have lost their jobs for violence-related and
profit-motivated cases was in between these extremes (53% and 68% respectively). The odds of
job loss decreased among drug-related cases when those cases also included an alcohol-related
offense. Differential rates of job loss across types of police crime may reflect perceptions of
threats to organizational legitimacy or degrees of outrage that vary considerably across crime
types. For example, cases involving police sexual violence (i.e., both sex- and violence-related
police crime) are significantly more likely to result in job loss than other types of police crime.
Other specific types of police crime are significantly less likely to result in job loss, including
drug-related crimes that involve marijuana and crimes of family violence. The comparatively
low rate at which family violence crimes result in job loss seems particularly troubling given the
fact that persons convicted of a qualifying misdemeanor crime of domestic violence—including
sworn law enforcement officers—are prohibited from possessing any firearm or ammunition
pursuant to the Lautenberg Amendment (1996).
More broadly, the data clearly demonstrate that the imposition of adverse employment
outcomes in cases of police crime is not an isolated event and depends upon other factors that
provide a meaningful context to these decisions and shape the perceptions of law enforcement
administrators and their determinations about appropriate levels of discipline. The most obvious
of the contextual factors that influence the likelihood of job loss is the imposition of other forms
of organizational discipline. State and local law enforcement organizations are significantly less
likely to separate (through involuntary termination or voluntary resignation) sworn officers from
the job who have instead been suspended and/or re-assigned as a result of an arrest. The
operation of external mechanisms of control also influences organizational decisions on whether
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or not to terminate the employment of arrested sworn officers, specifically criminal court
dispositions and whether or not an officer had been sued in federal court for a civil rights
violation. The odds that an officer will lose his or her job significantly increase if they are
criminally convicted on at least one charged offense associated with the arrest. Law enforcement
agencies are likely to view the conviction as a confirmation of both the criminal act and a degree
of public condemnation that is impossible to dismiss or ignore. Likewise, law enforcement
organizations clearly consider federal litigation and charges of other civil rights violations over
the course of the career as a context relevant to determining whether the arrestee is a problem-
prone officer who is more trouble than he or she is worth to the organization. Law enforcement
administrators and scholars interested in determining effective organizational responses to police
misconduct and crime need to recognize organizational discipline as a multivariate phenomenon
that should be interpreted within the context of other forms of control.
Decisions in regard to adverse employment outcomes also seem to depend on the degree
to which the arrested officer was engaged in his or her official role as a police officer at the time
of the arrest. For example, the odds of job loss in cases involving alcohol-related crimes
significantly increased if the officer was on-duty, and the odds of job loss significantly increased
in cases involving sex-related crime and profit-motivated crime if the officer was acting in his or
her official capacity. Criminal behavior that occurs on-duty and/or while an officer is acting in
his or her official capacity relates more directly to the job and poses more significant threats to
organizational legitimacy; and hence, tends to increase the likelihood that severe penalties will
be imposed in any particular case of police crime.
Finally, the likelihood of job loss sometimes depends on the closely associated factors of
agency size and the character of the jurisdiction, particularly for cases that involve either alcohol
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and/or drugs. For example, cases that involve alcohol-related crimes are significantly more
likely to result in job loss as the size of the employing police agency decreases. Likewise, cases
that involve drug-related crime are significantly more likely to result in job loss when they occur
in non-metropolitan counties. Sworn law enforcement officers who perpetrate these types of
crimes seem to be more vulnerable to the most punitive employment outcomes when they work
in smaller police agencies located within nonmetropolitan jurisdictions than officers who patrol
big-city beats. Crimes such as police DUI and or small-scale drug use are probably much more
newsworthy and difficult to ignore when they occur in small towns or rural jurisdictions. On the
other hand, these types of police crime may be less likely to be defined as a big deal by law
enforcement executives and residents who live in large metropolitan areas. Officers employed
by large urban law enforcement agencies may also in some ways be protected from the most
severe penalties by the complexity of large bureaucratic structures and/or more intricate
disciplinary procedures.
The points on final adverse employment outcomes provide context for the identification
and discussion of specific recommendations to law enforcement agencies based on our research.
Our first and perhaps most salient general observation about the data was that police crimes are
not uncommon and that they occur with some regularity in jurisdictions across the nation. The
sheer number of police crimes directly contradicts the presumption that they are perpetrated by a
small cadre of problem-prone officers; and, the fact that roughly two-thirds of all the cases
originated from an arrest made by an agency other than the employing agency reveals that in at
least some cases agencies are not aware of the crimes perpetrated by their own officers. State
and local law enforcement organizations routinely compel applicants to disclose criminal arrests
or orders of protection against them during pre-employment screening. Clearly, these
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requirements need to be extended to all on-the-job sworn employees to compel them to disclose
any criminal arrests or orders of protection so that police agencies can document and respond to
known cases of police crime. Strategies to mitigate police crime cannot succeed without
identification, and our research demonstrates the problems associated with the omission of
obvious and necessary policies to compel the disclosure of criminal arrests and protection orders.
Relatedly, state and local law enforcement organizations need to conduct routine annual
criminal background checks of every sworn officer. Annual criminal background checks serve
two primary purposes. First, they provide an additional check necessary to ensure compliance
with self-report procedures outlined above and to identify cases in which officers fail to disclose
arrests, convictions, or orders of protection lodged against them. Second, annual criminal
background checks would increase compliance with the requirements of the Lautenberg
Amendment (1996). Our data on sworn law enforcement officers arrested for crimes associated
with domestic violence demonstrates how some officers escape appropriate penalties, and
maintain their law enforcement job that requires them to carry a firearm. The problem stems at
least in part from the absence of any central registry or database of persons convicted of
misdemeanor crimes of domestic violence. Law enforcement agencies should require annual
criminal background checks to ensure the identification and documentation of police crimes
within the organization and to maintain compliance with federal law designed to protect victims
of family violence—especially in cases where the abuser is among those expected to enforce
domestic violence statutes.
We found that the organizational response to police crime varies rather widely across
jurisdictions, and that law enforcement agencies do not automatically terminate officers who
perpetrate crimes. These disparities likely relate to a host of factors associated with
206
organizational characteristics, characteristics of the offense(s), and the need to consider
disciplinary actions within the unique context of each individual case of police crime. So too,
many state and local law enforcement agencies operate under terms of a collective bargaining
agreement that structures organizational responses and acceptable forms of progressive discipline
and imposition of adverse employment outcomes. However in most cases, law enforcement
executives would benefit from some sort of formalized procedures designed to guide disciplinary
decisions and organizational responses to police crimes within the ranks. The guidelines would
necessarily be broad in scope and allow a degree of administrative discretion and case-by-case
consideration, but their existence would at the least ensure that some type of process is in place
and contribute to both regularity and consistency of organizational responses over time.
Finally, state and local law enforcement agencies should move toward the integration of
data on police crimes within existing systems designed to increase accountability as well as those
intended to provide practical assistance to sworn law enforcement officers both on and off the
job. Many law enforcement agencies have already implemented comprehensive personnel
assessment systems that collect a wide range of data and have the means to address a broad range
of problems, most commonly misconduct related to the use of force and citizen complaints.
These early intervention systems need to include the collection of data on the criminal arrests of
sworn law enforcement officers, because we know that police crimes occur with some regularity
and that their occurrence can in some cases be used as an indicator of problems in other areas of
the job. More bluntly, systems designed to provide an early warning of officers who are
problem-prone cannot be considered complete if they are unable to identify sworn law
enforcement officers who have perpetrated a criminal offense.
207
Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) could also utilize data on criminal arrests of
sworn law enforcement officers to identify and target officers who need help. These programs
typically provide personal and job-related counseling services. Police crime arrests are an
obvious indicator of the need for services to address a host of occupationally-derived problems
including psychological and mental health issues related to violence exposure, trauma, post-
traumatic stress disorder, substance abuse, lob-related stress, and work-family spillover effects.
This is especially true for sworn law enforcement officers who are combat veterans of the
military. In this regard, the content analyses revealed numerous arrest cases that were obviously
part of a much wider milieu and the build-up of long-term stressors—the proverbial tip of an
iceberg of job-related and personal crises that can in some cases lead to complete psychological
breakdowns that produce catastrophic consequences for the officer and his or her victims. These
events and unraveling can occur across the life course of any sworn law enforcement officer’s
career. Law enforcement agencies need to identify police crimes so they can use the information
to help officers who obviously need it and refer them to programs designed to provide practical
and in some cases life-saving assistance to them.
Implications for Further Research
The current research project identified and analyzed an unprecedented amount of data on
the arrests of nonfederal sworn law enforcement officers in the United States. The research data
collection methodology was designed by Stinson (2009) and allows for the aggregation of
information on the phenomenon of police crime that would not otherwise been possible (Payne,
2013). It would also be very difficult to process and code the content of the vast amount of raw
data analyzed in the current project without sophisticated database resources. The project is
supported by OnBase, an enterprise content management (ECM) database system. Originally the
208
research team utilized OnBase solely to archive digital image files of all the paper-based news
articles, court records, and coding sheets that were collected and analyzed by Stinson and
colleagues as part of their research on police crime. Over the past several years Stinson has
enhanced the project database with additional electronic files, including video files, audio files,
and the ability to search the full text of all the digital images contained in the project’s digital
imaging database. Appendix E presents an entity relationship of Stinson’s police crime database.
Several database components were added to the project ECM database to support the
current study, including an object-relational database that allows for data to be organized in
tables (a relational database component), as well as seamless integration with the digital imaging
and video files (an object-oriented database component) among others. Coding of content was
completed with a customized PC-based coding instrument using the IBM/SPSS Data Collection
software application. The coding instrument system pulls case-specific data from the relational
database into the on-screen coding instrument for each case to be coded, thus reducing coder
duplication of effort and the potential for coding errors. The data from the completed coding
instrument for each case is converted to an SPSS data file for subsequent statistical analyses, and
data files are also converted to an electronic coding sheet in an MS Word (a facsimile of our
paper-based coding instrument) and indexed in OnBase with other case-specific electronic files.
The data collection methodology and ECM research project database design deployed in
the current study can serve as an integrated model for other social science research projects
utilizing big data in a variety of structured and unstructured paper-based and electronic formats.
Most large research universities already utilize ECM database systems for nonresearch
applications (including admissions, operations, and administrative functions). These ECM
database systems could be made available to faculty researchers for database development in
209
large-scale content analysis research projects and other research methodologies. Similarly,
OnBase and other ECM database systems are often utilized by federal, state, and local
government agencies, including courts and law enforcement agencies. The costs of making such
systems available to research teams for research database projects would be de minimis when the
ECM system is already deployed for other uses within an organization.
Stinson and colleagues continue to collect data on the criminal arrests of sworn law
enforcement officers at state and local law enforcement agencies across the United States at a
rate of approximately 1,100 new arrest cases involving approximately 800-950 sworn law
enforcement officers arrested annually. The project ECM database now includes 11,131 criminal
arrest cases (as of this writing, for the eleven year period January 2005 through December 2015)
involving the arrests of 9,391 individual sworn law enforcement officers who were employed by
3,666 nonfederal state and local law enforcement officers located in 1,543 counties and
independent cities in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. The research team plans to
continue with the research project as a longitudinal trend study of police crime in the United
States.
We hope that the products disseminated from this study (and our larger project on police
crime research) serve as a starting point for the research projects of other scholars and student
researchers. An electronic copy of the data set (together with supporting documentation) for the
current study will be deposited in SPSS portable files with the National Archives of Criminal
Justice Data (NACJD) at the Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research
(ICPSR).
210
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232
DISSEMINATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS
Publications
Journal Articles
Stinson, P. M. (2015). Police crime: The criminal behavior of sworn law enforcement officers.
Sociology Compass, 9(1), 1-13. doi:10.1111/soc4.12234
Stinson, P. M., Brewer, S. L., Mathna, B. E., Liederbach, J., & Englebrecht, C. M. (2014). Police
sexual misconduct: Arrested officers and their victims. Victims & Offenders, 10(2), 117-151.
doi:10.1080/15564886.2014.939798
Stinson, P. M., Liederbach, J., Brewer, S. L., Jr., & Mathna, B. E. (2014). Police sexual
misconduct: A national scale study of arrested officers. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 26(7),
665-690. doi:10.1177/0887403414526231
Stinson, P. M., & Watkins, A. M. (2014). The nature of crime by school resource officers:
Implications for SRO programs. Sage Open, 4(1), 1-10. doi:10.1177/2158244014521821
Police Practice and Research: An international journal, 16(1), 79-93.
doi:10.1080/15614263.2013.846222
Stinson, P. M., Liederbach, J., Brewer, S. L., Jr., & Todak, N. E. (2013). Drink, drive, go to jail?
A study of police officers arrested for drunk driving. Journal of Crime and Justice, 37(3), 356-
376. doi:10.1080/0735648X.2013.805158
Stinson, P. M., Liederbach, J., Brewer, S. L., Jr., Schmalzried, H. N., Mathna, B. E., & Long, K.
L. (2013). A study of drug-related police corruption arrests. Policing: An International Journal
of Police Strategies & Management, 36(3), 491-511. doi:10.1108/PIJPSM-06-2012-0051
Stinson, P. M. & Liederbach, J. (2013). Fox in the henhouse: A study of police officers arrested
for crimes associated with domestic and/or family violence. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 24,
601-625. doi:10.1177/0887403412453837
Non-refereed Articles
Stinson, P. M. & Liederbach, J. (2013). Research-in-brief: Sex-related police misconduct. Police

Chief, 80(8), 14-15.
Stinson, P. M. & Liederbach, J. (2012). Research-in-brief: Misconduct by experienced police

officers. Police Chief, 79(11), 12.
Stinson, P. M. & Liederbach, J. (2012). Research-in-brief: Officer-involved domestic violence.

Police Chief, 79(9), 14.
233
Technical Reports
Stinson, P. M., Calogeras, Z. J., DiChiro, N. L., & Hunter, R. K. (2015). California police sexual
misconduct arrest cases, 2005-2011. Prepared for the California Research Bureau, California
State Library, Sacramento, CA.
Podcasts
Stinson, P. M. (2015, December). Police shootings: Does video evidence matter? Police Integrity
Lost (Audio podcast], Episode 27. Available at iTunes.
Stinson, P. M. (2015, November). What we know about police crime. Police Integrity Lost
(Audio podcast], Episode 26. Available at iTunes.
Stinson, P. M. (2015, October). Violence by school resource officers. Police Integrity Lost
(Audio podcast], Episode 25. Available at iTunes.
Stinson, P. M. (2015, July). Police crime in America: Phil Stinson at Porcfest 2015. Police
Integrity Lost [Audio podcast], Episode 24. Available at iTunes.
Stinson, P. M. (2015, May). Police shootings in Albuquerque. Police Integrity Lost [Audio
podcast], Episode 23. Available at iTunes.
Stinson, P. M. (2015, January). Research on crimes committed by sworn police officers. Police
Stinson, P. M. (2014, December). Police crime: Grand juries, juries and conviction of officers.
Police Integrity Lost [Audio podcast], Episode 21. Available at iTunes.
Stinson, P. M. (2014, November). Constitutional torts, section 1983, and police misconduct:
Presentation at 2014 ASC Conference. Police Integrity Lost [Audio podcast], Episode 20.
Available at iTunes.
Stinson, P. M. (2014, August). Gun-involved police crime arrests. Police Integrity Lost [Audio
Stinson, P. M., & Brewer, S. L. (2014, February). Victims of police sexual misconduct:
Presentation at 2014 ACJS conference. Police Integrity Lost [Audio podcast], Episode 18.
Available at iTunes.
Stinson, P. M. (2014, January). Research performance progress report for July-December 2013.
Stinson, P. M., & Watkins, A. M. (2013, December). Crime by school resource officers. Police
234
Stinson, P. M., & Brewer, S. L. (2013, November). Police integrity lost: Presentation at 2013
ASC conference. Police Integrity Lost [Audio podcast], Episode 15. Available at iTunes.
Stinson, P. M., & Liederbach, J. (2013, October). Police sexual misconduct: Policy implications.
Stinson, P. M. (2013, August). Police Crime Research Findings. Police Integrity Lost [Audio
Stinson, P. M. (2013, July). Research performance progress report for January-June 2013.
Stinson, P. M., & Liederbach, J. (2013, June). Police sexual misconduct arrests. Police Integrity
Lost [Audio podcast], Episode 11. Available at iTunes.
Stinson, P. M. (2013, May). Using a content management system: Police crime research methods
part 3. Police Integrity Lost [Audio podcast], Episode 10. Available at iTunes.
Stinson, P. M., Brewer, S. L., & Liederbach, J. (2013, April). Drunk driving cops. Police
Stinson, P. M., & Brewer, S. L. (2013, March). Using Google News for data collection: Police
crime research methods part 2. Police Integrity Lost [Audio podcast], Episode 8. Available at
iTunes.
Stinson, P. M., & Brewer, S. L. (2013, February). Decision Tree Analysis: Police crime research
methods part 1. Police Integrity Lost [Audio podcast], Episode 7. Available at iTunes.
Stinson, P. M., & Liederbach, J. (2013, January). Late-stage police crime. Police Integrity Lost
[Audio podcast], Episode 6. Available at iTunes.
Stinson, P. M., & Todak, N. E. (2012, December). Crime by policewomen. Police Integrity Lost
Stinson, P. M., & Liederbach, J. (2012, November). Police Criminal Misuse of TASERs. Police
Stinson, P. M., & Liederbach, J. (2012, October). Off-Duty police crime. Police Integrity Lost
Stinson, P. M., & Liederbach, J. (2012, September). Officer-involved domestic violence. Police
Stinson, P. M., Liederbach, J., & Brewer, S. L. (2012, August). Police drug corruption. Police
235
Stinson, P. M. & Liederbach, J. (2012). Fox in the henhouse: A study of police officers arrested
for crimes associated with domestic and/or family violence. Criminal Justice Policy Review
[Audio podcast]. Available at:
http://cjp.sagepub.com/content/early/2012/07/18/0887403412453837/suppl/DC1
Research Briefs
Stinson, P. M., Liederbach, J., Brewer, S. L., & Todak, N. E. (2013). Officers arrested for drunk
driving: Police Integrity Lost Research Brief One-Sheet, No. 6. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling
Green State University. Available at: http://www.bgsu.edu/departments/dhs/crju/file129810.pdf
Stinson, P. M., Reyns, B. W., & Liederbach, J. (2013). Police criminal misuse of conductive
energy devices: Police Integrity Lost Research Brief One-Sheet, No. 5. Bowling Green, OH:
Bowling Green State University. Available at:
http://www.bgsu.edu/departments/dhs/crju/file129809.pdf
Stinson, P. M., & Liederbach, J. (2012). Officer-involved domestic violence: Police Integrity
Lost Research Brief One-Sheet, No. 4. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University.
Available at: http://www.bgsu.edu/downloads/chhs/file118292.pdf
Stinson, P. M., Liederbach, J., Brewer, S., Schmalzried, H., Mathna, B. E., & Long, K. (2012).
Police drug corruption: What are the drugs of choice? Police Integrity Lost Research Brief One-
Sheet, No. 3. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University.
Available at: http://www.bgsu.edu/downloads/chhs/file118291.pdf
Stinson, P. M., Liederbach, J., & Freiburger, T. L. (2012). Off-duty crime by police officers:
Police Integrity Lost Brief One-Sheet, No. 2. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State
University. Available at: http://www.bgsu.edu/downloads/chhs/file118290.pdf
Stinson, P. M., Liederbach, J., & Freiburger, T. L. (2012). Late-stage police crime: Is it an exit
Strategy? Police Integrity Lost Research Brief One-Sheet, No. 1. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling
Green State University. Available at: http://www.bgsu.edu/downloads/chhs/file118289.pdf
Presentations
Stinson, P. M. (2015, November 4). Police crime: What we’ve learned and what we don’t know.
Center for Family and Demographic Research, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green,
OH.
Stinson, P. M. (2015, October 29). Police crime in the United States: From shootings to
shoplifting. Owens Community College, Findlay, OH.
Stinson, P. M. (2015, October 21). Use of data in research on police crime. Introduction to Data
Science Seminar, Department of Mathematics & Statistics, Bowling Green State University,
Bowling Green, OH.
236
Ory, R. & Stinson, P. M. (2015, September 24). Intercoder reliability assessment of

supplemental document coding in a quantitative content analysis study of police crime in the
United States. Annual meeting of the Midwestern Criminal Justice Association, Chicago, IL.
Stinson, P. M. (2015, June 27). Police integrity lost: Police crime in the United States. 12th
Annual Porcupine Freedom Festival (“PorcFest”), Free State Project, Lancaster, NH.
Buerger, M. E., & Stinson, P. M. (2015, March 16). Police misconduct & implicit bias research:
Bridging the gap? Ohio Attorney General, Bureau of Criminal Investigation, Bowling Green,
OH.
Stinson, P. M., Brewer, S. L., & Bridges, J. (2015, March 5). Violence-related police crime
arrests in the United States. Annual meeting of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences,
Orlando, FL.
Stinson, P. M., Brewer, S. L., Lanese, T., & Wilson, M. A. (2014, November 21). Federal civil
rights litigation pursuant to 42 U.S.C. §1983 as a correlate of police misconduct. Annual
meeting of the American Society of Criminology, San Francisco, CA.
Stinson, P. M., Carmack, E. J., Frankhouser, J. M., & Wilson, M. A. (2014, November 20).
Police crime arrests in the United States, 2011. Annual meeting of the American Society of
Criminology, San Francisco, CA.
Stinson, P.M., Brewer, S.L., Englebrecht, C.M., Liederbach, J., & Mathna, B.E. (2014, February
21). Police sexual misconduct: Arrested officers and their victims. Annual meeting of the
Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences, Philadelphia, PA.
Stinson, P. M. (2013, December 12). Police integrity lost: A study of law enforcement officers
arrested: Lessons learned. Bowling Green State University, College of Health and Human
Services, Colloquium.
Stinson, P. M., Liederbach, J., Lab, S. P., & Brewer, S. L. (2013, November 21). Police integrity
lost: A study of law enforcement officers arrested. Annual meeting of the American Society of
Criminology, Atlanta, GA.
Stinson, P. M., Brewer, S. L., Englebrecht, C. M., Mathna, B. E., & Liederbach, J. (2013,
November 21). Police sexual misconduct arrests: An exploratory CART analysis. Annual
meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Atlanta, GA.
Stinson, P. M. (2013, July 30). Police integrity lost: Preliminary findings of a national study of
law enforcement officers arrested. Conference on Police Misconduct sponsored by the APA
Division on Psychologists in Public Service, Section on Police and Public Safety at the annual
meeting of the American Psychological Association, Honolulu, HI.
237
Stinson, P. M., Liederbach, J., Brewer, S. L., Englebrecht, C. E., & Mathna, B. E. (2013, March
21). Police sexual misconduct arrests: An exploratory study. Annual meeting of the Academy of
Criminal Justice Sciences, Dallas, TX.
Stinson, P. M., Liederbach, J., Todak, E. N., & Brewer, S. L. (2012, November 15). Drunk
driving cops: A study of police officers arrested for DUI, 2005-2010. Annual meeting of the
American Society of Criminology, Chicago, IL.
Stinson, P. M., Liederbach, J., Brewer, S. L., Jr., Schmalzried, H. N., Mathna, B. E., & Long, K.
L. (2012, November 15). CHAID analysis of drug-related police corruption arrests. Annual
meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Chicago, IL.
Stinson, P. M. (2012, June 20). Police integrity lost: Preliminary findings from a study of law
enforcement officers arrested, 2005-2011. 2012 National Institute of Justice (NIJ) Conference,
Arlington, VA.
Stinson, P. M., Liederbach, J., Schmalzried, H., Long, K. L., & Mathna, B. E. (2012, March 16).
Officers’ drugs of abuse: A study of drug-related police crime. Annual meeting of the Academy
of Criminal Justice Sciences, New York, NY.
238
Table 1. Police Crime Arrest Cases, 2005-2011: Arrested Officers and Employing Agencies (N = 6,724)
n (%) n (%) n (%)
Sex Officer Duty Status Agency Type

Male 6,357 (94.5) On-Duty 2,793 (41.5) Primary State Police 269 (4.0)
Female 367 (5.5) Off-Duty 3,931 (58.5) Sheriff's Office 1,109 (16.5)
County Police Dept. 226 (3.4)
Age Rank Municipal Police Dept. 4,915 (73.1)
19-23 136 (2.0) Officer 5,095 (75.8) Special Police Dept. 174 (2.6)
24-27 603 (9.0) Detective 369 (5.5) Constable 15 (0.2)
28-31 886 (13.2) Corporal 123 (1.8) Tribal Police Dept. 14 (0.2)
32-35 967 (14.4) Sergeant 581 (8.7) Regional Police Dept. 2 (0.0)
36-39 1,081 (16.1) Lieutenant 177 (2.6)
40-43 885 (13.2) Captain 63 (0.9) Full-Time Sworn Officers
44-47 614 (9.1) Major 12 (0.2) 0 31 (0.4)
48-51 343 (5.1) Colonel 4 (0.1) 1 59 (0.9)
52-55 178 (2.6) Deputy Chief 49 (0.7) 2-4 274 (4.1)
56 or older 170 (2.5) Chief 251 (3.7) 5-9 376 (5.6)
Missing 861 (12.8) 10-24 684 (10.2)
Function 25-49 679 (10.1)
Years of Service Patrol & Street Level 5,464 (81.3) 50-99 704 (10.5)
0-2 756 (11.2) Line/Field Supervisor 881 (13.1) 100-249 859 (12.8)
3-5 954 (14.2) Management 379 (5.6) 250-499 653 (9.7)
6-8 666 (9.9) 500-999 548 (8.1)
9-11 622 (9.3) Region of United States 1,000 or more 1,857 (27.6)
12-14 507 (7.5) Northeastern States 1,430 (21.3)
15-17 409 (6.1) Midwestern States 1,380 (20.5) Part-Time Sworn Officers
18-20 387 (5.8) Southern States 2,906 (43.2) 0 5,008 (74.5)
21-23 194 (2.9) Western States 1,008 (15.0) 1 218 (3.3)
24-26 129 (1.9) 2-4 528 (7.9)
27 or more years 156 (2.3) Level of Rurality 5-9 419 (6.2)
Missing 1,944 (28.9) Metropolitan County 5,711 (84.9) 10-24 372 (5.5)
Non-Metro County 1,013 (15.1) 25-49 120 (1.8)
Arresting Agency 50-99 49 (0.7)
Employing Agency 2,277 (33.9) 100-249 8 (0.1)
Another Agency 4,447 (66.1) 250-499 2 (0.0)
239
Table 2. Most Serious Offense Charged in Police Crime Arrest Cases, 2005-2011 (N = 6,724)
n (%) n (%)
Simple Assault 877 (13.0) Online Solicitation of a Child 44 (0.7)

Driving Under the Influence 841 (12.5) Prostitution 42 (0.6)
Aggravated Assault 572 (8.5) Stolen Property Offenses 39 (0.6)
Forcible Fondling 352 (5.2) Indecent Exposure 38 (0.6)
Forcible Rape 322 (4.8) Kidnapping / Abduction 37 (0.6)
Drug / Narcotic Violation 308 (4.6) Shoplifting 31 (0.5)
All Other Larceny 274 (4.1) Hit & Run 27 (0.4)
All Other Offenses 265 (3.9) Restraining Order Violation 25 (0.4)
Intimidation 255 (3.8) Impersonation 22 (0.3)
False Pretenses / Swindle 218 (3.2) Drunkenness 22 (0.3)
Weapons Law Violation 143 (2.1) Theft from Motor Vehicle 21 (0.3)
Official Misconduct / Oppression / Violation of Oath 139 (2.1) Family Offenses, Nonviolent 20 (0.3)
False Report / False Statement 129 (1.9) Liquor Law Violation 19 (0.3)
Murder / Nonnegligent Manslaughter 125 (1.9) Evidence: Destroying / Tampering 17 (0.3)
Burglary / Breaking & Entering 112 (1.7) Assisting or Promoting Prostitution 12 (0.2)
Robbery 109 (1.6) Wire Fraud 10 (0.1)
Theft from Building 103 (1.5) Sexual Assault with an Object 10 (0.1)
Statutory Rape 100 (1.5) Gambling: Operating / Promoting 9 (0.1)
Other Sex Crime 98 (1.5) Credit Card Fraud / ATM Fraud 7 (0.1)
Extortion / Blackmail 95 (1.4) Motor Vehicle Theft 7 (0.1)
Forcible Sodomy 94 (1.4) Trespass of Real Property 7 (0.1)
Obstructing Justice 93 (1.4) Wiretapping, Illegal 6 (0.1)
Pornography / Obscene Material 86 (1.3) Incest 4 (0.1)
Civil Rights Violation 84 (1.2) Gambling: Betting / Wagering 3 (0.0)
Bribery 80 (1.2) Theft of Motor Vehicle Parts or Accessories 3 (0.0)
Embezzlement 79 (1.2) Peeping Tom 2 (0.0)
Disorderly Conduct 67 (1.0) Welfare Fraud 1 (0.0)
Negligent Manslaughter 62 (0.9) Pocket-picking 1 (0.0)
Arson 57 (0.8) Theft from Coin-operated Machine 1 (0.0)
Counterfeiting/ Forgery 51 (0.8) Bad Checks 1 (0.0)
Destruction of Property / Vandalism 46 (0.7)
Note . Table equals 99.9%. The last four categories collectively account for the missing 0.1%.
240
Table 3. Victim Characteristics in Police Crime Arrest Cases, 2005-2011 (N = 6,724)

n (%) (Valid %) n (%) (Valid %)
Victim's Sex Victim's Relationship

Female 2,246 (33.4) (61.2) Current Spouse 346 (5.1) (8.8)
Male 1,422 (21.2) (38.8) Former Spouse 68 (1.0) (1.7)
Missing 3,056 (45.4) Current Girlfriend or Boyfriend 202 (3.0) (5.1)
Former Girlfriend or Boyfriend 136 (2.0) (3.5)
Victim's Age Child or Stepchild 177 (2.7) (4.5)
Birth-11 185 (2.7) (10.0) Some Other Relative 95 (1.4) (2.4)
12-13 141 (2.1) (7.6) Unrelated Child 673 (10.0) (17.1)
14-15 248 (3.7) (13.4) Stranger or Acquaintance 2,237 (33.3) (56.9)
16-17 213 (3.2) (11.5) Missing 2,790 (41.5)
18-19 121 (1.8) (6.6)
20-24 223 (3.3) (12.1) Victim's Law Enforcement Status
25-32 296 (4.4) (16.0) Victim is Not a Police Officer 3,738 (55.6) (94.2)
33-41 214 (3.2) (11.6) Victim is a Police Officer 229 (3.4) (5.8)
42 or older 207 (3.1) (11.2) Missing 2,757 (41.0)
Missing 4,876 (72.5)
Victim Adult or Child
Adult 3,051 (45.3) (76.5)
Child 939 (14.0) (23.5)
Missing 2,734 (40.7)
241
Table 4. Chi-Square Predicting Conviction

Variable Label Variable N χ2 df p V
Gender V5 3934 5.482 1 .019 .037
Rank V7 3934 26.257 9 .002 .082
FTSWORN cat V10 3934 36.001 10 .000 .096
State V11 3934 142.585 50 .000 .190
Urban to Rural V13 3934 36.934 8 .000 .097
Arresting Agency V14 3934 8.497 1 .004 .046
Aggravated Assault V16 3934 34.925 1 .000 .094
Simple Assault V17 3934 127.681 1 .000 .180
Intimidation V18 3934 11.156 1 .001 .053
Bribery V19 3934 10.856 1 .001 .053
Burglary V20 3934 13.870 1 .000 .059
Drug/Narcotic V23 3934 56.106 1 .000 .119
Embezzlement V25 3934 19.423 1 .000 .070
Extortion/Blackmail V26 3934 26.793 1 .000 .083
False Pretenses/Swindle V27 3934 8.964 1 .003 .048
Impersonation V29 3934 5.048 1 .025 .036
Wire Fraud V31 3934 5.931 1 .015 .039
Theft from Building V43 3934 5.831 1 .016 .038
Theft / all other larceny V47 3934 7.746 1 .005 .044
Pornography V49 3934 21.882 1 .000 .075
Robbery V52 3934 12.581 1 .000 .057
Forcible Rape V53 3934 3.967 1 .046 .032
Forcible Sodomy V54 3934 13.219 1 .000 .058
Forcible Fondling V56 3934 11.077 1 .001 .053
Statutory Rape V58 3934 10.100 1 .001 .051
Online Solicitation of a Child V60 3934 6.657 1 .010 .041
Stolen Property Offenses V62 3934 10.333 1 .001 .051
Weapons Law violation V63 3934 6.421 1 .011 .040
Criminal Civil Rights Violation V65 3934 6.770 1 .009 .041
Driving Under the Influence V67 3934 13.548 1 .000 .059
Evidence: Destroying/Tampering V69 3934 5.688 1 .017 .038
Family Offenses, Nonviolent V71 3934 25.104 1 .000 .080
Liquor Law violation V73 3934 4.962 1 .026 .036
Gender of Victim V81 2225 6.922 1 .009 .056
242
Age of Victim V83 1186 110.509 1 .005 .305

Is the Victim a Child? V84 2397 34.675 1 .000 .120
Victim's Relationship to Offender V85 2374 114.234 7 .000 .219
Internal vs. Organizational V91 3934 20.205 2 .000 .072
Drug-related V93 3934 64.029 1 .000 .128
Alcohol-related V94 3934 3.794 1 .051 .031
Sex-related V95 3934 41.888 1 .000 .103
Violence-related V96 3934 72.332 1 .000 .136
Profit-motivated V97 3934 82.610 1 .000 .145
Police Sexual Violence V98 3934 14.144 1 .000 .060
Driving While Female Encounter V99 3934 4.130 1 .042 .032
Officer was Reassigned V102 3934 13.688 1 .000 .059
Officer was Suspended V104 3934 28.227 1 .000 .085
Discussion of Agency Scandal/Coverup V107 3934 4.408 1 .036 .033
Citizen Complaint as Method of Detection V108 3934 18.048 1 .000 .068
DUI-related Traffic Accident V110 3934 20.021 1 .000 .071
Injuries in DUI-related Traffic Accident V111 3934 13.864 1 .000 .059
DUI in a Personally-owned Vehicle V115 3934 15.255 1 .000 .062
Off-Duty Intervened in Existing Dispute V125 3934 5.234 1 .022 .036
Family Violence V126 3934 84.832 1 .000 .147
Heroin V129 3934 8.206 1 .004 .046
Oxycodone V133 3934 8.108 1 .004 .045
Benzodiazepines V137 3934 3.833 1 .050 .031
Cocaine V139 3934 40.311 1 .000 .101
Crack V140 3934 7.553 1 .006 .044
Amphetamine/Methamphetamine V141 3934 5.265 1 .022 .037
Marijuana V148 3934 12.971 1 .000 .057
OIDV: Weapon: Gun dept-issued V156 3934 4.004 1 .045 .032
OIDV: Weapon: Hands / Fist V164 3934 90.491 1 .000 .152
OIDV: Weapon: Miscellaneous Objects V166 3934 8.456 1 .004 .046
OIDV: Verbal Threats / Violent Ultimatums V167 3934 12.370 1 .000 .056
OIDV: Gun was Confiscated V168 3934 7.587 1 .000 .044
OIDV: Confiscated Gun was Returned V169 3934 15.729 1 .000 .063
OIDV: Order of Protection Filed V171 3934 12.261 1 .000 .056
OIDV: Victim Injured, Nonfatal V173 3934 97.134 1 .000 .157
OIDV: Victim Injured, Fatal V174 3934 4.710 1 .030 .035
243
Most Serious Offense Charged V183 3934 394.757 61 .000 .317

Drugs: Personal Use / Using V196 3934 6.964 1 .008 .042
Drugs: Selling / Dealing / Trafficking V197 3934 53.674 1 .000 .117
Drugs: Sexually-motivated Drug Crime V199 3934 6.282 1 .012 .040
Drugs: Facilitating Drug Trade V201 3934 25.713 1 .000 .081
Drugs: Shakedowns from Street Dealers V202 3934 12.135 1 .000 .056
Drugs: Shakedowns from Warrantless Searches V204 3934 9.089 1 .003 .048
Drugs: Shakedowns from Legitimate Raids/Searches V205 3934 5.931 1 .015 .039
Drugs: Shakedowns from Car Stops & Drug Couriers V206 3934 15.316 1 .000 .062
Drugs: Shakedowns from Off-Duty Robberies V207 3934 10.471 1 .001 .052
Drugs: Theft from Evidence Room V208 3934 8.363 1 .004 .046
Drugs: Shakedown (Aggregate of V202 thru V207) V210 3934 27.249 1 .000 .083
Narcotics Narcotics 3934 14.283 1 .000 .060
Stimulants Stimulants 3934 48.853 1 .000 .111
Hallucinogens Hallucinogens 3934 5.157 1 .023 .036
Cannabis Cannabis 3934 12.971 1 .000 .057
Age Categorical AgeCategorical 3934 48.283 10 .000 .111
Years of Service Categorical YearsServCat 3934 33.658 10 .000 .092
Geographic Region GeogRegion 3934 16.627 3 .001 .065
Geographic Division GeogDivision 3934 35.632 8 .000 .095
Victim Age Categorical VictimAgeCat 3934 40.074 9 .000 .101
244
Table 5. Logistic Regression Model Predicting Conviction (N = 2,195)

95% CI for Exp(B)
B SE Wald p Exp(B) LL UL
Rank -0.097 0.025 15.141 <.001 0.908 0.865 0.953
Full-Time Sworn Personnel Categorical -0.061 0.020 8.987 .003 0.941 0.904 0.979
Child Victim 0.379 0.135 7.830 .005 1.461 1.120 1.905
Victim Relationship to Offender 0.074 0.028 7.111 .008 1.076 1.020 1.136
Alcohol-related Crime 0.463 0.162 8.178 .004 1.589 1.157 2.183
Sex-related Crime 0.792 0.128 38.390 <.001 2.208 1.719 2.837
Profit-motivated Crime 0.572 0.198 8.334 .004 1.772 1.202 2.612
Suspended -0.342 0.112 9.247 .002 0.710 0.570 0.886
DUI in a Personally-owned Vehicle 1.058 0.374 7.990 .005 2.880 1.383 5.998
OIDV: Weapon: Verbal Threat / Violent Ultimatum 0.566 0.255 4.925 .026 1.760 1.068 2.901
OIDV: Victim Injured, Nonfatal -0.491 0.184 7.152 .007 0.612 0.427 0.877
OIDV: Victim Injured, Fatal 2.068 0.629 10.794 .001 7.907 2.303 27.147
Most Serious Offense Charged 0.006 0.003 5.727 .017 1.006 1.001 1.011
Drug Shakedown 2.641 1.027 6.610 .010 14.024 1.873 104.991
Age Categorical 0.033 0.013 6.831 .009 1.034 1.008 1.060
Years of Service Categorical 0.034 0.009 14.985 <.001 1.035 1.017 1.053
- 2 Log Likelihood 2457.484

Model Chi-Square 299.873 <.001
2
Cox & Snell R .128
2
Nagelkerke R .179 95% CI for AUC
2
ROC R .436 LL UL
AUC .718 .697 .740
245
Table 6. Chi-Square Predicting Job Loss

Age V3 5863 77.984 56 .028 .115
Years of Service V4 4780 69.760 43 .006 .121
Gender V5 6724 11.162 1 .001 .041
Duty Status V6 6724 207.332 1 .000 .176
Rank V7 6724 50.971 9 .000 .087
Type of Agency V9 6724 40.599 7 .000 .078
Fulltime Sworn Personnel V10 6724 112.921 10 .000 .130
State V11 6724 220.807 50 .000 .181
Parttime Sworn Personnel V12 6724 65.610 8 .000 .099
Urban to Rural Continuum V13 6724 105.161 8 .000 .125
Simple Assault V17 6724 126.794 1 .000 .137
Bribery V19 6724 46.927 1 .000 .084
Burglary V20 6724 13.198 1 .000 .044
Drug/Narcotic violation V23 6724 78.436 1 .000 .108
Drug Equipment violation V24 6724 3.841 1 .050 .024
Embezzlement V25 6724 14.052 1 .000 .046
Extortion V26 6724 22.444 1 .000 .058
False Pretenses/Swindle V27 6724 7.341 1 .007 .033
Wire Fraud V31 6724 16.759 1 .000 .050
Kidnapping/Abduction V39 6724 21.085 1 .000 .057
Theft / All Other Larceny V47 6724 36.182 1 .000 .073
Robbery V52 6724 24.813 1 .000 .061
Forcible Rape V53 6724 51.500 1 .000 .088
Sexual Assault with an Object V55 6724 6.851 1 .000 .032
Statutory Rape V58 6724 25.744 1 .000 .062
Other Sex Crime V61 6724 60.635 1 .000 .095
Criminal Civil Rights Violation V65 6724 40.001 1 .000 .077
Disorderly Conduct V66 6724 35.365 1 .000 .073
246

Drunkenness V68 6724 6.544 1 .011 .031
Evidence: Destroying/Tampering V69 6724 6.992 1 .008 .032
False Report / False Statement V70 6724 4.776 1 .029 .027
Hit & Run V72 6724 5.191 1 .023 .028
Official Misconduct V75 6724 41.620 1 .000 .079
Victim is a Police Officer V82 6724 5.541 1 .000 .037
Age of Victim V83 6724 111.533 1 .008 .247
Child Victim V84 6724 41.756 1 .000 .102
Victim Relationship to the Offender V85 6724 173.685 1 .000 .210
Organizational vs. Against Citizenry V90 6724 84.564 1 .000 .112
Official Capacity V92 6724 213.535 1 .000 .178
Drug-related V93 6724 91.325 1 .000 .117
Sex-related V95 6724 246.197 1 .000 .191
Officer was Demoted V103 6724 11.856 1 .000 .042
Officer's Chief is Under Scrutiny V106 6724 4.045 1 .044 .025
DUI in a Take-home Police Vehicle V113 6724 4.246 1 .039 .025
DUI in a Police Vehicle Out of Jurisdiction V114 6724 4.277 1 .039 .025
DUI in a Personally-Owned Vehicle V115 6724 127.325 1 .000 .138
DUI: Refused Field Sobriety Tests V116 6724 21.562 1 .000 .057
DUI: Refused BAC Test V117 6724 27.880 1 .000 .064
Off-Duty: Ordinance re On-Duty 24 Hours V118 6724 14.671 1 .000 .047
Off-Duty: Showed Police Weapon V121 6724 17.053 1 .000 .050
Off-Duty: Intervened in Existing Dispute V125 6724 4.690 1 .000 .026
247

DUI: Officer Resisted Arrest V127 6724 6.174 1 .013 .030
DUI: In Possession of Firearm while DUI V128 6724 7.087 1 .008 .032
Heroin V129 6724 21.896 1 .000 .057
Hydrocodone V131 6724 14.659 1 .000 .047
Oxycodone V133 6724 20.173 1 .000 .055
Other Narcotics V135 6724 9.726 1 .002 .038
Cocaine V139 6724 24.365 1 .000 .060
Crack V140 6724 6.594 1 .010 .031
Amphetamine/Methamphetamine V141 6724 9.954 1 .002 .038
Marijuana V148 6724 27.796 1 .000 .064
OIDV: Weapon: Gun - Personally Owned V157 6724 4.191 1 .041 .025
OIDV: Weapon: Hands/Fist V164 6724 60.566 1 .000 .095
OIDV: Confiscated Gun was Later Returned V169 6724 5.859 1 .015 .030
OIDV: Order of Protection Files V171 6724 5.811 1 .016 .029
OIDV: Victim Injury: Nonfatal V173 6724 38.573 1 .000 .076
42 USC 1981 Civil Defendant at Some Point V175 6724 4.963 1 .026 .027
28 USC 1441 Civil Action Removed V179 6724 17.956 1 .000 .052
Civil Rights Defendant - Aggregate V180 6724 19.365 1 .000 .054
18 USC 242 Criminal Deprivation of Rights V181 6724 63.724 1 .000 .097
Drugs: Using / Personal use V196 6724 15.137 1 .000 .047
Drugs: Shakedowns from Radio Runs V203 6724 4.809 1 .028 .027
Drugs: Shakedowns from Legit Raids/Search V205 6724 6.345 1 .012 .031
Drugs: Shakedowns from Car Stops V206 6724 19.536 1 .000 .054
Drugs: Shakedowns from Off-Duty Robbery V207 6724 11.829 1 .001 .042
248
Drugs: Shakedowns - Aggregate V210 6724 30.844 1 .001 .068

Depressants Depressants 6724 5.367 1 .021 .028
DUI in a Police Vehicle DUIPoliceVe 6724 4.610 1 .032 .026
Age Categorical AgeCat 6724 162.221 10 .000 .155
Metro County versus Nonmetro County CountyDichot 6724 52.989 1 .000 .089
Rank Function RankFunction 6724 26.425 2 .000 .063
Victim Age Difference VicAgeDiff 6724 162.449 103 .000 .155
249
Table 7. Logistic Regression Model Predicting Job Loss (N = 1,288)

95% CI for Exp(B)
Urban to Rural County Continuum (V13) 0.110 0.053 4.350 .037 1.116 1.007 1.237
Internal versus Organizational Crime (V91) 0.155 0.022 49.935 <.001 1.168 1.119 1.219
Alcohol-related Crime (V94) 0.431 0.173 6.204 .013 1.538 1.096 2.159
Sex-related Crime (V95) 0.857 0.150 32.577 <.001 2.356 1.755 3.162
Police Sexual Violence (V98) 0.548 0.213 6.621 .010 1.730 1.139 2.626
Officer was Reassigned (V102) -1.062 0.327 10.519 .001 0.346 0.182 0.657
Officer was Suspended (V104) -0.955 0.153 38.988 <.001 0.385 0.285 0.519
Family Violence (V126) -0.670 0.158 17.993 <.001 0.512 0.376 0.697
Marijuana (V148) -3.128 0.778 16.173 <.001 0.044 0.010 0.201
42 USC §1985 Civil Defendant at Some Point (V177) 1.251 0.485 6.670 .010 3.495 1.352 9.036
Geographic Division 0.053 0.026 4.286 .038 1.054 1.003 1.109

2
Cox & Snell R .171
2
2
ROC R .276 LL UL
AUC .638 .625 .652
250
Table 8. Chi-Square Predicting Sex-Related Police Crime Arrests

Gender V5 6724 87.851 1 .000 .114
Duty Status V6 6724 16.704 1 .000 .050
Rank V7 6724 25.566 9 .002 .062
Arson V15 6724 8.698 1 .003 .036
Simple Assault V17 6724 150.617 1 .000 .150
Bribery V19 6724 44.045 1 .000 .081
Burglary V20 6724 7.159 1 .007 .033
Counterfeiting V21 6724 16.887 1 .000 .050
Destruction of Property / Vandalism V22 6724 27.393 1 .000 .064
Drug / Narcotic Violation V23 6724 115.283 1 .000 .131
Embezzlement V25 6724 33.883 1 .000 .071
Extortion / Blackmail V26 6724 4.816 1 .028 .027
False Pretenses / Swindle V27 6724 68.565 1 .000 .101
Impersonation V29 6724 6.878 1 .009 .032
Murder & Nonnegligent Manslaughter V36 6724 31.126 1 .000 .068
Kidnapping / Abduction V39 6724 142.166 1 .000 .145
Shoplifting V42 6724 8.980 1 .003 .037
Theft from Motor Vehicle V46 6724 6.446 1 .011 .031
Robbery V52 6724 27.327 1 .000 .064
Weapons Law violations V63 6724 67.587 1 .000 .100
Criminal Civil Rights violations V65 6724 4.322 1 .038 .025
Drunkenness V68 6724 10.320 1 .001 .039
Evidence: Destroying / Tampering V69 6724 3.975 1 .046 .024
Hit & Run V72 6724 32.100 1 .000 .069
Obstruction of Justice V74 6724 11.470 1 .001 .041
Peeping Tom V76 6724 7.163 1 .007 .033
251
Restraining Order violation V77 6724 4.596 1 .032 .026

Trespass of Real Property V78 6724 6.388 1 .011 .031
All Other Offenses V80 6724 48.023 1 .000 .085
Age of Victim V83 1848 592.004 79 .000 .566
Victim is a Child V84 3990 684.979 1 .000 .414
Relationship of Victim to Offender V85 3934 909.238 7 .000 .481
Drug-related V93 6724 137.383 1 .000 .143
Discussion of Agency Scandal or Cover up V107 6724 28.459 1 .000 .065
Off-Duty: 24-Hour Ordinance V118 6724 3.865 1 .049 .024
Off-Duty: Identified Self as Police Officer V119 6724 12.151 1 .000 .043
Off-Duty: Showed a Police Weapon V121 6724 30.300 1 .000 .067
Off-Duty: Flashed Badge V122 6724 4.592 1 .032 .026
Off-Duty: Conducted a Search V123 6724 5.322 1 .021 .028
Off-Duty: Made an Arrest V124 6724 5.884 1 .015 .030
Heroin V129 6724 8.841 1 .003 .036
Hydrocodone V131 6724 12.488 1 .000 .043
Oxycodone V133 6724 25.191 1 .000 .061
Cocaine V139 6724 56.932 1 .000 .092
Crack V140 6724 11.586 1 .001 .042
Amphetamine / Methamphetamine V141 6724 12.453 1 .000 .043
Marijuana V148 6724 19.006 1 .000 .053
Testosterone V151 6724 4.760 1 .029 .027
252
Other Anabolic Steroid V152 6724 5.768 1 .016 .029

OIDV: Weapon: Dept-issued Gun V156 6724 13.016 1 .000 .044
OIDV: Weapon: Personal Gun V157 6724 13.098 1 .000 .044
OIDV: Weapon: Other Body parts V165 6724 54.637 1 .000 .090
OIDV: Verbal Threats & Violent Ultimatums V167 6724 11.503 1 .001 .041
OIDV: Article Mentions DV gun prohibition V170 6724 7.923 1 .005 .034
OIDV: Officer Violated Order of Protection V172 6724 7.700 1 .006 .034
28 USC 1441 Civil Rights Case Removed V179 6724 10.452 1 .001 .039
Federal Civil Rights Defendant - Aggregate V180 6724 6.649 1 .010 .031
18 USC 242 Criminal Defendant at Some Pt V181 6724 4.816 1 .028 .027
Drugs: Personal Use V196 6724 57.821 1 .000 .093
Drugs: Forge Prescription V198 6724 9.262 1 .002 .037
Drugs: Planting Evidence V200 6724 9.262 1 .002 .037
Drugs: Shakedowns from Warrantless Searches V204 6724 19.472 1 .000 .054
Drugs: Shakedowns from Legit Searches V205 6724 9.262 1 .002 .037
Drugs: Falsification V209 6724 15.340 1 .000 .049
253
Depressants Depressants 6724 8.026 1 .005 .035

Hallucinogens Hallucinogens 6724 6.446 1 .011 .031
Anabolic Steroids AnabolicSter 6724 9.929 1 .002 .038
Victim Age Difference VictimAgeDif 6724 1406.902 103 .000 .457
254
Table 9. Logistic Regression Model Predicting Sex-related Cases (N = 1,809)

95% CI for Exp(B)
Duty Status (V6) 0.451 0.191 5.580 .018 1.570 1.080 2.282
Gender of Victim (V81) -3.476 0.189 338.398 <.001 0.031 0.021 0.045
Child Victim (V84) 1.895 0.199 90.357 <.001 6.654 4.502 9.835
Victim Relationship to Offender (V85) 0.342 0.076 20.302 <.001 1.407 1.213 1.633
Alcohol-related Crime (V94) -1.403 0.251 31.300 <.001 0.246 0.150 0.402
Profit-motivated Crime (V97) -2.175 0.624 12.156 <.001 0.114 0.033 0.386
Agency Scandal / Cover up (V107) -0.851 0.365 5.423 .020 0.427 0.209 0.874
Citizen Complaint as Method of Crime Detection (V108) 1.981 0.224 78.517 <.001 7.247 4.676 11.230
Off-Duty: Identified Self as an Officer (V119) -1.114 0.412 7.308 .007 0.328 0.146 0.736
Family Violence (V126) -1.320 0.343 14.793 <.001 0.267 0.136 0.524
OIDV: Weapon: Hands/Fist (V164) -1.470 0.394 13.955 <.001 0.230 0.106 0.497
OIDV: Weapon: Miscellaneous Objects (V166) -3.012 0.879 11.737 .001 0.049 0.009 0.276
42 USC §1983 Civil Defendant at Some Point (V176) -0.724 0.184 15.493 <.001 0.485 0.338 0.695
Victim Age Difference 0.055 0.006 72.946 <.001 1.056 1.043 1.069

2
Cox & Snell R .547
2
2
ROC R .878 LL UL
AUC .939 .931 .947
255
Table 10. Chi-Square Predicting Alcohol-related Police Crime Arrests

Age V3 5863 89.049 56 .003 .123
Duty Status V6 6724 630.074 1 .000 .306
Type of Agency V9 6724 23.819 7 .001 .060
FT Sworn Categorical V10 6724 34.433 10 .000 .072
State V11 6724 182.106 50 .000 .165
Arson V15 6724 5.855 1 .016 .030
Simple Assault V17 6724 10.496 1 .001 .040
Intimidation V18 6724 50.668 1 .000 .087
Bribery V19 6724 39.829 1 .000 .077
Burglary V20 6724 22.387 1 .000 .058
Counterfeiting/Forgery V21 6724 20.501 1 .000 .055
Property Damage / Vandalism V22 6724 9.494 1 .002 .038
Embezzlement V25 6724 34.343 1 .000 .071
Credit Card / ATM Fraud V28 6724 5.544 1 .000 .029
Impersonation V29 6724 8.144 1 .004 .035
Wire Fraud V31 6724 8.197 1 .004 .035
Shoplifting V42 6724 8.463 1 .004 .035
Pornography V49 6724 19.694 1 .000 .054
Prostitution V50 6724 10.571 1 .001 .040
Assisting or Promoting Prostitution V51 6724 4.312 1 .038 .025
Robbery V52 6724 27.760 1 .000 .064
Forcible Rape V53 6724 35.279 1 .000 .072
Statutory Rape V58 6724 23.282 1 .000 .059
Indecent Exposure V59 6724 4.173 1 .041 .025
256

Other Sex Crime V61 6724 25.129 1 .000 .061
Criminal Civil Rights violation V65 6724 41.862 1 .000 .079
Hit & Run V72 6724 240.993 1 .000 .189
Gender of the Victim V81 3668 20.668 1 .000 .075
Age of Victim V83 1848 172.884 79 .000 .306
Drug-related V93 6724 124.399 1 .000 .136
Sex-related V95 6724 259.429 1 .000 .196
Officer was Reassigned to Another Position V102 6724 52.795 1 .000 .089
Officer was Demoted in Rank V103 6724 10.025 1 .002 .039
Discussion of Agency Scandal or Cover up V107 6724 21.420 1 .000 .056
Off-Duty: In Police Uniform V120 6724 7.750 1 .005 .034
Heroin V129 6724 12.770 1 .000 .044
257
Hydrocodone V131 6724 18.415 1 .000 .052

Oxycodone V133 6724 21.331 1 .000 .056
Cocaine V139 6724 46.465 1 .000 .083
Crack V140 6724 13.009 1 .000 .044
Marijuana V148 6724 21.913 1 .000 .057
Testosterone V151 6724 4.502 1 .034 .026
Other Anabolic Steroids V152 6724 5.364 1 .021 .028
OIDV: Weapon: Miscellaneous Object V166 6724 5.920 1 .015 .030
OIDV: Verbal Threats or Violent Ultimatum V167 6724 6.447 1 .011 .031
OIDV: Victim Injured: Nonfatal V173 6724 23.276 1 .000 .059
OIDV: Victim Injured: Fatal V174 6724 5.883 1 .015 .030
42 U.S.C. 1983 Defendant at Some Point V176 6724 42.196 1 .000 .079
42 U.S.C. 1985 Defendant at Some Point V177 6724 6.191 1 .013 .030
42 U.S.C. 1997 Plaintiff is a Prisoner V178 6724 12.140 1 .000 .042
28 U.S.C. 1441 Civil Rights Case Removed V179 6724 9.198 1 .002 .037
18 U.S.C. 242 Criminal Defendant V181 6724 26.456 1 .000 .063
Drugs: Using / Personal Use V196 6724 25.808 1 .000 .062
Drugs: Forged Prescription V198 6724 8.760 1 .003 .036
Drugs: Shakedowns from Warrantless Search V204 6724 18.415 1 .000 .052
Drugs: Shakedowns from Legit Search/Raids V205 6724 8.760 1 .003 .036
Drugs: Shakedowns from Car Stops / Couriers V206 6724 15.454 1 .000 .048
258

Anabolic Steroids AnabolicSter 6724 9.292 1 .002 .037
Age of Victim Categorical VicAgeCat 6724 102.029 9 .000 .123
259
Table 11. Logistic Regression Model Predicting Alcohol-related Arrest Cases (N = 3,248)
95% CI for Exp(B)
Duty Status (V6) -2.511 0.183 189.197 <.001 0.081 0.057 0.116
Child Victim (V84) -1.323 0.219 36.481 <.001 0.266 0.173 0.409
Victim Relationship to Offender (V85) 0.161 0.025 42.205 <.001 1.175 1.119 1.234
Organizational Crime versus Against Citizenry (V90) -1.339 0.245 29.768 <.001 0.262 0.162 0.424
Sex-related Crime (V95) -1.359 0.210 41.766 <.001 0.257 0.170 0.388
Violence-related Crime (V96) -0.352 0.163 4.656 .031 0.703 0.511 0.968
Police Sexual Violence (V98) 0.974 0.277 12.401 <.001 2.649 1.540 4.557
Suspended (V104) 0.458 0.131 12.246 <.001 1.581 1.223 2.044
Agency Scandal / Cover Up (V107) 0.780 0.254 9.420 .002 2.181 1.326 3.589
Citizen Complaint as Method of Crime Detection (V108) -0.339 0.140 5.882 .015 0.713 0.542 0.937
Off-Duty: In Uniform (V120) -2.421 1.040 5.421 .020 0.089 0.012 0.682
Marijuana (V148) 1.792 0.512 12.247 <.001 6.000 2.200 16.369
OIDV: Victim Injured, Fatal (V174) -2.073 1.032 4.037 .045 0.126 0.017 0.951
42 USC §1997 Civil Defendant at Some Point (V178) -0.626 0.307 4.162 .041 0.535 0.293 0.976
18 USC §242 Criminal Defendant at Some Point (V181) -1.253 0.574 4.768 .029 0.286 0.093 0.880
Most Serious Offense Charged (V183) 0.012 0.003 16.185 <.001 1.012 1.006 1.018
Victim Age Difference 0.018 0.005 14.298 <.001 1.018 1.009 1.028

2
Cox & Snell R .151
2
2
ROC R .604 LL UL
AUC .802 .781 .823
260
Table 12. Chi-Square Predicting Drug-related Police Crime Arrests

Age V3 5863 87.066 56 .005 .122
Duty Status V6 6724 116.700 1 .000 .132
Rank V7 6724 34.999 9 .000 .072
Fulltime Sworn Personnel Categorical V10 6724 29.917 10 .001 .067
State V11 6724 100.646 50 .000 .122
Simple Assault V17 6724 130.214 1 .000 .139
Intimidation V18 6724 17.812 1 .000 .051
Burglary V20 6724 16.056 1 .000 .049
Counterfeiting/Forgery V21 6724 5.766 1 .016 .029
Extortion V26 6724 62.225 1 .000 .096
Negligent Manslaughter V37 6724 8.469 1 .004 .035
Shoplifting V42 6724 3.964 1 .046 .024
Pornography V49 6724 4.434 1 .035 .026
Robbery V52 6724 236.476 1 .000 .188
Forcible Rape V53 6724 23.288 1 .000 .059
Statutory Rape V58 6724 14.219 1 .000 .046
Other Sex Crime V61 6724 16.635 1 .000 .050
Criminal Deprivation of Civil Rights V65 6724 22.141 1 .000 .057
Hit & Run V72 6724 5.154 1 .023 .028
261

Age of Victim V83 1848 140.050 79 .000 .275
Child Victim V84 3990 15.568 1 .000 .062
Victim Relationship to Offender V85 3994 35.490 7 .000 .095
Sex-related V95 6724 138.637 1 .000 .144
Officer's Supervisor was Disciplined V105 6724 19.700 1 .000 .054
Discussion of Agency Scandal / Cover Up V107 6724 97.812 1 .000 .121
DUI On-Duty in Police Vehicle V112 6724 18.624 1 .000 .053
DUI in Personally-owned Vehicle V115 6724 34.411 1 .000 .072
DUI: Refused BAC Tests V117 6724 16.369 1 .000 .049
OIDV: Weapon: Personal Gun V157 6724 6.671 1 .010 .031
262

OIDV: Article Mentions Gun Prohibition V170 6724 4.395 1 .036 .026
OIDV: Order of Protection Files V171 6724 15.025 1 .000 .047
42 U.S.C. 1983 Civil Defendant at Some Point V176 6724 25.553 1 .000 .062
28 U.S.C. 1441 Civil Rights Case Removed V179 6724 6.848 1 .009 .032
Geographic Division GeogDiv 6724 22.297 8 .004 .058
Rank by Function RankFunc 6724 8.329 2 .016 .035
Victim Age Categorical VicAgeCat 6724 209.599 9 .000 .177
Victim Age Difference VicAgeD 6724 217.928 103 .000 .180
263
Table 13. Logistic Regression Model Predicting Drug-related Arrest Cases (N = 1,697)
95% CI for Exp(B)
State (V11) -0.048 0.015 10.621 .001 0.953 0.926 0.981
Pornography (V49) 2.344 0.538 18.979 <.001 10.418 3.630 29.902
Forcible Rape (V53) 1.107 0.522 4.496 .034 3.026 1.087 8.422
False Report / False Statement (V70) 2.818 0.592 22.665 <.001 16.742 5.248 53.414
Obstruction of Justice (V74) 2.590 0.558 21.503 <.001 13.324 4.459 39.807
Alcohol-related Crime (V94) 1.532 0.507 9.125 .003 4.626 1.712 12.496
Sex-related Crime (V95) 1.396 0.563 6.149 .013 4.040 1.340 12.180
Profit-motivated Crime (V97) 3.629 0.691 27.598 <.001 37.691 9.731 145.984
Officer was Reassigned (V102) 1.374 0.674 4.154 .042 3.951 1.054 14.812
Injuries in DUI-related Traffic Accident (V111) 1.561 0.746 4.375 .036 4.764 1.103 20.569

2
Cox & Snell R .054
2
2
ROC R .290 LL UL
AUC .645 .622 .668
264
Table 14. Chi-Square Predicting Violence-related Police Crime

Arrests
Age V3 5863 111.463 56 .000 .138
Gender V5 6724 26.172 1 .000 .062
Duty Status V6 6724 107.403 1 .000 .126
Rank V7 6724 82.183 9 .000 .111
Type of Agency V9 6724 22.106 7 .002 .057
Full-Time Sworn Personnel - Categorical V10 6724 33.913 10 .000 .071
State V11 6724 133.605 50 .000 .141
Urban / Rural Continuum V13 6724 31.404 8 .000 .068
Intimidation V18 6724 223.928 1 .000 .182
Bribery V19 6724 8.133 1 .004 .035
Counterfeiting / Forgery V21 6724 72.379 1 .000 .104
Destruction of Property / Vandalism V22 6724 21.213 1 .000 .056
Drug / Narcotic violation V23 6724 296.215 1 .000 .210
Drug Equipment violation V24 6724 18.245 1 .000 .052
Embezzlement V25 6724 116.048 1 .000 .131
Impersonation V29 6724 31.433 1 .000 .068
Wire Fraud V31 6724 26.671 1 .000 .063
Gambling: Betting / Wagering V32 6724 3.922 1 .048 .024
Gambling: Operating / Promoting V33 6724 11.781 1 .001 .042
Shoplifting V42 6724 31.509 1 .000 .068
Theft: All Other Larceny V47 6724 251.356 1 .000 .193
Pornography V49 6724 30.348 1 .000 .067
Prostitution V50 6724 19.132 1 .000 .053
265
Assisting or Promoting Prostitution V51 6724 6.525 1 .011 .031

Hit & Run V72 6724 39.878 1 .000 .077
Restraining Order Violation V77 6724 11.806 1 .001 .042
All Other Offenses V80 6724 23.533 1 .000 .059
Age of Victim V83 1848 166.314 79 .000 .300
Child Victim V84 3990 21.316 1 .000 .073
Drug-related V93 6724 331.322 1 .000 .222
Sex-related V95 6724 357.899 1 .000 .231
Injuries in a DUI-related Traffic Accident V111 6724 65.197 1 .000 .098
DUI On-Duty in a Police Vehicle V112 6724 39.546 1 .000 .077
DUI in a Take-home Police Vehicle V113 6724 62.541 1 .000 .096
266
DUI in Police Vehicle Out of Jurisdiction V114 6724 26.671 1 .000 .063
DUI: Refused BAC Tests V117 6724 123.689 1 .000 .136
Off-Duty: Showed a Police Weapon V121 6724 199.916 1 .000 .172
DUI: In Possession of a Firearm V128 6724 41.105 1 .000 .078
Heroin V129 6724 28.330 1 .000 .065
Morphine V130 6724 4.385 1 .036 .026
Hydrocodone V131 6724 40.060 1 .000 .077
Hydromorphone V132 6724 4.904 1 .027 .027
Oxycodone V133 6724 49.756 1 .000 .086
Other Depressants V138 6724 12.148 1 .000 .043
Cocaine V139 6724 68.269 1 .000 .101
Crack V140 6724 39.100 1 .000 .076
Other Stimulants V143 6724 3.922 1 .048 .024
MDMA & Analogs V144 6724 10.797 1 .001 .040
Phencyclidine & Analogs V146 6724 7.849 1 .005 .034
Other Hallucinogens V147 6724 3.922 1 .048 .024
Marijuana V148 6724 32.825 1 .000 .070
Testosterone V151 6724 16.702 1 .000 .050
28 USC 1441 Civil Rights Case Removed V179 6724 52.819 1 .000 .089
18 USC 242 Criminal Defendant V181 6724 26.437 1 .000 .063
267

Drugs: Shakedown from Radio Runs V203 6724 11.998 1 .001 .042
Drugs: Shakedown from Warrantless Search V204 6724 6.895 1 .009 .032
Drugs: Shakedown from Legit Raid/Search V205 6724 21.657 1 .000 .057
Drugs: Shakedown from Car Stops V206 6724 7.371 1 .007 .033
Drugs: falsification V209 6724 32.781 1 .000 .070
Depressants Depress 6724 26.700 1 .000 .063
Stimulants Stimula 6724 118.852 1 .000 .133
Hallucinogens Hallucino 6724 22.617 1 .000 .058
Anabolic Steroids AnabSter 6724 32.269 1 .000 .069
DUI in a Police Vehicle DUIinaP 6724 108.082 1 .000 .127
Years of Service Categorical YrsServCa 6724 44.068 10 .000 .081
Metro vs. Nonmetro County CountyDi 6724 13.247 1 .000 .044
Geographic Region GeogReg 6724 21.266 3 .000 .056
Victim Age Difference VicAgeDif 6724 879.176 103 .000 .362
268
Table 15. Logistic Regression Model Predicting Violence-related Arrest Cases (N = 1,286)
95% CI for Exp(B)
Age (V3) 0.057 0.016 13.075 <.001 1.058 1.026 1.092
Years of Service (V4) -0.040 0.017 5.230 .022 0.961 0.929 0.994
Type of Agency (V9) 0.163 0.080 4.143 .042 1.177 1.006 1.376
Child Victim (V84) -1.277 0.217 34.716 <.001 0.279 0.182 0.427
Victim Relationship to Offender (V85) -0.325 0.108 9.107 .003 0.723 0.585 0.892
Internal versus Organizational Crime (V91) 0.064 0.026 6.239 .012 1.066 1.014 1.121
Profit-motivated Crime (V97) -3.998 0.477 70.258 <.001 0.018 0.007 0.047
Suspended (V104) 0.400 0.178 5.038 .025 1.492 1.052 2.115
Citizen Complaint as Method of Crime Detection (V108) 0.820 0.194 17.867 <.001 2.271 1.552 3.322
DUI-related Traffic Accident (V110) -2.287 0.303 56.845 <.001 0.102 0.056 0.184
Most Serious Offense Charged (V183) -0.054 0.006 84.071 <.001 0.948 0.937 0.959

2
Cox & Snell R .255
2
2
ROC R .688 LL UL
AUC .844 .826 .862
269
Table 16. Chi-Square Predicting Profit-Motivated Police Crime

Arrests
Age V3 5863 105.411 56 .000 .134
Duty Status V6 6724 633.147 1 .000 .307
Rank V7 6724 55.541 9 .000 .091
Full-Time Sworn Categorical V10 6724 28.640 10 .001 .065
State V11 6724 244.278 50 .000 .191
Part-Time Sworn Categorical V12 6724 17.341 8 .027 .051
Arson V15 6724 5.758 1 .016 .029
Simple Assault V17 6724 348.894 1 .000 .228
Intimidation V18 6724 53.258 1 .000 .089
Burglary V20 6724 72.653 1 .000 .104
Property Destruction / Vandalism V22 6724 22.339 1 .000 .058
Impersonation V29 6724 65.165 1 .000 .098
Pornography V49 6724 41.733 1 .000 .079
Prostitution V50 6724 10.476 1 .001 .039
Forcible Rape V53 6724 105.167 1 .000 .125
Incest V57 6724 4.348 1 .037 .025
Statutory Rape V58 6724 46.582 1 .000 .083
Other Sex Crime V61 6724 57.460 1 .000 .092
270

Drunkenness V68 6724 19.080 1 .000 .053
Hit & Run V72 6724 35.944 1 .000 .073
Restraining Order Violation V77 6724 12.159 1 .000 .043
Age of Victim V83 1848 211.386 79 .000 .338
Drug-related V93 6724 580.101 1 .000 .294
Sex-related V95 6724 492.371 1 .000 .271
DUI in Take-Home Police Vehicle V113 6724 25.730 1 .000 .062
DUI in Police Vehicle Out of Jurisdiction V114 6724 9.653 1 .002 .038
271

DUI-Refused BAC Test V117 6724 62.246 1 .000 .096
DUI: In Possession of a Firearm V128 6724 28.911 1 .000 .066
Heroin V129 6724 82.346 1 .000 .111
Hydrocodone V131 6724 19.915 1 .000 .054
Oxycodone V133 6724 36.133 1 .000 .073
Gamma Hydroxybutyric Acid V136 6724 6.454 1 .011 .031
Cocaine V139 6724 380.676 1 .000 .238
Crack V140 6724 76.983 1 .000 .107
MDMA & Analogs V144 6724 27.585 1 .000 .064
Phencyclidine & Analogs V146 6724 18.071 1 .000 .052
Marijuana V148 6724 176.476 1 .000 .162
Testosterone V151 6724 11.666 1 .001 .042
OIDV: Weapon: Personally-owned Gun V157 6724 27.001 1 .000 .063
OIDV: Weapon: Knife V163 6724 4.660 1 .031 .026
OIDV: Weapon: Other Body Parts V165 6724 22.830 1 .000 .058
OIDV: Article Mentions Gun Prohibition V170 6724 16.243 1 .000 .049
OIDV: Order of Protection was Filed V171 6724 38.163 1 .000 .075
272
42 U.S.C. 1985 Civil Defendant V177 6724 14.891 1 .000 .047

Stimulants Stimul 6724 441.677 1 .000 .256
Hallucinogens Hallucin 6724 44.397 1 .000 .081
Cannabis Cannab 6724 176.476 1 .000 .162
Anabolic Steroids Anabol 6724 43.764 1 .000 .081
DUI in a Police Vehicle DUIinP 6724 44.963 1 .000 .082
Years of Service Categorical YrsServC 6724 24.044 10 .007 .060
Metro or Nonmetro County CountyDi 6724 9.943 1 .002 .038
273
Table 17. Logistic Regression Model Predicting Profit-motivated Arrest Cases (N = 1,330)
95% CI for Exp(B)
Duty Status (V6) 0.926 0.398 5.417 .020 2.525 1.158 5.510
Age of Victim (V83) 0.076 0.024 9.953 .002 1.079 1.029 1.131
Sex-related Crime (V95) -2.340 0.655 12.784 <.001 0.096 0.027 0.347
Violence-related Crime (V96) -2.808 0.435 41.592 <.001 0.060 0.026 0.142
Citizen Complaint as Method of Crime Detection (V108) 1.777 0.596 8.900 .003 5.911 1.840 18.997
42 USC §1985 Civil Defendant at Some Point (V177) 1.662 0.784 4.496 .034 5.268 1.134 24.477
Victim Age Difference 0.046 0.022 4.557 .033 1.047 1.004 1.092

2
Cox & Snell R .080
2
2
ROC R .740 LL UL
AUC .870 .801 .939
274
Table 18. Chi-Square Predicting Being Named a Party-Defendant in 42 U.S.C. 1983 Litigation at Some Point
Age V3 5863 198.143 56 .000 .184
Gender V5 6724 30.465 1 .000 .067
Duty Status V6 6724 203.914 1 .000 .174
Rank V7 6724 125.643 9 .000 .137
Type of Agency V9 6724 30.828 7 .000 .068
Full-Time Sworn Personnel Categorical V10 6724 60.276 10 .000 .095
State V11 6724 346.944 50 .000 .227
Part-Times Sworn Personnel Categorical V12 6724 25.560 8 .001 .062
Urban to Rural Continuum Code V13 6724 75.487 8 .000 .106
Bribery V19 6724 9.418 1 .002 .037
Pornography / Obscene Material V49 6724 11.702 1 .001 .042
Robbery V51 6724 19.811 1 .000 .054
Incest V57 6724 4.417 1 .036 .026
Criminal Civil Rights Deprivation V65 6724 97.041 1 .000 .120
Drunkenness V68 6724 3.964 1 .046 .024
275

Age of Victim V83 1848 159.139 79 .000 .293
Child Victim V84 3990 31.977 1 .000 .090
Drug-related V93 6724 25.553 1 .000 .062
Sex-related V95 6724 6.121 1 .013 .030
Officer was Demoted in Rank V103 6724 4.697 1 .030 .026
Off-Duty: Identified Self as a Police Officer V119 6724 4.289 1 .038 .025
Oxycodone V133 6724 6.647 1 .010 .031
Cocaine V139 6724 29.094 1 .000 .066
Crack V140 6724 6.285 1 .012 .031
Marijuana V148 6724 8.800 1 .003 .036
276
OIDV: Victim Injury, Nonfatal V173 6724 8.627 1 .003 .036

28 U.S.C. 1441 Civil Rights Action Removed V179 6724 1192.487 1 .000 .421
Drugs: Shakedown from Street Dealers V202 6724 118.716 1 .000 .133
Drugs: Shakedown from Warrantless Search V204 6724 95.587 1 .000 .119
Drugs: Shakedown from Legit Search/Raid V205 6724 28.690 1 .000 .065
Drugs: Shakedown - Aggregate V210 6724 99.877 1 .000 .122
Drugs: Stimulants Stimul 6724 21.921 1 .000 .057
Drugs: Cannabis Cannab 6724 8.800 1 .003 .036
Years of Service Categorical YrsServC 6724 155.578 10 .000 .152
Metro or NonMetro County CountyD 6724 15.672 1 .000 .048
Victim Age Categorical VictimAg 6724 90.534 9 .000 .116
Victim Age Difference VicAgeDi 6724 157.015 103 .000 .153
277
Table 19. Logistic Regression Model Predicting Being Named a 42 USC §1983 Party-Defendant at Some Point (N = 1,278)
95% CI for Exp(B)
Years of Service (V4) 0.067 0.010 43.606 <.001 1.069 1.048 1.091
Duty Status (V6) 1.086 0.187 33.762 <.001 2.962 2.054 4.273
Full-Time Sworn Personnel Categorical (V10) 0.071 0.030 5.498 .019 1.073 1.012 1.139
Murder & Nonnegligent Manslaughter (V36) 0.692 0.282 6.011 .014 1.998 1.149 3.475
Kidnapping/Abduction (V39) 0.753 0.272 7.669 .006 2.123 1.246 3.617
Victim Relationship to Offender (V85) 0.175 0.065 7.308 .007 1.191 1.049 1.352
Driving While Female Encounter (V99) 0.934 0.346 7.285 .007 2.544 1.291 5.011
Officer was Assigned to Another Position (V102) 0.854 0.334 6.544 .011 2.349 1.221 4.518
Officer's Supervisor was Disiplined / Reassigned (V105) 2.369 0.488 23.592 <.001 10.686 4.108 27.796
DUI in a Privately-owned Vehicle (V115) -1.348 0.465 8.421 .004 0.260 0.104 0.645
Off-Duty: Identified Self as an Officer (V119) 1.060 0.301 12.374 <.001 2.885 1.599 5.208
Family Violence (V126) 0.737 0.285 6.688 .010 2.090 1.195 3.653
Cocaine (V139) 2.007 0.747 7.227 .007 7.440 1.722 32.140
42 USC §1981 Civil Defendant at Some Point (V175) 3.962 0.718 30.421 <.001 52.584 12.863 214.965
18 USC §242 Criminal Defendant at Some Point (V181) 1.837 0.639 8.264 .004 6.276 1.794 21.956
Most Serious Offense Charged (V183) -0.019 0.004 23.805 <.001 0.981 0.974 0.989

2
Cox & Snell R .227
2
2
ROC R .486 LL UL
AUC .743 .723 .764
278
Table 20. Sex-related Police Crime Arrest Cases, 2005-2011: Arrested Officers and Employing Agencies (N = 1,475)
n (%) n (%) n (%)

Male 1,467 (99.5) On-Duty 682 (46.2) Primary State Police 61 (4.1)
Female 8 (0.5) Off-Duty 793 (53.8) Sheriff's Office 280 (19.0)
36-39 261 (17.6) Lieutenant 37 (2.5)
44-47 163 (11.1) Major 1 (0.1) 0 20 (1.3)
48-51 87 (5.9) Colonel 0 (0.0) 1 12 (0.8)
52-55 49 (3.3) Deputy Chief 7 (0.5) 2-4 85 (5.8)
56 or older 48 (3.3) Chief 59 (4.0) 5-9 112 (7.6)
Missing 78 (5.3) 10-24 145 (9.8)
Function 25-49 165 (11.2)
3-5 246 (16.7) Management 76 (5.1) 250-499 144 (9.8)
6-8 163 (11.0) 500-999 125 (8.5)
9-11 168 (11.4) Region of United States 1,000 or more 349 (23.6)
12-14 119 (8.1) Northeastern States 259 (17.6)
15-17 84 (5.7) Midwestern States 242 (16.4) Part-Time Sworn Officers
18-20 91 (6.1) Southern States 658 (44.6) 0 1,031 (69.9)
21-23 38 (2.6) Western States 316 (21.4) 1 64 (4.3)
24-26 44 (3.0) 2-4 162 (11.0)
Missing 280 (19.0) Metropolitan County 1,229 (83.3) 10-24 77 (5.2)
Non-Metro County 246 (16.7) 25-49 28 (1.9)
Employing Agency 556 (37.7) 100-249 4 (0.3)
Another Agency 919 (62.3) 250-499 0 (0.0)
279
Table 21. Most Serious Offense Charged in Sex-related Police Crime Arrest Cases, 2005-2011 (N = 1,475)
n (%) n (%)
Forcible Fondling 352 (23.9) Burglary / Breaking & Entering 7 (0.5)

Forcible Rape 322 (21.8) Disorderly Conduct 7 (0.5)
Statutory Rape 100 (6.8) Arson 6 (0.4)
Unclassified Sex Crime 98 (6.6) Unclassified Theft / Larceny 6 (0.4)
Forcible Sodomy 94 (6.4) Drug / Narcotic violation 4 (0.3)
Pornography / Obscene Material 86 (5.8) Incest 4 (0.3)
Intimidation 52 (3.5) False Report / False Statement 4 (0.3)
Online Solicitation of a Child 44 (3.0) Destroying / Tampering Evidence 3 (0.2)
Prostitution 42 (2.8) Obstruction of Justice 3 (0.2)
Simple Assault 37 (2.5) False Pretenses / Swindle 2 (0.1)
Indecent Exposure 37 (2.5) Wire Fraud 2 (0.1)
Official Misconduct / Oppression 35 (2.4) Murder / Nonnegligent Manslaughter 2 (0.1)
Aggravated Assault 25 (1.7) Theft from Building 2 (0.1)
Bribery 19 (1.3) Robbery 2 (0.1)
Kidnapping / Abduction 13 (0.9) Liquor Law violation 2 (0.1)
Criminal Deprivation of Civil Rights 13 (0.9) Peeping Tom 2 (0.1)
Extortion / Blackmail 12 (0.8) Credit Card / ATM Fraud 1 (0.1)
Assisting or Promoting Prostitution 12 (0.8) Stolen Property Offenses 1 (0.1)
Sexual Assault with an Object 10 (0.7) Weapons Law violation 1 (0.1)
Other / Unclassified Offenses 10 (0.7) Restraining Order / Protection Order violation 1 (0.1)
280
Table 22. Victim Characteristics in Sex-related Police Crime Arrest Cases, 2005-2011 (N = 1,475)
n (%) (Valid %) n (%) (Valid %)

Male 143 (9.7) (11.0) Former Spouse 5 (0.4) (0.4)
Missing 172 (11.7) Current Girlfriend or Boyfriend 15 (1.0) (1.1)
12-13 118 (8.0) (14.5) Unrelated Child 527 (35.7) (39.3)
14-15 202 (13.7) (24.8) Stranger or Acquaintance 658 (44.6) (49.1)
16-17 139 (9.4) (17.1) Missing 134 (9.1)
18-19 54 (3.7) (6.6)
42 or older 14 (0.9) (1.7) Missing 131 (8.9)
Missing 661 (44.8)
Adult 721 (48.9) (52.4)
Child 656 (44.5) (47.6)
Missing 98 (6.6)
281
Table 23. Bivariate Associations of Conviction in Sex-related Arrest Cases

2
Variable Label Variable N χ df p V
Year of Arrest V2 986 22.294 6 .001 .150
Gender V5 986 4.061 1 .044 .064
Duty Status V6 986 7.117 1 .008 .085
Rank V7 986 23.227 8 .003 .153
Full-Time Sworn Personnel (categorical) V10 986 19.604 10 .033 .141
State V11 986 80.347 48 .002 .285
Part-Time Sworn Personnel (categorical) V12 986 16.568 7 .020 .130
Urban / Rural Continuum V13 986 16.956 8 .031 .131
Pornography V49 986 11.451 1 .001 .108
Drunkenness V68 986 4.061 1 .044 .064
Age of Victim V83 541 86.980 50 .001 .401
Child Victim V84 920 25.110 1 .000 .165
Victim's Relationship to the Offender V85 905 36.740 7 .000 .201
28 U.S.C. §1441 Civil Case Removed V179 986 4.365 1 .037 .067
18 U.S.C. §242 Criminal Defendant V181 986 10.527 1 .001 .103
Job Lost joblostbin 986 36.614 1 .000 .193
Geographic Region geogreg 986 10.588 3 .014 .104
Geographic Division geogdiv 986 19.175 8 .014 .139
Rank Function rankfunc 986 10.143 2 .006 .101
Victim Age Categorical vicagecat 986 21.231 9 .012 .147
282
Table 24. Sex-related Arrest Cases: Logistic Regression Model Predicting Conviction (N = 447)
95% CI for Exp(B)
Years of Service 0.056 0.021 7.353 .007 1.058 1.016 1.102
Pornography / Obscene Material 1.737 0.769 5.107 .024 5.678 1.259 25.608
Child Victim 0.728 0.279 6.832 .009 2.071 1.200 3.575
Lost Job 1.661 0.293 32.044 < .001 5.266 2.963 9.360

2
Cox & Snell R .106
2
2
ROC R .346 LL UL
AUC .673 .621 .725
283
Table 25. Bivariate Associations of Job Loss in Sex-related Police Crime Arrest Cases
2
Year of Arrest V2 1,475 135.487 6 .000 .303
Age V3 1,397 68.062 46 .019 .221
Years of Service V4 1,195 62.775 36 .004 .229
Gender V5 1,475 20.753 1 .000 .119
Duty Status V6 1,475 5.692 1 .017 .062
Type of Agency V9 1,475 15.908 7 .026 .104
Full-Time Sworn Personnel (categorical) V10 1,475 41.867 10 .000 .168
State V11 1,475 111.725 48 .000 .275
Part-Time Sworn Personnel (categorical) V12 1,475 39.503 7 .000 .164
Urban / Rural Continuum V13 1,475 20.333 8 .009 .117
Arresting Agency V14 1,475 5.911 1 .015 .063
Bribery V19 1,475 13.207 1 .000 .095
Kidnapping / Abduction V39 1,475 5.104 1 .024 .059
Prostitution V50 1,475 9.096 1 .003 .079
Forcible Fondling V56 1,475 6.148 1 .013 .065
Incest V57 1,475 5.991 1 .014 .064
Indecent Exposure V59 1,475 7.600 1 .006 .072
Unclassified Sex Crime V61 1,475 8.111 1 .004 .074
Criminal Deprivation of Civil Rights V65 1,475 4.892 1 .027 .058
Internal Crime Against the Organization V91 1,475 34.420 2 .000 .153
Official Capacity V92 1,475 7.595 1 .006 .072
Violence-related V96 1,475 6.956 1 .008 .069
Police Sexual Violence V98 1,475 4.849 1 .028 .057
Driving While Female Encounter V99 1,475 15.105 1 .000 .101
Suspended V104 1,475 42.412 1 .000 .170
Crime Detected by Citizen Complaint V108 1,475 9.246 1 .002 .079
Conviction V109 986 36.614 1 .000 .193
Off-Duty: In Uniform V120 1,475 5.478 1 .019 .061
Marijuana V148 1,475 4.857 1 .028 .057
42 U.S.C. §1983 Civil Defendant V176 1,475 9.706 1 .002 .081
28 U.S.C. §1441 Civil Case Removed V179 1,475 5.434 1 .020 .061
18 U.S.C. §242 Criminal Defendant V181 1,475 7.627 1 .006 .072
Geographic Region geogreg 1,475 21.667 3 .000 .121
Geographic Division geogdiv 1,475 27.896 8 .000 .138
284
Table 26. Sex-related Arrest Cases: Logistic Regression Model Predicting Job Loss (N = 801)
95% CI for Exp(B)
Year of Arrest 0.339 0.061 31.037 < .001 1.404 1.246 1.582
Age -0.036 0.012 8.489 .004 0.965 0.942 0.988
Internal Crime Against the Organization 0.121 0.045 7.167 .007 1.129 1.033 1.234
Official Capacity 0.890 0.282 9.973 .002 2.435 1.402 4.231
Driving While Female Encounter 0.999 0.455 4.825 .028 2.715 1.114 6.620
Suspended -0.942 0.255 13.651 < .001 0.390 0.236 0.642
Conviction 1.341 0.237 31.918 < .001 3.824 2.401 6.089
Marijuana -1.929 0.693 7.740 .005 0.145 0.037 0.566
42 U.S.C. §1983 Civil Defendant at Some Point 0.798 0.254 9.879 .002 2.221 1.350 3.653

2
Cox & Snell R .162
2
2
ROC R .544 LL UL
AUC .772 .733 .810
285
Table 27. Bivariate Associations of Child Victims in Sex-related Arrest Cases

Age V3 1,311 125.721 46 .000 .310
Duty Status V6 1,377 323.355 1 .000 .485
State V11 1,377 121.063 48 .000 .297
Urban to Rural Continuum V13 1,377 48.962 8 .000 .189
Aggravated Assault V16 1,377 30.395 1 .000 .149
Simple Assault V17 1,377 24.392 1 .000 .133
Intimidation V18 1,377 41.325 1 .000 .173
Bribery V19 1,377 46.090 1 .000 .183
Burglary V20 1,377 20.342 1 .000 .122
Extortion V26 1,377 11.053 1 .001 .090
Unclassified Theft / Larceny V47 1,377 3.983 1 .046 .054
Pornography V49 1,377 99.843 1 .000 .269
Prostitution V50 1,377 21.057 1 .000 .124
Forcible Rape V53 1,377 25.396 1 .000 .136
Incest V57 1,377 10.497 1 .001 .087
Statutory Rape V58 1,377 179.498 1 .000 .361
Indecent Exposure V59 1,377 13.792 1 .000 .100
On-Line Solicitation of a Child V60 1,377 61.773 1 .000 .212
Weapons Law violation V63 1,377 7.014 1 .008 .071
Disorderly Conduct V66 1,377 6.308 1 .012 .068
False Report / False Statement V70 1,377 6.207 1 .013 .067
Obstruction of Justice V74 1,377 5.408 1 .020 .063
Official Misconduct / Oppression V75 1,377 161.527 1 .000 .342
Unclassified Offenses V80 1,377 23.373 1 .000 .130
Gender of Victim V81 1,296 51.951 1 .000 .200
286

Profit-motivated V97 1,377 9.394 1 .002 .083
Discussion of Agency Scandal or Cover Up V107 1,377 5.352 1 .021 .062
Method of Crime Detection V108 1,377 28.531 1 .000 .144
Conviction V109 920 25.110 1 .000 .165
Off-Duty: Showed Police Weapon V121 1,377 13.870 1 .000 .100
Family Violence V126 1,377 20.034 1 .000 .121
OIDV: Weapon: Personally Owned Gun V157 1,377 4.566 1 .033 .058
OIDV: Weapon: Hands / Fists V164 1,377 4.361 1 .037 .056
OIDV: Verbal Threats / Violent Ultimatums V167 1,377 6.308 1 .012 .068
OIDV: Victim Injured, nonfatal V173 1,377 6.194 1 .013 .067
42 U.S.C. §1983 Civil Defendant Some Point V176 1,377 60.897 1 .000 .210
Age Categorical agecat 1,377 50.515 10 .000 .192
Years of Service Categorical yrsservcat 1,377 31.988 10 .000 .152
287
Table 28. Sex-related Arrest Cases: Logistic Regression Model Predicting Child Victims (N = 722)
95% CI for Exp(B)
Duty Status -1.798 0.315 32.509 < .001 0.166 0.089 0.307
Full-Time Sworn Personnel (categorical) -0.195 0.054 13.134 < .001 0.823 0.741 0.915
Urban to Rural Continuum Code -0.194 0.087 5.004 .025 0.824 0.695 0.976
Aggravated Assault -2.688 0.771 12.155 < .001 0.068 0.015 0.308
Intimidation -1.556 0.561 7.692 .006 0.211 0.070 0.634
Kidnapping / Abduction -1.390 0.455 9.322 .002 0.249 0.102 0.608
Forcible Fondling 1.245 0.259 23.100 < .001 3.474 2.091 5.774
Indecent Exposure -1.357 0.517 6.880 .009 0.257 0.093 0.710
Unclassified Sex Crime 1.434 0.353 16.479 < .001 4.195 2.099 8.382
Weapons Law violation -3.054 1.125 7.367 .007 0.047 0.005 0.428
Obstruction of Justice -3.822 1.191 10.289 .001 0.022 0.002 0.226
Gender of Victim 1.816 0.452 16.148 < .001 6.144 2.535 14.896
Violence-related -1.658 0.402 17.046 < .001 0.191 0.087 0.419
Police Sexual Violence -0.986 0.312 10.008 .002 0.373 0.202 0.687
Driving While Female Encounter -1.744 0.578 9.115 .003 0.175 0.056 0.542
Discussion of Agency Scandal or Cover Up 1.861 0.577 10.412 .001 6.427 2.076 19.900
Conviction 0.799 0.285 7.869 .005 2.223 1.272 3.883
Family Violence 0.941 0.399 5.557 .018 2.563 1.172 5.606

2
Cox & Snell R .503
2
2
ROC R .840 LL UL
AUC .920 .902 .938
288
Table 29. Bivariate Associations of Conviction in Police Sexual Violence Arrest Cases
2
Year of Arrest V2 431 18.185 6 .006 .205
Statutory Rape V58 431 3.966 1 .046 .096
Victim's Relationship V85 427 20.988 6 .002 .222
Job Lost Binary joblostbin 431 22.139 1 .000 .227
Georgraphic Division geogdiv 431 15.821 8 .045 .192
289
Table 30. Police Sexual Violence Arrest Cases: Logistic Regression Model Predicting Conviction (N = 427)
95% CI for Exp(B)
Forcible Sodomy 1.146 0.495 5.368 .021 3.146 1.193 8.297

Forcible Fondling -0.779 0.260 8.965 .003 0.459 0.276 0.764
Child Victim 1.321 0.389 11.529 .001 3.748 1.748 8.037
Lost Job 1.329 0.325 16.750 < .001 3.778 1.999 7.140

2
Cox & Snell R .099
2
2
ROC R .422 LL UL
AUC .711 .647 .774
290
Table 31. Bivariate Assocations of Job Loss in Police Sexual Violence Arrest Cases
2
Year of Arrest V2 622 60.900 6 .000 .313
Gender V5 622 18.253 1 .000 .171
Type of Agency V9 622 17.772 6 .007 .169
Full-Time Sworn (categorical) V10 622 18.829 10 .042 .174
State V11 622 78.683 45 .001 .356
Part-Time Sworn (categorical) V12 622 17.903 7 .012 .170
Simple Assault V17 622 4.288 1 .038 .083
Intimidation V18 622 7.658 1 .006 .111
Bribery V19 622 9.214 1 .002 .122
Burglary V20 622 5.451 1 .020 .094
Other / Unclassified Sex Crime V61 622 6.219 1 .013 .100
Official Misconduct / Oppression V75 622 7.616 1 .006 .111
All Other Offenses / Unclassified V80 622 5.706 1 .017 .096
Internal Crime Against the Organization V91 622 52.301 1 .000 .290
Suspended V104 622 23.630 1 .000 .195
Conviction V109 431 22.139 1 .000 .227
Years of Service Categorical yrsservcat 622 25.372 10 .005 .202
Rank by Function rankfunc 622 8.663 2 .013 .118
291
Table 32. Police Sexual Violence Arrest Cases: Logistic Regression Model Predicting Job Loss (N = 354)
95% CI for Exp(B)
Part-Time Sworn Personnel (categorical) 0.639 0.217 8.682 .003 1.894 1.238 2.896
Weapons Law violation -2.504 1.137 4.846 .028 0.082 0.009 0.760
Internal Crime Against the Organization 0.260 0.051 25.790 < .001 1.297 1.173 1.433
Driving While Female Encounter 1.178 0.494 5.681 .017 3.249 1.233 8.560
Conviction 1.741 0.434 16.068 < .001 5.705 2.435 13.366
Years of Service (categorical) -0.262 0.083 9.904 .002 0.770 0.654 0.906

2
Cox & Snell R .167
2
2
ROC R .470 LL UL
AUC .735 .651 .819
292
Table 33. Bivariate Associations of Conviction in Driving While Female Police Crime Arrest Cases
2
Year of Arrest V2 126 14.407 6 .025 .338
Burglary V20 126 9.101 1 .003 .269
Unclassified Theft / Larceny V47 126 4.827 1 .028 .196
Economically-motivated V88 126 4.514 1 .034 .189
Against the Citizenry V90 126 4.514 1 .034 .189
Cocaine V139 126 4.514 1 .034 .189
42 U.S.C. §1983 V176 126 3.728 1 .054 .172
Job Loss (binary) joblossbin 126 3.967 1 .046 .177
Stimulant stimulant 126 4.514 1 .034 .189
Age Categorical agecat 126 18.588 8 .017 .384
Rank Function rankfunc 126 5.769 1 .016 .214
293
Table 34. Driving While Female Encounters Arrest Cases: Logistic Regression Model Predicting Conviction (N = 126)
95% CI for Exp(B)
Sexual Assault with an Object -2.050 1.029 3.969 .046 0.129 0.017 0.967
Forcible Fondling -1.324 0.557 5.659 .017 0.266 0.089 0.792
Alcohol-related -2.705 0.993 7.416 .006 0.067 0.010 0.468
42 U.S.C. §1983 Civil Defendant at Some Point 1.438 0.579 6.167 .013 4.214 1.354 13.113

2
Cox & Snell R .219
2
2
ROC R .662 LL UL
AUC .831 .741 .921
294
Table 35. Bivariate Assocations of Job Loss in Drving While Female Arrest Cases
2
Year of Arrest V2 174 15.536 6 .016 .299
Age V3 168 47.043 33 .054 .529
Rank V7 174 14.145 4 .007 .285
State V11 174 53.896 33 .012 .557
Bribery V19 174 6.714 1 .010 .196
Forcible Rape V53 174 4.293 1 .038 .157
Other / Unclassified Sex Crime V61 174 5.870 1 .015 .184
Official Misconduct / Oppression V75 174 5.792 1 .016 .182
Organizational versus Against Citizenry V90 174 5.476 1 .019 .177
Internal versus Organizational V91 174 13.514 1 .000 .279
Suspended V104 174 4.094 1 .043 .153
Conviction V109 126 3.967 1 .046 .177
Off-Duty: Identified Self as an Officer V119 174 5.476 1 .019 .177
Victim Age Difference vicagediff 174 51.795 28 .004 .546
295
Table 36. Driving While Female Encounters Arrest Cases: Logistic Regression Model Predicting Job Loss (N = 105)
95% CI for Exp(B)
Victim Age Difference -0.072 0.031 5.258 .022 0.931 0.875 0.990

2
Cox & Snell R .136
2
2
ROC R .532 LL UL
AUC .766 .671 .860
296
Table 37. Alcohol-related Police Crime Arrest Cases, 2005-2011: Arrested Officers and Employing Agencies (N = 1,405)
n (%) n (%) n (%)

Male 1,314 (93.5) On-Duty 170 (12.1) Primary State Police 74 (5.3)
Female 91 (6.5) Off-Duty 1,235 (87.9) Sheriff's Office 214 (15.2)
36-39 216 (15.4) Lieutenant 37 (2.6)
44-47 144 (10.3) Major 4 (0.3) 0 1 (0.1)
48-51 66 (4.7) Colonel 1 (0.1) 1 6 (0.4)
52-55 30 (2.1) Deputy Chief 14 (1.0) 2-4 53 (3.8)
56 or older 21 (1.5) Chief 34 (2.4) 5-9 53 (3.8)
Missing 216 (15.4) 10-24 143 (10.2)
Function 25-49 130 (9.3)
3-5 198 (14.1) Management 68 (4.8) 250-499 127 (9.0)
6-8 139 (9.9) 500-999 113 (8.0)
18-20 78 (5.5) Southern States 548 (39.0) 0 1,082 (77.0)
21-23 46 (3.3) Western States 190 (13.5) 1 37 (2.6)
24-26 29 (2.1) 2-4 104 (7.4)
Non-Metro County 193 (13.7) 25-49 20 (1.4)
Another Agency 1,009 (71.8) 250-499 0 (0.0)
297
Table 38. Most Serious Offense Charged in Alcohol-related Police Crime Arrest Cases, 2005-2011 (N = 1,405)
n (%) n (%)
Driving Under the Influence 817 (58.1) Obstructing Justice 5 (0.4)

Simple Assault 149 (10.6) Burglary / Breaking & Entering 4 (0.3)
Aggravated Assault 103 (7.3) Drug / Narcotic violation 5 (0.4)
Weapons Law violation 47 (3.3) Extortion / Blackmail 4 (0.3)
Forcible Fondling 27 (1.9) Statutory Rape 4 (0.3)
Disorderly Conduct 27 (1.9) Indecent Exposure 4 (0.3)
Murder & Nonnegligent Manslaughter 26 (1.9) Arson 3 (0.2)
Forcible Rape 26 (1.9) False Pretenses / Swindle 3 (0.2)
Destruction of Property / Vandalism 23 (1.6) Reckless Endangerment 3 (0.2)
Drunkenness 22 (1.6) Impersonation 2 (0.1)
Liquor Law violation 19 (1.3) Sexual Assault with an Object 2 (0.1)
All Other / Unclassified Offenses 16 (1.1) Official Misconduct / Official Oppression 2 (0.1)
Negligent Manslaughter 14 (1.0) Theft from Building 1 (0.1)
Intimidation 11 (0.7) All Other / Unclassified Larceny 1 (0.1)
Hit & Run 9 (0.6) Prostitution 1 (0.1)
False Report / False Statement 6 (0.4) Robbery 1 (0.1)
Forcible Sodomy 5 (0.4) Criminal Civil Rights violation 1 (0.1)
Unclassified Sex Crime 5 (0.4) Evidence: Destroying / Tampering 1 (0.1)
Family Offenses, nonviolent 5 (0.4) Trespass of Real Property 1 (0.1)
298
Table 39. Victim Characteristics in Alcohol-related Police Crime Arrest Cases, 2005-2011 (N = 1,405)
n (%) (Valid %) n (%) (Valid %)

Female 263 (18.7) (52.1) Current Spouse 42 (3.0) (7.6)
12-13 12 (0.9) (4.3) Unrelated Child 47 (3.3) (8.5)
16-17 17 (1.2) (6.0) Missing 852 (60.6)
18-19 23 (1.6) (8.1)
25-32 66 (4.7) (23.3) Victim is Not a Police Officer 500 (35.6) (89.6)
42 or older 49 (3.5) (17.3) Missing 847 (60.3)
Missing 1,122 (79.9)
Adult 495 (35.2) (87.8)
Child 69 (4.9) (12.2)
Missing 841 (59.9)
299
Table 40: Police DUI Arrest Cases: Incident Events

n (%)
DUI in Privately-Owned Vehicle 836 (87.1)

DUI Traffic Accident 492 (51.2)
DUI Traffic Accident with Injuries 231 (24.1)
Refused BAC Test 195 (20.3)
DUI Traffic Accident: Officer Fled Scene 103 (10.7)
Officer in Possession of Firearm while DUI 83 (8.6)
Refused Field Sobriety Tests 81 (8.4)
DUI in Take-Home Police Vehicle 78 (8.1)
Off-Duty: Identified Self as Police Officer 77 (8.0)
DUI Traffic Accident: Officer Charged with Hit & Run 76 (7.9)
Officer Resisted Arrest 44 (4.6)
DUI Actually On-Duty in Police Vehicle 42 (4.4)
DUI Traffic Accident: Fatality Resulting 39 (4.1)
DUI Traffic Accident: Flipped their Car 33 (3.4)
DUI in Police Vehicle while Out of Jurisdiction 28 (2.9)
Off-Duty: Officer's Employing Agency Requires 24/7 Availability 23 (2.4)
DUI Traffic Accident: Driving in Wrong Direction 17 (1.8)
Off-Duty: Flashed Badge 16 (1.7)
DUI Traffic Accident: Driving a Motorcycle 15 (1.6)
Off-Duty: Displayed Police Weapon 14 (1.5)
DUI Traffic Accident: Officer Denied Driving 12 (1.3)
Off-Duty: Family Violence 10 (1.0)
DUI Traffic Accident: While Evading 9 (0.9)
DUI Traffic Accident: Flipped Victim's Car 4 (0.4)
Off-Duty: In Police Uniform 2 (0.2)
Off-Duty: Made an Arrest 2 (0.2)
Off-Duty: Intervened in Existing Dispute Per Policy 1 (0.1)
300
Table 41. Police DUI Arrest Cases: Drug-related (N = 49)

n (%)
Specific Drugs:
Other Depressants (Depressant) 15 (30.6)
Oxycodone (Narcotic) 8 (16.3)
Cocaine (Stimulant) 5 (10.2)
Hydrocodone (Narcotic) 4 (8.2)
Other Narcotics (Narcotic) 4 (8.2)
Benzodiazepines (Depressant) 4 (8.2)
Amphetamine / Methamphetamine (Stimulant) 3 (6.1)
Marijuana (Cannabis) 3 (6.1)
Hydromorphone (Narcotic) 2 (4.1)
Other Stimulants (Stimulant) 2 (4.1)
Morphine (Narcotic) 1 (2.0)
Codeine (Narcotic) 1 (2.0)
MDMA & Analogs (Hallucinogen) 1 (2.0)
Other Anabolic Steroids (Anabolic Steroid) 1 (2.0)
Arrested Officer and Agencies:

Officer is Male 46 (93.9)
On-Duty at Time of DUI Offense 16 (32.7)
Arresting Agency is Not Officer's Employer 34 (69.4)
Note. Categories are not mutually exclusive. Sum of (%) column ≠ 100
301
Table 42. Bivariate Associations of Conviction in Alcohol-related Police Crime Arrest Cases
2
Rank V7 654 20.366 8 .009 .176
State V11 654 95.625 48 .000 .382
Simple Assault V17 654 7.182 1 .007 .105
Drunkenness V68 654 4.477 1 .034 .083
Hit and Run V72 654 3.987 1 .046 .078
Child Victim V84 339 4.004 1 .045 .109
Victim's Relationship to the Officer V85 331 23.297 7 .002 .265
Sex-related V95 654 3.913 1 .048 .077
Off-Duty Ordinance On-Call 24/7 V118 654 3.612 1 .057 .074
OIDV: Hands / Fist V164 654 21.157 1 .000 .180
OIDV: Victim Injured, nonfatal V173 654 13.340 1 .000 .143
302
Table 43. Alcohol-related Police Crime Arrest Cases: Logistic Regression Model Predicting Conviction (N = 330)
95% CI for Exp(B)
Arresting Agency is Not Arrested Officer's Employer 0.577 0.291 3.924 .048 1.781 1.006 3.153
Sex-related 1.110 0.455 5.952 .015 3.035 1.244 7.406
Driving-While-Female Encounter -2.655 0.832 10.182 .001 0.070 0.014 0.359
DUI in a Personally-Owned-Vehicle 1.286 0.386 11.078 .001 3.619 1.697 7.719
OIDV: Weapon: Hands / Fist -1.015 0.368 7.590 .006 0.362 0.176 0.746
Lost Job 0.937 0.288 10.601 .001 2.551 1.452 4.483

2
Cox & Snell R .156
2
2
ROC R .376 LL UL
AUC .688 .641 .734
303
Table 44. Bivariate Associations of Job Loss in Alcohol-related Arrest Cases

Duty Status V6 1,405 26.456 1 .000 .137
State V11 1,405 106.935 50 .000 .276
Urban-Rural County Continuum V13 1,405 32.022 8 .000 .151
Bribery V19 1,405 4.919 1 .027 .059
Extortion / Blackmail V26 1,405 8.209 1 .004 .076
Murder & Nonnegligent Manslaughter V36 1,405 10.863 1 .001 .088
Negligent Manslaughter V37 1,405 6.527 1 .011 .068
Pornography / Obscene Material V49 1,405 4.300 1 .038 .055
Forcible Rape V53 1,405 20.642 1 .000 .121
Forcible Sodomy V54 1,405 9.988 1 .002 .084
Statutory Rape V58 1,405 8.395 1 .004 .077
Driving Under the Influence V67 1,405 52.293 1 .000 .193
Destroying / Tampering Evidence V69 1,405 4.398 1 .036 .056
False Report / False Statement V70 1,405 4.148 1 .042 .054
Liquor Law violation V73 1,405 8.634 1 .003 .078
Official Misconduct V75 1,405 6.270 1 .012 .067
Child Victim V84 564 8.325 1 .004 .121
Victim's Relationship to Arrested Officer V85 553 15.616 7 .029 .168
Organizational versus Against Citizenry V90 1,405 23.750 1 .000 .130
Sex-related V95 1,405 55.140 1 .000 .198
304
Officer was Reassigned V102 1,405 13.956 1 .000 .100

Officer was Demoted V103 1,405 5.065 1 .024 .060
Officer's Supervisor was Disciplined V105 1,405 8.477 1 .004 .078
Citizen Complaint as Method of Detection V108 1,405 15.326 1 .000 .104
Conviction V109 654 12.462 1 .000 .138
DUI in Personally-owned Vehicle V115 1,405 17.964 1 .000 .113
Off-Duty: Agency has 24/7 On-Call Policy V118 1,405 13.702 1 .000 .099
OIDV: Protection Order filed Against Officer V171 1,405 5.316 1 .021 .062
42 U.S.C. §1983 Civil Defendant Sometime V176 1,405 9.680 1 .002 .083
42 U.S.C. §1985 Civil Defendant Sometime V177 1,405 9.651 1 .002 .083
Age (categorical) agecat 1,405 39.806 10 .000 .168
Years of Service (categorical) yrservcat 1,405 31.374 10 .001 .149
Metropolitan vs. Non-Metro County codichot 1,405 18.301 1 .000 .114
Rank Function rankfunc 1,405 6.496 2 .039 .068
Victim Age (categorical) vicagecat 1,405 59.634 9 .000 .206
Victim Age Difference vicagediff 1,405 125.538 67 .000 .299
305
Table 45. Alcohol-related Police Crime Arrest Cases, 2005-2011: Logistic Regression Model Predicting Job Loss (N = 327)
95% CI for Exp(B)
Duty Status 1.066 0.473 5.091 .024 2.904 1.150 7.333

Sex-related 1.253 0.389 10.357 .001 3.499 1.632 7.503
Violence-related 0.866 0.310 7.802 .005 2.377 1.295 4.364
Officer was Reassigned to Another Position -1.893 0.711 7.093 .008 0.151 0.037 0.607
Citizen Complaint as Method of Crime Detection -1.075 0.303 12.566 < .001 0.341 0.188 0.618
Conviction 0.965 0.295 10.660 .001 2.624 1.470 4.682
28 U.S.C. §1441 Civil Case Removed to Federal Court 1.879 0.787 5.699 .017 6.549 1.400 30.639

2
Cox & Snell R .188
2
2
ROC R .322 LL UL
AUC .661 .620 .702
306
Table 46. Bivariate Associations of Conviction in DUI Arrest Cases

2
Duty Status V6 378 5.917 1 .015 .125
State V11 378 85.253 46 .000 .475
DUI in a Take-Home Police Vehicle V113 378 5.060 1 .024 .116
DUI Refused BAC Test V117 378 6.210 1 .013 .128
Off-Duty: Agency has 24/7 On-Call Policy V118 378 5.782 1 .016 .124
Oxycodone V133 378 4.051 1 .044 .104
Anabolic Steroids (excluding Testosterone) V152 378 4.051 1 .044 .104
OIDV: Weapon: Verbal Threats V167 378 4.051 1 .044 .104
DUI Traffic Accident: Officer Denied Driving V225 378 7.734 1 .005 .143
DUI in a Police Vehicle duipveh 378 4.929 1 .026 .114
Narcotics narcotics 378 4.051 1 .044 .104
Anabolic Steroids steroids 378 4.051 1 .044 .104
307
Table 47. Police DUI Arrest Cases: Logistic Regression Model Predicting Conviction (N = 378)
95% CI for Exp(B)
Liquor Law violation -2.893 1.181 6.000 .014 0.055 0.005 0.561
Official Capacity -0.949 0.363 6.842 .009 0.387 0.190 0.788
DUI-related Traffic Accident 0.861 0.283 9.239 .002 2.366 1.358 4.123
DUI Refused BAC Test -0.775 0.308 6.313 .012 0.461 0.252 0.843
DUI Traffic Accident: Officer Denied Driving -2.858 1.200 5.670 .017 0.057 0.005 0.603
Job Loss 0.892 0.310 8.283 .004 2.440 1.329 4.480

2
Cox & Snell R .105
2
2
ROC R .410 LL UL
AUC .705 .639 .771
308
Table 48. Bivariate Associations of Job Loss in DUI Arrest Cases

2
Duty Status V6 960 6.657 1 .010 .083
State V11 960 107.344 50 .000 .334
Murder and Nonnegligent Manslaughter V36 960 6.222 1 .013 .081
Discussion of Agency Scandal V107 960 9.773 1 .002 .101
Conviction V109 378 6.222 1 .013 .128
Off-Duty: Agency has 24/7 On-Call Policy V118 960 8.080 1 .004 .092
Off-Duty: In Police Uniform V120 960 4.346 1 .037 .067
DUI Traffic Accident: Driving in Wrong Direction V221 960 16.158 1 .000 .130
DUI Traffic Accident: Fatality V222 960 12.230 3 .007 .113
DUI in a Police Vehicle DUIpveh 960 10.788 1 .001 .106
Age (categorical) agecat 960 32.467 10 .000 .184
Years of Service (categorical) yrsservcat 960 33.388 10 .000 .186
Metro vs. Non-Metro County codichot 960 9.812 1 .002 .101
Victim Age (categorical) vicagecat 960 21.306 8 .006 .149
309
Table 49. Police DUI Arrest Cases, 2005-2011: Logistic Regression Model Predicting Job Loss (N = 378)
95% CI for Exp(B)
Full-Time Sworn Personnel (categorical) -0.149 0.050 8.878 .003 0.862 0.781 0.950
Murder & Nonnegligent Manslaughter 1.254 0.634 3.909 .048 3.506 1.011 12.156
Conviction 0.857 0.299 8.202 .004 2.357 1.311 4.238
Off-Duty: Employing Agency Requires 24/7 Availability -2.254 1.047 4.638 .031 0.105 0.013 0.817
DUI Traffic Accident: Driving in Wrong Direction 2.149 1.081 3.951 .047 8.576 1.030 71.382
Years of Service (categorical) 0.043 0.021 4.278 .039 1.043 1.002 1.086

2
Cox & Snell R .169
2
2
ROC R .436 LL UL
AUC .718 .666 .770
310
Table 50. Drug-related Police Crime Arrest Cases, 2005-2011: Arrested Officers and Employing Agencies (N = 739)
n (%) n (%) n (%)

Male 701 (94.9) On-Duty 444 (60.1) Primary State Police 23 (3.1)
Age Rank Municipal Police Dept. 527 (71.3)
19-23 5 (0.7) Officer 559 (75.6) Special Police Dept. 20 (2.7)
36-39 136 (18.4) Lieutenant 22 (3.0)
44-47 72 (9.7) Major 1 (0.1) 0 1 (0.1)
48-51 37 (5.0) Colonel 0 (0.0) 1 8 (1.1)
52-55 21 (2.8) Deputy Chief 3 (0.4) 2-4 24 (3.3)
56 or older 17 (2.3) Chief 27 (3.7) 5-9 33 (4.5)
Missing 55 (7.4) 10-24 73 (9.9)
Function 25-49 84 (11.4)
Years of Service Patrol & Street Level 629 (85.1) 50-99 84 (11.4)
3-5 116 (15.7) Management 36 (4.9) 250-499 80 (10.8)
6-8 87 (11.8) 500-999 58 (7.8)
18-20 37 (5.0) Southern States 346 (46.8) 0 551 (74.6)
21-23 21 (2.8) Western States 94 (12.7) 1 28 (3.8)
24-26 8 (1.1) 2-4 47 (6.4)
Missing 187 (25.3) Metropolitan County 611 (82.7) 10-24 49 (6.6)
Non-Metro County 128 (17.3) 25-49 11 (1.5)
Another Agency 527 (71.3) 250-499 0 (0.0)
311
Table 51. Most Serious Offense Charged in Drug-related Police Crime Arrest Cases, 2005-2011 (N = 739)
n (%) n (%)
Drug / Narcotic violation 308 (41.7) Forcible Rape 8 (1.1)

Robbery 60 (8.1) Simple Assault 7 (0.9)
Driving Under the Influence 38 (5.1) Intimidation 7 (0.9)
All Other Larceny 33 (4.5) Stolen Property Offenses 7 (0.9)
Theft from a Building 28 (3.8) Evidence: Destroying / Tampering 6 (0.8)
Burglary / Breaking and Entering 26 (3.5) Arson 5 (0.7)
All Other Offenses 24 (3.2) Murder and Nonnegligent Manslaughter 4 (0.6)
Weapons Law violation 22 (3.0) Kidnapping / Abduction 4 (0.6)
False Pretenses / Swindle 19 (2.6) Impersonation 3 (0.4)
Extortion / Blackmail 15 (2.0) Theft from a Motor Vehicle 3 (0.4)
Official Misconduct / Oppression /Violation of Oath 15 (2.0) Destruction of Property / Vandalism 2 (0.3)
Aggravated Assault 14 (1.9) Sexual Assaul with an Object 2 (0.3)
Obstruction of Justice 13 (1.8) Other Sex Crime 2 (0.3)
False Statement / False Report 11 (1.5) Statutory Rape 1 (0.1)
Embezzlement 10 (1.4) Online Solicitation of a Child 1 (0.1)
Forcible Fondling 10 (1.4) Disorderly Conduct 1 (0.1)
Civil Rights violation 10 (1.4) Hit & Run 1 (0.1)
Bribery 9 (1.2) Wiretapping, illegal 1 (0.1)
Counterfeiting / Forgery 9 (1.2)
312
Table 52. Specific Drugs in Drug-related Police Crime Arrest Cases, 2005-2011 (N = 739)
n (%) n (%)
Specific Drugs Drug Classes

Cocaine (Stimulant) 233 (31.5) Stimulants 308 (41.7)
Marijuana (Cannabis) 177 (24.0) Narcotics 197 (26.7)
Oxycodone (Narcotic) 89 (12.0) Cannabis 177 (24.0)
Hydrocodone (Narcotic) 69 (9.3) Depressants 45 (6.1)
Crack (Stimulant) 58 (7.8) Anabolic Steroids 44 (6.0)
Amphetamine / Methamphetamine (Stimulant) 53 (7.2) Hallucinogens 23 (3.1)
Heroin (Narcotic) 50 (6.8)
Narcotics (other) 29 (3.9) Cases with Multiple Types of Drug Classes Present
Anabolic Steroids (not testosterone) 29 (3.9) 0 Drug Classes 133 (18.0)
Depressants (other) 26 (3.5) 1 Drug Class 466 (63.1)
Benzodiazapines (Depressant) 19 (2.6) 2 Drug Classes 105 (14.2)
Testosterone (Anabolic Steroid) 17 (2.3) 3 Drug Classes 22 (3.0)
MDMA & Analogs (Hallucinogen) 11 (1.5) 4 Drug Classes 13 (1.8)
Morphine (Narcotic) 8 (1.1)
Phencyclidine & Analogs (Hallucinogen) 8 (1.1) Cases with Multiple Specific Drugs Present
Hydromorphone (Narcotic) 5 (0.7) 0 Specific Drugs 131 (17.7)
Stimulants (other) 4 (0.5) 1 Specific Drug 415 (56.2)
Hallucinogens (other) 4 (0.5) 2 Specific Drugs 136 (18.4)
Codeine (Narcotic) 2 (0.3) 3 Specific Drugs 35 (4.7)
Gamma Hydroxybutyric Acide (Depressant) 2 (0.3) 4 Specific Drugs 10 (1.4)
5 Specific Drugs 11 (1.5)
6 Specific Drugs 1 (0.1)
Note . Categories are not mutually exclusive. Sum of (%) columns ≠ 100
313
Table 53. Victim Characteristics in Drug-related Police Crime Arrest Cases, 2005-2011 (N = 739)
n (%) (Valid %) n (%) (Valid %)

12-13 4 (0.5) (10.5) Unrelated Child 12 (1.6) (8.7)
16-17 1 (0.1) (2.6) Missing 601 (81.3)
18-19 4 (0.5) (10.5)
42 or older 5 (0.7) (13.2) Missing 599 (81.1)
Missing 701 (94.9)
Adult 129 (17.5) (90.2)
Child 14 (1.9) (9.8)
Missing 596 (80.6)
314
Table 54. Patterns of Drug-related Corruption in Police Crime Arrest Cases, 2005-2011 (N = 739)
n (%) n (%)
Drug Selling / Dealing / Trafficking 299 (40.5) Other Types of Police Crime Present in Drug Cases
Drug Personal Use 235 (31.8) Profit-motivated Police Crime 438 (59.3)
Facilitation of the Drug Trade 172 (23.3) Violence-related Police Crime 132 (17.9)
Theft / Shakedown 171 (23.1) Alcohol-related Police Crime 38 (5.1)
Street-Level Dealer (n = 75, 10.1%) Sex-related Police Crime 37 (5.0)
Warrantless Searches (n = 69, 9.3%)
Car Stops & Drug Couriers (n = 58, 7.8%) Drug Cases with Multiple Types of Police Crime
Off-Duty Robberies (n = 35, 4.7%) 1 Type of Police Crime Present (just Drug-related) 226 (30.6)
Illegitimate Raids / Searches (n = 33, 4.5%) 2 Types of Police Crime Present 390 (52.8)
Calls for Service / Radio Runs (n = 16, 2.2%) 3 Types of Police Crime Present 114 (15.4)
Theft from Police Evidence Room 60 (8.1) 4 Types of Police Crime Present 9 (1.2)
Falsification 58 (7.8)
Forged Prescription 33 (4.5)
Planting Evidence 33 (4.5)
Sexually-motivated Drug Corruption 25 (3.4)
Cases with Multiple Patterns of Drug Corruption

0 Drug Corruption Patterns Present 59 (8.0)
1 Drug Corruption Pattern Present 316 (42.8)
Note . Categories are not mutually exclusive. Sum of (%) column ≠ 100
315
Table 55. CART Analysis Patterns of Drug-related Police Corruption (N = 739)

95% CI
Splitting Variabl Node 1 Variable(s) Node 2 Variable(s) AUC LL UL
Specific Drugs
Theft/Shakedown - Car Stops & Drug Couriers Cocaine Heroin/Marijuana Crack .774 .705 .843
Theft/Shakedown - Warrantless Search/Seizures Marijuana Cocaine Heroin/Crack .769 .714 .824
Theft/Shakedown - Street-Level Dealer Cocaine Hydrocodone/Marijuana Amphetamine/Crack .792 .740 .844
Drug Use Hydrocodone Oxycodone Testosterone .701 .660 .724
Drug Trafficking Cocaine Heroin/Marjiuana Testosterone .685 .646 .725
Facilitation of the Drug Trade Cocaine Heroin/Marjiuana Marijuana .737 .697 .777
Drug Classes
Theft/Shakedown - Car Stops & Drug Couriers Stimulants Cannabis/Depressants Narcotics/Hallucinogens .753 .685 .821
Theft/Shakedown - Warrantless Search/Seizures Cannabis Narcotics/Stimulants Anabolic Steroids/Narcotics/Hallucinogens .753 .695 .812
Theft/Shakedown - Street-Level Dealer Cannabis Narcotics/Stimulants Anabolic Steroids/Hallucinogens .755 .697 .814
Drug Trafficking Stimulants Cannabis/Anabolic Steroids* Hallucinogens/Narcotics .696 .658 .734
Drug Use Narcotics Stimulants Anabolic Steroids/Hallucinogens .675 .632 .717
Facilitation of the Drug Trade Stimulants Cannabis Depressants .654 .608 .699
*Anabolic steroids other than testosterone
316
Table 56. Bivariate Associations of Conviction in Drug-related Police Crime Arrest Cases, 2005-2011
2
State V11 562 65.220 43 .016 .341
Burglary / Breaking and Entering V20 562 4.328 1 .037 .088
Gambling: Betting / Wagering V32 562 6.310 1 .012 .106
Weapons Law Violation V63 562 4.694 1 .030 .091
Victim Relationship to the Arrested Officer V85 129 15.398 6 .017 .345
Arrested Officer was Reassigned V102 562 9.568 1 .002 .130
Other Depressants V138 562 4.289 1 .038 .087
Cocaine V139 562 8.535 1 .003 .123
OIDV: Weapon: Hands Fists V164 562 9.146 1 .002 .128
Drugs: Personal Use / Using Drugs V196 562 3.762 1 .052 .082
Job Lost binary joblossb 562 12.267 1 .000 .148
Drugs: Stimulants stimulant 562 9.442 1 .002 .130
Metropolitan vs. NonMetro County codichot 562 5.843 1 .016 .102
317
Table 57. Drug-related Police Crime Arrest Cases: Logistic Regression Model Predicting Conviction (N = 129)
95% CI for Exp(B)
Victim Relationship to Arrested Officer 0.471 0.171 7.545 .006 1.601 1.144 2.240
Suspended from Job -2.061 0.699 8.687 .003 0.127 0.032 0.501
Lost Job 1.521 0.606 6.302 .012 4.575 1.396 14.996
Victim Age Categorical -0.096 0.040 5.795 .016 0.909 0.840 0.982

2
Cox & Snell R .235
2
2
ROC R .698 LL UL
AUC .849 .761 .937
318
Table 58. Bivariate Associations of Job Loss in Drug-related Police Crime Arrest Cases, 2005-2011
2
Year of Arrest V2 739 56.885 6 .000 .277
Age V3 739 62.818 45 .041 .303
Duty Status V6 739 12.598 1 .000 .131
Full-Time Sworn Personnel V10 739 26.219 10 .003 .188
Theft from a Building V43 739 4.684 1 .030 .080
Weapons Law Violation V63 739 13.652 1 .000 .136
Drunkenness V68 739 7.152 1 .007 .090
Reassigned V102 739 20.894 1 .000 .168
Suspended V104 739 25.124 1 .000 .184
Supervisor was Disciplined V105 739 11.138 1 .001 .123
Chief is Under Scrutiny V106 739 8.228 1 .004 .106
Officer was Convicted V109 739 12.267 1 .000 .148
DUI On-Duty in a Pollice Vehicle V112 739 8.471 1 .004 .107
DUI in Police Vehicle Outside Jurisdiction V114 739 7.152 1 .007 .098
Off-Duty: Identified Self as an Officer V119 739 4.533 1 .033 .078
DUI in Possession of a Firearm V128 739 4.818 1 .028 .081
Heroin V129 739 7.998 1 .005 .104
Other Hullucinogens V147 739 3.969 1 .046 .073
28 USC §1441 Civil Action Removed V179 739 5.019 1 .025 .082
18 USC §242 Criminal Deprivation of Rights V181 739 4.709 1 .030 .080
Drugs: faciltating Drug Trade V201 739 10.467 1 .001 .119
Drugs: Narcotics Narcotic 739 6.864 1 .009 .096
DUI in a Police Vehicle DUI in Pol 739 7.843 1 .005 .103
Metropolitan County vs. Nonmetro County CoDichot 739 4.470 1 .034 .078
Victim Age Difference VicAgeDif 739 39.386 26 .045 .231
319
Table 59. Drug-related Police Crime Arrest Cases, 2005-2011: Logistic Regression Model Predicting Job Loss (N = 535)
95% CI for Exp(B)
Year of Officer's Arrest 0.544 0.075 52.053 < .001 1.723 1.486 1.997
Counterfeiting / Forgery -1.718 0.818 4.405 .036 0.179 0.036 0.893
Alcohol-related Police Crime -1.341 0.455 8.668 .003 0.262 0.107 0.639
Officer's Chief is Under Scrutiny as a Result of Arrest -0.989 0.413 5.738 .017 0.372 0.166 0.836
Conviction on Any Offense Charged 0.917 0.314 8.538 .003 2.503 1.353 4.631
28 U.S.C. §1441 Civil Rights Case Removed 1.895 0.532 12.678 < .001 6.654 2.344 18.886
Falsification in a Drug-related Criminal Case -1.183 0.405 8.521 .004 0.306 0.138 0.678
Narcotics 1.452 0.390 13.882 < .001 4.272 1.990 9.169
Non-Metropolitan County 0.946 0.397 5.694 .017 2.576 1.184 5.603

2
Cox & Snell R .218
2
2
ROC R .634 LL UL
AUC .817 .776 .859
320
Table 60. Violence-related Police Crime Arrest Cases, 2005-2011: Arrested Officers and Employing Agencies (N = 3,328)
n (%) n (%) n (%)

Female 134 (4.0) Off-Duty 2,155 (64.8) Sheriff's Office 523 (15.7)
36-39 542 (16.3) Lieutenant 69 (2.1)
44-47 288 (8.7) Major 3 (0,1) 0 24 (0.7)
48-51 149 (4.5) Colonel 0 (0.0) 1 31 (0.9)
52-55 75 (2.3) Deputy Chief 16 (0.5) 2-4 130 (3.9)
56 or older 67 (2.0) Chief 89 (2.7) 5-9 190 (5.7)
Missing 385 (11.6) 10-24 311 (9.3)
Function 25-49 338 (10.2)
3-5 514 (15.4) Management 129 (3.9) 250-499 329 (9.9)
6-8 350 (10.5) 500-999 272 (8.2)
18-20 174 (5.2) Southern States 1,386 (41.6) 0 2,489 (74.8)
21-23 68 (2.0) Western States 563 (16.9) 1 90 (2.7)
24-26 57 (1.7) 2-4 282 (8.5)
Non-Metro County 448 (13.5) 25-49 63 (1.9)
Employing Agency 1,228 (36.9) 100-249 5 (0.2)
Another Agency 2,100 (63.1) 250-499 1 (0.0)
321
Table 61. Most Serious Offense Charged in Violence-related Police Crime Arrest Cases, 2005-2011 (N = 3,328)
n (%) n (%)
Simple Assault 870 (26.4) Statutory Rape 24 (0.7)

Aggravated Assault 570 (17.1) Obstruction of Justice 18 (0.5)
Forcible Fondling 352 (10.6) Restraining Order violation 17 (0.5)
Forcible Rape 322 (9.7) False Report / False Statement 14 (0.4)
Intimidation 200 (6.0) Bribery 12 (0.4)
Murder / Nonnegligent Manslaughter 104 (3.1) Vehicular Hit & Run 12 (0.4)
Unclassified / All Other Offenses 99 (3.0) Sexual Assault with an Object 10 (0.3)
Forcible Sodomy 94 (2.8) Drug / Narcotic violation 9 (0.3)
Robbery 92 (2.8) Unclassified / All Other Larceny 8 (0.2)
Civil Rights violation (criminal) 61 (1.8) Extortion / Blackmail 7 (0.2)
Weapons Law violation 57 (1.7) False Pretenses / Swindle 5 (0.2)
Disorderly Conduct 55 (1.7) Indecent Exposure 5 (0.2)
Unclassified / Other Sex Crime 47 (1.4) Family Offenses, nonviolent 4 (0.1)
Negligent Manslaughter 43 (1.3) Pornography / Obscene Material 3 (0.1)
Burglary / Breaking & Entering 38 (1.1) Prostitution 3 (0.1)
Official Misconduct / Official Oppression 38 (1.1) Drunkennness 3 (0.1)
Arson 32 (1.0) Trespass of Real Property 3 (0.1)
Driving Under the Influence 32 (1.0) Incest 2 (0.1)
Kidnapping / Abduction 30 (0.9) Impersonation 1 (0.0)
Destruction of Property / Vandalism 24 (0.7) Online Solicitation of a Child 1 (0.0)
322
Table 62. Victim Characteristics in Violence-related Police Crime Arrest Cases, 2005-2011 (N = 3,328)
n (%) (Valid %) n (%) (Valid %)

Male 1,124 (33.8) (37.9) Former Spouse 59 (1.8) (1.9)
12-13 112 (3.4) (7.7) Unrelated Child 451 (13.6) (14.7)
14-15 174 (5.2) (11.9) Stranger or Acquaintance 1,668 (50.1) (54.3)
16-17 134 (4.0) (9.1) Missing 258 (7.8)
18-19 96 (2.9) (6.6)
42 or older 165 (5.0) (11.3) Missing 3,106 (93.3)
Missing 1,865 (56.0)
Adult 2,416 (72.6) (78.1)
Child 676 (20.3) (21.9)
Missing 3,092 (7.1)
323
Table 63. Bivariate Associations of Conviction in Violence-related Arrest Cases

Year of Arrest V2 1,984 28.951 6 .000 .121
Gender V5 1,984 3.830 1 .050 .044
Rank V7 1,984 21.647 8 .006 .104
State V11 1,984 98.550 49 .000 .223
Simple Assault V17 1,984 69.186 1 .000 .187
Bribery V19 1,984 8.886 1 .003 .067
Burglary V20 1,984 7.994 1 .005 .063
Drug / Narcotic violation V23 1,984 14.321 1 .000 .085
Murder & Nonnegligent Manslaughter V36 1,984 5.960 1 .015 .055
Robbery V52 1,984 20.997 1 .000 .103
Forcible Rape V53 1,984 16.238 1 .000 .090
Statutory Rape V58 1,984 5.342 1 .021 .052
Stolen Property Offenses V62 1,984 4.077 1 .043 .045
Driving Under the Influence V67 1,984 9.695 1 .002 .070
Family Offenses, nonviolent V71 1,984 7.876 1 .005 .063
Gender of Victim V81 1,798 6.885 1 .009 .062
Victim Age V83 962 96.014 73 .037 .316
Child Victim V84 1,864 23.214 1 .000 .112
Victim's Relationship to Arrested Officer V85 1,855 77.089 7 .000 .204
Drug-related V93 1,984 20.845 1 .000 .103
Alcohol-related V94 1,984 4.524 1 .033 .048
Sex-related V95 1,984 85.756 1 .000 .208
324

Suspension V104 1,984 9.249 1 .002 .068
DUI-related Traffic Accident V110 1,984 8.644 1 .003 .066
Injuries in a DUI-related Traffic Accident V111 1,984 7.891 1 .005 .063
DUI in a Privately-owned Vehicle V115 1,984 8.452 1 .004 .065
DUI Refused BAC Test V117 1,984 4.589 1 .032 .048
Off-Duty: Agency has 24/7 On-Call Policy V118 1,984 4.485 1 .034 .048
Off-Duty: Intervened in Existing Dispute V125 1,984 3.944 1 .047 .045
Hydrocodone V131 1,984 4.077 1 .043 .045
Cocaine V139 1,984 21.445 1 .000 .104
Marijuana V148 1,984 16.049 1 .000 .090
OIDV: Weapon: Hands / Fist V164 1,984 50.787 1 .000 .160
OIDV: Weapon: Miscellaneous Objects V166 1,984 3.739 1 .053 .043
OIDV: Weapon: Verbal Threats V167 1,984 4.901 1 .027 .050
OIDV: Confiscated Gun was Returned V169 1,984 10.465 1 .001 .073
OIDV: Protection Order Filed V171 1,984 4.372 1 .037 .047
OIDV: Victim Injured, fatal V174 1,984 7.641 1 .006 .062
42 U.S.C. §1997 Civil / Plaintiff is Prisoner V178 1,984 4.268 1 .039 .046
Drugs: Selling / Dealing / Trafficking V197 1,984 17.235 1 .000 .093
Drugs: Sexually-motivated Drug Crime V199 1,984 6.931 1 .008 .059
Drugs: Facilitating Drug Trade V201 1,984 6.642 1 .010 .058
Drugs: Shakedown from Street Dealers V202 1,984 16.055 1 .000 .090
Drugs: Shakedown from Warrantless Search V204 1,984 14.022 1 .000 .084
Drugs: Shakedown from Car Stops V206 1,984 18.611 1 .000 .097
Drugs: Shakedown from Off-Duty Robbery V207 1,984 9.980 1 .002 .071
Drugs: Theft from Police Evidence Room V208 1,984 3.944 1 .047 .045
Drugs: Shakedowns (aggregate) V210 1,984 25.915 1 .000 .114
Job Lost joblostbin 1,984 254.985 1 .000 .358
Narcotics narcotics 1,984 4.935 1 .026 .050
Stimulants stimulants 1,984 21.792 1 .000 .105
Cannabis cannabis 1,984 16.049 1 .000 .090
325

Rank Function rankfunc 1,984 9.786 2 .007 .070
326
Table 64. Violence-related Police Crime Arrest Cases: Logistic Regression Model Predicting Conviction (N = 954)
95% CI for Exp(B)
Full-Time Sworn Personnel (categorical) -0.086 0.031 7.915 .005 0.917 0.864 0.974
Burglary / Breaking & Entering 2.526 1.097 5.307 .021 12.506 1.458 107.281
Forcible Sodomy 0.997 0.422 5.592 .018 2.711 1.186 6.197
Criminal Deprivation of Civil Rights 1.370 0.469 8.543 .003 3.934 1.570 9.858
Sex-related 0.626 0.626 0.181 .001 1.870 1.310 2.668
DUI in a Personally-Owned Vehichle 2.560 1.071 5.713 .017 12.936 1.585 105.554
OIDV Victim Injured, fatal 1.995 0.650 9.432 .002 7.351 2.058 26.257
Job Loss 1.726 0.165 108.819 < .001 5.619 4.063 7.772
Years of Service (categorical) 0.047 0.014 11.794 .001 1.049 1.021 1.077

2
Cox & Snell R .235
2
2
ROC R .482 LL UL
AUC .741 .718 .764
327
Table 65. Bivariate Associations of Job Loss in Violence-related Arrest Cases

Year of Arrest V2 3,328 146.477 6 .000 .210
Age V3 2,943 67.607 50 .049 .152
Gender V5 3,328 8.369 1 .004 .050
Duty Status V6 3,328 91.844 1 .000 .166
Rank V7 3,328 18.818 8 .016 .075
Type of Agency V9 3,328 25.826 7 .001 .088
State V11 3,328 141.569 49 .000 .206
Simple Assault V17 3,328 128.940 1 .000 .197
Bribery V19 3,328 35.502 1 .000 .103
Burglary V20 3,328 4.699 1 .030 .038
Impersonation V29 3,328 4.526 1 .033 .037
Theft from a Building V43 3,328 5.433 1 .020 .040
Robbery V52 3,328 19.475 1 .000 .076
Forcible Rape V53 3,328 62.366 1 .000 .137
Sexual Assault with an Object V55 3,328 7.626 1 .006 .048
Statutory Rape V58 3,328 13.894 1 .000 .065
On-Line Solicitation of a Child V60 3,328 4.786 1 .029 .038
Unclassified Sex Crimes V61 3,328 54.740 1 .000 .128
Stolen Property Offenses V62 3,328 7.249 1 .007 .047
Disorderly Conduct V66 3,328 34.355 1 .000 .102
Evidence: Destroying / Tampering V69 3,328 4.641 1 .031 .037
Official Misconduct V75 3,328 21.145 1 .000 .080
Victim Gender V81 2,965 12.413 1 .000 .065
328
Victim is a Police Officer V82 3,106 3.870 1 .049 .035

Victim Age V83 1,463 100.641 76 .031 .262
Child Victim V84 3,092 38.888 1 .000 .112
Victim's Relationship to Arrested Officer V85 3,070 153.358 7 .000 .224
Organizational vs. Against Citizenry V90 3,328 7.809 1 .005 .048
Drug-related V93 3,328 9.875 1 .002 .054
Sex-related V95 3,328 284.771 1 .000 .293
Officer was Demoted V103 3,328 6.491 1 .011 .044
Officer was Suspended V104 3,328 58.545 1 .000 .133
Officer's Chief is Under Scrutiny V106 3,328 15.225 1 .000 .068
Crime Detected by Citizen Complaint V108 3,328 7.273 1 .007 .047
Conviction V109 1,984 254.985 1 .000 .358
DUI: Officer Resisted Arrest V127 3,328 3.808 1 .051 .034
Off-Duty: Showed a Police Weapon V121 3,328 12.422 1 .000 .061
Heroin V129 3,328 5.433 1 .020 .040
Hydrocodone V131 3,328 7.249 1 .007 .047
Oxycodone V133 3,328 6.521 1 .011 .044
Cocaine V139 3,328 3.944 1 .047 .034
Marijuana V148 3,328 7.722 1 .005 .048
OIDV: Weapon: Other Body Parts V165 3,328 4.143 1 .042 .035
OIDV: Weapon: Misc. Objects V166 3,328 12.252 1 .000 .061
OIDV: Gun was Confiscated V168 3,328 7.830 1 .005 .049
OIDV: Confiscated Gun was Later Returned V169 3,328 5.264 1 .022 .040
OIDV: Protection Order Filed V171 3,328 4.365 1 .037 .036
OIDV: Victim Injured, fatal V174 3,328 4.269 1 .039 .036
329

42 U.S.C. §1997 Civil Plaintiff is a Prisoner V178 3,328 5.053 1 .025 .039
Drugs: Using / Personal Use V196 3,328 9.336 1 .002 .053
Drugs: Selling / Dealing / Trafficking V197 3,328 17.818 1 .000 .073
Drugs: Shakedown from Off-Duty Robbery V207 3,328 8.384 1 .004 .050
Drugs: Shakedown (aggregate) V210 3,328 5.489 1 .019 .041
Narcotics narcotic 3,328 11.855 1 .001 .060
Depressants depress 3,328 4.526 1 .033 .037
Stimulants stimulant 3,328 6.935 1 .008 .046
Metro versus Non-Metro County codichot 3,328 13.177 1 .000 .063
330
Table 66. Violence-related Police Crime Arrest Cases: Logistic Regression Model Predicting Job Loss (N = 692)
95% CI for Exp(B)
Year of Arrest 0.411 0.059 49.043 < .001 1.509 1.345 1.693
Victim Gender -0.572 0.260 4.858 .028 0.564 0.339 0.939
Victim's Relationship to the Arrested Officer 0.219 0.062 12.561 < .001 1.244 1.103 1.404
Official Capacity -0.672 0.253 7.029 .008 0.511 0.311 0.839
Police Sexual Violence 1.352 0.351 14.843 < .001 3.864 1.943 7.685
Officer was Reassigned to Another Position -1.224 0.503 5.930 .015 0.294 0.110 0.787
Officer was Suspended -1.462 0.291 25.230 < .001 0.232 0.131 0.410
Conviction 1.943 0.219 78.621 < .001 6.978 4.542 10.721
Cannabis -2.841 0.852 11.105 .001 0.058 0.011 0.310
Age (categorical) -0.105 0.052 4.046 .044 0.900 0.813 0.997

2
Cox & Snell R .304
2
2
ROC R .536 LL UL
AUC .768 .744 .791
331
Table 67. Bivariate Associations of Conviction in Officer-involved Domestic Violence Arrest Cases
2
Year of Arrest V2 497 15.413 6 .017 .176
State V11 497 80.273 46 .001 .402
Simple Assault V17 497 29.509 1 .000 .244
Burglary V20 497 3.927 1 .048 .089
Murder and Nonnegligent Manslaughter V36 497 14.147 1 .000 .169
Pornogaphy / Obscene Material V49 497 5.826 1 .016 .108
Forcible Rape V53 497 11.871 1 .001 .155
Child Victim V84 486 13.968 1 .000 .170
Sex-related V95 497 34.222 1 .000 .262
OIDV: Weapon: Personally-owned Gun V157 497 7.379 1 .007 .122
OIDV: Officer Violated Protection Order V172 497 4.603 1 .032 .096
OIDV: Victim Injured, fatal V174 497 15.862 1 .000 .179
Lost Job joblost 497 62.928 1 .000 .356
332
Table 68. Officer-involved Domestic Violence Arrest Cases: Logistic Regression Model Predicting Conviction (N = 480)
95% CI for Exp(B)
Destruction of Property / Vandalism 2.176 0.682 10.178 .001 8.807 2.314 33.516
Obstruction of Justice 2.950 1.106 7.118 .008 19.115 2.188 167.003
Victim's Relationship to the Arrested Officer 0.133 0.058 5.141 .023 1.142 1.018 1.280
Sex-related 1.526 0.326 21.909 < .001 4.602 2.428 8.720
OIDV: Weapon: Personally-owned Gun 0.809 0.401 4.074 .044 2.246 1.024 4.927
OIDV: Officer Violated an Order of Protection 1.547 0.599 6.663 .010 4.699 1.451 15.213
OIDV: Victim Injured, nonfatal -0.587 0.228 6.620 .010 0.556 0.356 0.870
OIDV: Victim Injured, fatal 2.048 0.660 9.622 .002 7.752 2.125 28.278
Job Loss 1.385 0.226 37.730 < .001 3.996 2.568 6.216
Geographic Region -0.287 0.110 6.764 .009 0.751 0.605 0.932

2
Cox & Snell R .288
2
2
ROC R .640 LL UL
AUC .820 .782 .858
333
Table 69. Bivariate Associations of Job Loss in Officer-involved Domestic Violence Arrest Cases
Year of Arrest V2 961 41.162 6 .000 .207
Duty Status V6 961 4.876 1 .027 .071
State V11 961 81.166 49 .003 .291
Urban to Rural County Continuum V13 961 19.372 8 .013 .142
Simple Assault V17 961 25.197 1 .000 .162
Forcible Rape V53 961 22.061 1 .000 .152
Unclassified Sex Crime V61 961 10.256 1 .001 .103
Unclassified / All Other Offenses V80 961 11.681 1 .001 .110
Child Victim V84 929 18.080 1 .000 .140
Drug-related V93 961 5.677 1 .017 .077
Sex-related V95 961 51.384 1 .000 .231
Officer was Convicted V109 497 62.928 1 .000 .356
Unclassified / Other Depressants V138 961 5.024 1 .025 .072
OIDV: Weapon: Verbal Threats V167 961 5.311 1 .021 .074
OIDV: Officer Violated Protection Order V172 961 4.389 1 .036 .068
OIDV: Victim Injured, fatal V173 961 15.351 1 .000 .126
28 U.S.C. §1441 Civil Case Removed V179 961 4.908 1 .027 .071
Depressants depress 961 5.024 1 .025 .072
334
Age (categorical) agecat 961 31.396 10 .000 .181

Metro vs. Non-Metro County codichot 961 7.658 1 .006 .089
335
Table 70. Officer-involved Domestic Violence Arrest Cases: Logistic Regression Model Predicting Job Loss (N = 486)
95% CI for Exp(B)
Year of Arrest 0.420 0.067 38.770 < .001 1.521 1.333 1.736
Duty Status 1.848 0.714 6.704 .010 6.347 1.567 25.710
State -0.018 0.007 5.742 .017 0.982 0.968 0.997
Rurality Continuum (categorical) 0.248 0.089 7.826 .005 1.282 1.077 1.525
Simple Assault -0.711 0.228 9.712 .002 0.491 0.314 0.768
Suspended -0.673 0.254 7.006 .008 0.510 0.310 0.840
Conviction 1.689 0.231 53.587 < .001 5.414 3.445 8.510
OIDV: Weapon: Other Body Parts (not hands or fist) 0.946 0.352 7.215 .007 2.576 1.291 5.138

2
Cox & Snell R .260
2
2
ROC R .600 LL UL
AUC .800 .762 .839
336
Table 71. Profit-motivated Police Crime Arrest Cases, 2005-2011: Arrested Officers and Employing Agencies (N = 1,591)
n (%) n (%) n (%)

36-39 244 (15.3) Lieutenant 42 (2.6)
44-47 144 (9.1) Major 5 (0.3) 0 7 (0.4)
48-51 90 (5.7) Colonel 2 (0.1) 1 16 (1.0)
52-55 48 (3.0) Deputy Chief 18 (1.1) 2-4 67 (4.2)
56 or older 62 (3.9) Chief 97 (6.1) 5-9 77 (4.9)
Missing 171 (10.8) 10-24 176 (11.1)
Function 25-49 152 (9.6)
3-5 197 (12.4) Management 140 (8.8) 250-499 161 (10.1)
6-8 162 (10.2) 500-999 104 (6.5)
18-20 111 (7.0) Southern States 726 (45.6) 0 1,209 (76.)
21-23 55 (3.5) Western States 174 (10.9) 1 46 (2.9)
24-26 25 (1.6) 2-4 104 (6.5)
Non-Metro County 279 (17.5) 25-49 19 (1.2)
Another Agency 1,081 (67.9) 250-499 1 (0.1)
337
Table 72. Most Serious Offense Charged in Profit-motivated Police Crime Arrest Cases, 2005-2011 (N = 1,591)
n (%) n (%)
Unclassified Theft / Larceny 255 (16.0) Wire Fraud 9 (0.6)

False Pretenses / Swindle 199 (12.5) Gambling: Operating / Promoting 9 (0.6)
Drug / Narcotic violation 189 (11.9) Simple Assault 7 (0.4)
Robbery 103 (6.4) Motor Vehicle Theft 7 (0.4)
Theft from Building 92 (5.8) Credit Card Fraud / ATM Fraud 6 (0.4)
Extortion / Blackmail 85 (5.3) Murder & Nonnegligent Manslaughter 5 (0.3)
Embezzlement 77 (4.8) Assisting or Promoting Prostitution 4 (0.3)
Burglary / Breaking & Entering 72 (4.5) Evidence: Destroying / Tampering 4 (0.3)
Bribery 56 (3.5) Gambling: Betting / Wagering 3 (0.2)
All Other Offenses 49 (3.1) Theft of Motor Vehicle Parts / Accessories 3 (0.2)
False Report / False Statement 46 (2.9) Kidnapping / Abduction 2 (0.1)
Weapons Law violation 40 (2.5) Unclassified Sex Crime 2 (0.1)
Counterfeiting / Forgery 39 (2.5) Welfare Fraud 1 (0.1)
Stolen Property Offenses 38 (2.4) Pocket-Picking 1 (0.1)
Shoplifting 31 (1.9) Theft from a Coin-operated Machine 1 (0.1)
Official Misconduct / Oppression / Violation of Oath 29 (1.8) Prostitution 1 (0.1)
Civil Rights violation 26 (1.6) Forcible Sodomy 1 (0.1)
Intimidation 21 (1.3) Forcible Fondling 1 (0.1)
Theft from Motor Vehicle 21 (1.3) Bad Checks 1 (0.1)
Arson 16 (1.0) Disorderly Conduct 1 (0.1)
Impersonation 14 (0.9) Family Offenses, nonviolent 1 (0.1)
Obstruction of Justice 11 (0.7) Liquor Law violation 1 (0.1)
Aggravated Assault 10 (0.6) Wiretapping, illegal 1 (0.1)
338
Table 73. Victim Characteristics in Profit-motivated Police Crime Arrest Cases, 2005-2011 (N = 1,591)
n (%) (Valid %) n (%) (Valid %)

Missing 1,325 (16.7) Current Girlfriend or Boyfriend 1 (0.1) (0.3)
12-13 1 (0.1) (2.2) Unrelated Child 6 (0.4) (1.6)
16-17 2 (0.1) (4.3) Missing 1,218 (76.5)
18-19 1 (0.1) (2.2)
42 or older 13 (0.8) (28.3) Missing 1,221 (76.7)
Missing 1,545 (97.0)
Adult 374 (23.5) (98.2)
Child 7 (0.4) (1.8)
Missing 1,210 (76.1)
339
Table 74. Bivariate Associations of Conviction in Profit-motivated Police Crime Arrest Cases
Year V2 1,105 23.832 6 .001 .147
Age V3 1,010 85.828 49 .001 .292
Type of Agency V9 1,105 14.237 6 .027 .114
State V11 1,105 88.251 47 .000 .283
Urban to Rural Continuum Code V13 1,105 43.579 8 .000 .199
Burglary V20 1,105 5.262 1 .022 .069
Embezzlement V25 1,105 7.204 1 .007 .081
Pocket-Picking V40 1,105 4.790 1 .029 .066
Shoplifting V42 1,105 7.668 1 .006 .083
Civil Rights violation V65 1,105 5.402 1 .020 .070
Victim's Relationship to the Offender V85 266 25.017 6 .000 .307
Organizational vs. Against Citizenry V90 1,105 5.729 1 .017 .072
Drug-related Police Crime V93 1,105 23.074 1 .000 .145
Violence-related Police Crime V96 1,105 4.100 1 .043 .061
Oxycodone V133 1,105 5.048 1 .025 .068
Cocaine V139 1,105 19.749 1 .000 .134
Marijuana V148 1,105 4.436 1 .035 .063
OIDV: Weapon: Dept-issued Gun V156 1,105 4.790 1 .029 .066
OIDV: Weapon: Miscellaneous Objects V166 1,105 4.790 1 .029 .066
OIDV: Weapon: Verbal Threats V167 1,105 9.588 1 .002 .093
OIDV: Protection Order was Filed V171 1,105 9.588 1 .002 .093
340

Drugs: Trafficking V197 1,105 20.696 1 .000 .137
Drugs: Facilitation of Drug Trade V201 1,105 11.065 1 .001 .100
Drugs: Shakedown from Off-Duty Robberies V207 1,105 3.988 1 .046 .060
Drugs: Shakedown (aggregate) V210 1,105 7.766 1 .005 .084
Lost Job joblossb 1,105 82.094 1 .000 .273
Stimulants stimulant 1,105 18.068 1 .000 .128
341
Table 75. Profit-motivated Police Crime Arrest Cases: Logistic Regression Model Predicting Conviction (N = 197)
95% CI for Exp(B)
Type of Agency 0.519 0.224 5.381 .020 1.681 1.084 2.606
State 0.070 0.020 12.566 < .001 1.073 1.032 1.115
Part-time Sworn Personnel (categorical) -0.318 0.160 3.931 .047 0.728 0.532 0.996
Officer's Chief is Under Scrutiny -3.293 1.398 5.549 .018 0.037 0.002 0.575
Drugs: Shakedown / Theft from Off-duty Robbery -4.517 2.035 4.927 .026 0.011 0.000 0.589
Drugs: Any Shakedown / Theft ) 4.702 1.648 8.141 .004 110.177 4.358 2785.279
Job Lost 3.187 0.679 22.041 < .001 24.216 6.401 91.605
Victim Age Categorical -0.357 0.123 8.439 .004 0.700 0.550 0.890

2
Cox & Snell R .344
2
2
ROC R .186 LL UL
AUC .593 .547 .639
342
Table 76. Bivariate Associations of Job Loss in Profit-motivated Police Crime Arrest
Cases
Year V2 1,591 155.340 6 .000 .312
Gender V5 1,591 7.232 1 .007 .067
Rank V7 1,591 23.219 9 .006 .121
Type of Agency V9 1,591 13.075 6 .042 .091
State V11 1,591 126.335 47 .000 .282
Arson V15 1,591 5.204 1 .023 .057
Credit Card / ATM Fraud V28 1,591 5.860 1 .015 .061
Wire Fraud V31 1,591 6.423 1 .011 .064
Gambling: Operating / Promoting V33 1,591 6.619 1 .010 .065
Robbery V52 1,591 4.630 1 .031 .054
Civil Rights violation V65 1,591 15.304 1 .000 .098
Obstruction of Justice V74 1,591 6.705 1 .010 .065
Internal versus Organizational V91 1,591 14.997 1 .000 .097
Drug-related Police Crime V93 1,591 16.389 1 .000 .101
Discussion of Agency Scandal V107 1,591 9.010 1 .003 .075
Conviction V109 1,105 82.094 1 .000 .273
Heroin V129 1,591 8.764 1 .003 .074
Hydrocodone V131 1,591 5.765 1 .016 .060
Oxycodone V133 1,591 5.827 1 .016 .061
Other Narcotics V135 1,591 4.499 1 .034 .053
28 U.S.C. §1441 Civil Rights Case Removed V179 1,591 3.922 1 .048 .050
343

Drugs: Using / Personal Use V196 1,591 6.163 1 .013 .062
Drugs: Selling / Trafficking V197 1,591 11.652 1 .001 .086
Drugs: Facilitation of Drug Trade V201 1,591 9.870 1 .002 .079
Drugs: Shakedowns from Car Stops V206 1,591 4.095 1 .043 .051
Drugs: Theft from Police Evidence Room V208 1,591 5.085 1 .024 .057
Depressants depress 1,591 4.761 1 .029 .055
Age Categorical agecat 1,591 49.034 10 .000 .176
Years of Service Categorical yrsservcat 1,591 28.444 10 .002 .134
Metropolitan versus Nonmetro County countydic 1,591 8.468 1 .004 .073
Rank by Function rankfunc 1,591 15.232 2 .000 .098
344
Table 77. Profit-motivated Police Crime Arrest Cases: Logistic Regression Model Predicting Job Loss (N = 206)
95% CI for Exp(B)
Internal Crime Against the Organization 0.381 0.093 16.830 < .001 1.464 1.220 1.756
Discussion of an Agency Scandal or Cover Up -2.597 0.824 9.922 .002 0.075 0.015 0.375
Conviction 2.404 0.633 14.413 < .001 11.070 3.200 38.301
Drugs: Selling / Dealing / Trafficking 3.839 1.235 9.666 .002 46.459 4.132 522.381

2
Cox & Snell R .419
2
2
ROC R .336 LL UL
AUC .668 .626 .711
345
Table 78. 200 Largest State & Local Law Enforcement Agencies in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted by # Full-Time Sworn Personnel)
# of Full-Time Per Per 1,000 Per 100,000
Agency County State Sworn Personnel Agency Officers Population
New York City Police Department New York NY 36023 196 5.44 2.40
Chicago Police Department Cook IL 13354 83 6.22 1.60
Los Angeles Police Department Los Angeles CA 9727 30 3.08 0.31
Los Angeles County Sheriff's Office Los Angeles CA 9461 14 1.48 0.14
California Highway Patrol Sacramento CA 7202 13 1.81 0.03
Philadelphia Police Department Philadelphia PA 6624 66 9.96 4.33
Cook County Sheriff's Office Cook IL 5655 8 1.41 0.15
Houston Police Department Harris TX 5053 35 6.93 0.86
New York State Police Albany NY 4847 5 1.03 0.03
New York State Courts Officers New York NY 4500 1 0.22 0.01
Pennsylvania State Police Dauphin PA 4458 26 5.83 0.20
Washington Metropolitan Police Department DC DC 3742 29 7.75 4.82
Texas Department of Public Safety Travis TX 3529 6 1.70 0.02
Dallas Police Department Dallas TX 3389 39 11.51 1.65
Phoenix Police Department Maricopa AZ 3388 17 5.02 0.45
Miami-Dade (County) Police Department Miami-Dade FL 3093 25 8.08 1.00
New Jersey State Police Mercer NJ 3053 13 4.26 0.15
Baltimore Police Department Baltimore City MD 2990 55 18.39 8.86
Las Vegas Metro Police Department Clark NV 2942 8 2.72 0.41
Nassau County Police Department Nassau NY 2732 6 2.20 0.45
Suffolk County Police Department Suffolk NY 2622 6 2.29 0.40
Harris County Sheriff's Office Harris TX 2558 3 1.17 0.07
Massachusetts State Police Middlesex MA 2310 10 4.33 0.15
Detroit Police Department Wayne MI 2250 23 10.22 1.26
Boston Police Department Suffolk MA 2181 14 6.42 1.94
Riverside County Sheriff's Office Riverside CA 2147 11 5.12 0.50
Illinois State Police Sangamon IL 2105 10 4.75 0.08
San Antonio Police Department Bexar TX 2020 30 14.85 1.75
Milwaukee Police Department Milwaukee WI 1987 73 36.74 7.70
San Diego Police Department San Diego CA 1951 12 6.15 0.39
San Francisco Police Department San Francisco CA 1940 7 3.61 0.87
Honolulu (City & County) Police Department Honolulu HI 1934 26 13.44 2.73
346
Baltimore County Police Department Baltimore MD 1910 4 2.09 0.50

Columbus Police Department Franklin OH 1886 9 4.77 0.77
Virginia State Police Chesterfield VA 1873 3 1.60 0.04
North Carolina State Highway Patrol Wake NC 1827 8 4.38 0.08
San Bernardino County Sheriff's Office San Bernardino CA 1797 11 6.12 0.54
Orange County Sheriff-Coroner Department Orange CA 1794 14 7.80 0.47
Michigan State Police Ingham MI 1732 9 5.20 0.09
Atlanta Police Department Fulton GA 1719 22 12.80 2.39
Charlotte - Mecklenburg Police Department Mecklenburg NC 1672 20 11.96 2.17
Port Authority of New York & New Jersey Police Hudson NJ 1667 1 0.60 0.01
Jacksonville Sheriff's Office Duval FL 1662 12 7.22 1.39
Broward County Sheriff's Office Broward FL 1624 16 9.85 0.92
Cleveland Police Department Cuyahoga OH 1616 27 16.71 2.11
Florida Highway Patrol Leon FL 1606 14 8.72 0.07
Indianapolis Police Marion IN 1582 33 20.86 3.65
Prince George's County Police Department Prince Georges MD 1578 19 12.04 2.20
Ohio State Highway Patrol Franklin OH 1560 4 2.56 0.03
Memphis Police Department Shelby TN 1549 46 29.70 4.96
Denver Police Department Denver CO 1525 13 8.52 2.17
Austin Police Department Travis TX 1515 10 6.60 0.98
Fort Worth Police Department Tarrant TX 1489 20 13.43 1.11
Palm Beach County Sheriff's Office Palm Beach FL 1447 12 8.29 0.91
Maryland State Police Baltimore MD 1440 9 6.25 0.16
New Orleans Police Department Orleans LA 1425 63 44.21 18.32
Kansas City Police Department Jackson MO 1421 5 3.52 0.74
Fairfax County Police Department Fairfax VA 1419 7 4.93 0.65
Sacramento County Sheriff's Office Sacramento CA 1409 6 4.26 0.42
Orange County Sheriff's Office Orange FL 1398 16 11.44 1.40
San Jose Police Department Santa Clara CA 1382 9 6.51 0.51
St. Louis (city) Police Dept St. Louis City MO 1351 10 7.40 3.13
San Diego County Sheriff's Office San Diego CA 1322 7 5.30 0.23
Indiana State Police Marion IN 1315 4 3.04 0.06
Nashville Metro Police Department Davidson TN 1315 18 13.69 2.87
Newark Police Essex NJ 1310 8 6.11 1.02
Seattle Police Department King WA 1283 9 7.01 0.47
Arizona Department of Public Safety Maricopa AZ 1244 3 2.41 0.05
347
Connecticut State Police Middlesex CT 1227 4 3.26 0.11

Hillsborough County Sheriff's Office Hillsborough FL 1223 10 8.18 0.81
Louisiana State Police E. Baton Rouge LA 1215 2 1.65 0.04
Montgomery County Police Department Montgomery MD 1206 16 13.27 1.65
Louisville Metro Police Department Jefferson KY 1197 16 13.37 2.16
Washington State Patrol Thurston WA 1132 2 1.77 0.03
El Paso Police Department El Paso TX 1132 15 13.25 1.87
Miami Police Department Miami-Dade FL 1104 14 12.68 0.56
Cincinnati Police Department Hamilton OH 1082 10 9.24 1.25
DeKalb County Police Department DeKalb GA 1074 13 12.10 1.88
Wayne County Sheriff's Office Wayne MI 1062 1 0.94 0.05
Georgia Department of Public Safety Fulton GA 1048 1 0.95 0.01
Oklahoma City Police Department Oklahoma OK 1046 12 11.47 1.67
Tucson Police Department Pima AZ 1032 6 5.81 0.61
Albuquerque Police Department Bernalillo NM 1020 13 12.75 1.96
Tampa Police Department Hillsborough FL 980 3 3.06 0.24
Long Beach Police Department Los Angeles CA 968 4 4.13 0.04
South Carolina Highway Patrol Richland SC 967 10 10.34 0.22
Tennessee Department of Safety Davidson TN 942 4 4.25 0.06
Alameda County Sheriff's Office Alameda CA 928 2 2.16 0.13
Portland Police Bureau Multnomah OR 928 10 10.78 1.36
Minneapolis Police Department Hennepin MN 902 18 19.96 1.56
Jersey City Police Hudson NJ 900 12 13.33 1.89
Pittsburgh Police Department Allegheny PA 891 21 23.57 1.72
Kentucky State Police Franklin KY 882 3 3.40 0.07
Pinellas County Sheriff's Office Pinellas FL 863 8 9.27 0.87
Mesa Police Department Maricopa AZ 831 2 2.41 0.05
Fresno Police Department Fresno CA 828 7 8.45 0.75
Tulsa Police Department Tulsa OK 826 11 13.32 1.82
Oklahoma Department of Public Safety Oklahoma OK 825 5 6.06 0.13
Jefferson Parish Sheriff's Office Jefferson LA 825 12 14.55 2.77
Birmingham Police Department Jefferson AL 816 8 9.80 1.21
Virginia Beach Police Department VA Beach City VA 813 9 11.07 2.05
Buffalo Police Department Erie NY 793 4 5.04 0.44
St. Louis County Police Dept St. Louis MO 781 2 2.56 0.20
Oakland Police Department Alameda CA 773 3 3.88 0.20
348
Norfolk Police Department Norfolk City VA 772 14 18.13 5.77

Maricopa County Sheriff's Office Maricopa AZ 766 2 2.61 0.05
Alabama Department of Public Safety Montgomery AL 763 2 2.62 0.04
Orlando Police Department Orange FL 757 8 10.57 0.70
Ventura County Sheriff's Office Ventura CA 755 1 1.32 0.12
Richmond Police Department Richmond City VA 752 7 9.31 3.43
Omaha Police Dept Douglas NE 747 6 8.03 1.16
Colorado State Patrol Jefferson CO 742 4 5.39 0.08
Marion County Sheriff's Office Marion IN 740 7 9.46 0.77
Denver County Sheriff's Office Denver CO 739 5 6.77 0.83
King County Sheriff's Office King WA 721 5 6.93 0.26
Rochester Police Department Monroe NY 703 3 4.27 0.40
Raleigh Police Department Wake NC 702 8 11.40 0.89
Sacramento Police Department Sacramento CA 701 5 7.13 0.35
New York State Metro Transportation Auth. Police New York NY 694 2 2.88 0.02
Gwinnett County Police Department Gwinnett GA 682 4 5.87 0.50
Contra Costa County Sheriff's Office Contra Costa CA 679 1 1.47 0.10
Iowa Department of Public Safety Polk IA 669 2 2.99 0.07
Colorado Springs Police Department El Paso CO 668 5 7.49 0.80
Wichita Police Department Sedgwick KS 662 2 3.02 0.40
Delaware State Police Kent DE 658 3 4.56 0.33
Yonkers Police Department Westchester NY 641 2 3.12 0.21
Toledo Police Department Lucas OH 640 12 18.75 2.72
Anne Arundel County Police Department Anne Arundel MD 633 3 4.74 0.56
Baton Rouge Police Department E. Baton Rouge LA 630 6 9.52 1.36
Collier County Sheriff's Office Collier FL 628 6 9.55 1.87
Aurora Police Department Arapahoe CO 627 6 9.57 1.05
Florida Fish & Wildlife Conservation Commission Leon FL 626 4 6.39 0.02
Lee County Sheriff's Office Lee FL 621 7 11.27 1.13
Arlington Police Department Tarrant TX 610 3 4.92 0.17
Polk County Sheriff's Office Polk FL 600 13 21.67 2.16
St. Paul Police Department Ramsey MN 598 8 13.38 1.57
Mississippi Highway Safety Patrol Hinds MS 594 6 10.10 0.20
Greensboro Police Department Guilford NC 593 5 8.43 1.02
Calcasieu Parish Sheriff's Office Calcasieu LA 592 1 1.69 0.52
Cobb County Police Department Cobb GA 590 5 8.47 0.73
349
Pima County Sheriff's Dept. Pima AZ 554 1 1.81 0.10

Henrico County Division of Police Henrico VA 554 4 7.22 1.30
Prince William County Police Department Prince William VA 546 3 5.49 0.75
Savannah-Chatham Metropolitan Police Dept Chatham GA 534 6 11.24 2.26
Gwinnett County Sheriff's Office Gwinnett GA 531 3 5.65 0.37
Minnesota State Patrol Ramsey MN 530 4 7.55 0.08
Passaic County Sheriff's Office Passaic NJ 530 6 11.32 1.20
New Mexico State Police Santa Fe NM 528 13 24.62 0.63
Bexar County Sheriff's Office Bexar TX 526 5 9.51 0.29
Arkansas State Police Pulaski AR 525 2 3.81 0.07
Milwaukee County Sheriff's Office Milwaukee WI 524 7 13.36 0.74
Little Rock Police Department Pulaski AR 520 2 3.85 0.52
Fulton County Sheriff's Office Fulton GA 516 4 7.75 0.43
Shelby County Sheriff's Office Shelby TN 516 8 15.50 0.86
Mobile Police Department Mobile AL 515 4 7.77 0.97
Tulare County Sheriff's Office Tulare CA 513 3 5.85 0.68
Kern County Sheriff's Office Kern CA 512 11 21.48 1.31
Richland County Sheriff's Office Richland SC 512 3 5.86 0.78
Shreveport Police Department Caddo LA 511 12 23.48 4.71
St. Petersburg Police Department Pinellas FL 510 6 11.76 0.65
Winston-Salem Police Department Forsyth NC 508 3 5.91 0.86
Orleans Parish Sheriff's Office (Criminal Division) Orleans LA 505 4 7.92 1.16
Montgomery Police Department Montgomery AL 500 6 12.00 2.62
Fairfax County Sheriff's Office Fairfax VA 499 3 6.01 0.28
Brevard County Sheriff's Office Brevard FL 497 2 4.02 0.37
Paterson Police Passaic NJ 497 3 6.04 0.60
Monmouth County Sheriff's Office Monmouth NJ 494 1 2.02 0.16
Durham Police Department Durham NC 494 9 18.22 3.36
Nebraska State Patrol Lancaster NE 491 1 2.04 0.05
Syracuse Police Department Onondaga NY 489 3 6.13 0.64
Pasco County Sheriff's Office Pasco FL 485 4 8.25 0.86
District of Columbia Protective Services Police DC DC 484 1 2.07 0.17
Providence Police Department Providence RI 483 7 14.49 1.12
Fort Lauderdale Police Department Broward FL 482 6 12.45 0.34
Worcester Police Department Worcester MA 482 5 10.37 0.63
Jackson Police Department Hinds MS 480 9 18.75 3.67
350
Manatee County Sheriff's Office Manatee FL 476 4 8.40 1.24

Utah Department of Public Safety Salt Lake UT 475 2 4.21 0.07
Chesterfield County Police Department Chesterfield VA 475 1 2.11 0.32
Akron Police Department Summit OH 472 8 16.95 1.48
North Las Vegas Police Department Clark NV 471 2 4.25 0.10
Springfield Police Department Hampden MA 464 9 19.40 1.94
Fresno County Sheriff's Office Fresno CA 461 1 2.17 0.11
Knox County Sheriff's Office Knox TN 456 1 2.19 0.23
Maryland Transportation Authority Police Baltimore MD 456 1 2.19 0.02
Franklin County Sheriff's Office Franklin OH 455 2 4.40 0.17
El Paso County Sheriff's Office El Paso CO 454 1 2.20 0.16
Dane County Sheriff's Office Dane WI 454 2 4.41 0.41
Santa Clara County Sheriff's Office Santa Clara CA 450 1 2.22 0.06
Volusia County Sheriff's Office Volusia FL 450 4 8.89 0.81
School District of Philadelphia Police Philadelphia PA 450 1 2.22 0.07
Richmond County Sheriff's Office Richmond GA 449 5 11.14 2.49
Dallas County Sheriff's Office Dallas TX 449 1 2.23 0.04
Loudoun County Sheriff's Office Loudoun VA 448 2 4.46 0.64
Corpus Christi Police Department Nueces TX 448 3 6.70 0.88
Fort Wayne Police Allen IN 447 4 8.95 1.13
Will County Sheriff's Office Will IL 445 1 2.25 0.15
Leon County Sheriff's Office Leon FL 443 3 6.77 1.09
Washington Metro Area Transit Auth. Police DC DC 442 2 4.52 0.33
Madison Police Department Dane WI 437 1 2.29 0.20
351
Table 79. Nonmetropolitan State & Local Law Enforcement Agencies in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted Alphabetically)
Accomack County Sheriff's Office Accomack VA 27 1 37.04 3.02

Ada Police Department Pontotoc OK 42 1 23.81 2.67
Alamogordo Department of Public Safety Otero NM 71 1 14.08 1.57
Albert Lea Police Department Freeborn MN 29 1 34.48 3.20
Algood Police Department Putnam TN 11 1 90.91 1.38
Alice Police Department Jim Wells TX 37 1 27.03 2.45
Allegan County Sheriff's Office Allegan MI 59 1 16.95 0.90
Allendale Police Department Allendale SC 10 2 200.00 19.20
Allenstown Police Department Merrimack NH 10 1 100.00 0.68
Alma Police Department Bacon GA 10 1 100.00 9.01
Andalusia Police Dept. Covington AL 30 1 33.33 2.65
Andrews Police Department Georgetown SC 9 1 111.11 1.66
Appalachian State University Police Dept Watauga NC 25 1 40.00 1.96
Appling County Sheriff's Office Appling GA 14 1 71.43 5.48
Arcade Police Department Jackson GA 9 1 111.11 1.65
Aspen Police Department Pitkin CO 23 2 86.96 11.66
Assumption Parish Sheriff's Office Assumption LA 50 2 40.00 8.54
Athena Police Department Umatilla OR 2 1 500.00 1.32
Atwater Police Department Kandiyohi MN 1 1 1000.00 2.37
Auburn Police Department Cayuga NY 70 1 14.29 1.25
Austin Police Department Mower MN 31 1 32.26 2.55
Bainbridge Police Department Decatur GA 40 2 50.00 7.18
Barre Police Department Washington VT 18 1 55.56 1.68
Bartlesville Police Department Washington OK 54 4 74.07 7.85
Baxter County Sheriff's Office Baxter AR 32 1 31.25 2.41
Beardstown Police Dept Cass IL 9 1 111.11 7.33
Beeville Police Department Bee TX 23 1 43.48 3.14
Belle Police Department Maries MO 3 1 333.33 10.90
Belpre Police Department Washington OH 9 1 111.11 1.62
Bennettsville Police Department Marlboro SC 36 1 27.78 3.46
Benzie County Sheriff's Office Benzie MI 13 1 76.92 5.71
Berea Police Department Madison KY 30 1 33.33 1.21
352
Berlin Borough Police Department Somerset PA 1 1 1000.00 1.29

Berlin Heights Police Department Erie OH 1 1 1000.00 1.30
Big Horn County Sheriff's Office Big Horn MT 8 1 125.00 7.77
Big Spring Police Department Howard TX 40 1 25.00 2.86
Bingen-White Salmon Police Department Klickitat WA 6 1 166.67 4.92
Birchwood Police Department Washburn WI 2 1 500.00 6.28
Bishopville Police Department Lee SC 16 1 62.50 5.20
Bismarck Police Department St. Francois MO 3 1 333.33 1.53
Black Mountain Police Department Buncombe NC 18 1 55.56 2.22
Black River Falls Police Department Jackson WI 7 1 142.86 4.89
Blackford County Sheriff's Office Blackford IN 8 1 125.00 7.83
Bloomville Police Department Seneca OH 0 1 1.76
Blountstown Police Dept. Calhoun FL 8 1 125.00 6.84
Blue Lake Police Department Humboldt CA 4 1 250.00 0.74
Bluefield Police Department Mercer WV 21 1 47.62 1.61
Bogalusa Police Department Washington LA 37 1 27.03 2.12
Bolivar County Sheriff's Office Bolivar MS 18 1 55.56 2.93
Bolivar Police Department Hardeman TN 21 1 47.62 3.67
Boone Police Department Watauga NC 38 1 26.32 1.96
Boswell Police Department Choctaw OK 2 1 500.00 6.58
Bowman Police Department Orangeburg SC 3 3 1000.00 3.24
Braselton Police Department Jackson GA 12 1 83.33 1.65
Bridgeport Police Department Jackson AL 6 1 166.67 1.88
Brownwood Police Department Brown TX 38 2 52.63 5.25
Bunkie Police Department Avoyelles LA 12 1 83.33 2.38
Burr Oak Police Department St. Joseph MI 1 1 1000.00 1.63
Butler County Sheriff's Office Butler AL 9 3 333.33 14.32
Butler Township Police Department Schuylkill PA 4 1 250.00 0.67
Butte - Silver Bow County Sheriff's Office Silver Bow MT 45 2 44.44 5.85
Byron Police Dept Ogle IL 7 1 142.86 1.87
BYU-Idaho Police Department Madison ID 10 1 100.00 2.66
Caddo Police Department Bryan OK 3 1 333.33 2.36
Calhoun County Sheriff's Office Calhoun FL 18 1 55.56 6.84
Calhoun Police Department Gordon GA 44 1 22.73 1.81
Campbell County Sheriff's Office Campbell WY 58 1 17.24 2.17
Canton Police Dept Fulton IL 23 1 43.48 2.70
353
Canton Village Police Department St. Lawrence NY 8 1 125.00 0.89

Caribou Police Department Aroostook ME 14 1 71.43 1.39
Carlisle Police Department Nicholas KY 5 1 200.00 14.02
Carter County Sheriff's Office Carter MO 3 2 666.67 31.92
Caruthersville Police Department Pemiscot MO 21 2 95.24 10.93
Central Michigan University Police Department Isabella MI 21 1 47.62 1.42
Chaffee Police Department Scott MO 5 1 200.00 2.55
Chandler Police Department Henderson TX 8 1 125.00 1.27
Cherokee County Sheriff's Office Cherokee SC 48 2 41.67 3.61
Cherokee Police Department Alfalfa OK 2 1 500.00 17.72
Chesterfield County Sheriff's Office Chesterfield SC 41 1 24.39 2.14
Chilhowie Police Department Smyth VA 6 4 666.67 12.42
Chillicothe Police Department Ross OH 47 1 21.28 1.28
Clarksdale Police Department Coahoma MS 35 1 28.57 3.82
Clay County Sheriff's Office Clay AR 7 1 142.86 6.22
Clayton County Sheriff's Office Clayton IA 12 1 83.33 5.52
Clearlake Police Department Lake CA 21 1 47.62 1.55
Clewiston Police Department Hendry FL 20 2 100.00 5.11
Clovis Police Department Curry NM 53 3 56.60 6.20
Clyde Police Department Sandusky OH 14 1 71.43 1.64
Cochran Police Department Bleckley GA 14 3 214.29 22.97
Coeburn Police Department Wise VA 7 1 142.86 2.41
Columbiana County Sheriff's Office Columbiana OH 22 2 90.91 1.85
Columbus Police Department Lowndes MS 62 1 16.13 1.67
Columbus Police Department Colorado TX 10 1 100.00 4.79
Columbus Police Department Polk NC 6 1 166.67 4.88
Columbus Police Department Luna NM 4 1 250.00 3.98
Commerce Police Department Jackson GA 24 1 41.67 1.65
Commerce Police Department Ottawa OK 5 1 200.00 3.14
Concord Police Department Merrimack NH 77 1 12.99 0.68
Conneaut Police Department Ashtabula OH 19 1 52.63 0.99
Cookeville Police Department Putnam TN 70 2 28.57 2.77
Cooter Police Department Pemiscot MO 1 1 1000.00 5.47
Corbin Police Department Whitley KY 19 1 52.63 2.81
Corinth Police Department Alcorn MS 39 1 25.64 2.70
Cortland Police Department Cortland NY 44 1 22.73 2.03
354
Craig Police Department Moffat CO 22 1 45.45 7.25

Crescent City Police Department Putnam FL 5 1 200.00 1.34
Creston Police Department Union IA 10 2 200.00 15.96
Cross County Sheriff's Office Cross AR 17 1 58.82 5.60
Crossett Police Department Ashley AR 15 1 66.67 4.58
Crystal City Police Department Zavala TX 11 4 363.64 34.26
Cullman County Sheriff's Office Cullman AL 78 1 12.82 1.24
Custer County Sheriff's Office Custer OK 12 1 83.33 3.64
Dale County Sheriff's Office Dale AL 0 1 1.99
Danville (City) Sheriff's Office Danville City VA 69 3 43.48 6.97
Danville Police Department Pittsylvania VA 126 1 7.94 1.57
Daviess County Sheriff's Office Daviess IN 19 1 52.63 3.16
DeKalb County Sheriff's Office DeKalb AL 34 1 29.41 1.41
Del Norte County Sheriff's Office Del Norte CA 30 2 66.67 6.99
Del Rio Police Department Val Verde TX 65 1 15.38 2.05
Delavan Police Department Walworth WI 19 1 52.63 0.98
Delhi Police Department Richland LA 5 1 200.00 4.83
Delhi Village Police Department Delaware NY 4 1 250.00 2.08
Demopolis Police Department Marengo AL 19 1 52.63 4.76
Denton Police Department Caroline MD 13 1 76.92 3.02
Deridder Police Department Beauregard LA 24 1 41.67 2.80
Dewitt Police Department Clinton IA 10 1 100.00 2.04
Dillon Police Department Dillon SC 25 1 40.00 3.12
Dillon Police Department Summit CO 9 1 111.11 3.57
Dixon Police Department Pulaski MO 5 1 200.00 1.91
Dodge City Police Department Ford KS 49 1 20.41 2.95
Douglas County Sheriff's Office Douglas NV 100 1 10.00 2.13
Dunn Police Department Harnett NC 37 1 27.03 0.87
Durand Police Department Shiawassee MI 5 1 200.00 1.42
Durango Police Department La Plata CO 50 1 20.00 1.95
Durant Police Department Bryan OK 36 1 27.78 2.36
Duval County Sheriff's Office Duval TX 18 1 55.56 8.49
Earlville Police Dept La Salle IL 3 1 333.33 0.88
East Brewton Police Department Escambia AL 6 1 166.67 2.61
Eastman Police Department Dodge GA 11 1 90.91 4.59
Eatonton Police Department Putnam GA 16 1 62.50 4.71
355
Edenton Police Department Chowan NC 12 3 250.00 20.28

Elgin Police Department Grant ND 1 1 1000.00 41.77
Elkin Police Department Surry NC 17 1 58.82 1.36
Elko County Sheriff's Office Elko NV 57 1 17.54 2.05
Elmore Police Department Ottawa OH 4 1 250.00 2.41
Emery County Sheriff's Office Emery UT 26 2 76.92 18.22
Emmet County Sheriff's Office Emmet MI 23 1 43.48 3.06
Ephrata Police Department Grant WA 15 1 66.67 1.12
Errol Police Department Coos NH 0 1 3.03
Estill County Sheriff's Office Estill KY 5 1 200.00 6.82
Eunice Police Department St. Landry LA 32 5 156.25 6.00
Eunice Police Department Lea NM 8 1 125.00 1.54
Eureka Police Department Humboldt CA 46 1 21.74 0.74
Fair Bluff Police Department Columbus NC 3 1 333.33 1.72
Fairfax Police Department Allendale SC 6 1 166.67 9.60
Fairland Police Department Ottawa OK 4 1 250.00 3.14
Fairmont Police Department Robeson NC 13 1 76.92 0.75
Farmville Police Department Prince Edward VA 27 1 37.04 4.28
Fayette County Sheriff's Office Fayette OH 22 3 136.36 10.33
Fayette Police Department Fayette AL 12 1 83.33 5.80
Ferriday Police Department Concordia LA 10 1 100.00 4.80
Ferry County Sheriff's Office Ferry WA 10 1 100.00 13.24
Flemingsburg Police Department Fleming KY 7 1 142.86 6.97
Florala Police Department Covington AL 6 1 166.67 2.65
Floyd County Sheriff's Office Floyd IA 11 1 90.91 6.13
Forest City Police Department Winnebago IA 9 1 111.11 9.20
Forks Police Department Clallam WA 9 1 111.11 1.40
Fort Dodge Police Department Webster IA 37 1 27.03 2.63
Fort Gibson Police Department Muskogee OK 11 1 90.91 1.41
Fort Madison Police Department Lee IA 17 1 58.82 2.79
Fort Payne Police Department DeKalb AL 34 1 29.41 1.41
Foster Township Police Department McKean PA 4 1 250.00 2.30
Frankfort Police Department Franklin KY 65 1 15.38 2.03
Franklin County Sheriff's Office Franklin IN 12 1 83.33 4.33
Franklin Police Dept Franklin NE 2 1 500.00 31.01
Freedom Police Department Carroll NH 3 1 333.33 2.09
356
Fremont County Sheriff's Office Fremont IA 7 1 142.86 13.44

Frisco Police Department Summit CO 13 1 76.92 3.57
Fryeburg Police Department Oxford ME 5 1 200.00 1.73
Gaffney Police Department Cherokee SC 37 2 54.05 3.61
Gage County Sheriff's Office Gage NE 12 1 83.33 4.48
Galesburg Police Dept Knox IL 53 1 18.87 1.89
Gallatin County Sheriff's Office Gallatin IL 3 1 333.33 17.89
Gallup Police Department McKinley NM 62 1 16.13 1.40
Gatlinburg Police Department Sevier TN 45 1 22.22 1.11
Geneva Township Police Department Walworth WI 6 1 166.67 0.98
Georgetown County Sheriff's Office Georgetown SC 78 1 12.82 1.66
Gillette Police Department Campbell WY 45 1 22.22 2.17
Glendive Police Department Dawson MT 9 1 111.11 11.15
Gold Beach Police Department Curry OR 4 1 250.00 4.47
Graham County Sheriff's Office Graham AZ 23 1 43.48 2.69
Grambling State University Police Dept. Lincoln LA 9 2 222.22 4.28
Grand Rapids Police Department Wood WI 5 1 200.00 1.34
Grand Traverse County Sheriff's Office Grand Traverse MI 64 2 31.25 2.30
Grant County Sheriff's Office Grant IN 45 1 22.22 1.43
Grant County Sheriff's Office Grant OK 5 1 200.00 22.09
Grants Police Department Cibola NM 14 1 71.43 3.67
Great Bend Police Department Barton KS 30 1 33.33 3.61
Greenbrier County Sheriff's Office Greenbrier WV 30 1 33.33 2.82
Greene County Sheriff's Office Greene AR 15 1 66.67 2.38
Greene County Sheriff's Office Greene AL 11 1 90.91 11.06
Greensburg Police Decatur IN 18 1 55.56 3.89
Greenville Police Department Washington MS 96 2 20.83 3.91
Griggs County Sheriff's Office Griggs ND 3 1 333.33 41.32
Guadalupe County Sheriff's Office Guadalupe NM 3 1 333.33 21.34
Halifax County Sheriff's Office Halifax VA 29 1 34.48 2.76
Hamburg Police Department Fremont IA 1 1 1000.00 13.44
Hampton County Sheriff's Office Hampton SC 26 1 38.46 4.74
Hanceville Police Department Cullman AL 9 1 111.11 1.24
Hannahville Tribal Police Department Menominee MI 11 1 90.91 4.16
Hardeman County Sheriff's Office Hardeman TN 22 1 45.45 3.67
Harrison County Sheriff's Office Harrison TX 45 1 22.22 1.52
357
Harrodsburg Police Department Mercer KY 16 1 62.50 4.69

Haskell Police Department Muskogee OK 5 1 200.00 1.41
Haskell Police Department Haskell TX 3 1 333.33 16.95
Hastings Police Dept Adams NE 36 2 55.56 6.38
Haynesville Police Dept Claiborne LA 7 1 142.86 5.82
Haywood County Sheriff's Office Haywood TN 22 1 45.45 5.32
Hegins Township Police Department Schuylkill PA 2 1 500.00 0.67
Helen Police Department White GA 10 1 100.00 3.68
Helena\/West Helena Police Department Phillips AR 30 4 133.33 18.38
Hemingway Police Department Williamsburg SC 4 1 250.00 2.91
Hempstead County Sheriff's Office Hempstead AR 13 1 76.92 4.42
Hendry County Sheriff's Office Hendry FL 67 1 14.93 2.55
Hennessey Police Department Kingfisher OK 3 1 333.33 6.65
Henry County Sheriff's Office Henry VA 112 14 125.00 25.85
Hermann Police Department Gasconade MO 7 1 142.86 6.57
Hockley County Sheriff's Office Hockley TX 11 2 181.82 8.72
Holly Hill Police Department Orangeburg SC 7 1 142.86 1.08
Holmes County Sheriff's Office Holmes OH 33 1 30.30 2.36
Holt County Sheriff's Office Holt NE 5 1 200.00 9.58
Homer City Borough Police Department Indiana PA 2 1 500.00 1.13
Hooksett Police Department Merrimack NH 28 1 35.71 0.68
Hornell Police Department Steuben NY 22 1 45.45 1.01
Humboldt Police Department Gibson TN 26 2 76.92 4.03
Hunter Police Department Greene NY 2 1 500.00 2.03
Huron Police Department Beadle SD 24 1 41.67 5.75
Indiana Borough Police Department Indiana PA 22 1 45.45 1.13
Inman Police Department McPherson KS 2 1 500.00 3.43
Ishpeming Police Department Marquette MI 10 1 100.00 1.49
Jackson County Sheriff's Office Jackson FL 61 1 16.39 2.01
Jackson County Sheriff's Office Jackson TN 14 3 214.29 25.78
Jaffrey Police Department Cheshire NH 10 1 100.00 1.30
Jamestown Police Department Chautauqua NY 62 2 32.26 1.48
Jennings Police Department Jefferson Davis LA 24 1 41.67 3.17
Jim Wells County Sheriff's Office Jim Wells TX 27 1 37.04 2.45
Juneau County Sheriff's Office Juneau WI 45 1 22.22 3.75
Juneau Police Dept. Juneau AK 44 1 22.73 3.20
358
Kahoka Police Department Clark MO 3 1 333.33 6.58

Kalispell Police Department Flathead MT 36 1 27.78 1.10
Kauai (County) Police Department Kauai HI 125 3 24.00 4.47
Kaw Nation Tribal Police Kay OK 6 1 166.67 2.15
Kendallville Police Noble IN 18 1 55.56 2.10
Kenton Police Department Obion TN 5 1 200.00 3.14
Keokuk County Sheriff's Office Keokuk IA 4 1 250.00 9.51
Kermit Police Department Winkler TX 10 1 100.00 14.06
Kerrville Police Department Kerr TX 51 1 19.61 2.02
Ketchikan Police Dept. Ketchikan Gateway AK 22 1 45.45 7.42
Kingfisher County Sheriff's Office Kingfisher OK 8 1 125.00 6.65
Kings Mountain Police Department Cleveland NC 30 2 66.67 2.04
Kingsland Police Dept Camden GA 43 1 23.26 1.98
Kingsville Police Department Kleberg TX 45 1 22.22 3.12
Kitty Hawk Police Department Dare NC 17 1 58.82 2.95
Klamath Falls Police Department Klamath OR 39 1 25.64 1.51
La Salle County Sheriff's Office La Salle IL 36 1 27.78 0.88
La Salle County Sheriff's Office La Salle TX 10 3 300.00 43.57
LaGrange Police Department Troup GA 83 1 12.05 1.49
Lake County Sheriff's Office Lake CA 61 2 32.79 3.09
Lake County Sheriff's Office Lake CO 9 2 222.22 27.36
Lake County Sheriff's Office Lake SD 5 1 200.00 8.93
Lakeport Police Department Lake CA 12 1 83.33 1.55
Lamesa Police Department Dawson TX 16 1 62.50 7.23
Lamoure Police Department LaMoure ND 1 1 1000.00 24.16
Lancaster Police Department Garrard KY 10 1 100.00 5.91
Lander University Public Safety Greenwood SC 10 1 100.00 1.44
Las Vegas Police Department San Miguel NM 27 1 37.04 3.40
Lawrence County Sheriff's Office Lawrence IN 25 1 40.00 2.17
Lawrence Township Police Department Clearfield PA 9 1 111.11 1.22
Lebanon Police Department Grafton NH 35 1 28.57 1.12
Lebanon Police Department Laclede MO 30 1 33.33 2.81
Lee County Sheriff's Office Lee NC 47 1 21.28 1.73
Lee County Sheriff's Office Lee SC 28 1 35.71 5.20
Leesville Police Department Vernon LA 28 1 35.71 1.91
Leland Police Department Washington MS 18 1 55.56 1.96
359
Lenawee County Sheriff's Office Lenawee MI 44 1 22.73 1.00

Lenoir County Sheriff's Office Lenoir NC 58 2 34.48 3.36
Level Plains Police Department Dale AL 5 1 200.00 1.99
Lewis County Sheriff's Office Lewis MO 5 1 200.00 9.79
Lincoln County Sheriff's Office Lincoln OR 65 1 15.38 2.17
Lincoln Parish Sheriff's Office Lincoln LA 46 1 21.74 2.14
Lockhart Police Department Covington AL 1 1 1000.00 2.65
Lumberton Police Department Robeson NC 73 1 13.70 0.75
Luna County Sheriff's Office Luna NM 30 1 33.33 3.98
Madill Police Department Marshall OK 12 1 83.33 6.31
Madison County Sheriff's Office Madison MO 8 1 125.00 8.18
Mahanoy City Borough Police Department Schuylkill PA 4 1 250.00 0.67
Malakoff Police Department Henderson TX 4 1 250.00 1.27
Manitowoc Police Department Manitowoc WI 64 2 31.25 2.46
Marble Falls Police Department Burnet TX 27 1 37.04 2.34
Marble Head Police Department Ottawa OH 4 1 250.00 2.41
Marion County Sheriff's Office Marion WV 27 1 37.04 1.77
Marion Police Department Marion SC 24 1 41.67 3.02
Marion Police Department Smyth VA 18 1 55.56 3.10
Marion Township Police Department Waushara WI 1 1 1000.00 4.08
Marksville Police Department Avoyelles LA 20 1 50.00 2.38
Marlboro County Sheriff's Office Marlboro SC 25 2 80.00 6.91
Marlow Police Department Stephens OK 10 1 100.00 2.22
Marshallville Police Dept. Macon GA 4 1 250.00 6.78
Martin County Sheriff's Office Martin NC 34 1 29.41 4.08
Marvell Police Department Phillips AR 3 1 333.33 4.60
Mason City Police Department Cerro Gordo IA 46 1 21.74 2.26
Mason County Sheriff's Office Mason WV 21 3 142.86 10.98
McArthur Police Department Vinton OH 4 1 250.00 7.44
McDowell County Sheriff's Office McDowell NC 40 1 25.00 2.22
McDowell County Sheriff's Office McDowell WV 15 1 66.67 4.52
McIntosh County Sheriff's Office McIntosh OK 17 2 117.65 9.88
McKinley County Sheriff's Office McKinley NM 35 1 28.57 1.40
Medina Police Department Gibson TN 11 1 90.91 2.01
Meigs Police Department Thomas GA 3 1 333.33 2.24
Meridian Police Department Lauderdale MS 99 3 30.30 3.74
360
Meyersdale Borough Police Department Somerset PA 2 1 500.00 1.29

Miami Police Department Ottawa OK 30 1 33.33 3.14
Middlesex County Sheriff's Office Middlesex VA 17 1 58.82 9.12
Middletown Police Henry IN 5 1 200.00 2.02
Miller County Sheriff's Office Miller MO 16 1 62.50 4.04
Millersburg Police Department Holmes OH 10 1 100.00 2.36
Mineral Wells Police Department Palo Pinto TX 30 2 66.67 7.11
Minocqua Police Department Oneida WI 9 1 111.11 2.78
Missouri University of Science & Tech Police Dept Phelps MO 11 1 90.91 2.21
Moab Police Department Grand UT 15 1 66.67 10.84
Moberly Police Department Randolph MO 32 1 31.25 3.93
Monroe County Sheriff's Office Monroe FL 189 3 15.87 4.10
Monroe County Sheriff's Office Monroe WI 23 1 43.48 2.24
Monroeville Police Department Huron OH 4 1 250.00 1.68
Montague County Sheriff's Office Montague TX 10 1 100.00 5.07
Montezuma Police Department Macon GA 11 2 181.82 13.57
Monticello Police White IN 12 1 83.33 4.06
Montpelier Police Department Bear Lake ID 5 1 200.00 16.71
Mora County Sheriff's Office Mora NM 5 1 200.00 20.49
Morrow County Sheriff's Office Morrow OR 14 1 71.43 8.95
Mounds Police Dept Pulaski IL 1 2 2000.00 32.46
Mount Airy Police Department Surry NC 38 1 26.32 1.36
Mount Pleasant Police Department Titus TX 29 1 34.48 3.09
Murphy Police Department Cherokee NC 7 1 142.86 3.64
Murray Police Department Calloway KY 31 1 32.26 2.69
Muscatine Police Department Muscatine IA 39 1 25.64 2.34
Muskogee County Sheriff's Office Muskogee OK 37 1 27.03 1.41
Muskogee Police Department Muskogee OK 90 4 44.44 5.63
Nashville Police Department Berrien GA 15 1 66.67 5.19
Natchez Police Dept. Adams MS 48 4 83.33 12.39
Natchitoches Parish Sheriff's Office Natchitoches LA 45 1 22.22 2.53
Navajo Nation Tribal Dept of Law Enforcement Apache AZ 393 3 7.63 4.19
Nebraska City Police Dept Otoe NE 15 2 133.33 12.71
New Athens Police Department Harrison OH 0 1 6.30
New Castle (city) Police Department Lawrence PA 35 1 28.57 1.10
New Castle Police Henry IN 35 1 28.57 2.02
361
New Castle Police Department Garfield CO 7 1 142.86 1.77

New Lisbon Police Department Juneau WI 4 1 250.00 3.75
New Martinsville Police Department Wetzel WV 10 1 100.00 6.03
New Milford Police Department Litchfield CT 46 1 21.74 0.53
New York City Dept of Env. Protection Police Westchester NY 168 1 5.95 1.29
Newaygo County Sheriff's Office Newaygo MI 25 1 40.00 2.06
Newbury Police Department Merrimack NH 3 1 333.33 0.68
Newport Police Department Sullivan NH 14 1 71.43 2.29
Nicholas County Sheriff's Office Nicholas KY 1 1 1000.00 14.02
Nogales Police Department Santa Cruz AZ 60 2 33.33 4.22
North Kingsville Police Department Ashtabula OH 5 1 200.00 0.99
Norton Police Department Norton KS 6 1 166.67 17.63
Norwich Police Department Chenango NY 19 1 52.63 1.98
Nye County Sheriff's Office Nye NV 108 3 27.78 6.83
Oakdale Police Department Allen LA 20 1 50.00 3.88
Oakwood Police Department Paulding OH 1 1 1000.00 5.10
Ocean Shores Police Department Grays Harbor WA 14 1 71.43 1.37
Ogdensburg Police Department St. Lawrence NY 25 1 40.00 0.89
Oglesby Police Dept La Salle IL 8 1 125.00 0.88
Oglethorpe Police Department Macon GA 5 1 200.00 6.78
Okanogan County Sheriff's Office Okanogan WA 30 1 33.33 2.43
Olean Police Department Cattaraugus NY 32 1 31.25 1.25
Olney Police Department Young TX 5 1 200.00 5.39
Onley Police Department Accomack VA 4 1 250.00 3.02
Ontario Police Department Malheur OR 22 1 45.45 3.19
Opelousas Police Department St. Landry LA 58 1 17.24 1.20
Orangeburg County Sheriff's Office Orangeburg SC 92 1 10.87 1.08
Orangeburg Public Safety Orangeburg SC 72 3 41.67 3.24
Oregon County Sheriff's Office Oregon MO 5 2 400.00 18.38
Osceola County Sheriff's Office Osceola MI 18 1 55.56 4.25
Osceola Police Department Clarke IA 9 1 111.11 10.77
Otero County Sheriff's Office Otero NM 30 1 33.33 1.57
Page County Sheriff's Office Page VA 49 1 20.41 4.16
Palatka Police Department Putnam FL 37 1 27.03 1.34
Paris Police Department Lamar TX 54 1 18.52 2.01
Pauls Valley Police Department Garvin OK 13 1 76.92 3.63
362
Pearson Police Department Atkinson GA 5 1 200.00 11.94

Pelham Police Department Mitchell GA 14 1 71.43 4.26
Perry County Sheriff's Office Perry IL 12 1 83.33 4.47
Perryville Police Department Boyle KY 1 1 1000.00 3.52
Petroleum County Sheriff's Office Petroleum MT 1 1 1000.00 202.43
Philadelphia Police Department Neshoba MS 27 1 37.04 3.37
Phillips County Sheriff's Office Phillips AR 16 1 62.50 4.60
Pineland Police Department Sabine TX 2 1 500.00 9.23
Pineview Police Department Wilcox GA 1 1 1000.00 10.80
Pink Hill Police Department Lenoir NC 2 1 500.00 1.68
Plainview Police Department Hale TX 34 1 29.41 2.76
Platteville Police Department Grant WI 20 1 50.00 1.95
Plattsburgh Police Department Clinton NY 47 1 21.28 1.22
Pocahontas County Sheriff's Office Pocahontas WV 5 1 200.00 11.47
Polk County Police Department Polk GA 35 3 85.71 7.23
Polk County Sheriff's Office Polk GA 27 2 74.07 4.82
Poplar Bluff Police Department Butler MO 43 1 23.26 2.34
Port Barre Police Dept St. Landry LA 7 1 142.86 1.20
Port Jefferson Police Department Shelby OH 0 1 2.02
Powell County Sheriff's Office Powell MT 10 1 100.00 14.23
Princeton Police Department Mercer WV 17 2 117.65 3.21
Providence Police Department Webster KY 7 1 142.86 7.34
Pulaski County Sheriff's Office Pulaski IL 11 2 181.82 32.46
Putnam County Sheriff's Office Putnam TN 58 2 34.48 2.77
Quincy Police Department Grant WA 12 1 83.33 1.12
Rainsville Police Department DeKalb AL 11 1 90.91 1.41
Randolph County Sheriff's Office Randolph IL 13 1 76.92 2.99
Ranger Police Department Eastland TX 5 1 200.00 5.38
Ravalli County Sheriff's Office Ravalli MT 29 1 34.48 2.49
Ravenna Police Dept Buffalo NE 3 1 333.33 2.17
Red Springs Police Department Robeson NC 16 1 62.50 0.75
Richland Police Dept Pulaski MO 5 1 200.00 1.91
Richmond Police Department Madison KY 65 1 15.38 1.21
Ridgeville Police Randolph IN 2 1 500.00 3.82
Ridgeville Police Department Dorchester SC 2 1 500.00 2.57
Rio Arriba County Sheriff's Office Rio Arriba NM 22 1 45.45 2.48
363
Ripley Police Department Jackson WV 9 1 111.11 3.42

Robbins Police Department Moore NC 5 1 200.00 1.13
Robeson County Sheriff's Office Robeson NC 128 3 23.44 2.24
Rochelle Police Department Wilcox GA 4 1 250.00 10.80
Rockmart Police Department Polk GA 18 1 55.56 2.41
Roodhouse Police Dept Greene IL 4 1 250.00 7.20
Roosevelt County Sheriff's Office Roosevelt MT 11 1 90.91 9.59
Roseboro Police Department Sampson NC 5 2 400.00 3.15
Rosebud Sioux Tribal Police Todd SD 27 1 37.04 10.40
Rosedale Police Department Bolivar MS 5 1 200.00 2.93
Roswell Police Department Chaves NM 80 2 25.00 3.05
Routt County Sheriff's Office Routt CO 22 1 45.45 4.25
Royston Police Department Franklin GA 15 1 66.67 4.53
Ruidoso Police Department Lincoln NM 26 1 38.46 4.88
Russellville Police Department Franklin AL 25 2 80.00 6.31
Rutland Police Department. Rutland VT 41 1 24.39 1.62
Saline County Sheriff's Office Saline KS 44 1 22.73 1.80
Saline County Sheriff's Office Saline IL 42 1 23.81 4.01
San Jacinto County Sheriff's Office San Jacinto TX 21 1 47.62 3.79
Sandusky Police Department Erie OH 54 2 37.04 2.59
Sanford Police Department Lee NC 81 1 12.35 1.73
Santa Clara Police Department Grant NM 5 1 200.00 3.39
Santee Police Department Orangeburg SC 6 2 333.33 2.16
Sauk County Sheriff's Office Sauk WI 118 1 8.47 1.61
Sault Ste. Marie Police Department Chippewa MI 25 1 40.00 2.60
Scotts Hill Police Department Henderson TN 3 1 333.33 3.60
Scottsbluff Police Dept Scotts Bluff NE 30 1 33.33 2.70
Scottsboro Police Department Jackson AL 44 1 22.73 1.88
Seadrift Police Department Calhoun TX 2 1 500.00 4.68
Searcy Police Department White AR 41 1 24.39 1.30
Seaside Police Department Clatsop OR 18 1 55.56 2.70
Sedalia Police Dept Pettis MO 44 1 22.73 2.37
Selma Police Department Dallas AL 50 2 40.00 4.56
Selmer Police Department McNairy TN 18 1 55.56 3.84
Seneca County Sheriff's Office Seneca NY 23 6 260.87 17.02
Seneca Police Department Oconee SC 34 1 29.41 1.35
364
Sevierville Police Department Sevier TN 55 1 18.18 1.11

Seymour Police Jackson IN 39 1 25.64 2.36
Shawnee Police Department Pottawatomie OK 52 1 19.23 1.44
Shelby County Sheriff's Office Shelby OH 30 1 33.33 2.02
Shelby County Sheriff's Office Shelby TX 15 2 133.33 7.86
Shelby Police Department Cleveland NC 70 1 14.29 1.02
Shelby Police Department Bolivar MS 7 2 285.71 5.86
Shenandoah Borough Police Department Schuylkill PA 7 4 571.43 2.70
Shinnston Police Department Harrison WV 7 2 285.71 2.89
Simpson County Sheriff's Office Simpson KY 11 1 90.91 5.77
Sleepy Eye Police Department Redwood MN 6 1 166.67 3.86
Socorro County Sheriff's Office Socorro NM 10 1 100.00 5.60
Spencer Police Department Clay IA 18 1 55.56 6.00
Springfield Police Department Windsor VT 15 1 66.67 1.76
Springfield Police Department Orangeburg SC 2 1 500.00 1.08
St. George Police Department Dorchester SC 10 1 100.00 2.57
St. Landry Parish Sheriff's Office St. Landry LA 90 4 44.44 4.80
St. Marys Police Department Auglaize OH 15 1 66.67 2.18
St. Paul Police Department Wise VA 6 1 166.67 2.41
Stanly County Sheriff's Office Stanly NC 49 1 20.41 1.65
Stark County Sheriff's Office Stark ND 11 1 90.91 4.13
Starr County Sheriff's Office Starr TX 31 1 32.26 1.64
Stephens County Sheriff's Office Stephens GA 31 1 32.26 3.82
Stephens County Sheriff's Office Stephens OK 11 2 181.82 4.44
Steuben County Sheriff's Office Steuben NY 26 1 38.46 1.01
Stillwater Police Department Payne OK 74 1 13.51 1.29
Stover Police Department Morgan MO 3 1 333.33 4.86
Sturgis Police Department St. Joseph MI 19 1 52.63 1.63
Sugarcreek Borough Police Department Venango PA 5 1 200.00 1.82
Sugarcreek Police Department Tuscarawas OH 5 1 200.00 1.08
Sullivan County Sheriff's Office Sullivan NY 44 1 22.73 1.29
Sweetwater Police Department Monroe TN 18 1 55.56 2.25
Tabor City Police Department Columbus NC 9 2 222.22 3.44
Tahlequah Police Department Cherokee OK 32 1 31.25 2.13
Talbot County Sheriff's Office Talbot GA 8 3 375.00 43.70
Terrell County Sheriff's Office Terrell TX 5 1 200.00 101.63
365
Thief River Falls Police Department Pennington MN 15 1 66.67 7.18

Thomas County Sheriff's Office Thomas GA 47 2 42.55 4.47
Tipton Police Department Tillman OK 1 1 1000.00 12.51
Torrington Police Department Litchfield CT 79 1 12.66 0.53
Towns County Sheriff's Office Towns GA 18 1 55.56 9.55
Traverse City Police Department Grand Traverse MI 32 1 31.25 1.15
Tucumcari Police Department Quay NM 13 1 76.92 11.06
Tupelo Police Department Lee MS 115 1 8.70 1.21
Turkey Creek Police Department Evangeline LA 1 1 1000.00 2.94
Tuscola County Sheriff's Office Tuscola MI 25 1 40.00 1.79
Tuskegee Police Department Macon AL 23 2 86.96 9.32
Tuskegee University Police Department Macon AL 33 1 30.30 4.66
Tutwiler Police Department Tallahatchie MS 4 1 250.00 6.50
Twin Falls Police Department Twin Falls ID 64 1 15.63 1.29
Union City Police Department Obion TN 36 1 27.78 3.14
Union Police Department Newton MS 7 1 142.86 4.60
University of West Alabama Police Sumter AL 6 1 166.67 7.27
Upper Sandusky Police Department Wyandot OH 13 1 76.92 4.42
Vail Police Department Eagle CO 28 1 35.71 1.92
Vergennes Police Department Addison VT 5 1 200.00 2.72
Vernal Police Department Uintah UT 22 1 45.45 3.07
Vernon Parish Sheriff's Office Vernon LA 64 2 31.25 3.82
Vidalia Police Department Concordia LA 20 1 50.00 4.80
Vinita Police Department Craig OK 15 1 66.67 6.65
Virginia Marine Resources Commission Newport News City VA 60 1 16.67 3.02
Wakeman Police Department Huron OH 1 1 1000.00 1.68
Wallace Police Department Duplin NC 12 1 83.33 1.71
Warren County Sheriff's Office Warren NC 30 1 33.33 4.77
Washington Court House Police Dept. Fayette OH 22 1 45.45 3.44
Washington Police Department Beaufort NC 36 1 27.78 2.09
Waukomis Police Department Garfield OK 3 1 333.33 1.65
Waynesburg Borough Police Department Greene PA 8 1 125.00 2.58
West Yellowstone Police Department Gallatin MT 5 1 200.00 1.12
Wheeler Police Department Dunn WI 0 1 2.28
White Cloud Police Department Newaygo MI 2 1 500.00 2.06
White County Sheriff's Office White GA 40 1 25.00 3.68
366
White County Sheriff's Office White TN 28 1 35.71 3.87

Whiteville Police Department Hardeman TN 8 1 125.00 3.67
Whitley County Sheriff's Office Whitley KY 12 1 83.33 2.81
Wilkesboro Police Department Wilkes NC 20 1 50.00 1.44
Williams Police Department Colusa CA 10 1 100.00 4.67
Williamsburg Police Department Whitley KY 12 1 83.33 2.81
Wilson Police Department Wilson NC 114 2 17.54 2.46
Wilson Police Department Ellsworth KS 1 1 1000.00 15.39
Windber Borough Police Department Somerset PA 2 1 500.00 1.29
Winkler County Sheriff's Office Winkler TX 10 1 100.00 14.06
Winn Parish Sheriff's Office Winn LA 23 1 43.48 6.53
Winnemucca Police Department Humboldt NV 18 1 55.56 6.05
Winnfield Police Dept Winn LA 13 1 76.92 6.53
Winnsboro Police Department Franklin LA 7 1 142.86 4.82
Winsted Police Department Litchfield CT 4 1 250.00 0.53
Wolfeboro Police Department Carroll NH 12 1 83.33 2.09
Woodruff County Sheriff's Office Woodruff AR 6 1 166.67 13.77
Woodstock Police Department Grafton NH 5 1 200.00 1.12
Yemassee Police Department Hampton SC 7 1 142.86 4.74
Zanesville Police Department Muskingum OH 53 3 56.60 3.49
Zapata County Sheriff's Office Zapata TX 44 1 22.73 7.13
Zolfo Springs Police Department Hardee FL 1 1 1000.00 3.61
367
Table 80. Primary State Police Agencies in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted Alphabetically)

Alaska State Troopers Anchorage AK 274 1 3.65 0.14
Arkansas Highway Police Pulaski AR 149 2 13.42 0.07
Idaho State Police Ada ID 264 1 3.79 0.06
Louisiana State Police East Baton Rouge LA 1215 2 1.65 0.04
Maine State Police Kennebec ME 334 1 2.99 0.08
Nevada Highway Patrol Carson NV 417 3 7.19 0.11
New Hampshire State Police Merrimack NH 350 3 8.57 0.23
368

Rhode Island State Police Providence RI 201 2 9.95 0.19
Vermont State Police Washington VT 307 1 3.26 0.16
Wyoming Highway Patrol Laramie WY 204 1 4.90 0.18
369
Table 81. Sheriff's Offices in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted Alphabetically)
Acadia Parish Sheriff's Office Acadia LA 105 1 9.52 1.62

Adams County Sheriff's Office Adams CO 364 2 5.49 0.45
Alachua County Sheriff's Office Alachua FL 276 1 3.62 0.40
Allegheny County Sheriff's Office Allegheny PA 151 3 19.87 0.25
Anderson County Sheriff's Office Anderson SC 191 2 10.47 1.07
Anoka County Sheriff's Office Anoka MN 133 1 7.52 0.30
Arapahoe County Sheriff's Office Arapahoe CO 407 2 4.91 0.35
Atlantic County Sheriff's Office Atlantic NJ 103 1 9.71 0.36
Baker County Sheriff's Office Baker GA 3 1 333.33 28.98
Baltimore (City) Sheriff's Office Baltimore City MD 99 2 20.20 0.32
Baltimore County Sheriff's Office Baltimore MD 84 1 11.90 0.12
Barnstable County Sheriff's Office Barnstable MA 254 5 19.69 2.32
Barrow County Sheriff's Office Barrow GA 127 1 7.87 1.44
Bay County Sheriff's Office Bay FL 213 2 9.39 1.18
Beaufort County Sheriff's Office Beaufort SC 209 1 4.78 0.62
Bedford County Sheriff's Office Bedford VA 77 2 25.97 2.91
Benton County Sheriff's Office Benton AR 103 1 9.71 0.45
Bernalillo County Sheriff's Office Bernalillo NM 279 3 10.75 0.45
Bibb County Sheriff's Office Bibb AL 12 1 83.33 4.36
Bibb County Sheriff's Office Bibb GA 290 3 10.34 1.93
Boone County Sheriff's Office Boone KY 130 1 7.69 0.84
Bossier Parish Sheriff's Office Bossier LA 300 3 10.00 2.56
370
Boulder County Sheriff's Office Boulder CO 174 1 5.75 0.34

Bracken County Sheriff's Office Bracken KY 4 1 250.00 11.78
Brazoria County Sheriff's Office Brazoria TX 127 1 7.87 0.32
Brunswick County Sheriff's Office Brunswick NC 114 2 17.54 1.86
Bucks County Sheriff's Office Bucks PA 50 2 40.00 0.32
Bullitt County Sheriff's Office Bullitt KY 40 1 25.00 1.35
Burke County Sheriff's Office Burke NC 86 1 11.63 1.10
Burleigh County Sheriff's Office Burleigh ND 40 2 50.00 2.46
Butte County Sheriff's Office Butte CA 110 1 9.09 0.45
Cameron County Sheriff's Office Cameron TX 107 2 18.69 0.49
Caroline County Sheriff's Office Caroline VA 49 3 61.22 10.51
Carver County Sheriff's Office Carver MN 87 1 11.49 1.10
Catawba County Sheriff's Office Catawba NC 126 1 7.94 0.65
Centre County Sheriff's Office Centre PA 17 1 58.82 0.65
Chambers County Sheriff's Office Chambers TX 44 1 22.73 2.85
Charleston County Sheriff's Office Charleston SC 259 4 15.44 1.14
Charlotte County Sheriff's Office Charlotte FL 285 3 10.53 1.88
Chesapeake (City) Sheriff's Office Chesapeake City VA 358 2 5.59 0.90
Chesterfield County Sheriff's Office Chesterfield VA 225 1 4.44 0.32
Clackamas County Sheriff's Office Clackamas OR 319 2 6.27 0.53
Clark County Sheriff's Office Clark IN 35 1 28.57 0.91
Clark County Sheriff's Office Clark OH 134 1 7.46 0.72
Clarke County Sheriff's Office Clarke VA 18 1 55.56 7.13
Clay County Sheriff's Office Clay FL 284 3 10.56 1.57
Clay County Sheriff's Office Clay IN 30 1 33.33 3.72
Clay County Sheriff's Office Clay MO 115 1 8.70 0.45
371

Cleveland County Sheriff's Office Cleveland OK 70 1 14.29 0.39
Cobb County Sheriff's Office Cobb GA 435 1 2.30 0.15
Columbia County Sheriff's Office Columbia GA 206 2 9.71 1.61
Columbia County Sheriff's Office Columbia OR 41 1 24.39 2.03
Coweta County Sheriff's Office Coweta GA 137 1 7.30 0.79
Crawford County Sheriff's Office Crawford AR 27 1 37.04 1.61
Cuyahoga County Sheriff's Office Cuyahoga OH 141 3 21.28 0.23
Dade County Sheriff's Office Dade GA 25 1 40.00 0.04
Dakota County Sheriff's Office Dakota MN 77 1 12.99 0.25
Dallas County Sheriff's Office Dallas IA 23 2 86.96 3.02
Darlington County Sheriff's Office Darlington SC 64 1 15.63 1.46
Dauphin County Sheriff's Office Dauphin PA 36 2 55.56 0.75
Davie County Sheriff's Office Davie NC 45 3 66.67 7.27
Dearborn County Sheriff's Office Dearborn IN 29 2 68.97 4.00
DeKalb County Sheriff's Office DeKalb GA 325 2 6.15 0.29
Delaware County Sheriff's Office Delaware OH 86 1 11.63 0.57
Delaware County Sheriff's Office Delaware PA 58 2 34.48 0.36
Dewitt County Sheriff's Office De Witt IL 16 1 62.50 6.04
East Baton Rouge Parish Sheriff's Office East Baton Rouge LA 359 3 8.36 0.68
372
Eaton County Sheriff's Office Eaton MI 77 1 12.99 0.93

El Paso County Sheriff's Office El Paso TX 248 2 8.06 0.25
Escambia County Sheriff's Office Escambia FL 388 3 7.73 1.01
Flagler County Sheriff's Office Flagler FL 130 2 15.38 2.09
Forsyth County Sheriff's Office Forsyth GA 253 5 19.76 2.85
Forsyth County Sheriff's Office Forsyth NC 217 2 9.22 0.57
Franklin County Sheriff's Office Franklin VA 78 1 12.82 1.78
Frederick County Sheriff's Office Frederick MD 177 1 5.65 0.43
Galveston County Sheriff's Office Galveston TX 240 1 4.17 0.34
Greenville County Sheriff's Office Greenville SC 397 2 5.04 0.44
373

Hall County Sheriff's Office Hall GA 257 2 7.78 1.11
Hamilton County Sheriff's Office Hamilton IN 64 1 15.63 0.36
Hamilton County Sheriff's Office Hamilton OH 330 1 3.03 0.12
Hamilton County Sheriff's Office Hamilton TN 146 2 13.70 0.59
Hancock County Sheriff's Office Hancock IN 40 3 75.00 4.29
Harford County Sheriff's Office Harford MD 280 1 3.57 0.41
Harrison County Sheriff's Office Harrison IN 22 1 45.45 2.54
Harrison County Sheriff's Office Harrison MS 90 1 11.11 0.53
Hawkins County Sheriff's Office Hawkins TN 42 1 23.81 1.76
Henry County Sheriff's Office Henry AL 8 1 125.00 5.78
Hernando County Sheriff's Office Hernando FL 249 1 4.02 0.58
Hidalgo County Sheriff's Office Hidalgo TX 262 5 19.08 0.65
Highlands County Sheriff's Office Highlands FL 130 1 7.69 1.01
Hoke County Sheriff's Office Hoke NC 50 1 20.00 2.13
Horry County Sheriff's Office Horry SC 55 1 18.18 0.37
Hudson County Sheriff's Office Hudson NJ 221 3 13.57 0.47
Hunterdon County Sheriff's Office Hunterdon NJ 17 1 58.82 0.78
Iberia Parish Sheriff's Office Iberia LA 242 6 24.79 8.19
Indian River County Sheriff's Office Indian River FL 226 3 13.27 2.17
Isle of Wight County Sheriff's Office Isle of Wight VA 40 1 25.00 2.84
Jackson County Sheriff's Office Jackson KS 15 1 66.67 7.43
374

Johnston County Sheriff's Office Johnston NC 97 1 10.31 0.59
Kane County Sheriff's Office Kane IL 92 1 10.87 0.19
Kenosha County Sheriff's Office Kenosha WI 122 1 8.20 0.60
Kent County Sheriff's Office Kent DE 5 1 200.00 0.62
Kershaw County Sheriff's Office Kershaw SC 61 1 16.39 1.62
Kitsap County Sheriff's Office Kitsap WA 121 1 8.26 0.40
La Crosse County Sheriff's Office La Crosse WI 43 1 23.26 0.87
La Porte County Sheriff's Office La Porte IN 58 1 17.24 0.90
Lafourche Parish Sheriff's Office Lafourche LA 287 3 10.45 3.11
Lake County Sheriff's Office Lake FL 286 3 10.49 1.01
Lake County Sheriff's Office Lake IL 188 1 5.32 0.14
Lake County Sheriff's Office Lake IN 170 5 29.41 1.01
Lancaster County Sheriff's Office Lancaster SC 93 1 10.75 1.30
Laurens County Sheriff's Office Laurens SC 65 1 15.38 1.50
Liberty County Sheriff's Office Liberty TX 37 2 54.05 2.64
375
Lincoln County Sheriff's Office Lincoln GA 12 1 83.33 12.51

Lincoln County Sheriff's Office Lincoln NC 98 4 40.82 5.11
Lincoln County Sheriff's Office Lincoln SD 17 1 58.82 2.23
Livingston County Sheriff's Office Livingston MI 65 2 30.77 1.11
Livingston Parish Sheriff's Office Livingston LA 125 1 8.00 0.78
Long County Sheriff's Office Long GA 15 1 66.67 6.91
Lowndes County Sheriff's Office Lowndes AL 14 1 71.43 8.85
Lowndes County Sheriff's Office Lowndes GA 145 1 6.90 0.92
Lucas County Sheriff's Office Lucas OH 289 4 13.84 0.91
Luzerne County Sheriff's Office Luzerne PA 38 2 52.63 0.62
Macomb County Sheriff's Office Macomb MI 245 1 4.08 0.12
Madera County Sheriff's Office Madera CA 78 1 12.82 0.66
Madison County Sheriff's Office Madison AL 107 1 9.35 0.30
Madison County Sheriff's Office Madison GA 34 1 29.41 3.56
Marathon County Sheriff's Office Marathon WI 67 1 14.93 0.75
Marin County Sheriff's Office Marin CA 202 1 4.95 0.40
Marion County Sheriff's Office Marion FL 349 3 8.60 0.91
Marion County Sheriff's Office Marion OR 255 1 3.92 0.32
Martin County Sheriff's Office Martin FL 414 1 2.42 0.68
McHenry County Sheriff's Office McHenry IL 134 2 14.93 0.65
376

Mesilla Marshal's Office Dona Ana NM 5 1 200.00 0.48
Middlesex County Sheriff's Department Middlesex NJ 170 4 23.53 0.49
Minnehaha County Sheriff's Office Minnehaha SD 69 1 14.49 0.59
Monroe County Sheriff's Office Monroe NY 273 3 10.99 0.40
Montgomery County Sheriff's Office Montgomery OH 222 1 4.50 0.19
Montgomery County Sheriff's Office Montgomery TN 287 1 3.48 0.58
Morgan County Sheriff's Office Morgan AL 55 1 18.18 0.84
Morgan County Sheriff's Office Morgan IN 26 2 76.92 2.90
Morris County Sheriff's Office Morris NJ 262 1 3.82 0.20
Nassau County Sheriff's Office Nassau FL 109 2 18.35 2.73
New Hanover County Sheriff's Office New Hanover NC 315 3 9.52 1.48
New York City Sheriff's Office New York NY 120 2 16.67 2.44
Newton County Sheriff's Office Newton GA 152 1 6.58 1.00
Nez Perce County Sheriff's Office Nez Perce ID 25 2 80.00 5.09
Niagara County Sheriff's Office Niagara NY 110 1 9.09 0.46
Norfolk (City) Sheriff's Office Norfolk City VA 414 1 2.42 0.41
Oglethorpe County Sheriff's Office Oglethorpe GA 19 1 52.63 6.71
Okaloosa County Sheriff's Office Okaloosa FL 258 3 11.63 1.66
Onondaga County Sheriff's Office Onondaga NY 242 1 4.13 0.21
377
Orange County Sheriff's Office Orange NY 99 1 10.10 0.27

Orange County Sheriff's Office Orange NC 115 1 8.70 0.75
Orleans County Sheriff's Office Orleans NY 29 1 34.48 2.33
Osceola County Sheriff's Office Osceola FL 388 2 5.15 0.74
Ouachita Parish Sheriff's Office Ouachita LA 431 1 2.32 0.65
Outagamie County Sheriff's Office Outagamie WI 74 1 13.51 0.57
Ozaukee County Sheriff's Office Ozaukee WI 83 1 12.05 1.16
Paulding County Sheriff's Office Paulding GA 175 1 5.71 0.70
Pawnee County Sheriff's Office Pawnee OK 19 1 52.63 6.03
Pender County Sheriff's Office Pender NC 57 1 17.54 1.92
Pennington County Sheriff's Office Pennington SD 65 1 15.38 0.99
Pierce County Sheriff's Office Pierce WA 292 2 6.85 0.25
Pinal County Sheriff's Office Pinal AZ 218 2 9.17 0.53
Pitt County Sheriff's Office Pitt NC 125 3 24.00 1.78
Placer County Sheriff's Office Placer CA 228 1 4.39 0.29
Plaquemines Parish Sheriff's Office Plaquemines LA 145 1 6.90 4.34
Polk County Sheriff's Office Polk IA 143 3 20.98 0.70
Portage County Sheriff's Office Portage OH 66 1 15.15 0.62
Porter County Sheriff's Office Porter IN 61 2 32.79 1.22
378
Pottawattamie County Sheriff's Office Pottawattomie IA 50 1 20.00 1.07

Potter County Sheriff's Office Potter TX 93 2 21.51 1.65
Prince George's County Sheriff's Office Prince Georges MD 233 3 12.88 0.35
Prince William County Sheriff's Office Prince William VA 75 1 13.33 0.25
Queen Anne's County Sheriff's Office Queen Annes MD 50 1 20.00 2.09
Ramsey County Sheriff's Office Ramsey MN 235 2 8.51 0.39
Rapides Parish Sheriff's Office Rapides LA 212 1 4.72 0.76
Richmond (City) Sheriff's Office Richmond City VA 424 2 4.72 0.98
Rock County Sheriff's Office Rock WI 94 2 21.28 1.25
Rockingham County Sheriff's Office Rockingham VA 46 1 21.74 1.31
Russell County Sheriff's Office Russell AL 32 2 62.50 3.78
Rutherford County Sheriff's Office Rutherford TN 189 2 10.58 0.76
Saginaw County Sheriff's Office Saginaw MI 71 1 14.08 0.50
Salem County Sheriff's Office Salem NJ 157 1 6.37 1.51
San Benito County Sheriff's Office San Benito CA 29 1 34.48 1.81
San Juan County Sheriff's Office San Juan NM 94 2 21.28 1.54
San Luis Obispo County Sheriff's Office San Luis Obispo CA 156 2 12.82 0.74
Sandoval County Sheriff's Office Sandoval NM 45 1 22.22 0.76
379
Santa Barbara County Sheriff's Office Santa Barbara CA 294 1 3.40 0.24
Santa Fe County Sheriff's Office Santa Fe NM 75 1 13.33 0.69
Santa Rosa County Sheriff's Office Santa Rosa FL 190 1 5.26 0.66
Sarasota County Sheriff's Office Sarasota FL 409 1 2.44 0.26
Seminole County Sheriff's Office Seminole FL 355 2 5.63 0.47
Smith County Sheriff's Office Smith TX 88 1 11.36 0.48
Snohomish County Sheriff's Office Snohomish WA 287 2 6.97 0.28
Solano County Sheriff's Office Solano CA 113 1 8.85 0.24
Spartanburg County Sheriff's Office Spartanburg SC 297 2 6.73 0.70
Spokane County Sheriff's Office Spokane WA 244 2 8.20 0.42
St. Bernard Parish Sheriff's Office St. Bernard LA 189 1 5.29 2.79
St. Charles County Sheriff's Office St. Charles MO 153 2 13.07 0.55
St. Charles Parish Sheriff's Office St. Charles LA 291 1 3.44 1.89
St. Croix County Sheriff's Office St. Croix WI 44 1 22.73 1.19
St. Helena Parish Sheriff's Office St. Helena LA 22 1 45.45 8.93
St. John The Baptist Parish Sheriff's Office St. John the Baptist LA 150 3 20.00 6.53
St. Joseph County Sheriff's Office St. Joseph IN 116 3 25.86 1.12
St. Louis County Sheriff's Office St. Louis MO 200 4 20.00 0.40
St. Lucie County Sheriff's Office St. Lucie FL 259 2 7.72 0.72
St. Martin Parish Sheriff's Office St. Martin LA 45 1 22.22 1.92
St. Mary's County Sheriff's Office St. Marys MD 120 1 8.33 0.95
St. Tammany Parish Sheriff's Office St. Tammany LA 409 2 4.89 0.86
Stanislaus County Sheriff's Office Stanislaus CA 230 1 4.35 0.19
380

Sullivan County Sheriff's Office Sullivan TN 183 1 5.46 0.64
Summit County Sheriff's Office Summit OH 393 1 2.54 0.18
Sutter County Sheriff's Office Sutter CA 105 1 9.52 1.06
Terrebonne Parish Sheriff's Office Terrebonne LA 300 2 6.67 1.79
Ulster County Sheriff's Office Ulster NY 57 1 17.54 0.55
Union County Sheriff's Office Union IN 6 1 166.67 13.30
Union County Sheriff's Office Union NC 170 1 5.88 0.50
Upshur County Sheriff's Office Upshur TX 45 1 22.22 2.54
Valencia County Sheriff's Office Valencia NM 37 1 27.03 1.31
Vigo County Sheriff's Office Vigo IN 38 1 26.32 0.93
Wake County Sheriff's Office Wake NC 354 4 11.30 0.44
Walker County Sheriff's Office Walker GA 80 2 25.00 2.91
Walton County Sheriff's Office Walton FL 165 4 24.24 7.27
Washington County Sheriff's Office Washington MD 94 1 10.64 0.68
Washington County Sheriff's Office Washington TN 86 1 11.63 0.81
Washoe County Sheriff's Office Washoe NV 414 4 9.66 0.95
Washtenaw County Sheriff's Office Washtenaw MI 133 4 30.08 1.16
Waukesha County Sheriff's Office Waukesha WI 150 1 6.67 0.26
Wayne County Sheriff's Office Wayne NC 85 2 23.53 1.63
Weld County Sheriff's Office Weld CO 121 1 8.26 0.40
Westmoreland County Sheriff's Office Westmoreland PA 0 1 0.27
Whitfield County Sheriff's Office Whitfield GA 115 1 8.70 0.97
381

Wicomico County Sheriff's Office Wicomico MD 0 1 1.01
Williamson County Sheriff's Office Williamson IL 29 2 68.97 3.01
Williamson County Sheriff's Office Williamson TN 99 2 20.20 1.09
Williamson County Sheriff's Office Williamson TX 206 2 9.71 0.47
Wilson County Sheriff's Office Wilson TN 202 1 4.95 0.88
Winnebago County Sheriff's Office Winnebago IL 142 1 7.04 0.34
Wood County Sheriff's Office Wood WV 40 1 25.00 1.15
Woodford County Sheriff's Office Woodford IL 37 1 27.03 2.59
Yakima County Sheriff's Office Yakima WA 69 2 28.99 0.82
Yamhill County Sheriff's Office Yamhill OR 36 1 27.78 1.01
Yellowstone County Sheriff's Office Yellowstone MT 55 1 18.18 0.68
382
Table 82. County Police Departments in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted
Alphabetically)
Allegheny County Police Department. Allegheny PA 202 2 9.90 0.16

Arlington County Police Department Arlington VA 364 1 2.75 0.48
Athens-Clarke County Police Dept Clarke GA 213 2 9.39 1.71
Clayton County Police Department Clayton GA 336 3 8.93 1.16
Dougherty County Police Dept. Dougherty GA 47 2 42.55 2.11
Floyd County Police Department Floyd GA 71 1 14.08 1.04
Fulton County Police Department Fulton GA 129 2 15.50 0.22
Gaston County Police Department Gaston NC 133 2 15.04 0.97
Henry County Police Department Henry GA 225 1 4.44 0.49
Honolulu (City and County) Police Department Honolulu HI 1934 26 13.44 2.73
Horry County Police Department Horry SC 243 9 37.04 3.34
Howard County Police Department Howard MD 424 3 7.08 1.04
James City County Police Dept. James City VA 94 1 10.64 1.49
Maui (County) Police Department Maui HI 329 5 15.20 3.23
New Castle County Police Department New Castle DE 358 2 5.59 0.37
Oldham County Police Department Oldham KY 31 2 64.52 3.32
383
Riley County Police Department Riley KS 101 1 9.90 1.41
Roanoke County Police Department Roanoke VA 135 2 14.81 2.17
Savannah-Chatham Metropolitan Police Department Chatham GA 534 6 11.24 2.26
Westchester County Department of Public Safety Westchester NY 270 3 11.11 0.32
384
Table 83. 500 Largest Municipal Police Departments in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted Alphabetically by Agency
Name)

Alameda Police Department Alameda CA 94 2 21.28 0.13
Albany Police Department Dougherty GA 184 4 21.74 4.23
Albany Police Department Albany NY 328 7 21.34 2.30
Alexandria Police Department Alexandria City VA 315 3 9.52 2.14
Alhambra Police Department Los Angeles CA 83 1 12.05 0.01
Allen Police Department Collin TX 106 2 18.87 0.26
Allentown Police Department Lehigh PA 200 1 5.00 0.29
Altamonte Springs Police Dept Seminole FL 124 1 8.06 0.24
Anaheim Police Department Orange CA 398 3 7.54 0.10
Anchorage Police Department Anchorage AK 372 4 10.75 1.37
Anderson Police Madison IN 117 4 34.19 3.04
Anderson Police Department Anderson SC 91 3 32.97 1.60
Ann Arbor Police Department Washtenaw MI 160 4 25.00 1.16
Apopka Police Department Orange FL 85 1 11.76 0.09
Bakersfield Police Department Kern CA 348 8 22.99 0.95
Barnstable Police Department Barnstable MA 110 2 18.18 0.93
Bartlett Police Department Shelby TN 105 1 9.52 0.11
Baton Rouge Police Department East Baton Rouge LA 630 6 9.52 1.36
Baytown Police Department Harris TX 136 1 7.35 0.02
Beaumont Police Department Jefferson TX 246 2 8.13 0.79
Beaverton Police Department Washington OR 124 1 8.06 0.19
Belleville Police Dept St. Clair IL 81 1 12.35 0.37
Bellevue Police Dept Sarpy NE 92 1 10.87 0.63
Bend Police Department Deschutes OR 86 2 23.26 1.27
385
Bensalem Township Police Dept Bucks PA 104 1 9.62 0.16

Berkeley Police Department Alameda CA 186 1 5.38 0.07
Berwyn Police Dept Cook IL 105 3 28.57 0.06
Bethlehem Police Department Northampton PA 154 4 25.97 1.34
Billings Police Department Yellowstone MT 138 2 14.49 1.35
Biloxi Police Department Harrison MS 133 2 15.04 1.07
Binghamton Police Department Broome NY 139 1 7.19 0.50
Bloomington Police Dept McLean IL 122 2 16.39 1.18
Boise Police Department Ada ID 306 2 6.54 0.51
Bolingbrook Police Dept Will IL 122 3 24.59 0.44
Bossier City Police Dept Bossier LA 178 3 16.85 2.56
Boulder Police Department Boulder CO 165 1 6.06 0.34
Boynton Beach Police Department Palm Beach FL 165 7 42.42 0.53
Brick Township Police Ocean NJ 127 1 7.87 0.17
Bridgeport Police Department Fairfield CT 422 3 7.11 0.33
Bristol Police Department Hartford CT 119 1 8.40 0.11
Brockton Police Department Plymouth MA 197 3 15.23 0.61
Broken Arrow Police Department Tulsa OK 124 2 16.13 0.33
Brookline Police Department Norfolk MA 129 3 23.26 0.45
Broomfield Police Department Broomfield CO 105 1 9.52 1.79
Brownsville Police Department Cameron TX 230 1 4.35 0.25
Burlington Police Department Alamance NC 105 3 28.57 1.99
Calumet City Police Dept Cook IL 91 1 10.99 0.02
Cambridge Police Department Middlesex MA 272 1 3.68 0.07
Camden Police Camden NJ 397 10 25.19 1.95
Canton Police Department Stark OH 172 1 5.81 0.27
Cape Coral Police Department Lee FL 220 2 9.09 0.32
Carmel Police Hamilton IN 104 3 28.85 1.09
Cedar Rapids Police Department Linn IA 197 2 10.15 0.95
Champaign Police Dept Champaign IL 122 1 8.20 0.50
Chandler Police Department Maricopa AZ 333 2 6.01 0.05
Charleston Police Department Kanawha WV 182 9 49.45 4.66
Charleston Police Department Charleston SC 382 2 5.24 0.57
386
Charlottesville Police Dept. Charlottesville City VA 115 1 8.70 2.30

Chattanooga Police Department Hamilton TN 434 14 32.26 4.16
Chelsea Police Department Suffolk MA 92 1 10.87 0.14
Cherry Hill Police Camden NJ 145 2 13.79 0.39
Chesapeake Police Department Chesapeake City VA 376 3 7.98 1.35
Chicago Police Dept Cook IL 13354 83 6.22 1.60
Chico Police Department Butte CA 88 2 22.73 0.91
Chicopee Police Department Hampden MA 133 1 7.52 0.22
Chula Vista Police Department San Diego CA 244 1 4.10 0.03
Cicero Police Dept Cook IL 146 4 27.40 0.08
Citrus Heights Police Department Sacramento CA 83 1 12.05 0.07
Clarksville Police Department Montgomery TN 238 5 21.01 7.54
Clearwater Police Department Pinellas FL 255 1 3.92 0.11
Cleveland Police Department Bradley TN 89 4 44.94 4.04
Clifton Police Passaic NJ 158 1 6.33 0.20
Coconut Creek Police Department Broward FL 89 3 33.71 0.17
College Park Police Department Fulton GA 93 1 10.75 0.11
Colonie Town Police Department Albany NY 109 2 18.35 0.66
Columbia Police Department Richland SC 351 8 22.79 2.08
Columbia Police Department Boone MO 155 1 6.45 0.61
Columbus Police Department Muscogee GA 400 6 15.00 3.16
Concord Police Department Cabarrus NC 153 1 6.54 0.56
Concord Police Department Contra Costa CA 161 1 6.21 0.10
Conroe Police Department Montgomery TX 99 2 20.20 0.44
Coral Gables Police Department Miami-Dade FL 184 2 10.87 0.08
Costa Mesa Police Department Orange CA 158 1 6.33 0.03
Council Bluffs Police Department Pottawattomie IA 105 1 9.52 1.07
Covington Police Department Kenton KY 112 1 8.93 0.63
Cranston Police Department Providence RI 148 3 20.27 1.81
Cuyahoga Falls Police Department Summit OH 86 2 23.26 0.37
387
Daly City Police Department San Mateo CA 113 1 8.85 0.14

Danbury Police Department Fairfield CT 153 1 6.54 0.11
Davie Police Department Broward FL 164 2 12.20 0.11
Dayton Police Department Montgomery OH 421 1 2.38 0.19
Daytona Beach Police Department Volusia FL 250 6 24.00 1.21
Dearborn Police Department Wayne MI 198 4 20.20 0.22
Decatur Police Department Morgan AL 133 1 7.52 0.84
Decatur Police Dept Macon IL 166 1 6.02 0.90
Delray Beach Police Department Palm Beach FL 152 1 6.58 0.08
Denton Police Department Denton TX 155 1 6.45 0.15
Des Moines Police Department Polk IA 385 6 15.58 1.39
Des Plaines Police Dept Cook IL 102 1 9.80 0.02
Dothan Police Department Houston AL 148 2 13.51 1.97
Dover Police Department Kent DE 90 2 22.22 1.23
Downers Grove Police Dept Du Page IL 81 1 12.35 0.11
Dubuque Police Department Dubuque IA 100 3 30.00 3.20
East Chicago Police Lake IN 110 2 18.18 0.40
East Orange Police Essex NJ 283 3 10.60 0.38
East Point Police Department Fulton GA 116 2 17.24 0.22
East Providence Police Department Providence RI 98 1 10.20 0.16
Eau Claire Police Department Eau Claire WI 96 1 10.42 1.01
Edinburg Police Department Hidalgo TX 110 5 45.45 0.65
Edison Police Middlesex NJ 189 7 37.04 0.86
Edmond Police Department Oklahoma OK 110 2 18.18 0.28
Egg Harbor Township Police Atlantic NJ 95 2 21.05 0.73
El Cajon Police Department San Diego CA 120 1 8.33 0.03
Elgin Police Dept Kane IL 181 5 27.62 0.97
Elizabeth Police Union NJ 348 1 2.87 0.19
Elk Grove Police Department Sacramento CA 126 1 7.94 0.38
Elkhart Police Elkhart IN 124 4 32.26 2.02
Elyria Police Department Lorain OH 86 2 23.26 0.66
388
Enfield Police Department Hartford CT 95 4 42.11 0.45

Erie Police Department Erie PA 167 1 5.99 0.36
Euclid Police Department Cuyahoga OH 100 1 10.00 0.08
Euless Police Department Tarrant TX 83 1 12.05 0.06
Evansville Police Vanderburgh IN 277 3 10.83 1.67
Everett Police Department Snohomish WA 198 1 5.05 0.14
Fall River Police Department Bristol MA 237 1 4.22 0.18
Farmington Police Department San Juan NM 129 5 38.76 3.84
Fayetteville Police Department Washington AR 117 2 17.09 0.98
Fayetteville Police Department Cumberland NC 341 2 5.87 0.63
Federal Way Police Department King WA 133 1 7.52 0.05
Flagstaff Police Department Coconino AZ 113 1 8.85 0.74
Flint Police Department Genesee MI 204 6 29.41 1.41
Florence Police Department Florence SC 109 2 18.35 1.46
Florence Police Department Lauderdale AL 94 1 10.64 1.08
Folsom Police Department Sacramento CA 88 2 22.73 0.14
Fort Collins Police Department Larimer CO 162 3 18.52 1.00
Fort Myers Police Department Lee FL 170 4 23.53 0.65
Fort Pierce Police Department St. Lucie FL 126 4 31.75 1.44
Fort Smith Police Department Sebastian AR 158 3 18.99 2.39
Framingham Police Department Middlesex MA 118 1 8.47 0.07
Frederick Police Department Frederick MD 138 1 7.25 0.43
Fremont Police Department Alameda CA 182 1 5.49 0.07
Fullerton Police Department Orange CA 159 3 18.87 0.10
Gainesville Police Department Alachua FL 275 4 14.55 1.62
Galveston Police Department Galveston TX 161 1 6.21 0.34
Garden Grove Police Department Orange CA 166 2 12.05 0.07
Gary Police Lake IN 243 10 41.15 2.02
Gastonia Police Department Gaston NC 166 2 12.05 0.97
Glendale Police Department Los Angeles CA 264 1 3.79 0.01
Gloucester Township Police Camden NJ 111 2 18.02 0.39
Goldsboro Police Department Wayne NC 101 1 9.90 0.82
389
Grand Junction Police Department Mesa CO 108 2 18.52 1.36

Grand Rapids Police Department Kent MI 319 1 3.13 0.17
Grapevine Police Department Tarrant TX 90 1 11.11 0.06
Greece Town Police Department Monroe NY 94 4 42.55 0.54
Greeley Police Department Weld CO 146 2 13.70 0.79
Greenville Police Department Greenville SC 178 4 22.47 0.89
Gresham Police Department Multnomah OR 129 1 7.75 0.14
Gulfport Police Department Harrison MS 193 1 5.18 0.53
Hackensack Police Bergen NJ 117 9 76.92 0.99
Hagerstown Police Department Washington MD 105 1 9.52 0.68
Hamden Police Department New Haven CT 105 2 19.05 0.23
Hamilton Police Department Butler OH 135 1 7.41 0.27
Hampton Police Department Hampton City VA 232 2 8.62 1.46
Harlingen Police Department Cameron TX 123 1 8.13 0.25
Harrisburg Police Department Dauphin PA 155 1 6.45 0.37
Hartford Police Department Hartford CT 408 10 24.51 1.12
Hattiesburg Police Department Forrest MS 126 2 15.87 2.67
Haverhill Police Department Essex MA 93 1 10.75 0.13
Hayward Police Department Alameda CA 185 1 5.41 0.07
Hempstead Village Police Department Nassau NY 112 1 8.93 0.07
Henderson Police Department Clark NV 336 2 5.95 0.10
Hialeah Police Department Miami-Dade FL 338 1 2.96 0.04
Hickory Police Department Catawba NC 114 1 8.77 0.65
Hoboken Police Hudson NJ 156 3 19.23 0.47
Hollywood Police Department Broward FL 316 8 25.32 0.46
Holyoke Police Department Hampden MA 123 1 8.13 0.22
Homestead Police Department Miami-Dade FL 106 3 28.30 0.12
Huntington Beach Police Department Orange CA 223 1 4.48 0.03
Huntsville Police Department Madison AL 405 3 7.41 0.90
Idaho Falls Police Department Bonneville ID 89 1 11.24 0.96
Independence Police Department Jackson MO 206 1 4.85 0.15
Inglewood Police Department Los Angeles CA 187 1 5.35 0.01
Irvine Police Department Orange CA 197 1 5.08 0.03
390
Irving Police Department Dallas TX 344 2 5.81 0.08

Irvington Police Essex NJ 190 2 10.53 0.26
Jackson Police Department Madison TN 204 4 19.61 4.07
Jefferson City Police Department Cole MO 88 1 11.36 1.32
Johnson City Police Department Washington TN 146 1 6.85 0.81
Joliet Police Dept Will IL 302 3 9.93 0.44
Joplin Police Department Jasper MO 92 1 10.87 0.85
Jupiter Police Department Palm Beach FL 102 1 9.80 0.08
Kalamazoo Dept of Public Safety Kalamazoo MI 244 1 4.10 0.40
Kansas City Police Department Wyandotte KS 354 10 28.25 6.35
Kenner Police Department Jefferson LA 162 1 6.17 0.23
Kennewick Police Department Benton WA 90 1 11.11 0.57
Killeen Police Department Bell TX 190 3 15.79 0.97
Kingsport Police Department Sullivan TN 111 3 27.03 1.91
Kissimmee Police Department Osceola FL 136 3 22.06 1.12
Kokomo Police Howard IN 100 1 10.00 1.21
Lafayette Police Tippecanoe IN 128 1 7.81 0.58
Lafayette Police Department Lafayette LA 243 1 4.12 0.45
Lake Charles Police Department Calcasieu LA 153 2 13.07 1.04
Lakeland Police Department Polk FL 226 5 22.12 0.83
Lakewood Police Department Pierce WA 103 1 9.71 0.13
Lancaster Police Department Lancaster PA 161 2 12.42 0.39
Lansing Police Department Ingham MI 240 3 12.50 1.07
Laredo Police Department Webb TX 430 4 9.30 1.60
Largo Police Department Pinellas FL 140 1 7.14 0.11
Las Cruces Police Department Dona Ana NM 167 1 5.99 0.48
Lauderhill Police Department Broward FL 115 1 8.70 0.06
Lawrence Police Department Essex MA 151 4 26.49 0.54
Lawton Police Department Comanche OK 165 1 6.06 0.81
Lincoln Police Dept Lancaster NE 308 1 3.25 0.35
391

Longmont Police Department Boulder CO 136 1 7.35 0.34
Lorain Police Department Lorain OH 100 5 50.00 1.66
Lowell Police Department Middlesex MA 239 2 8.37 0.13
Lubbock Police Department Lubbock TX 376 5 13.30 1.79
Lynn Police Department Essex MA 178 2 11.24 0.27
Macon Police Department Bibb GA 270 9 33.33 5.79
Manchester Police Department Hartford CT 116 2 17.24 0.22
Manchester Police Department Hillsborough NH 218 1 4.59 0.25
Marietta Police Department Cobb GA 133 1 7.52 0.15
McAllen Police Department Hidalgo TX 273 3 10.99 0.39
Medford Police Department Jackson OR 103 2 19.42 0.98
Medford Police Department Middlesex MA 110 1 9.09 0.07
Melbourne Police Department Brevard FL 163 1 6.13 0.18
Mentor Police Department Lake OH 82 1 12.20 0.43
Merced Police Department Merced CA 105 1 9.52 0.39
Meriden Police Department New Haven CT 113 1 8.85 0.12
Mesquite Police Department Dallas TX 226 1 4.42 0.04
Miami Beach Police Department Miami-Dade FL 374 3 8.02 0.12
Michigan City Police La Porte IN 86 1 11.63 0.90
Middletown Police Department Middlesex CT 99 2 20.20 1.21
Midland Police Department Midland TX 153 1 6.54 0.73
Milford Police Department New Haven CT 110 1 9.09 0.12
Miramar Police Department Broward FL 171 2 11.70 0.11
Mission Police Department Hidalgo TX 125 2 16.00 0.26
Missoula Police Department Missoula MT 100 1 10.00 0.91
392

Modesto Police Department Stanislaus CA 262 5 19.08 0.97
Moline Police Department Rock Island IL 85 1 11.76 0.68
Monroe Police Department Ouachita LA 188 1 5.32 0.65
Mount Pleasant Police Department Charleston SC 137 1 7.30 0.29
Mount Vernon Police Department Westchester NY 205 1 4.88 0.11
Muncie Police Delaware IN 102 3 29.41 2.55
Murfreesboro Police Department Rutherford TN 213 5 23.47 1.90
Myrtle Beach Police Department Horry SC 179 5 27.93 1.86
Naperville Police Dept Du Page IL 184 1 5.43 0.11
Nashua Police Department Hillsborough NH 172 1 5.81 0.25
New Bedford Police Department Bristol MA 288 2 6.94 0.36
New Bern Police Department Craven NC 90 1 11.11 0.97
New Braunfels Police Department Comal TX 92 2 21.74 1.84
New Britain Police Department Hartford CT 160 2 12.50 0.22
New Brunswick Police Middlesex NJ 138 2 14.49 0.25
New Haven Police Department New Haven CT 436 8 18.35 0.93
New London Police Department New London CT 90 2 22.22 0.73
New Rochelle Police Department Westchester NY 185 2 10.81 0.21
Newburgh City Police Department Orange NY 105 1 9.52 0.27
Newport Beach Police Department Orange CA 140 1 7.14 0.03
Newport News Police Department Newport News City VA 415 10 24.10 5.53
Newton Police Department Middlesex MA 136 1 7.35 0.07
Niagara Falls Police Department Niagara NY 145 3 20.69 1.39
North Bergen Police Hudson NJ 123 1 8.13 0.16
North Brunswick Police Middlesex NJ 83 1 12.05 0.12
North Charleston Police Department Charleston SC 325 5 15.38 1.43
Norwalk Police Department Fairfield CT 167 5 29.94 0.55
393
Norwich Police Department New London CT 81 5 61.73 1.82

Oak Lawn Police Dept Cook IL 106 1 9.43 0.02
Oak Park Police Dept Cook IL 115 1 8.70 0.02
Ocala Police Department Marion FL 155 2 12.90 0.60
Ocean City Police Department Worcester MD 107 1 9.35 1.94
Oceanside Police Department San Diego CA 210 4 19.05 0.13
O'Fallon Police Department St. Charles MO 107 1 9.35 0.28
Ogden Police Department Weber UT 137 2 14.60 0.86
Olathe Police Department Johnson KS 161 1 6.21 0.18
Orangetown Town Police Department Rockland NY 90 1 11.11 0.32
Orem Department of Public Safety Utah UT 90 1 11.11 0.19
Oro Valley Police Department Pima AZ 103 1 9.71 0.10
Ottawa County Sheriff's Office Ottawa MI 115 1 8.70 0.38
Oxnard Police Department Ventura CA 228 3 13.16 0.36
Palm Bay Police Department Brevard FL 159 1 6.29 0.18
Palm Beach Gardens Police Department Palm Beach FL 114 2 17.54 0.15
Palm Springs Police Department Riverside CA 93 1 10.75 0.05
Palo Alto Police Department Santa Clara CA 93 1 10.75 0.06
Panama City Police Department Bay FL 86 1 11.63 0.59
Parma Police Department Cuyahoga OH 92 3 32.61 0.23
Pasadena Police Department Harris TX 260 5 19.23 0.12
Pawtucket Police Department Providence RI 153 2 13.07 0.32
Pembroke Pines Police Department Broward FL 238 1 4.20 0.06
Pensacola Police Department Escambia FL 146 1 6.85 0.34
Peoria Police Department Maricopa AZ 189 1 5.29 0.03
Peoria Police Dept Peoria IL 246 1 4.07 0.54
Petersburg Police Department Petersburg City VA 82 2 24.39 6.17
Pharr Police Department Hidalgo TX 96 2 20.83 0.26
Pine Bluff Police Department Jefferson AR 140 1 7.14 1.29
394
Pinellas Park Police Department Pinellas FL 99 2 20.20 0.22

Piscataway Township Police Middlesex NJ 90 1 11.11 0.12
Plainfield Police Department Union NJ 151 5 33.11 0.93
Plano Police Department Collin TX 343 1 2.92 0.13
Pleasanton Police Department Alameda CA 85 1 11.76 0.07
Port Orange Police Department Volusia FL 83 2 24.10 0.40
Port St. Lucie Police Department St. Lucie FL 245 1 4.08 0.36
Portland Police Department Cumberland ME 159 3 18.87 1.07
Portsmouth Police Department Portsmouth City VA 235 10 42.55 10.47
Poughkeepsie Police Department Dutchess NY 105 1 9.52 0.34
Provo Police Department Utah UT 99 3 30.30 0.58
Pueblo Police Dept Pueblo CO 195 4 20.51 2.51
Quincy Police Department Norfolk MA 205 1 4.88 0.15
Racine Police Department Racine WI 195 1 5.13 0.51
Ramapo Town Police Department Rockland NY 120 1 8.33 0.32
Rapid City Police Department Pennington SD 107 2 18.69 1.98
Redding Police Department Shasta CA 118 1 8.47 0.56
Redondo Beach Police Department Los Angeles CA 99 1 10.10 0.01
Reno Police Department Washoe NV 362 3 8.29 0.71
Revere Police Department Suffolk MA 86 1 11.63 0.14
Richmond Police Department Contra Costa CA 165 3 18.18 0.29
Riverside Police Department Riverside CA 385 4 10.39 0.18
Riviera Beach Police Department Palm Beach FL 108 6 55.56 0.45
Roanoke City Police Department Roanoke City VA 264 2 7.58 2.06
Rochester Police Department Olmsted MN 125 1 8.00 0.69
Rock Hill Police Department York SC 121 1 8.26 0.44
Rockford Police Dept Winnebago IL 300 1 3.33 0.34
Rocky Mount Police Department Nash NC 143 1 6.99 1.77
Rogers Police Department Benton AR 99 1 10.10 0.45
Round Rock Police Department Williamson TX 133 1 7.52 0.24
395
Royal Oak Police Department Oakland MI 85 1 11.76 0.08

Saginaw Police Department Saginaw MI 92 1 10.87 0.50
Salem Police Department Essex MA 83 2 24.10 0.27
Salem Police Department Marion OR 187 1 5.35 0.32
Salinas Police Department Monterey CA 177 4 22.60 0.96
Salisbury Police Department Rowan NC 86 1 11.63 0.72
Salisbury Police Department Wicomico MD 88 1 11.36 1.01
Salt Lake City Police Department Salt Lake UT 433 1 2.31 0.10
Salt Lake County Sheriff's Office Salt Lake UT 342 1 2.92 0.10
San Bernardino Police Department San Bernardino CA 345 2 5.80 0.10
San Leandro Police Department Alameda CA 95 2 21.05 0.13
San Marcos Police Department Hays TX 95 1 10.53 0.64
Sandy Police Department Salt Lake UT 110 1 9.09 0.10
Sandy Springs Police Department Fulton GA 120 3 25.00 0.33
Sanford Police Department Seminole FL 131 1 7.63 0.24
Santa Barbara Police Department Santa Barbara CA 136 1 7.35 0.24
Santa Clara Police Department Santa Clara CA 141 2 14.18 0.11
Santa Fe Police Department Santa Fe NM 150 2 13.33 1.39
Schenectady Police Department Schenectady NY 166 8 48.19 5.17
Scottsdale Police Dept Maricopa AZ 417 1 2.40 0.03
Scranton Police Department Lackawanna PA 155 4 25.81 1.87
Sioux Falls Police Department Minnehaha SD 221 1 4.52 0.59
Somerville Police Department Middlesex MA 130 2 15.38 0.13
South Bend Police St. Joseph IN 255 8 31.37 3.00
Southampton Town Police Department Suffolk NY 102 1 9.80 0.07
Spokane Police Department Spokane WA 295 6 20.34 1.27
Springfield Police Department Clark OH 127 1 7.87 0.72
396
Springfield Police Dept Greene MO 306 3 9.80 1.09

Springfield Police Dept Sangamon IL 273 1 3.66 0.51
St. Charles Police Dept St. Charles MO 112 1 8.93 0.28
St. Joseph Police Dept Buchanan MO 114 1 8.77 1.12
Stamford Police Department Fairfield CT 292 3 10.27 0.33
Stockton Police Department San Joaquin CA 415 2 4.82 0.29
Stratford Police Department Fairfield CT 111 3 27.03 0.33
Suffolk Police Department Suffolk VA 171 1 5.85 1.18
Sugar Land Police Department Fort Bend TX 130 2 15.38 0.34
Sumter Police Department Sumter SC 107 3 28.04 2.79
Sunrise Police Department Broward FL 175 1 5.71 0.06
Surprise Police Department Maricopa AZ 127 1 7.87 0.03
Tacoma Police Department Pierce WA 371 3 8.09 0.38
Tallahassee Police Department Leon FL 364 1 2.75 0.36
Tempe Police Department Maricopa AZ 357 1 2.80 0.03
Texarkana Police Department Bowie TX 94 1 10.64 1.08
Texas City Police Department Galveston TX 85 2 23.53 0.69
Tinley Park Police Dept Cook IL 81 2 24.69 0.04
Titusville Police Department Brevard FL 88 1 11.36 0.18
Topeka Police Department Shawnee KS 283 4 14.13 2.25
Trenton Police Mercer NJ 361 6 16.62 1.64
Troy Police Department Rensselaer NY 121 1 8.26 0.63
Tuscaloosa Police Department Tuscaloosa AL 263 1 3.80 0.51
Union City Police Hudson NJ 165 3 18.18 0.47
Utica Police Department Oneida NY 179 2 11.17 0.85
Vacaville Police Department Solano CA 111 1 9.01 0.24
Valdosta Police Department Lowndes GA 133 1 7.52 0.92
397
Victoria Police Department Victoria TX 106 2 18.87 2.30

Vineland Police Cumberland NJ 157 2 12.74 1.27
Virginia Beach Police Department Virginia Beach City VA 813 9 11.07 2.05
Visalia Department of Public Safety Tulare CA 136 1 7.35 0.23
Waco Police Department McLennan TX 246 8 32.52 3.41
Warren Police Department Macomb MI 230 1 4.35 0.12
Washington Metropolitan Police Dept District of Columbia DC 3742 29 7.75 4.82
Washington Township Police Gloucester NJ 86 1 11.63 0.35
Waterbury Police Department New Haven CT 256 4 15.63 0.46
Waterloo Police Department Black Hawk IA 120 4 33.33 3.05
Waukegan Police Dept Lake IL 155 2 12.90 0.28
Wayne Township Police Passaic NJ 117 1 8.55 0.20
West Bloomfield Township Police Oakland MI 81 1 12.35 0.08
West Chester Police Department Butler OH 90 1 11.11 0.27
West Haven Police Department New Haven CT 122 2 16.39 0.23
West Jordan Police Department Salt Lake UT 102 2 19.61 0.19
West New York Police Hudson NJ 119 1 8.40 0.16
West Palm Beach Police Department Palm Beach FL 310 3 9.68 0.23
West Valley City Police Department Salt Lake UT 186 1 5.38 0.10
Westminster Police Department Orange CA 100 2 20.00 0.07
Westminster Police Dept Adams CO 178 4 22.47 0.91
Weymouth Police Department Norfolk MA 96 1 10.42 0.15
Wheeling Police Department Ohio WV 84 2 23.81 4.50
White Plains Police Department Westchester NY 210 1 4.76 0.11
Wichita Falls Police Department Wichita TX 177 2 11.30 1.52
Wilkes Barre City Police Department Luzerne PA 92 1 10.87 0.31
Wilmington Police Department New Hanover NC 266 2 7.52 0.99
Wilmington Police Department New Castle DE 306 2 6.54 0.37
Woodbridge Police Middlesex NJ 206 1 4.85 0.12
Woonsocket Police Department Providence RI 99 4 40.40 0.64
Yakima Police Department Yakima WA 134 1 7.46 0.41
398
York Police Department York PA 110 1 9.09 0.23

Yuma Police Department Yuma AZ 167 2 11.98 1.02
399
Table 84. Special State & Local Law Enforcement Agencies in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted
Alphabetically)
Allegheny Port Authority Transit Police Allegheny PA 42 1 23.81 0.08

Anchorage International Airport Police Anchorage AK 65 1 15.38 0.34
Arkansas State University Police Dept. Craighead AR 17 1 58.82 1.04
Austin I.S.D. Police Department Travis TX 70 1 14.29 0.10
Baltimore City School Police Dept. Baltimore City MD 142 1 7.04 0.16
BART Police Department Alameda CA 192 1 5.21 0.07
Beaumont I.S.D. Police Dept. Jefferson TX 22 1 45.45 0.40
Boston School Police Suffolk MA 80 1 12.50 0.14
Bowie State University Dept. of Public Safety Prince Georges MD 14 1 71.43 0.12
Buffalo State College Police Erie NY 30 1 33.33 0.11
California Bureau of Narcotics Enforcement Sacramento CA 73 2 27.40 0.02
California Dept. of Justice Sacramento CA 419 1 2.39 0.10
California Exposition And State Fair Police Sacramento CA 6 1 166.67 0.07
Cameron Co. District Attorney Investigations Div Cameron TX 30 1 33.33 0.25
College of Lake County Police Dept Lake IL 13 1 76.92 0.14
Connally I.S.D. Police Dept. McLennan TX 3 1 333.33 0.43
Dallas I.S.D. Police Dept. Dallas TX 88 1 11.36 0.04
Dayton International Airport Police Dept Montgomery OH 29 1 34.48 0.19
Delaware River & Bay Authority Police New Castle DE 50 1 20.00 0.51
Delaware River Port Authority - Transit Police Camden NJ 144 1 6.94 0.19
District of Columbia Protective Services Police District of Columbia DC 484 1 2.07 0.17
Duke University Police Department Durham NC 60 1 16.67 0.37
Ennis I.S.D. Police Department Ellis TX 5 1 200.00 0.67
Florida Atlantic University Police Palm Beach FL 39 1 25.64 0.08
Florida International University Police Miami-Dade FL 39 1 25.64 0.04
George Mason University Police Dept. Fairfax VA 52 1 19.23 0.09
Georgia Public Safety Training Center Monroe GA 19 1 52.63 3.78
400
Georgia State University Police Fulton GA 68 1 14.71 0.11

Greenville Technical College Public Safety Greenville SC 9 1 111.11 0.22
Houston Baptist University Police Department Harris TX 30 1 33.33 0.02
Houston Community College System Harris TX 48 1 20.83 0.02
Humble I.S.D. Police Dept. Harris TX 24 1 41.67 0.02
Indiana State Excise Police Marion IN 88 1 11.36 0.11
Indiana University Purdue U. Fort Wayne U. Police Allen IN 18 1 55.56 0.28
Kansas State Law Enforcement Training Center Reno KS 39 1 25.64 0.20
Kentucky Alcoholic Beverage Control Franklin KY 30 2 66.67 0.27
Lafayette College Office of Public Safety Northampton PA 18 1 55.56 0.34
Lancaster I.S.D. Police Dept. Dallas TX 6 1 166.67 0.04
Lehigh-Northampton Airport Auth. Police Dept Lehigh PA 9 1 111.11 0.29
Los Angeles School Police Department Los Angeles CA 340 2 5.88 0.02
Louisiana State Univ. Health Sciences Center Police Dept Caddo LA 49 1 20.41 0.39
Louisiana State University Police Department East Baton Rouge LA 62 1 16.13 0.23
Maryland Department of General Services Police Baltimore City MD 68 1 14.71 0.16
Maryland National Capital Park Police - Montgomery Co Montgomery MD 86 1 11.63 0.41
Maryland Natural Resources Police Anne Arundel MD 224 1 4.46 0.19
Maryland Transit Administration Police Baltimore City MD 140 1 7.14 0.16
Massachusetts Dept of Mental Health Police Dept Suffolk MA 40 2 50.00 0.28
MBTA Transit Police Suffolk MA 256 2 7.81 0.28
McAllen I.S.D. Police Dept. Hidalgo TX 43 1 23.26 0.13
Medical College of Georgia Richmond GA 32 1 31.25 0.50
Medical University of South Carolina Public Safety Charleston SC 62 1 16.13 0.29
Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority Police Arlington VA 206 1 4.85 0.09
Middlesex County Prosecutor's Office Middlesex NJ 80 1 12.50 0.12
Midland I.S.D. Police Dept. Midland TX 11 1 90.91 0.73
Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries & Parks Hinds MS 230 1 4.35 1.05
Missouri Department of Corrections Cole MO 13 1 76.92 1.32
Missouri Univ. of Science & Technology Police Dept Phelps MO 11 1 90.91 2.21
MIT Police Department Middlesex MA 59 1 16.95 0.07
Morrisville State College Police Madison NY 11 1 90.91 1.36
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection Burlington NJ 90 1 11.11 0.11
401
New Jersey Transit Police Essex NJ 201 3 14.93 0.47

New Mexico Department Of Game & Fish Santa Fe NM 106 1 9.43 0.69
New York City Dept of Environmental Protection Police Westchester NY 168 1 5.95 1.29
New York State Park Police Albany NY 305 1 3.28 0.21
North Forest I.S.D. Police Dept. Harris TX 21 1 47.62 0.02
Northern Illinois University Police DeKalb IL 59 1 16.95 0.95
Northside I.S.D. Police Dept. Bexar TX 83 2 24.10 0.12
Ohio Dept of Natural Resources - Ofc. of Law Enf. Franklin OH 394 2 5.08 3.24
Ohio Department of Taxation - Enforcement Division Franklin OH 30 1 33.33 0.18
Ohio State University Police Department Franklin OH 51 1 19.61 0.09
Palm Beach County School District Police Palm Beach FL 176 4 22.73 0.30
Pennsylvania Dept of Conservation & Natural Resources Dauphin PA 136 1 7.35 0.79
Port Authority of New York & New Jersey Police Dept Hudson NJ 1667 1 0.60 0.16
San Antonio Park Rangers Bexar TX 112 3 26.79 0.17
Santa Ana Unified School District Police Dept. Orange CA 21 2 95.24 0.07
Santa Rosa I.S.D. Police Department Cameron TX 3 1 333.33 0.25
Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania Police Cumberland PA 17 1 58.82 0.42
Socorro I.S.D. Police Dept. El Paso TX 30 1 33.33 0.12
South Carolina Dept of Mental Health-Public Safety Richland SC 120 1 8.33 0.26
South Carolina Department of Natural Resources Richland SC 238 1 4.20 0.26
Southern University and A & M College Police East Baton Rouge LA 43 1 23.26 0.23
St. Edward's University Police Department Travis TX 14 1 71.43 0.10
St. Joseph County Airport Police St. Joseph IN 17 1 58.82 0.37
St. Mary's University Police Department Bexar TX 20 1 50.00 0.06
State University at Albany Police Albany NY 41 1 24.39 0.33
Tennessee State University Davidson TN 27 2 74.07 0.32
Texas Alcoholic Beverage Commission Travis TX 277 1 3.61 0.10
United I.S.D. Police Dept. Webb TX 51 1 19.61 0.40
University of Alabama - Birmingham Police Dept Jefferson AL 79 1 12.66 0.15
University of Arkansas Medical Sciences Dept of Pub Pulaski AR 36 1 27.78 0.26
University of California - Los Angeles Police Los Angeles CA 57 1 17.54 0.01
University of Colorado - Colorado Springs Police Dept. El Paso CO 14 1 71.43 0.16
University of Florida Police Alachua FL 85 1 11.76 0.40
402
University of Illinois Police Dept Champaign IL 54 1 18.52 0.50

University of Maryland Eastern Shore Public Safety Somerset MD 6 1 166.67 3.78
University of North Texas Police Department Denton TX 40 1 25.00 0.15
University of Pittsburgh - Main Campus Police Allegheny PA 73 1 13.70 0.08
University of Pittsburgh at Johnstown Police Cambria PA 13 1 76.92 0.70
University of South Carolina - Upstate Police Dept Spartanburg SC 12 1 83.33 0.35
University of Tennessee at Knoxville Police Knox TN 52 2 38.46 10.47
University of Texas - Austin Police Travis TX 62 1 16.13 0.10
Vanderbilt University Police Department Davidson TN 91 1 10.99 0.16
Ventura College Ventura CA 5 1 200.00 0.12
Virginia Commonwealth University Police Dept. Richmond City VA 74 2 27.03 0.98
Volusia County Beach Patrol Volusia FL 60 2 33.33 0.40
Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Auth. Police District of Columbia DC 442 2 4.52 0.33
Wayne State University Dept of Public Safety Wayne MI 49 1 20.41 0.05
Wisconsin Dept of Justice - Criminal Investigation Div. Dane WI 92 1 10.87 0.20
403
Figure 1. Police Crime Arrest Cases: CART Model Predicting Conviction
404
Figure 2. Police Crime Arrest Cases: CART Model Predicting Job Loss
405
Figure 3. Police Crime: CART Model Predicting Sex-related Arrest Cases
406
Figure 4. Police Crime: CART Model Predicting Alcohol-related Arrest Cases
407
Figure 5. Police Crime: CART Model Predicting Drug-related Arrest Cases
408
Figure 6. Police Crime: CART Model Predicting Violence-related Arrest Cases
409
Figure 7. Police Crime: CART Model Predicting Profit-motivated Arrest Cases
410
Figure 8. CART Model Predicting Being Named as a Party Defendant in a Section 1983 Civil Action at Some Point during Career
411
Figure 9. Sex-related Arrest Cases: CART Model Predicting Conviction
412
Figure 10. Sex-related Arrest Cases: CART Model Predicting Job Loss
413
Figure 11. Sex-related Arrest Cases: CART Model Predicting Child Victims
414
Figure 12. Police Sexual Violence Arrest Cases: CHAID Model Predicting Conviction
415
Figure 13. Police Sexual Violence Arrest Cases: CART Model Predicting Job Loss
416
Figure 14. Driving While Female Encounters Arrest Cases: CHAID Model Predicting Conviction
417
Figure 15. Driving While Female Encounters Arrest Cases: CHAID Model Predicting Job Loss
418
Figure 16. Alcohol-related Arrest Cases: CART Model Predicting Conviction
419
Figure 17. Alcohol-related Arrest Cases: CART Model Predicting Job Loss
420
Figure 18. DUI Arrest Cases: CART Model Predicting Conviction
421
Figure 19. DUI Arrest Cases: CART Model Predicting Job Loss
422
Figure 20. Drug-related Arrest Cases: CART Model Predicting Conviction
423
Figure 21. Drug-related Arrest Cases: CART Model Predicting Job Loss
424
Figure 22. Violence-related Arrest Cases: CART Model Predicting Conviction
425
Figure 23. Violence-related Arrest Cases: CART Model Predicting Job Loss
426
Figure 24. Officer-involved Domestic Violence Arrest Cases: CART Model Predicting Conviction
427
Figure 25. Officer-involved Domestic Violence Arrest Cases: CART Model Predicting Job Loss
428
Figure 26. Profit-motivated Arrest Cases: CART Model Predicting Conviction
429
Figure 27. Profit-motivated Arrest Cases: CART Model Predicting Job Loss
430
Appendix A-1. Nonmetropolitan State & Local Law Enforcement Agencies in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted by # FT
Sworn)
431

432

433

434

435

436

437

438

439

440

441

442

443

444

445

446
Appendix A-2. Primary State Police Agencies in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted by # FT
Sworn)

447

448
Appendix A-3. Sheriff's Offices in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted by # FT Sworn)
449

450
451

452

453
454

455

456

457

458

459

460

461
Appendix A-4. County Police Departments in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted by # FT Sworn)

462

463
Appendix A-5. 500 Largest Municipal Police Departments in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted by # FT Sworn)
464

465

466

467

468

469

470

471

472

Altamonte Springs Police Department Seminole FL 124 1 8.06 0.24
473

474

Bensalem Township Police Department Bucks PA 104 1 9.62 0.16
475

476

477
West Bloomfield Township Police Dept Oakland MI 81 1 12.35 0.08
478
Appendix A-6. Special State & Local Law Enforcement Agencies in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted by # FT Sworn)
479

480

481

482
Appendix B-1. 200 Largest State & Local Law Enforcement Agencies in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted by Rate per 1,000 Officers)

483

484

485

486

487

488
Appendix B-2. Nonmetropolitan State & Local Law Enforcement Agencies in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted by Rate per 1,000
Officers)

489

490

491

492

493

494

Missouri Univ. of Science & Tech Police Dept Phelps MO 11 1 90.91 2.21
495

496

497

Central Michigan University Police Dept Isabella MI 21 1 47.62 1.42
498

499

500

Tuskegee University Police Dept Macon AL 33 1 30.30 4.66
501

502

503

504
Appendix B-3. Primary State Police Agencies in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted by Rate per 1,000
Officers)

505

506
Appendix B-4. Sheriff's Offices in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted by Rate per 1,000 Officers)

507

508

509

510

511

512

513

514

515

516

517

518
519
Appendix B-5. County Police Departments in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted by Rate per 1,000 Officers)

520

521
Appendix B-6. 500 Largest Municipal Police Departments in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted by Rate per 1,000 Officers)

522

523

524

525

526

527

528

529

530

531

532

533

534

535
536
Appendix B-7. Special State & Local Law Enforcement Agencies in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted by Rate per 1,000
Officers)

537

538

539
540
Appendix C-1. 200 Largest State & Local Law Enforcement Agencies in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted by Rate per 100,000
Population)

541

542

543
544

545

546
Appendix C-2. Nonmetropolitan State & Local Law Enforcement Agencies in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted by Rate per 100,000
Population)

547

548

549

550

551

552

553

554

555

556

557

558

559

560

561

562
Appendix C-3. Primary State Police Agencies in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted by Rate per 100,000 Population

563

564
Appendix C-4. Sheriff's Offices in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted by Rate per 100,000 Population)

565

566

567

568

569

570

571

572

573

574

575

576

577
Appendix C-5. County Police Departments in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted by Rate per 100,000 Population)

578

579
Appendix C-6. 500 Largest Municipal Police Departments in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted by Rate per 100,000
Population)

580
581

582

583

584

585

586

587

588

589

590

591

592

593

Glendale Police Department Los Ange+B468les CA 264 1 3.79 0.01
594
Appendix C-7. Special State & Local Law Enforcement Agencies in Study: Rates of Officers Arrested, 2005-2011 (Sorted by Rate per 100,000
Population)

595

596

597

598
Appendix D: State and Local Law Enforcement Agencies: Police Crime Arrest Cases (N = 6,724)
Arrest
Agency City County State Agency ID Cases
Abbeville Police Department Abbeville Henry AL 13947490 2

Aberdeen Police Department Aberdeen Brown OH 12664570 4
Acadia Parish Sheriff's Office Crowley Acadia LA 12018700 1
Accomack County Sheriff's Office Accomac Accomack VA 12188710 1
Acworth Police Department Acworth Cobb GA 13069400 1
Ada Police Department Ada Pontotoc OK 11665940 1
Adams County Sheriff's Office Brighton Adams CO 11549150 2
Akron Police Department Akron Summit OH 12234580 8
Alabama Department of Public Safety Montgomery Montgomery AL 13191010 2
Alachua County Sheriff's Office Gainesville Alachua FL 11719100 1
Alameda County Sheriff's Office Oakland Alameda CA 11629140 4
Alameda Police Department Alameda Alameda CA 11098570 2
Alamo Police Department Alamo Hidalgo TX 12526390 1
Alamogordo Department of Public Safety Alamogordo Otero NM 11264980 1
Alaska State Troopers Anchorage Anchorage AK 11914750 1
Albany Police Department Albany Albany NY 12534810 9
Albany Police Department Albany Linn OR 12855640 1
Albany Police Department Albany Dougherty GA 13969090 4
Albert Lea Police Department Albert Lea Freeborn MN 12432730 1
Albuquerque Police Department Albuquerque Bernalillo NM 11464990 13
Alcester Police Department Alcester Union SD 12676620 1
Alexander Police Department Alexander Pulaski AR 13081100 1
Alexandria Police Alexandria Madison IN 12070640 1
Alexandria Police Department Alexandria Alexandria City VA 13414740 3
Algonquin Police Dept Algonquin McHenry IL 13153610 1
Algood Police Department Algood Putnam TN 13922190 1
Alhambra Police Department Alhambra Los Angeles CA 13518750 2
Alice Police Department Alice Jim Wells TX 12306300 1
Allegan County Sheriff's Office Allegan Allegan MI 12098750 3
Allegheny County Police Department. Pittsburgh Allegheny PA 11975540 2
Allegheny County Sheriff's Office Pittsburgh Allegheny PA 11689110 3
Allegheny Port Authority Transit Police Pittsburgh Allegheny PA 11277060 1
599
Allen Police Department Allen Collin TX 12636310 2

Allendale Police Department Allendale Allendale SC 12876730 2
Allenstown Police Department Allenstown Merrimack NH 12633470 1
Allentown Police Department Allentown Lehigh PA 11635550 3
Alma Police Department Alma Bacon GA 13337130 1
Alorton Police Dept Alorton St. Clair IL 13041000 3
Altamonte Springs Police Department Altamonte Springs Seminole FL 13960890 1
Alton Police Department Alton Hidalgo TX 11804130 2
Alton Police Dept Alton Madison IL 13716370 1
Altoona Police Department Altoona Blair PA 11455590 4
Amber Police Department Amber Grady OK 11575920 1
Amboy/Vernon Center Police Department Amboy Blue Earth MN 12332720 1
Amite Police Department Amite Tangipahoa LA 12741840 2
Anaheim Police Department Anaheim Orange CA 11402520 7
Anchorage International Airport Police Anchorage Anchorage AK 13995990 1
Anchorage Police Department Anchorage Anchorage AK 13579150 11
Andalusia Police Dept. Andalusia Covington AL 13400140 1
Anderson County Sheriff's Office Anderson Anderson SC 11149160 3
Anderson Police Anderson Madison IN 12460620 7
Anderson Police Department Anderson Anderson SC 12126790 3
Anderson Police Department Anderson Shasta CA 13061700 1
Andrews Police Department Andrews Georgetown SC 12266720 1
Ann Arbor Police Department Ann Arbor Washtenaw MI 12921160 4
Anne Arundel County Police Department Millersville Anne Arundel MD 12291250 3
Annville Township Police Department Annville Lebanon PA 11865590 1
Anoka County Sheriff's Office Anoka Anoka MN 11039180 1
Ansonia Police Department Ansonia New Haven CT 13023000 3
Apopka Police Department Apopka Orange FL 13453640 3
Appalachian State University Police Dept Boone Watauga NC 13369530 1
Appling County Sheriff's Office Baxley Appling GA 12568680 1
Aquia Harbour Police Department Stafford Stafford VA 99900022 1
Arapahoe County Sheriff's Office Centennial Arapahoe CO 11409140 2
Arcade Police Department Jefferson Jackson GA 13013000 1
Arizona Department of Public Safety Phoenix Maricopa AZ 13129410 3
Arkansas Highway Police Little Rock Pulaski AR 13540550 2
Arkansas State Police Little Rock Pulaski AR 13279920 2
600
Arkansas State University Police Dept. State University Craighead AR 13047000 1

Arlington County Police Department Arlington Arlington VA 11947620 1
Arlington Police Department Arlington Tarrant TX 12226340 6
Arlington Police Department Arlington Middlesex MA 12891500 1
Ashland Police Department Ashland Boone MO 12022580 1
Aspen Police Department Aspen Pitkin CO 13336630 2
Assumption Parish Sheriff's Office Napoleonville Assumption LA 12178640 3
Athena Police Department Athena Umatilla OR 12715660 1
Athens Police Department Athens Limestone AL 11834090 1
Athens-Clarke County Police Dept Athens Clarke GA 13318230 2
Atlanta Police Department Atlanta Fulton GA 11961870 22
Atlantic Beach Police Department Atlantic Beach Horry SC 12006770 2
Atlantic County Sheriff's Office Mays Landing Atlantic NJ 12848680 1
Atwater Police Department Atwater Kandiyohi MN 12792770 1
Aubrey Police Department Aubrey Denton TX 12016380 1
Auburn Police Department Auburn Cayuga NY 12184810 1
Auburn Police Department Auburn Androscoggin ME 12911270 1
Auburndale Police Department Auburndale Polk FL 11112240 1
Aurora Police Aurora Dearborn IN 12420680 4
Aurora Police Department Aurora Portage OH 12024500 2
Aurora Police Department Aurora Marion OR 12795670 1
Aurora Police Department Aurora Arapahoe CO 13444440 7
Austin I.S.D. Police Department Austin Travis TX 13474440 1
Austin Police Department Austin Mower MN 12142790 1
Austin Police Department Austin Travis TX 12356380 11
Avalon Borough Police Department Pittsburgh Allegheny PA 11415550 1
Avoca Borough Police Avoca Luzerne PA 11025540 2
Avon Park Police Department Avon Park Highlands FL 11677630 6
Avon Police Department Avon Hartford CT 13874780 1
Ayden Police Department Ayden Pitt NC 12453850 1
Aztec Police Department Aztec San Juan NM 13647160 1
Babbitt Police Department Babbitt St. Louis MN 12602740 1
Bainbridge Police Department Bainbridge Decatur GA 11580490 2
Baker County Sheriff's Office Newton Baker GA 12418660 1
Bakersfield Police Department Bakersfield Kern CA 13959390 11
Bal Harbour Village Police Department Bal Harbour Miami-Dade FL 13851380 1
601
Bally Borough Police Department Bally Berks PA 11835590 1

Baltimore (City) Sheriff's Office Baltimore Baltimore City MD 12428670 2
Baltimore City School Police Dept. Baltimore Baltimore City MD 13048100 1
Baltimore County Police Department Towson Baltimore MD 12941270 4
Baltimore County Sheriff's Office Towson Baltimore MD 12278650 1
Baltimore Police Department Baltimore Baltimore City MD 12651260 62
Bangor Police Department Bangor Penobscot ME 12331200 1
Barnegat Township Police Barnegat Ocean NJ 12553360 1
Barnstable County Sheriff's Office Bourne Barnstable MA 11898670 5
Barnstable Police Department Hyannis Barnstable MA 12881580 4
Barre Police Department Barre Worcester MA 12281580 2
Barre Police Department Barre Washington VT 12607470 1
Barrow County Sheriff's Office Winder Barrow GA 12569110 1
Barstow Police Department Barstow San Bernardino CA 13495440 2
BART Police Department Oakland Alameda CA 13581450 1
Bartlesville Police Department Bartlesville Washington OK 11525930 4
Bartlett Police Department Bartlett Shelby TN 13677160 1
Bartow Police Department Bartow Polk FL 13103010 1
Baton Rouge Police Department Baton Rouge East Baton Rouge LA 11021750 7
Battlefield Police Department Battlefield Greene MO 12142510 1
Baxter County Sheriff's Office Mountain Home Baxter AR 11928670 1
Bay County Sheriff's Office Panama City Bay FL 12679190 3
Bay Village Police Department Bay Village Cuyahoga OH 12874500 1
Bayou La Batre Police Department Bayou La Batre Mobile AL 13335630 1
Baytown Police Department Baytown Harris TX 12496390 1
Beardstown Police Dept Beardstown Cass IL 13213020 3
Beaufort County Sheriff's Office Beaufort Beaufort SC 12469140 1
Beaumont I.S.D. Police Dept. Beaumont Jefferson TX 13348930 1
Beaumont Police Department Beaumont Jefferson TX 12436390 2
Beaumont Police Department Beaumont Riverside CA 13768970 1
Beaverton Police Department Beaverton Washington OR 13343230 1
Bedford County Sheriff's Office Bedford Bedford VA 11508690 2
Bedford Police Department Bedford Hillsborough NH 12923420 1
Beeville Police Department Beeville Bee TX 12486380 1
Belchertown Police Department Belchertown Hampshire MA 12131550 1
Belen Police Department Belen Valencia NM 13171710 1
602
Belgium Police Dept Westville Vermilion IL 13316430 7

Bell Police Department Bell Los Angeles CA 13682260 11
Bella Vista Police Department Bella Vista Benton AR 13321230 1
Bellaire Police Department Bellaire Harris TX 12406330 1
Belle Plaine Police Department Belle Plaine Scott MN 12632740 1
Belle Police Department Belle Kanawha WV 12028990 2
Belle Police Department Belle Maries MO 12782580 1
Belleville Police Dept Belleville St. Clair IL 13282220 1
Bellevue Police Dept Bellevue Sarpy NE 11553550 2
Bellville Police Department Bellville Richland OH 12014520 1
Bellwood Police Dept Bellwood Cook IL 13007900 1
Beloit Police Department Beloit Rock WI 12717210 1
Belpre Police Department Belpre Washington OH 12274590 1
Bend Police Department Bend Deschutes OR 12505670 2
Bennettsville Police Department Bennettsville Marlboro SC 12506760 6
Bensalem Township Police Department Bensalem Bucks PA 12145590 1
Benton County Sheriff's Office Bentonville Benton AR 12908650 1
Benton Harbor Police Department Benton Harbor Berrien MI 12241080 4
Benton Police Department Benton Saline AR 13276920 1
Benzie County Sheriff's Office Beulah Benzie MI 12288690 1
Berea Police Department Berea Madison KY 12200010 1
Berkeley Police Department Berkeley St. Louis MO 12532520 1
Berkeley Police Department Berkeley Alameda CA 13410240 1
Berlin Borough Police Department Berlin Somerset PA 12725510 1
Berlin Heights Police Department Berlin Heights Erie OH 12524560 1
Berlin Police Department Berlin Worcester MA 12671560 1
Berlin Police Department Kensington Hartford CT 13126410 2
Bernalillo County Sheriff's Office Albuquerque Bernalillo NM 12059140 3
Bernalillo Police Department Bernalillo Sandoval NM 13777370 1
Bernville Borough Police Department Bernville Berks PA 12775590 1
Berryville Police Department Berryville Clarke VA 11867600 1
Berwyn Police Dept Berwyn Cook IL 13438140 3
Bethany Beach Police Department Bethany Beach Sussex DE 13241520 1
Bethel Police Department Bethel Fairfield CT 13269120 3
Bethlehem Police Department Bethlehem Northampton PA 12735580 4
Bethlehem Township Police Department Bethlehem Northampton PA 12735520 1
603
Beverly Police Department Beverly Essex MA 12731560 1

Bexar County Sheriff's Office San Antonio Bexar TX 12619130 5
Bibb County Sheriff's Office Macon Bibb GA 12049190 3
Bibb County Sheriff's Office Centreville Bibb AL 12538660 1
Big Horn County Sheriff's Office Hardin Big Horn MT 12778610 4
Big Sandy Police Department Big Sandy Upshur TX 12656360 1
Big Spring Police Department Big Springs Howard TX 12776350 1
Billings Police Department Billings Yellowstone MT 12293970 2
Biloxi Police Department Biloxi Harrison MS 12662130 2
Bingen-White Salmon Police Department White Salmon Klickitat WA 13076800 1
Binghamton Police Department Binghamton Broome NY 13285220 1
Birch Run Police Department Birch Run Saginaw MI 12651050 3
Birchwood Police Department Birchwood Washburn WI 12847220 1
Birmingham Police Department Birmingham Jefferson AL 13738970 8
Bishopville Police Department Bishopville Lee SC 12276730 1
Bismarck Police Department Bismarck St. Francois MO 12052450 1
Black Mountain Police Department Black Mountain Buncombe NC 12663810 1
Black River Falls Police Department Black River Falls Jackson WI 12687270 1
Blackford County Sheriff's Office Hartford City Blackford IN 12818650 1
Blacksburg Police Department Blacksburg Montgomery VA 11547660 1
Blakely Borough Police Department Peckville Lackawanna PA 12525590 1
Bloomer Police Department Bloomer Chippewa WI 12397240 1
Bloomingdale Police Department Bloomingdale Van Buren MI 12181020 1
Bloomington Police Dept Bloomington McLean IL 11780660 6
Bloomville Police Department Bloomville Seneca OH 99900095 1
Blountstown Police Dept. Blountstown Calhoun FL 13849980 2
Blue Ash Police Department Blue Ash Hamilton OH 12794450 2
Blue Lake Police Department Blue Lake Humboldt CA 99900024 7
Bluefield Police Department Bluefield Mercer WV 12608910 1
Bogalusa Police Department Bogalusa Washington LA 11031700 1
Boiling Spring Lakes Police Department Southport Brunswick NC 12053890 1
Boise Police Department Boise Ada ID 13545850 6
Bolingbrook Police Dept Bolingbrook Will IL 13303430 4
Bolivar County Sheriff's Office Cleveland Bolivar MS 12688650 1
Bolivar Police Department Bolivar Hardeman TN 12196590 1
Boone County Sheriff's Office Burlington Boone KY 12769120 1
604
Boone Police Department Boone Watauga NC 12643880 1

Boonsboro Police Department Boonsboro Washington MD 12471270 1
Boonville Police Department Boonville Yadkin NC 12693840 1
Bosque Farms Police Department Peralta Valencia NM 13556950 2
Bossier City Police Dept Bossier City Bossier LA 11281730 3
Bossier Parish Sheriff's Office Benton Bossier LA 12329120 3
Boston Police Department Boston Suffolk MA 12031520 17
Boston School Police Boston Suffolk MA 11990083 1
Boswell Police Department Boswell Choctaw OK 12295980 1
Boulder County Sheriff's Office Boulder Boulder CO 12799150 1
Boulder Police Department Boulder Boulder CO 13654860 1
Bowie State University Dept. of Public Safety Bowie Prince Georges MD 13888480 1
Bowman Police Department Bowman Orangeburg SC 13492840 10
Boyce Police Department Boyce Rapides LA 11431750 1
Boynton Beach Police Department Boynton Beach Palm Beach FL 13589350 8
Braceville Police Department Newton Falls Trumbull OH 12984420 1
Bracken County Sheriff's Office Brooksville Bracken KY 11388510 1
Braddock Borough Police Department Braddock Allegheny PA 12645530 1
Bradley Police Dept Bradley Kankakee IL 13127310 1
Brady Township Police Department Oakley Saginaw MI 99900015 1
Braintree Police Department Braintree Norfolk MA 12141530 1
Braselton Police Department Braselton Jackson GA 13118410 2
Brazil Police Brazil Clay IN 11080650 1
Brazoria County Sheriff's Office Angleton Brazoria TX 12809160 1
Brentwood Police Department Brentwood Rockingham NH 13173510 1
Brentwood Police Department Brentwood Prince George's MD 99900101 1
Brevard County Sheriff's Office Titusville Brevard FL 12209190 2
Brewster Police Department Brewster Barnstable MA 12591540 3
Brick Township Police Brick Ocean NJ 12283200 1
Bridgeport Police Department Bridgeport Belmont OH 12364460 1
Bridgeport Police Department Bridgeport Jackson AL 13492440 1
Bridgeport Police Department Bridgeport Fairfield CT 13975390 4
Bridgeton Police Bridgeton Cumberland NJ 12473230 3
Brigantine Police Brigantine Atlantic NJ 12063200 1
Brighton Police Department Brighton Jefferson AL 13306130 1
Bristol Borough Police Department Bristol Bucks PA 12715500 1
605
Bristol Police Department Bristol Bristol City VA 11007620 1

Bristol Police Department Bristol Hartford CT 13466940 1
Brockton Police Department Brockton Plymouth MA 12461510 4
Broken Arrow Police Department Broken Arrow Tulsa OK 12685960 2
Brookfield Police Department Brookfield Waukesha WI 12687210 1
Brookline Police Department Brookline Norfolk MA 12941540 3
Brookneal Police Department Brookneal Campbell VA 11377680 1
Brookshire Police Department Brookshire Waller TX 12666250 1
Brooksville Police Department Brooksville Hernando FL 13046300 1
Broomfield Police Department Broomfield Broomfield CO 11464710 1
Broussard Police Department Broussard Lafayette LA 11571770 1
Broward County Sheriff's Office Fort Lauderdale Broward FL 12709120 22
Brownstown Police Department Brownstown Wayne MI 12351000 1
Brownsville Police Department Brownsville Cameron TX 12586230 1
Brownwood Police Department Brownwood Brown TX 13866580 3
Brunswick County Sheriff's Office Bolivia Brunswick NC 12439110 2
Brunswick Police Department Brunswick Frederick MD 12971210 1
Bucks County Sheriff's Office Doylestown Bucks PA 11758500 2
Buena Vista Township Police Department Saginaw Saginaw MI 12101040 2
Buffalo Police Department Buffalo Erie NY 12134820 9
Buffalo State College Police Buffalo Erie NY 11322170 1
Bullard Police Department Bullard Smith TX 13157710 1
Bullitt County Sheriff's Office Shepherdsville Bullitt KY 12599170 1
Bunkie Police Department Bunkie Avoyelles LA 11591760 1
Burgettstown Borough Police Department Burgettstown Washington PA 12195550 1
Burke County Sheriff's Office Morganton Burke NC 13074100 1
Burleigh County Sheriff's Office Bismarck Burleigh ND 13991390 2
Burlington Police Department Burlington Alamance NC 12843860 3
Burnham Police Department Burnham Cook IL 13235220 1
Burns Police Department Burns Dickson TN 12276510 1
Burr Oak Police Department Burr Oak St. Joseph MI 12531060 2
Butler County Sheriff's Office Greenville Butler AL 12878530 3
Butler Township Police Department Dayton Montgomery OH 12724480 1
Butler Township Police Department Ashland Schuylkill PA 12805590 1
Butte - Silver Bow County Sheriff's Office Butte Silver Bow MT 12208580 2
Butte County Sheriff's Office Oroville Butte CA 12779160 1
606
Byron Police Dept Byron Ogle IL 13506950 1

BYU-Idaho Police Department Rexburg Madison ID 99900010 1
Caddo Police Department Caddo Bryan OK 12225940 1
Calcasieu Parish Sheriff's Office Lake Charles Calcasieu LA 12609150 1
Caldwell Police Department Caldwell Canyon ID 13307830 1
Caledonia Police Department Caledonia Racine WI 11767260 1
Calhoun County Sheriff's Office Blountstown Calhoun FL 13965890 1
Calhoun Police Department Calhoun Gordon GA 11639970 1
California Bureau of Narcotics Enforcement Sacramento Sacramento CA 99900008 3
California Dept. of Justice Sacramento Sacramento CA 13106110 1
California Exposition And State Fair Police Sacramento Sacramento CA 13907090 1
California Highway Patrol Sacramento Sacramento CA 13998690 19
Calumet City Police Dept Calumet City Cook IL 13710870 1
Calumet Park Police Dept Calumet Park Cook IL 13280820 1
Calvert Police Department Calvert Robertson TX 12976240 1
Cambridge Police Department Cambridge Middlesex MA 12111510 1
Camden Police Camden Camden NJ 12033290 15
Camden Police Department Camden Kershaw SC 12706740 3
Cameron County Constable Pct. 1 Port Isabel Cameron TX 13852280 1
Cameron County Constable Pct. 4 Rio Hondo Cameron TX 13545050 1
Cameron County District Attorney Investigations Div Brownville Cameron TX 99900100 1
Cameron County Sheriff's Office Olmito Cameron TX 12598530 2
Campbell County Sheriff's Office Gillette Campbell WY 12008510 1
Canton Police Department Canton Lincoln SD 12386620 1
Canton Police Department Canton Stark OH 12684470 2
Canton Police Department Canton Hartford CT 13510050 1
Canton Police Dept Canton Fulton IL 13758570 1
Canton Village Police Department Canton St. Lawrence NY 12734850 1
Cape Coral Police Department Cape Coral Lee FL 13198210 2
Cape Girardeau Police Department Cape Girardeau Cape Girardeau MO 12752430 1
Carbondale Police Dept Carbondale Jackson IL 13309030 1
Caribou Police Department Caribou Aroostook ME 11331110 1
Carlisle Police Department Carlisle Nicholas KY 12790030 1
Carlisle Police Department Carlisle Warren IA 13262620 1
Carmel Police Carmel Hamilton IN 11060600 3
Caroline County Sheriff's Office Bowling Green Caroline VA 12188590 4
607
Carter County Sheriff's Office Van Buren Carter MO 12538560 4

Caruthersville Police Department Caruthersville Pemiscot MO 12842420 2
Carver County Sheriff's Office Chaska Carver MN 12198570 1
Caryville Police Department Caryville Campbell TN 12196560 1
Casselberry Police Department Casselberry Seminole FL 13822380 2
Catawba County Sheriff's Office Newton Catawba NC 12359030 1
Cathedral City Police Department Cathedral City Riverside CA 13790770 3
Cedar Rapids Police Department Cedar Rapids Linn IA 13500750 2
Centerville Police Department Centerville Davis UT 12487780 2
Central Michigan University Police Department Mount Pleasant Isabella MI 13108110 1
Central Point Police Department Central Point Jackson OR 12045680 1
Centre County Sheriff's Office Bellefonte Centre PA 12758530 1
Centreville Police Dept Centreville St. Clair IL 13894180 2
Chaffee Police Department Chaffee Scott MO 12822440 1
Chalfont Borough Police Department Chalfont Bucks PA 12305560 1
Chambers County Sheriff's Office Anahuac Chambers TX 12818590 1
Chambersburg Borough Police Department Chambersburg Franklin PA 12035430 1
Chamblee Police Department Chamblee DeKalb GA 13208920 2
Champaign Police Dept Champaign Champaign IL 13095600 1
Chandler Police Department Chandler Henderson TX 12496270 1
Chandler Police Department Chandler Lincoln OK 12805990 2
Chandler Police Department Chandler Maricopa AZ 13198410 2
Channahon Police Dept Channahon Will IL 13671460 1
Charlack Police Department Charlack St. Louis MO 12832480 1
Charleston County Sheriff's Office Charleston Charleston SC 12389000 7
Charleston Police Department Charleston Kanawha WV 12628960 10
Charleston Police Department Charleston Charleston SC 12666770 2
Charlotte - Mecklenburg Police Department Charlotte Mecklenburg NC 12483880 27
Charlotte County Sheriff's Office Punta Gorda Charlotte FL 12829030 3
Charlottesville Police Dept. Charlottesville Charlottesville City VA 11937610 1
Chattahoochee Police Department Chattahoochee Gadsden FL 13616960 1
Chattanooga Police Department Chattanooga Hamilton TN 12556570 15
Chelsea Police Department Chelsea Suffolk MA 12391530 1
Chelsea Police Department Chelsea Rogers OK 13409240 1
Cherokee County Sheriff's Office Gaffney Cherokee SC 12668410 2
Cherokee Police Department Cherokee Alfalfa OK 13349530 1
608
Cherry Hill Police Cherry Hill Camden NJ 12773210 2

Chesapeake (City) Sheriff's Office Chesapeake Chesapeake City VA 12428400 4
Chesapeake Police Department Chesapeake Chesapeake City VA 11707600 3
Cheshire Police Department Cheshire New Haven CT 13937190 2
Chester Township Police Department Chester Delaware PA 12285480 1
Chesterfield County Police Department Chesterfield Chesterfield VA 12497610 1
Chesterfield County Sheriff's Office Chesterfield Chesterfield VA 12268420 1
Chesterfield County Sheriff's Office Chesterfield Chesterfield SC 12718400 1
Chicago Police Dept Chicago Cook IL 13642360 106
Chickasaw Police Department Chickasaw Mobile AL 13594350 1
Chickasha Police Department Chickasha Grady OK 13512350 1
Chico Police Department Chico Butte CA 13771570 2
Chicopee Police Department Chicopee Hampden MA 12211540 1
Chilhowie Police Department Chilhowie Smyth VA 12347650 5
Chillicothe Police Department Chillicothe Livingston MO 12872420 1
Chillicothe Police Department Chillicothe Ross OH 13977890 1
Chillicothe Police Dept Chillicothe Peoria IL 13372330 2
Chippewa Township Police Department Beaver Falls Beaver PA 12735490 1
Chula Vista Police Department Chula Vista San Diego CA 13051200 1
Cicero Police Dept Cicero Cook IL 13022800 9
Cicero Town Police Department Cicero Onondaga NY 13143610 1
Cincinnati Police Department Cincinnati Hamilton OH 11320790 12
Circleville Police Department Circleville Pickaway OH 13484840 1
Citrus Heights Police Department Citrus Heights Sacramento CA 13172110 1
Clackamas County Sheriff's Office Oregon City Clackamas OR 12229030 4
Clairton City Police Department Clairton Allegheny PA 12255460 1
Clanton Police Department Clanton Chilton AL 13683260 1
Clarendon Hills Police Dept Clarendon Hills Du Page IL 13786670 1
Clark County Sheriff's Office Jeffersonville Clark IN 12069090 1
Clark County Sheriff's Office Springfield Clark OH 12969040 1
Clarke County Sheriff's Office Berryville Clarke VA 11558400 1
Clarksdale Police Department Clarksdale Coahoma MS 12992140 1
Clarksville Police Clarksville Clark IN 12310690 3
Clarksville Police Department Clarksville Montgomery TN 12456500 6
Clatskanie Police Department Clatskanie Columbia OR 12845600 1
Clay County Sheriff's Office Brazil Clay IN 11628470 1
609
Clay County Sheriff's Office Piggott Clay AR 11928450 1

Clay County Sheriff's Office Green Cove Springs Clay FL 12819080 3
Clay County Sheriff's Office Liberty Clay MO 12869070 1
Clayton County Police Department Jonesboro Clayton GA 11930160 3
Clayton County Sheriff's Office St. Olaf Clayton IA 11878470 1
Clayton Police Clayton Gloucester NJ 12363270 2
Clearlake Police Department Clearlake Lake CA 11620500 1
Clearwater Police Department Clearwater Pinellas FL 13170810 1
Cleveland County Sheriff's Office Norman Cleveland OK 11928420 1
Cleveland Police Department Cleveland Cuyahoga OH 11784440 27
Cleveland Police Department Cleveland Bradley TN 12936540 7
Clewiston Police Department Clewiston Hendry FL 13324630 2
Cliffside Park Police Cliffside Park Bergen NJ 12823290 2
Clifton Police Clifton Passaic NJ 12733200 1
Clinton Department of Public Safety Clinton Laurens SC 12396720 1
Clinton Police Clinton Vermillion IN 12700640 1
Clinton Police Clinton Hunterdon NJ 12793290 1
Clinton Police Department Clinton Anderson TN 12026550 3
Clinton Police Dept Clinton De Witt IL 13413440 1
Clinton Township Police Annandale Hunterdon NJ 12413230 5
Clovis Police Department Clovis Curry NM 13935390 3
Clyde Police Department Clyde Sandusky OH 11954450 1
Coal Valley Police Dept Coal Valley Rock Island IL 13920690 1
Coatesville Police Department Coatesville Chester PA 12995410 1
Cobb County Police Department Marietta Cobb GA 13703970 5
Cobb County Sheriff's Office Marietta Cobb GA 12088430 1
Cochran Police Department Cochran Bleckley GA 13996890 3
Cockrell Hill Police Department Dallas Dallas TX 13200020 1
Cocoa Beach Police Department Cocoa Beach Brevard FL 13759070 1
Cocoa Police Department Cocoa Brevard FL 13215120 2
Coconut Creek Police Department Coconut Creek Broward FL 13061300 5
Coeburn Police Department Coeburn Wise VA 12697680 1
Colebrookdale District Police Boyertown Berks PA 13275520 1
Colfax Police Department Colfax Grant LA 11991750 1
College of Lake County Police Dept Grayslake Lake IL 13626960 1
College Park Police Department College Park Fulton GA 13676560 1
610
Collier County Sheriff's Office Naples Collier FL 12819050 8

Collin County Constable Pct. 4 Frisco Collin TX 13747370 1
Collingswood Police Collingswood Camden NJ 12093230 1
Colonial Regional Police Department Bethlehem Northampton PA 12275470 1
Colonie Town Police Department Latham Albany NY 13675260 2
Colorado Springs Police Department Colorado Springs El Paso CO 13976090 27
Colorado State Patrol Lakewood Jefferson CO 13399230 4
Columbia County Sheriff's Office Saint Helens Columbia OR 12248440 1
Columbia County Sheriff's Office Appling Columbia GA 12289050 2
Columbia Police Department Columbia Richland SC 12376730 9
Columbia Police Department Columbia Boone MO 13706270 1
Columbiana County Sheriff's Office Lisbon Columbiana OH 11808340 2
Columbiana Police Department Columbiana Shelby AL 13665160 1
Columbus Police Columbus Bartholomew IN 12400690 2
Columbus Police Department Columbus Franklin OH 11554400 10
Columbus Police Department Columbus Polk NC 11583850 2
Columbus Police Department Columbus Colorado TX 11763350 1
Columbus Police Department Columbus Luna NM 11854970 1
Columbus Police Department Columbus Lowndes MS 12682150 1
Columbus Police Department Columbus Muscogee GA 13439540 7
Commerce Police Department Commerce Ottawa OK 12965960 1
Commerce Police Department Commerce Jackson GA 13513850 1
Concord Police Department Concord Cabarrus NC 11743850 1
Concord Police Department Concord Merrimack NH 11843400 4
Concord Police Department Concord Contra Costa CA 13071400 1
Connally I.S.D. Police Dept. Waco McLennan TX 13529050 4
Conneaut Police Department Conneaut Ashtabula OH 11794450 1
Connecticut State Police Middletown Middlesex CT 13660860 5
Conroe Police Department Conroe Montgomery TX 11776260 2
Conshohocken Borough Police Department Conshohocken Montgomery PA 12135400 1
Contra Costa County Sheriff's Office Martinez Contra Costa CA 12109030 1
Conway Police Department Conway Horry SC 12616720 1
Conway Springs Police Department Conway Springs Sumner KS 11150200 1
Conyers Police Department Conyers Rockdale GA 13897980 1
Cook County Sheriff's Office Chicago Cook IL 12639000 9
Cookeville Police Department Cookeville Putnam TN 12416560 2
611
Coon Rapids Police Department Coon Rapids Anoka MN 12792740 2

Coopersburg Borough Police Department Coopersburg Lehigh PA 12575490 1
Cooter Police Department Cooter Pemiscot MO 11722460 1
Coral Gables Police Department Coral Gables Miami-Dade FL 13040600 2
Coraopolis Borough Police Department Coraopolis Allegheny PA 12075400 1
Corbin Police Department Corbin Whitley KY 11451990 1
Cordova Police Dept Cordova Rock Island IL 11792220 1
Corinth Police Department Corinth Alcorn MS 12632100 9
Corpus Christi Police Department Corpus Christi Nueces TX 11956220 4
Cortland Police Department Cortland Cortland NY 11314810 1
Costa Mesa Police Department Costa Mesa Orange CA 13771170 1
Cottage Grove Police Department Cottage Grove Washington MN 12812700 1
Council Bluffs Police Department Council Bluffs Pottawattomie IA 13179710 1
Coventry Police Department Coventry Kent RI 11066710 1
Covington Police Department Covington Kenton KY 11021910 1
Covington Police Department Covington St. Tammany LA 12581750 2
Covington Police Department Covington Newton GA 13424940 1
Coweta County Sheriff's Office Newnan Coweta GA 11269070 1
Coweta Police Department Coweta Wagoner OK 12115990 1
Cowpens Police Department Cowpens Spartanburg SC 12926740 1
Crafton Borough Police Department Pittsburgh Allegheny PA 11845420 1
Craig Police Department Craig Moffat CO 13641360 1
Cranberry Township Police Department Cranberry Twp Butler PA 11245480 1
Cranford Police Cranford Union NJ 12793200 1
Cranston Police Department Cranston Providence RI 11236780 3
Crawford County Sheriff's Office Van Buren Crawford AR 13660660 1
Crescent City Police Department Crescent City Putnam FL 13526050 2
Crescent Police Department Crescent Logan OK 12105980 1
Creston Police Department Creston Union IA 13888580 2
Crestview Police Department Crestview Okaloosa FL 13504350 1
Crookston Police Department Crookston Polk MN 12702720 1
Cross County Sheriff's Office Wynne Cross AR 11388360 1
Crossett Police Department Crossett Ashley AR 13662860 1
Crowley Police Department Crowley Acadia LA 12091700 1
Crystal City Police Department Crystal City Zavala TX 12156270 5
Cullman County Sheriff's Office Cullman Cullman AL 12288380 1
612
Cumberland Police Department Cumberland Allegany MD 12081260 1

Custer County Sheriff's Office Arapaho Custer OK 12188320 1
Cuyahoga County Sheriff's Office Cleveland Cuyahoga OH 11939040 5
Cuyahoga Falls Police Department Cuyahoga Falls Summit OH 12284450 5
Dade County Sheriff's Office Trenton Dade GA 12388300 1
Dakota County Sheriff's Office Hastings Dakota MN 12438350 1
Dale County Sheriff's Office Ozark Dale AL 12448320 1
Dallas County Constable Pct. 5 Dallas Dallas TX 13131610 2
Dallas County Sheriff's Office Dallas Dallas TX 11059080 1
Dallas County Sheriff's Office Adel Dallas IA 11289090 2
Dallas I.S.D. Police Dept. Dallas Dallas TX 13471340 1
Dallas Police Department Dallas Dallas TX 12236230 47
Dallas Police Department Dallas Polk OR 12395680 1
Dallas Township Police Department Dallas Luzerne PA 11555470 1
Daly City Police Department Daly City San Mateo CA 13849180 1
Damascus Police Department Damascus Washington VA 12647690 3
Danbury Police Department Danbury Fairfield CT 13900890 2
Dane County Sheriff's Office Madison Dane WI 11749010 2
Danvers Police Department Danvers Essex MA 12641530 1
Danville (City) Sheriff's Office Danville Danville City VA 12898300 3
Danville Police Danville Hendricks IN 11410540 1
Danville Police Department Danville Pittsylvania VA 12477680 1
Danville Police Department Danville Contra Costa CA 99900021 1
Danville Police Dept Danville Vermilion IL 11207050 1
Darby Township Police Department Sharon Hill Delaware PA 11625450 4
Darlington County Sheriff's Office Darlington Darlington SC 12658370 1
Darlington Police Department Darlington Darlington SC 12926710 3
Dauphin County Sheriff's Office Harrisburg Dauphin PA 12758350 4
Davie County Sheriff's Office Mocksville Davie NC 12568380 4
Davie Police Department Davie Broward FL 13017300 2
Daviess County Sheriff's Office Washington Daviess IN 12328390 1
Dayton International Airport Police Dept Vandalia Montgomery OH 13227820 2
Dayton Police Department Dayton Montgomery OH 12664420 2
Daytona Beach Police Department Daytona Beach Volusia FL 13039000 6
Dearborn County Sheriff's Office Lawrenceburg Dearborn IN 13508950 2
Dearborn Police Department Dearborn Wayne MI 11911030 4
613
Decatur Police Department Decatur Morgan AL 11816360 1

Decatur Police Dept Decatur Macon IL 13779370 1
Dedham Police Department Dedham Norfolk MA 12431510 1
Defuniak Springs Police Department Defuniak Springs Walton FL 13080300 1
DeKalb County Police Department Tucker DeKalb GA 13691660 18
DeKalb County Sheriff's Office Decatur DeKalb GA 11709030 2
DeKalb County Sheriff's Office Fort Payne DeKalb AL 12798390 1
DeKalb Police Dept DeKalb DeKalb IL 13942390 1
Del Norte County Sheriff's Office Crescent City Del Norte CA 12618370 3
Del Rio Police Department Del Rio Val Verde TX 12346210 1
Delavan Police Department Delavan Walworth WI 12737200 1
Delaware County Sheriff's Office Media Delaware PA 12618340 4
Delaware County Sheriff's Office Delaware Delaware OH 12648300 1
Delaware River & Bay Authority Police New Castle New Castle DE 13607560 1
Delaware River Port Authority - Transit Police Camden Camden NJ 13387130 1
Delaware State Police Dover Kent DE 13737770 3
Delcambre Police Department Delcambre Vermilion LA 12141750 1
Delhi Police Department Delhi Richland LA 12711780 1
Delhi Village Police Department Delhi Delaware NY 11744860 1
Delray Beach Police Department Delray Beach Palm Beach FL 13138010 1
Demopolis Police Department Demopolis Marengo AL 11896750 1
Denham Springs Police Department Denham Springs Livingston LA 12271720 1
Denton Police Department Denton Denton TX 12866230 1
Denton Police Department Denton Caroline MD 12951280 1
Denver County Sheriff's Office Denver Denver CO 99900005 6
Denver Police Department Denver Denver CO 13778270 19
Denville Police Denville Morris NJ 12713210 2
Deptford Police Deptford Gloucester NJ 13375330 5
Deridder Police Department Deridder Beauregard LA 12131710 1
Des Moines Police Department Des Moines King WA 11337490 1
Des Moines Police Department Des Moines Polk IA 13226720 7
Des Plaines Police Dept Des Plaines Cook IL 13738070 1
Desert Hot Springs Police Department Desert Hot Springs Riverside CA 11732710 2
Detroit Police Department Detroit Wayne MI 11561090 27
Dewitt County Sheriff's Office Clinton De Witt IL 11309010 1
Dewitt Police Department Dewitt Clinton IA 13964190 1
614
Dickson City Police Department Dickson City Lackawanna PA 11845450 1

Dillon Police Department Dillon Dillon SC 12636770 1
Dillon Police Department Dillon Summit CO 13842680 1
District of Columbia Protective Srvc Police Dept Washington District of Columbia DC 99900173 1
Dixon Police Department Dixon Pulaski MO 11712450 2
Dobbs Ferry Village Police Department Dobbs Ferry Westchester NY 11084830 1
Dodge City Police Department Dodge City Ford KS 11810200 1
Dolgeville Village Police Department Dolgeville Herkimer NY 11034880 1
Dolton Police Dept Dolton Cook IL 13455740 4
Donna Police Department Donna Hidalgo TX 12286220 1
Dora Police Department Dora Walker AL 13239920 1
Doraville Police Department Doraville DeKalb GA 13339830 1
Dothan Police Department Dothan Houston AL 13153710 2
Dougherty County Police Dept. Albany Dougherty GA 13005200 3
Douglas County Sheriff's Office Minden Douglas NV 12228330 1
Dover Police Department Dover Kent DE 13173910 2
Downers Grove Police Dept Downers Grove Du Page IL 13971890 1
Draper Police Department Draper Salt Lake UT 12247730 1
Dubuque Police Department Dubuque Dubuque IA 13563550 3
Duke University Police Department Durham Durham NC 99900102 1
Duluth Police Department Duluth Gwinnett GA 13553350 4
Dunbar Police Department Dunbar Kanawha WV 12078820 1
Dunn Police Department Dunn Harnett NC 11833820 1
Dunnellon Police Department Dunnellon Marion FL 11215750 1
Dupont Borough Police Department Dupont Luzerne PA 12675430 2
Dupont Police Department Dupont Pierce WA 11077450 1
Duquesne Police Department Duquesne Allegheny PA 12895430 1
Durand Police Department Durand Shiawassee MI 11781080 1
Durango Police Department Durango La Plata CO 13991090 1
Durant Police Department Durant Bryan OK 12755910 1
Durham Police Department Durham Durham NC 11713890 10
Duval County Sheriff's Office San Diego Duval TX 12248340 1
Duxbury Police Department Duxbury Plymouth MA 12051540 1
Earlville Police Dept Earlville La Salle IL 13541850 1
East Baton Rouge Parish Sheriff's Office Baton Rouge East Baton Rouge LA 12459010 3
East Brewton Police Department East Brewton Escambia AL 13777770 1
615
East Chicago Police East Chicago Lake IN 11940510 2

East Cleveland Police Department East Cleveland Cuyahoga OH 12904400 2
East Conemaugh Borough Police Department Johnstown Cambria PA 12375450 1
East Deer Township Police Department Creighton Allegheny PA 12655410 1
East Earl Township Police Department East Earl Lancaster PA 12345480 1
East Greenwich Police East Greenwich Kent RI 11306790 3
East Kingston Police Department East Kingston Rockingham NH 11993450 1
East Orange Police East Orange Essex NJ 13012400 3
East Point Police Department East Point Fulton GA 13104110 2
East Providence Police Department East Providence Providence RI 11886700 2
East Rochester Village Police Department East Rochester Monroe NY 12744890 1
East Spencer Police Department East Spencer Rowan NC 11543810 1
East St. Louis Police Dept East St. Louis St. Clair IL 13458740 8
East Washington Borough Police Department Washington Washington PA 12325490 1
East Wenatchee Police Department East Wenatchee Douglas WA 11247430 1
East Windsor Police Department East Windsor Hartford CT 13715570 3
Eastchester Town Police Department Eastchester Westchester NY 12334830 1
Eastlake Police Department Eastlake Lake OH 12354480 1
Eastman Police Department Eastman Dodge GA 11223410 1
Easton Police Department Easton Northampton PA 12875440 7
Eaton County Sheriff's Office Charlotte Eaton MI 12638200 1
Eatonton Police Department Eatonton Putnam GA 11523000 7
Eau Claire Police Department Eau Claire Eau Claire WI 12427210 1
Edcouch Police Department Edcouch Hidalgo TX 11176140 1
Eden Police Department Eden Rockingham NC 11373890 1
Edenton Police Department Edenton Chowan NC 11733840 3
Edgewood Borough Police Department Pittsburgh Allegheny PA 11975330 1
Edinburg Police Department Edinburg Hidalgo TX 11726150 6
Edison Police Edison Middlesex NJ 13891180 7
Edmond Police Department Edmond Oklahoma OK 12595970 2
Edwardsville Police Department Edwardsville Wyandotte KS 11580280 4
Egg Harbor Township Police Egg Harbor Township Atlantic NJ 11013910 2
El Cajon Police Department El Cajon San Diego CA 13139610 8
El Mirage Police Department El Mirage Maricopa AZ 13442140 1
El Paso County Sheriff's Office El Paso El Paso TX 12149070 2
El Paso County Sheriff's Office Colorado Springs El Paso CO 12709000 1
616
El Paso Police Department El Paso El Paso TX 11246150 22

El Paso Police Dept El Paso Woodford IL 13134710 1
Elgin Police Department Elgin Grant ND 11453600 1
Elgin Police Dept Elgin Kane IL 13578350 6
Eliot Police Department Eliot York ME 11761160 1
Elizabeth Police Elizabeth Union NJ 13154910 12
Elk Grove Police Department Elk Grove Sacramento CA 13727570 1
Elkhart Police Elkhart Elkhart IN 11110560 5
Elkin Police Department Elkin Surry NC 11533860 1
Elko County Sheriff's Office Elko Elko NV 13077500 1
Elm Springs Police Department Elm Springs Washington AR 13702270 1
Elmore Police Department Elmore Ottawa OH 12224450 2
Elmwood Place Police Department Cincinnati Hamilton OH 12014430 1
Elsa Police Department Elsa Hidalgo TX 11576130 2
Elwood Police Elwood Madison IN 11770560 1
Ely Police Department Ely St. Louis MN 12552660 1
Elyria Police Department Elyria Lorain OH 12514460 2
Emery County Sheriff's Office Castle Dale Emery UT 12118280 2
Emmet County Sheriff's Office Petoskey Emmet MI 12858290 1
Emmett Police Department Emmett Gem ID 13626260 2
Energy Police Dept Energy Williamson IL 13057300 3
Enfield Police Department Enfield Hartford CT 13084700 4
Ennis I.S.D. Police Department Ennis Ellis TX 13599350 1
Ephrata Police Department Ephrata Grant WA 11197440 1
Erie Police Department Erie Erie PA 11135310 1
Erie Police Department Erie Weld CO 13819380 1
Errol Police Department Errol Coos NH 99900018 1
Escambia County Sheriff's Office Pensacola Escambia FL 13408040 3
Essex Police Department Essex Junction Chittenden VT 12157460 1
Estill County Sheriff's Office Irvine Estill KY 11478260 1
Euclid Police Department Euclid Cuyahoga OH 11194360 1
Eudora Police Department Eudora Douglas KS 12750290 1
Euless Police Department Euless Tarrant TX 11146110 1
Eunice Police Department Eunice St. Landry LA 12371700 6
Eunice Police Department Eunice Lea NM 12884930 1
Eureka Police Department Eureka Humboldt CA 13093100 2
617
Evansville Police Evansville Vanderburgh IN 11320520 4

Evansville Police Department Evansville Rock WI 11187130 1
Everett Police Department Everett Snohomish WA 11957410 1
Fair Bluff Police Department Fair Bluff Columbus NC 11333850 1
Fair Grove Police Department Fair Grove Greene MO 12672410 1
Fair Haven Police Fair Haven Monmouth NJ 11183280 1
Fair Oaks Ranch Police Department Fair Oaks Ranch Bexar TX 13168310 1
Fairchance Borough Police Department Fairchance Fayette PA 13139210 1
Fairfax County Police Department Fairfax Fairfax VA 12377650 7
Fairfax County Sheriff's Office Fairfax Fairfax VA 13575050 3
Fairfax Police Department Fairfax Allendale SC 12606710 1
Fairfield Township Police Department Hamilton Butler OH 11104390 1
Fairland Police Department Fairland Ottawa OK 12205900 2
Fairmont Police Department Fairmont Robeson NC 11753890 1
Fairview Heights Police Dept Fairview Heights St. Clair IL 13208520 1
Fairview Police Department Fairview Williamson TN 12336420 1
Fall River Police Department Fall River Bristol MA 12211480 1
Fallowfield Township Police Department Charleroi Washington PA 11055350 3
Falls Township Police Department Fairless Hills Bucks PA 11835310 4
Falmouth Police Department Falmouth Barnstable MA 12151420 1
Far Hills Police Far Hills Somerset NJ 11173210 1
Farmington Police Department Farmington Davis UT 12017790 1
Farmington Police Department Farmington San Juan NM 12284970 5
Farmville Police Department Farmville Prince Edward VA 11457540 2
Fayette County Sheriff's Office Washington Court House Fayette OH 12398210 3
Fayette Police Department Fayette Fayette AL 11425280 1
Fayetteville Police Department Fayetteville Cumberland NC 12993850 2
Fayetteville Police Department Fayetteville Washington AR 13666860 2
Federal Heights Police Department Federal Heights Adams CO 13443140 1
Federal Way Police Department Federal Way King WA 11497430 1
Felicity Police Department Felicity Clermont OH 11254300 1
Fernandina Beach Police Department Fernandina Beach Nassau FL 13284820 2
Ferriday Police Department Ferriday Concordia LA 12431720 1
Ferry County Sheriff's Office Republic Ferry WA 12528250 1
Fitchburg Police Department Fitchburg Worcester MA 12101430 1
Flagler Beach Police Department Flagler Beach Flagler FL 13443840 5
618
Flagler County Sheriff's Office Bunnell Flagler FL 13813880 2

Flagstaff Police Department Flagstaff Coconino AZ 13606860 1
Flat Rock Police Department Flat Rock Wayne MI 12821090 1
Flemingsburg Police Department Flemingsburg Fleming KY 11181910 1
Flint Police Department Flint Genesee MI 12601000 6
Florala Police Department Florala Covington AL 13690660 1
Florence Police Department Florence Florence SC 12626790 2
Florence Police Department Florence Lauderdale AL 13181410 1
Florida Atlantic University Police Boca Raton Palm Beach FL 11990103 1
Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission Tallahassee Leon FL 11990019 4
Florida Highway Patrol Tallahassee Leon FL 13311630 14
Florida International University Police Miami Miami-Dade FL 11990070 1
Floyd County Police Department Rome Floyd GA 13862480 1
Floyd County Sheriff's Office Charles City Floyd IA 13118510 1
Foley Police Department Foley Baldwin AL 13917390 1
Folsom Police Department Folsom Sacramento CA 13995490 2
Fond Du Lac Police Department Fond Du Lac Fond du Lac WI 11767110 1
Fordland Police Department Fordland Webster MO 99900025 2
Forest Acres Police Department Columbia Richland SC 12026790 1
Forest City Police Department Forest City Winnebago IA 13575950 2
Forest Park Police Department Forest Park Hamilton OH 11564350 2
Forest Park Police Department Forest Park Clayton GA 13630260 1
Forest Park Police Dept Forest Park Cook IL 13875380 1
Forks Police Department Forks Clallam WA 11717400 1
Forks Township Police Department Easton Northampton PA 12115350 2
Forsyth County Sheriff's Office Winston Salem Forsyth NC 13256320 3
Forsyth County Sheriff's Office Cumming Forsyth GA 13663260 7
Fort Collins Police Department Fort Collins Larimer CO 13444840 3
Fort Deposit Police Department Fort Deposit Lowndes AL 13438240 2
Fort Dodge Police Department Fort Dodge Webster IA 13541450 1
Fort Gibson Police Department Ft. Gibson Muskogee OK 12285820 1
Fort Lauderdale Police Department Fort Lauderdale Broward FL 13299420 6
Fort Madison Police Department Fort Madison Lee IA 13902890 1
Fort Meade Police Department Fort Meade Polk FL 99900017 1
Fort Myers Police Department Fort Myers Lee FL 13761270 4
Fort Oglethorpe Police Dept Ft Oglethorpe Catoosa GA 13210520 1
619
Fort Payne Police Department Fort Payne DeKalb AL 13050200 1

Fort Pierce Police Department Fort Pierce St. Lucie FL 13330130 5
Fort Smith Police Department Fort Smith Sebastian AR 13048200 3
Fort Valley Police Department Fort Valley Peach GA 13486340 1
Fort Wayne Police Fort Wayne Allen IN 12330500 4
Fort Worth Police Department Fort Worth Tarrant TX 12086110 22
Foster Township Police Department Bradford McKean PA 12915390 1
Framingham Police Department Framingham Middlesex MA 12731460 1
Frankfort Police Department Frankfort Franklin KY 11691940 1
Frankfort Town Police Department Frankfort Herkimer NY 12864890 1
Frankfort Village Police Department Frankfort Herkimer NY 12214810 1
Franklin Borough Police Franklin Sussex NJ 11513230 1
Franklin County Sheriff's Office Brookville Franklin IN 11348200 1
Franklin County Sheriff's Office Rocky Mount Franklin VA 11478200 2
Franklin County Sheriff's Office Columbus Franklin OH 13260720 2
Franklin Police Department Franklin Milwaukee WI 11027160 1
Franklin Police Dept Franklin Franklin NE 12183500 2
Frederick County Sheriff's Office Frederick Frederick MD 13762070 1
Frederick Police Department Frederick Frederick MD 12341210 1
Freedom Police Department Freedom Carroll NH 11863420 1
Freedom Township Police Department Freedom Outagamie WI 11787130 1
Freehold Township Police Freehold Monmouth NJ 11953260 1
Freeland Borough Police Department Freeland Luzerne PA 12535300 2
Freemansburg Borough Police Department Bethlehem Northampton PA 12775320 1
Fremont County Sheriff's Office Sidney Fremont IA 13467940 1
Fremont Police Department Fremont Alameda CA 11638020 1
Frenchtown Borough Police Frenchtown Hunterdon NJ 11163290 1
Fresno County Sheriff's Office Fresno Fresno CA 13219820 1
Fresno Police Department Fresno Fresno CA 13715970 7
Frisco Police Department Frisco Summit CO 13216520 1
Fruitland Police Department Fruitland Wicomico MD 12491290 1
Fryeburg Police Department Fryeburg Oxford ME 11211170 1
Fullerton Police Department Fullerton Orange CA 11742600 3
Fulton County Police Department Atlanta Fulton GA 13620360 2
Fulton County Sheriff's Office Atlanta Fulton GA 11256130 5
Fulton Police Department Fulton Oswego NY 11924730 1
620
Gaffney Police Department Gaffney Cherokee SC 12986770 2

Gage County Sheriff's Office Beatrice Gage NE 11278220 1
Gahanna Police Department Gahanna Franklin OH 11394370 2
Gainesville Police Department Gainesville Alachua FL 13057600 4
Galesburg Police Dept Galesburg Knox IL 13022400 1
Gallatin County Sheriff's Office Shawneetown Gallatin IL 11198270 2
Gallatin Police Department Gallatin Sumner TN 12196400 3
Gallup Police Department Gallup McKinley NM 12694960 1
Galt Police Department Galt Sacramento CA 13204520 1
Galveston County Sheriff's Office Galveston Galveston TX 13870980 1
Galveston Police Department Galveston Galveston TX 12986130 2
Garden City Police Department Garden City Wayne MI 12241020 1
Garden City Police Department Garden City Ada ID 13073800 1
Garden Grove Police Department Garden Grove Orange CA 13492340 3
Gardner Police Department Gardner Worcester MA 12171440 1
Garfield Heights Police Dept. Garfield Heights Cuyahoga OH 13931390 1
Garretson Police Department Garretson Minnehaha SD 99900003 1
Gary Police Gary Lake IN 12720570 12
Gaston County Police Department Gastonia Gaston NC 12763810 2
Gastonia Police Department Gastonia Gaston NC 12163810 2
Gatesville Police Department Gatesville Coryell TX 12366170 1
Gatlinburg Police Department Gatlinburg Sevier TN 12696460 2
Gautier Police Department Gautier Jackson MS 12782030 1
Gaylord Police Department Gaylord Sibley MN 13946190 1
Geneva Police Department Geneva Ontario NY 11414720 1
Geneva Police Department Geneva Geneva AL 13003600 1
Geneva Township Police Department Lake Geneva Walworth WI 11067190 1
Gentry Police Department Gentry Benton AR 13582050 1
George Mason University Police Dept. Fairfax Fairfax VA 13851080 1
Georgetown County Sheriff's Office Georgetown Georgetown SC 13263820 1
Georgetown Police Department Georgetown Sussex DE 11959520 1
Georgetown Police Department Georgetown Williamson TX 12696120 1
Georgia Department of Public Safety Atlanta Fulton GA 13090900 2
Georgia Public Safety Training Center Forsyth Monroe GA 99900175 2
Georgia State University Police Atlanta Fulton GA 13131210 1
Gillette Police Department Gillette Campbell WY 12968700 1
621
Glendale Heights Police Glendale Heights Du Page IL 13273020 1

Glendale Police Department Glendale Los Angeles CA 13195910 1
Glendive Police Department Glendive Dawson MT 12253960 1
Glendora Police Department Glendora Los Angeles CA 13469240 1
Glens Falls Police Department Glens Falls Warren NY 11924790 1
Glenville Town Police Department Glenville Schenectady NY 11954700 1
Gloucester Township Police Blackwood Camden NJ 12563280 2
Goddard Police Department Goddard Sedgwick KS 11150110 1
Gold Beach Police Department Gold Beach Curry OR 11925640 1
Golden Beach Police Department Golden Beach Miami-Dade FL 13741870 4
Golden Meadow Police Department Golden Meadow Lafourche LA 12011710 1
Golden Valley Police Department Golden Valley Hennepin MN 12172690 2
Goldsboro Police Department Goldsboro Wayne NC 12723800 1
Goose Creek Police Department Goose Creek Berkeley SC 12306750 1
Gordonsville Police Department Gordonsville Smith TN 12136410 5
Graham County Sheriff's Office Safford Graham AZ 11798110 1
Graham Police Department Graham Alamance NC 12293880 1
Grambling State University Police Dept. Grambling Lincoln LA 13540350 6
Granby Police Department Granby Hartford CT 13293220 1
Grand Forks Police Department Grand Forks Grand Forks ND 11073600 2
Grand Junction Police Department Grand Junction Mesa CO 13097500 2
Grand Rapids Police Department Grand Rapids Kent MI 11172940 1
Grand Rapids Police Department Wisconsin Rapids Wood WI 11647110 1
Grand Traverse County Sheriff's Office Traverse City Grand Traverse MI 11388110 4
Granite City Police Dept Granite City Madison IL 13704970 1
Grant County Sheriff's Office Medford Grant OK 11258140 1
Grant County Sheriff's Office Marion Grant IN 11848190 1
Grant Park Police Dept Grant Park Kankakee IL 13726670 1
Grants Police Department Grants Cibola NM 12994980 1
Grapevine Police Department Grapevine Tarrant TX 12066160 1
Grayslake Police Dept Grayslake Lake IL 13171110 1
Great Bend Police Department Great Bend Barton KS 11490100 1
Greece Town Police Department Rochester Monroe NY 11984790 8
Greeley Police Department Greeley Weld CO 13805680 2
Greenacres Department of Public Safety Greenacres Palm Beach FL 13246420 1
Greenbrier County Sheriff's Office Lewisburg Greenbrier WV 13567050 1
622
Greene County Sheriff's Office Eutaw Greene AL 12018150 1

Greene County Sheriff's Office Paragould Greene AR 12068110 1
Greenfield Police Department Greenfield Milwaukee WI 12107110 1
Greensboro Police Department Greensboro Guilford NC 12873800 6
Greensburg Police Greensburg Decatur IN 12540550 1
Greenville County Sheriff's Office Greenville Greenville SC 13412440 2
Greenville Police Department Greenville Greenville SC 12486710 4
Greenville Police Department Greenville Washington MS 12912060 3
Greenville Police Department Greenville Hunt TX 12956160 1
Greenville Technical College Public Safety Greenville Greenville SC 13683960 1
Greenwich Township Police Gibbstown Gloucester NJ 12933240 1
Greenwood Police Greenwood Johnson IN 12580590 1
Gregory Police Department Gregory San Patricio TX 12286190 2
Gresham Police Department Gresham Multnomah OR 13824980 1
Gretna Police Department Gretna Gadsden FL 13412040 1
Griggs County Sheriff's Office Cooperstown Griggs ND 13394530 1
Groton (Town) Police Department Groton New London CT 13138210 1
Grove City Police Department Grove City Franklin OH 12824390 1
Guadalupe County Sheriff's Office Santa Rosa Guadalupe NM 12078150 1
Gulf Breeze Police Department Gulf Breeze Santa Rosa FL 13077000 1
Gulfport Police Department Gulfport Harrison MS 12652060 1
Gurnee Police Dept Gurnee Lake IL 13426840 4
Guthrie Police Department Guthrie Logan OK 12815840 1
Gwinnett County Police Department Lawrenceville Gwinnett GA 13250220 4
Gwinnett County Sheriff's Office Lawrenceville Gwinnett GA 13129110 5
Hackensack Police Hackensack Bergen NJ 12763200 9
Hackettstown Police Hackettstown Warren NJ 12003200 1
Hadley Police Department Hadley Hampshire MA 12891400 1
Hagerstown Police Department Hagerstown Washington MD 12031240 1
Haines City Police Department Haines City Polk FL 13549750 2
Halifax County Sheriff's Office Halifax Halifax VA 12308160 1
Hall County Sheriff's Office Gainesville Hall GA 13746670 2
Hamburg Police Department Hamburg Fremont IA 13367830 1
Hamden Police Department Hamden New Haven CT 13090800 2
Hamilton County Sheriff's Office Noblesville Hamilton IN 12748160 1
Hamilton County Sheriff's Office Cincinnati Hamilton OH 13036900 1
623
Hamilton County Sheriff's Office Chattanooga Hamilton TN 13482940 3

Hamilton Police Department Hamilton Butler OH 12134330 1
Hammonton Police Hammonton Atlantic NJ 12163260 1
Hampton County Sheriff's Office Hampton Hampton SC 13979590 1
Hampton Police Department Hampton Hampton City VA 11887530 2
Hamtramck Police Department Hamtramck Wayne MI 11572900 2
Hanahan Police Department Hanahan Berkeley SC 12186790 1
Hanceville Police Department Hanceville Cullman AL 13265820 1
Hancock County Sheriff's Office Greenfield Hancock IN 12108150 3
Hanging Rock Police Department Hanging Rock Lawrence OH 12644310 3
Hannahville Tribal Police Department Wilson Menominee MI 11732900 1
Hanover Police Department Hanover Plymouth MA 12931440 1
Hanover Township Police Department Burgettstown Washington PA 12035330 1
Harahan Police Department Harahan Jefferson LA 12561760 1
Hardeeville Police Department Hardeeville Jasper SC 12886740 2
Hardeman County Sheriff's Office Bolivar Hardeman TN 12428150 1
Harford County Sheriff's Office Bel Air Harford MD 13313030 1
Harker Heights Police Department Harker Heights Bell TX 12926130 1
Harlingen Police Department Harlingen Cameron TX 12056150 1
Harper Woods Police Department Harper Woods Wayne MI 11482930 1
Harrah Police Department Harrah Oklahoma OK 12925830 4
Harrington Police Department Harrington Kent DE 13434640 2
Harris County Constable Pct. 4 Spring Harris TX 13752270 1
Harris County Constable Pct. 6 Houston Harris TX 13948690 1
Harris County Constable Pct. 7 Houston Harris TX 13469940 1
Harris County Sheriff's Office Houston Harris TX 11414020 3
Harrisburg Police Department Harrisburg Dauphin PA 12325310 1
Harrison County Sheriff's Office Marshall Harrison TX 12438100 3
Harrison County Sheriff's Office Gulfport Harrison MS 13190310 1
Harrison County Sheriff's Office Corydon Harrison IN 13441440 1
Harrodsburg Police Department Harrodsburg Mercer KY 12681960 1
Hartford Police Department Hartford Hartford CT 13377230 12
Hartsville Police Department Hartsville Darlington SC 12566790 2
Harvard Police Department Harvard Worcester MA 12061460 1
Harvey Police Dept Harvey Cook IL 13431340 7
Haskell Police Department Haskell Muskogee OK 12735830 2
624
Haskell Police Department Haskell Haskell TX 12926100 1

Hastings Police Department Hastings Dakota MN 12392630 5
Hastings Police Dept Hastings Adams NE 12473500 2
Hattiesburg Police Department Hattiesburg Forrest MS 12402060 2
Haverhill Police Department Haverhill Essex MA 12541460 1
Hawkins County Sheriff's Office Rogersville Hawkins TN 12558190 1
Hawthorne Police Department Hawthorne Alachua FL 13878680 1
Haynesville Police Dept Haynesville Claiborne LA 12211750 1
Hayward Police Department Hayward Alameda CA 13469640 2
Haywood County Sheriff's Office Brownsville Haywood TN 13013500 1
Hegins Township Police Department Valley View Schuylkill PA 12955370 1
Helen Police Department Helen White GA 13714070 1
Helena\/West Helena Police Department West Helena Phillips AR 13099800 4
Hemingway Police Department Hemingway Williamsburg SC 12106710 1
Hempstead County Sheriff's Office Hope Hempstead AR 12838030 1
Hempstead Village Police Department Hempstead Nassau NY 12214750 1
Henderson Police Department Henderson Clark NV 12044920 2
Henderson Police Department Henderson Chester TN 12646470 1
Hendry County Sheriff's Office Labelle Hendry FL 13326130 1
Hennessey Police Department Hennessey Kingfisher OK 12345850 1
Henrico County Division of Police Henrico Henrico VA 11047570 4
Henry County Police Department McDonough Henry GA 11644700 1
Henry County Sheriff's Office Martinsville Henry VA 11797320 14
Henry County Sheriff's Office Abbeville Henry AL 12828050 1
Hephzibah Police Department Hephzibah Richmond GA 13729270 1
Herkimer Village Police Department Herkimer Herkimer NY 12894730 1
Hermann Police Department Hermann Gasconade MO 11631060 1
Hernando County Sheriff's Office Brooksville Hernando FL 11528550 1
Herrin Police Dept Herrin Williamson IL 13678460 1
Hialeah Gardens Police Department Hialeah Gardens Miami-Dade FL 13425040 2
Hialeah Police Department Hialeah Miami-Dade FL 13397130 1
Hickory Police Department Hickory Catawba NC 12863880 1
Hidalgo County Sheriff's Office Edinburg Hidalgo TX 13216720 7
Highlands County Sheriff's Office Sebring Highlands FL 13898580 2
Hillsborough County Sheriff's Office Tampa Hillsborough FL 13370130 10
Hillside Police Hillside Union NJ 11093190 2
625
Hilltown Township Police Department Hilltown Bucks PA 12175320 1

Hinesburg Police Department Hinesburg Chittenden VT 12607410 1
Hingham Police Department Hingham Plymouth MA 12931410 1
Hiram Police Department Hiram Portage OH 12034390 1
Hitchcock Police Department Hitchcock Galveston TX 12436060 1
Hoboken Police Hoboken Hudson NJ 11133110 3
Hobson City Police Department Hobson City Calhoun AL 99900013 1
Hockley County Sheriff's Office Levelland Hockley TX 13467340 2
Hoke County Sheriff's Office Raeford Hoke NC 13009500 1
Holden Beach Police Department Holden Beach Brunswick NC 11703780 2
Holden Police Department Holden Worcester MA 12251460 1
Holland Police Department Holland Ottawa MI 11982960 1
Holland Police Department Holland Hampden MA 99900026 1
Hollidaysburg Borough Police Department Hollidaysburg Blair PA 12155300 1
Hollister Police Department Hollister San Benito CA 11846670 1
Holly Hill Police Department Holly Hill Orangeburg SC 12166620 4
Holly Springs Public Safety Holly Springs Wake NC 11083730 1
Hollywood Police Department Hollywood Broward FL 13845080 8
Holmes County Sheriff's Office Holmesville Holmes OH 13380930 1
Holt County Sheriff's Office Oneill Holt NE 12048060 1
Holyoke Police Department Holyoke Hampden MA 12031460 1
Homer City Borough Police Department Homer City Indiana PA 12455370 1
Homestead Police Department Homestead Miami-Dade FL 13734570 3
Hondo Police Department Hondo Medina TX 12286060 1
Honolulu (City and County) Police Department Honolulu Honolulu HI 13346430 28
Hooksett Police Department Hooksett Merrimack NH 12203480 1
Hope Mills Police Department Hope Mills Cumberland NC 11713730 2
Hopkinsville Police Department Hopkinsville Christian KY 12291950 1
Hornell Police Department Hornell Steuben NY 12914720 1
Horry County Police Department Conway Horry SC 12126640 9
Horry County Sheriff's Office Conway Horry SC 12388080 1
Horsham Township Police Department Horsham Montgomery PA 12335320 1
Houma Police Department Houma Terrebonne LA 12741750 1
Houston Baptist University Police Department Houston Harris TX 99900170 1
Houston Community College System Houston Harris TX 13350930 1
Houston Police Department Houston Harris TX 12476060 38
626
Howard County Police Department Ellicott City Howard MD 11481280 3

Howard Lake Police Department Howard Lake Wright MN 13334730 1
Howey-In-The-Hills Police Department Howey-In-The-Hills Lake FL 13050400 1
Hudson County Sheriff's Office Jersey City Hudson NJ 13316030 4
Hudson Police Department Hudson Hillsborough NH 12013450 2
Hudson Police Department Hudson Summit OH 12514390 3
Hudson Police Department Hudson Middlesex MA 12951430 1
Humble I.S.D. Police Dept. Humble Harris TX 13257420 1
Humboldt Police Department Humboldt Gibson TN 13548750 2
Hunter Police Department Tannersville Greene NY 12934710 1
Hunterdon County Sheriff's Office Flemington Hunterdon NJ 13870380 1
Huntington Beach Police Department Huntington Beach Orange CA 13297220 2
Huntington Park Police Department Huntington Park Los Angeles CA 13612960 1
Huntsville Police Department Huntsville Madison AL 13624860 3
Huron Police Department Huron Beadle SD 11296530 1
Hurricane Police Department Hurricane Washington UT 12237630 1
Hurricane Police Department Hurricane Putnam WV 12348840 1
Hutto Police Department Hutto Williamson TX 12006040 1
Hyattsville Police Department Hyattsville Prince Georges MD 11701220 2
Iberia Parish Sheriff's Office New Iberia Iberia LA 13432140 7
Idaho Falls Police Department Idaho Falls Bonneville ID 13680760 1
Idaho State Police Meridian Ada ID 13780170 1
Ilion Village Police Department Ilion Herkimer NY 13963290 1
Illinois State Police Springfield Sangamon IL 13900790 19
Independence Police Department Independence Jackson MO 12232320 1
Independence Police Department Independence Tangipahoa LA 12261710 1
Indian River County Sheriff's Office Vero Beach Indian River FL 13852180 4
Indiana Borough Police Department Indiana Indiana PA 12265250 1
Indiana State Excise Police Indianapolis Marion IN 13869580 1
Indiana State Police Indianapolis Marion IN 13119110 4
Indiana Township Police Dept. Pittsburgh Allegheny PA 12305230 1
Indiana University Purdue University Fort Wayne University Police Fort Wayne Allen IN 99900171 1
Indianapolis Police Indianapolis Marion IN 12690540 43
Inglewood Police Department Inglewood Los Angeles CA 13253920 4
Inkster Police Department Inkster Wayne MI 12052910 2
Inman Police Department Inman McPherson KS 12940140 4
627
Iowa City Police Department Iowa City Johnson IA 13439940 1

Iowa Department of Public Safety Des Moines Polk IA 13118710 2
Iowa Police Department Iowa Calcasieu LA 12611770 1
Irondequoit Town Police Department Rochester Monroe NY 13326830 2
Irvine Police Department Irvine Orange CA 13657760 1
Irving Police Department Irving Dallas TX 12806050 2
Irvington Police Irvington Essex NJ 11193110 2
Ishpeming Police Department Ishpeming Marquette MI 12132930 1
Isle of Wight County Sheriff's Office Isle Of Wight Isle of Wight VA 11318020 1
Iva Police Department Iva Anderson SC 12686600 1
Jackson County Sheriff's Office Marianna Jackson FL 11688070 1
Jackson County Sheriff's Office Holton Jackson KS 11908040 1
Jackson County Sheriff's Office Gainesboro Jackson TN 13360030 11
Jackson Police Department Jackson Cape Girardeau MO 12762350 3
Jackson Police Department Jackson Jackson MI 12772940 1
Jackson Police Department Jackson Hinds MS 12842030 9
Jackson Police Department Jackson Madison TN 12926410 5
Jackson Police Department Jackson Butts GA 13021700 1
Jackson Township Police Department Massillon Stark OH 12194330 1
Jackson Township Police Department Zelienople Butler PA 12525260 1
Jacksonville Beach Police Department Jacksonville Beach Duval FL 13792170 1
Jacksonville Sheriff's Office Jacksonville Duval FL 13517850 16
Jaffrey Police Department Jaffrey Cheshire NH 12173490 1
James City County Police Dept. Williamsburg James City VA 13559350 1
Jamestown Police Department Jamestown Chautauqua NY 13871780 2
Jefferson City Police Department Jefferson City Cole MO 12552390 1
Jefferson Parish Sheriff's Office Harvey Jefferson LA 12338070 15
Jeffersontown Police Department Jeffersontown Jefferson KY 12491990 1
Jennings Police Department Jennings Jefferson Davis LA 12871720 1
Jersey City Police Jersey City Hudson NJ 11123190 14
Jim Wells County Sheriff's Office Alice Jim Wells TX 11093650 1
Johnson City Police Department Johnson City Washington TN 12736410 1
Johnson City Village Police Department Johnson City Broome NY 13893480 2
Johnston County Sheriff's Office Smithfield Johnston NC 12678060 1
Johnston Police Department Johnston Providence RI 13382830 1
Joliet Police Dept Joliet Will IL 13216820 3
628
Joplin Police Department Joplin Jasper MO 12402300 1

Juneau County Sheriff's Office Mauston Juneau WI 13699460 1
Juneau Police Dept. Juneau Juneau AK 13197410 1
Jupiter Police Department Jupiter Palm Beach FL 13162610 1
Kahoka Police Department Kahoka Clark MO 12092340 1
Kalamazoo Dept of Public Safety Kalamazoo Kalamazoo MI 12842910 1
Kalispell Police Department Kalispell Flathead MT 12903980 4
Kane County Sheriff's Office Geneva Kane IL 13299320 1
Kansas City Police Department Kansas City Jackson MO 12092370 5
Kansas City Police Department Kansas City Wyandotte KS 12240100 11
Kansas State Law Enforcement Training Center Hutchinson Reno KS 99900168 3
Kauai (County) Police Department Lihue Kauai HI 13024300 3
Kaw Nation Tribal Police Kaw City Kay OK 12165860 1
Kemp Police Department Kemp Kaufman TX 11486010 1
Kendallville Police Kendallville Noble IN 12020590 1
Kenly Police Department Kenly Johnston NC 13493340 1
Kennebunk Police Department Kennebunk York ME 11011190 1
Kennedale Police Department Kennedale Tarrant TX 11506090 1
Kennedy Township Police Department Coraopolis Allegheny PA 11835040 2
Kenner Police Department Kenner Jefferson LA 12161640 1
Kennett Square Borough Police Department Kennett Square Chester PA 13705470 4
Kennewick Police Department Kennewick Benton WA 12257410 1
Kenosha County Sheriff's Office Kenosha Kenosha WI 13800880 1
Kent County Sheriff's Office Dover Kent DE 99900020 1
Kenton Police Department Kenton Obion TN 12616440 1
Kentucky Alcoholic Beverage Control Frankfort Franklin KY 13210820 3
Kentucky State Police Frankfort Franklin KY 13988390 3
Keokuk County Sheriff's Office Sigourney Keokuk IA 13889480 2
Kermit Police Department Kermit Winkler TX 11736070 1
Kern County Sheriff's Office Bakersfield Kern CA 13536350 16
Kerrville Police Department Kerrville Kerr TX 11176050 1
Kershaw County Sheriff's Office Lugoff Kershaw SC 11859940 1
Ketchikan Police Dept. Ketchikan Ketchikan Gateway AK 13500450 1
Kildeer Police Dept Lake Zurich Lake IL 13941790 1
Kilgore Police Department Kilgore Gregg TX 11166070 1
Killeen Police Department Killeen Bell TX 11616020 3
629
King City Police Department King City Washington OR 11035610 1

King County Sheriff's Office Seattle King WA 13531950 7
Kingfisher County Sheriff's Office Kingfisher Kingfisher OK 11709950 1
Kingman Police Department Kingman Kingman KS 12570120 1
Kings Mountain Police Department Kings Mountain Cleveland NC 11263790 5
Kingsland Police Dept Kingsland Camden GA 13778470 1
Kingsport Police Department Kingsport Sullivan TN 12376490 3
Kingston Police Department Kingston Ulster NY 12604790 1
Kingston Police Department Kingston Rockingham NH 12713490 1
Kingston Police Department Kingston Plymouth MA 12721480 1
Kingston Police Department Kingston Luzerne PA 13112610 1
Kingsville Police Department Kingsville Kleberg TX 11526020 1
Kissimmee Police Department Kissimmee Osceola FL 13856580 3
Kitsap County Sheriff's Office Port Orchard Kitsap WA 13560950 1
Kittery Police Department Kittery York ME 12271170 1
Kitty Hawk Police Department Kitty Hawk Dare NC 11943740 1
Klamath Falls Police Department Klamath Falls Klamath OR 11985670 1
Knightdale Police Department Knightdale Wake NC 11703720 1
Knox County Sheriff's Office Knoxville Knox TN 13546150 1
Kokomo Police Kokomo Howard IN 12840590 1
La Crosse County Sheriff's Office La Crosse La Crosse WI 13920190 1
La Grange Park Police Dept La Grange Park Cook IL 13739870 1
La Porte County Sheriff's Office La Porte La Porte IN 11979970 2
La Salle County Sheriff's Office Ottawa La Salle IL 11779990 1
La Salle County Sheriff's Office Cotulla La Salle TX 12499960 8
Lafayette College Office of Public Safety Easton Northampton PA 99900160 2
Lafayette Police Lafayette Tippecanoe IN 12030450 1
Lafayette Police Department Lafayette Lafayette LA 12741690 1
Lafayette Police Department Lafayette Walker GA 13112910 2
Lafayette Police Department Lafayette Boulder CO 13450540 2
Lafollette Police Department Lafollette Campbell TN 12776420 3
Lafourche Parish Sheriff's Office Thibodaux Lafourche LA 13787770 3
LaGrange Police Department LaGrange Troup GA 13424540 1
Lake Angelus Police Department Auburn Hills Oakland MI 12422990 1
Lake Charles Police Department Lake Charles Calcasieu LA 12621660 2
Lake City Police Department Lake City Florence SC 12806600 3
630
Lake County Sheriff's Office Leadville Lake CO 12219900 21

Lake County Sheriff's Office Tavares Lake FL 13264720 3
Lake County Sheriff's Office Madison Lake SD 13454740 1
Lake County Sheriff's Office Lakeport Lake CA 13583250 3
Lake County Sheriff's Office Waukegan Lake IL 13749970 1
Lake County Sheriff's Office Crown Point Lake IN 13951990 5
Lake Crystal Police Department Lake Crystal Blue Earth MN 11472650 1
Lake Mary Police Department Lake Mary Seminole FL 13713070 1
Lake St. Louis Police Department Lake St Louis St. Charles MO 12972310 1
Lake Wales Police Department Lake Wales Polk FL 13800180 6
Lakeland Police Department Lakeland Polk FL 13478940 5
Lakeland Police Department Lakeland Lanier GA 13942690 1
Lakeport Police Department Lakeport Lake CA 13846280 1
Lakes Area Police Department Lindstrom Chisago MN 11832690 1
Lakeville Police Department Lakeville Dakota MN 11462670 2
Lakeway Police Department Austin Travis TX 12536060 1
Lakewood Police Department Lakewood Pierce WA 12837480 1
Lamesa Police Department Lamesa Dawson TX 12116020 1
Lamoure Police Department Lamoure LaMoure ND 12983630 1
Lancaster County Sheriff's Office Lancaster Lancaster SC 12919970 1
Lancaster I.S.D. Police Dept. Lancaster Dallas TX 13203720 1
Lancaster Police Department Lancaster Fairfield OH 12214320 1
Lancaster Police Department Lancaster Garrard KY 12271960 1
Lancaster Police Department Lancaster Lancaster PA 12315270 2
Lancaster Town Police Department Lancaster Erie NY 12294730 1
Lander University Public Safety Greenwood Greenwood SC 13876980 1
Lansford Police Department Lansford Carbon PA 12625230 2
Lansing Police Department Lansing Leavenworth KS 12110100 1
Lansing Police Department Lansing Ingham MI 12432910 5
Lantana Police Department Lantana Palm Beach FL 13099100 1
Laredo Police Department Laredo Webb TX 12026000 4
Largo Police Department Largo Pinellas FL 11670000 1
Las Cruces Police Department Las Cruces Dona Ana NM 12744950 1
Las Vegas Metro Police Department Las Vegas Clark NV 12244990 9
Las Vegas Police Department Las Vegas San Miguel NM 12194940 1
Lauderhill Police Department Lauderhill Broward FL 13834980 1
631
Laurel Police Department Laurel Prince Georges MD 11491200 2

Laurel Police Department Laurel Kent DE 13043700 2
Laurens County Sheriff's Office Laurens Laurens SC 12879990 4
Laurens Police Department Laurens Laurens SC 12616630 1
Lavergne Police Department Lavergne Rutherford TN 12896470 1
Lawrence County Sheriff's Office Bedford Lawrence IN 12869950 2
Lawrence Police Department Lawrence Essex MA 11391440 6
Lawrence Township Police Lawrenceville Mercer NJ 11933150 1
Lawrence Township Police Department Hyde Clearfield PA 13806580 1
Lawton Police Department Lawton Comanche OK 13177110 1
Lebanon Junction Police Department Lebanon Junction Bullitt KY 12631950 1
Lebanon Police Lebanon Boone IN 12440420 2
Lebanon Police Department Lebanon Grafton NH 11713310 1
Lebanon Police Department Lebanon Wilson TN 12076410 1
Lebanon Police Department Lebanon Laclede MO 12202320 1
Lebanon Police Department Lebanon Warren OH 12484370 1
Lee County Sheriff's Office Bishopville Lee SC 12669940 1
Lee County Sheriff's Office Sanford Lee NC 12739920 1
Lee County Sheriff's Office Fort Myers Lee FL 13183810 7
Leesville Police Department Leesville Vernon LA 12031610 1
Leetsdale Borough Police Department Leetsdale Allegheny PA 13101110 1
Lehigh-Northampton Airport Authority Police Dept Allentown Lehigh PA 13376630 1
Leighton Police Department Leighton Colbert AL 13830280 2
Leland Police Department Leland Washington MS 12962020 1
Lemont Police Dept Lemont Cook IL 11240930 1
Lenawee County Sheriff's Office Adrian Lenawee MI 12529960 1
Lenoir County Sheriff's Office Kinston Lenoir NC 11651510 2
Leominster Police Department Leominster Worcester MA 11971450 1
Leon County Sheriff's Office Tallahassee Leon FL 13042700 3
Level Plains Police Department Daleville Dale AL 13006200 2
Lewis County Sheriff's Office Monticello Lewis MO 12819960 1
Lexington Police Department Lexington Richland OH 12094230 1
Lexington Police Department Lexington Lexington SC 12926680 1
Liberty County Sheriff's Office Liberty Liberty TX 13237420 2
Liberty Police Department Liberty Pickens SC 12796680 1
Liberty Township Police Department Youngstown Trumbull OH 12864210 1
632
Lima Police Department Lima Allen OH 12944290 3

Lincoln County Sheriff's Office Lincolnton Lincoln NC 12169980 4
Lincoln County Sheriff's Office Newport Lincoln OR 12189930 1
Lincoln County Sheriff's Office Lincolnton Lincoln GA 12339990 1
Lincoln County Sheriff's Office Canton Lincoln SD 12969930 1
Lincoln Parish Sheriff's Office Ruston Lincoln LA 12109980 1
Lincoln Police Department Lincoln Providence RI 13881480 1
Lincoln Police Dept Lincoln Lancaster NE 12563590 1
Lindale Police Department Lindale Smith TX 12576010 1
Lisbon Police Department Lisbon Waukesha WI 99900014 1
Litchfield Police Department Litchfield Hillsborough NH 11093350 1
Little Egg Harbor Township Police Little Egg Harbor Ocean NJ 12833150 1
Little River-Academy Police Department Little River Bell TX 12606010 2
Little Rock Police Department Little Rock Pulaski AR 13714970 3
Little Silver Police Little Silver Monmouth NJ 11543140 1
Littleton Police Department Littleton Middlesex MA 11291470 2
Livingston County Sheriff's Office Howell Livingston MI 12149990 4
Livingston Parish Sheriff's Office Livingston Livingston LA 13410040 1
Lockhart Police Department Lockhart Covington AL 13102910 1
Lockport Police Department Lockport Niagara NY 12964710 1
Lockport Police Dept Lockport Will IL 13213820 1
Logan Township Police Department Altoona Blair PA 11645220 2
Long Beach Police Department Long Beach Los Angeles CA 11790270 6
Long County Sheriff's Office Ludowici Long GA 12689900 1
Longboat Key Police Department Longboat Key Manatee FL 13374930 1
Longmont Police Department Longmont Boulder CO 13580750 1
Longwood Police Department Longwood Seminole FL 13698660 3
Lorain Police Department Lorain Lorain OH 12564230 5
Loris Police Department Loris Horry SC 12566670 1
Los Angeles County Sheriff's Office Monterey Park Los Angeles CA 13080500 17
Los Angeles Police Department Los Angeles Los Angeles CA 13545150 33
Los Angeles School Police Department Los Angeles Los Angeles CA 11331990 2
Los Lunas Police Department Los Lunas Valencia NM 12434900 1
Loudon Police Department Loudon Loudon TN 11896440 10
Loudoun County Sheriff's Office Leesburg Loudoun VA 13200720 2
Louisiana State Police Baton Rouge East Baton Rouge LA 13138310 2
633
Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center Police Dept Shreveport Caddo LA 13587250 1
Louisiana State University Police Department Baton Rouge East Baton Rouge LA 13300930 1
Louisville Metro Police Department Louisville Jefferson KY 12561910 16
Loves Park Police Dept Loves Park Winnebago IL 13086900 1
Lowell Police Department Lowell Middlesex MA 11241450 5
Lowell Police Department Lowell Kent MI 12182980 1
Lowell Police Department Lowell Benton AR 13023400 1
Lower Paxton Township Police Department Harrisburg Dauphin PA 11755270 1
Lower Township Police Erma Cape May NJ 12453180 1
Lowndes County Sheriff's Office Valdosta Lowndes GA 13008400 1
Lowndes County Sheriff's Office Hayneville Lowndes AL 13460440 1
Lubbock County Constable Pct. 3 Lubbock Lubbock TX 13774370 2
Lubbock Police Department Lubbock Lubbock TX 11907910 7
Lucas County Sheriff's Office Toledo Lucas OH 13850380 4
Lumberton Police Department Lumberton Robeson NC 12143730 1
Lumberton Township Police Department Lumberton Burlington NJ 12573170 1
Luna County Sheriff's Office Deming Luna NM 12759880 2
Luna Pier Police Department Luna Pier Monroe MI 12412920 1
Luther Police Department Luther Oklahoma OK 11945880 2
Luzerne County Sheriff's Office Wilkes Barre Luzerne PA 12989820 2
Lykens Borough Police Department Lykens Dauphin PA 12425280 1
Lyndhurst Police Department Lyndhurst Cuyahoga OH 12754290 1
Lynn Police Department Lynn Essex MA 11351430 2
Lynwood Police Dept Lynwood Cook IL 11810960 3
Macomb County Sheriff's Office Mount Clemens Macomb MI 13309530 1
Macon Police Department Macon Bibb GA 13429340 12
Madbury Police Department Madbury Strafford NH 99900023 1
Madera County Sheriff's Office Madera Madera CA 13862980 1
Madill Police Department Madill Marshall OK 11255850 1
Madison County Sheriff's Office Huntsville Madison AL 13738470 1
Madison County Sheriff's Office Fredericktown Madison MO 13870580 1
Madison County Sheriff's Office Danielsville Madison GA 13983590 1
Madison Heights Police Department Madison Heights Oakland MI 12682970 2
Madison Police Department Madison Dane WI 12167140 1
Madison Police Department Madison Morris NJ 12953170 1
Madison Police Department Madison Madison AL 13913390 2
634
Madison Police Department Madison New Haven CT 13966390 4

Mahanoy City Borough Police Department Mahanoy City Schuylkill PA 12255240 1
Maine State Police Augusta Kennebec ME 13505850 1
Malakoff Police Department Malakoff Henderson TX 11697990 1
Malverne Village Police Department Malverne Nassau NY 12504750 1
Manalapan Township Police Manalapan Monmouth NJ 12193140 1
Manassas Park Police Dept. Manassas Park Manassas Park City VA 12997510 1
Manatee County Sheriff's Office Palmetto Manatee FL 13065500 4
Manchester Police Department Manchester Hillsborough NH 11453390 1
Manchester Police Department Manchester Hartford CT 13359630 2
Manhattan Beach Police Department Manhattan Beach Los Angeles CA 13861280 1
Manheim Borough Police Department Manheim Lancaster PA 12875260 1
Manheim Township Police Department Lancaster Lancaster PA 12565210 1
Manitou Springs Police Department Manitou Springs El Paso CO 13628160 1
Manitowoc Police Department Manitowoc Manitowoc WI 12167110 2
Mansfield Police Department Mansfield Bristol MA 11751480 2
Mansfield Police Department Mansfield De Soto LA 12621600 1
Mantua Township Police Mantua Gloucester NJ 12423180 1
Maple Shade Township Police Maple Shade Burlington NJ 12433100 1
Maplewood Police Department Maplewood Ramsey MN 11852620 1
Marana Police Department Marana Pima AZ 11774920 1
Marathon County Sheriff's Office Wausau Marathon WI 12949850 1
Marble Falls Police Department Marble Falls Burnet TX 11237970 1
Marble Head Police Department Marble Head Ottawa OH 12704270 1
Marco Island Police Department Marco Island Collier FL 13482340 1
Marcus Hook Borough Police Department Marcus Hook Delaware PA 12585260 1
Maricopa County Sheriff's Office Phoenix Maricopa AZ 13195710 3
Maricopa Police Department Maricopa Kern CA 99900097 3
Marietta Police Department Marietta Cobb GA 13932890 1
Marin County Sheriff's Office San Rafael Marin CA 13045300 1
Marion County Sheriff's Office Indianapolis Marion IN 12429830 7
Marion County Sheriff's Office Salem Marion OR 12719810 1
Marion County Sheriff's Office Fairmont Marion WV 13139810 1
Marion County Sheriff's Office Ocala Marion FL 13767470 3
Marion Police Department Marion Smyth VA 12027520 1
Marion Police Department Marion Marion SC 12756610 1
635
Marion Township Police Department Wautoma Waushara WI 12717150 2

Marksville Police Department Marksville Avoyelles LA 12711600 1
Marlboro County Sheriff's Office Bennettsville Marlboro SC 11699880 2
Marlborough Township Police Department Green Lane Montgomery PA 12725240 1
Marlow Police Department Marlow Stephens OK 11055810 1
Marshallville Police Dept. Marshallville Macon GA 13833980 2
Martin County Sheriff's Office Williamston Martin NC 11789810 1
Martin County Sheriff's Office Stuart Martin FL 13052400 1
Martins Ferry Police Department Martins Ferry Belmont OH 12904280 2
Martinsburg Police Department Martinsburg Berkeley WV 13971990 1
Martinsville Police Martinsville Morgan IN 12400410 1
Marvell Police Department Marvell Phillips AR 13969690 1
Maryland Department of General Services Police Baltimore Baltimore City MD 13044300 2
Maryland National Capital Park Police - Montgomery County Silver Spring Montgomery MD 13699060 1
Maryland Natural Resources Police Annapolis Anne Arundel MD 13819680 1
Maryland State Police Pikesville Baltimore MD 13301330 10
Maryland Transit Administration Police Baltimore Baltimore City MD 13307730 1
Maryland Transportation Authority Police Baltimore Baltimore MD 13021300 1
Marysville Borough Police Department Marysville Perry PA 12545220 15
Marysville Police Department Marysville Yuba CA 13697060 2
Mason City Police Department Mason City Cerro Gordo IA 13915890 1
Mason County Sheriff's Office Point Pleasant Mason WV 11139890 3
Mason Police Department Mason Warren OH 12814290 1
Massachusetts Department of Mental Health Police Department Boston Suffolk MA 99900174 2
Massachusetts State Police Framingham Middlesex MA 13071700 12
Massillon Police Department Massillon Stark OH 12464250 1
Mathis Police Department Mathis San Patricio TX 11917950 1
Maui (County) Police Department Wailuku Maui HI 13155310 5
Maywood Police Department Maywood Los Angeles CA 13202220 4
Maywood Police Dept Maywood Cook IL 12460990 3
MBTA Transit Police Boston Suffolk MA 13962590 2
McAllen I.S.D. Police Dept. McAllen Hidalgo TX 13955090 1
McAllen Police Department McAllen Hidalgo TX 11644030 3
McArthur Police Department McArthur Vinton OH 12184200 1
McCandless Township Police Department Wexford Allegheny PA 11545190 1
McCullom Lake Police Dept McHenry McHenry IL 12740950 1
636
McDonough Police Department McDonough Henry GA 13960190 1

McDowell County Sheriff's Office Welch McDowell WV 11159840 1
McDowell County Sheriff's Office Marion McDowell NC 11809890 1
McHenry County Sheriff's Office Woodstock McHenry IL 13395030 2
McIntosh County Sheriff's Office Eufaula McIntosh OK 13280020 4
McKeesport Police Department McKeesport Allegheny PA 11855150 2
McKinley County Sheriff's Office Gallup McKinley NM 12999840 2
McMechen Police Department McMechen Marshall WV 11990093 2
Medford Police Department Medford Middlesex MA 11371450 1
Medford Police Department Medford Jackson OR 11845660 2
Medical College of Georgia Augusta Richmond GA 11314140 1
Medical Lake Police Department Medical Lake Spokane WA 11957380 1
Medical University of South Carolina Public Safety Charleston Charleston SC 13277220 1
Medina Police Department Medina Gibson TN 11096460 1
Meigs Police Department Meigs Thomas GA 13577450 1
Melbourne Beach Police Department Melbourne Beach Brevard FL 13788570 2
Melbourne Police Department Melbourne Brevard FL 13763970 1
Melrose Park Police Dept Melrose Park Cook IL 13243420 5
Memphis Police Department Memphis Shelby TN 11736410 64
Mendenhall Police Department Mendenhall Simpson MS 13517350 3
Mentor Police Department Mentor Lake OH 11714220 1
Merced Police Department Merced Merced CA 13543750 2
Mercersburg Borough Police Department Mercersburg Franklin PA 11565170 1
Meriden Police Department Meriden New Haven CT 13820480 2
Meridian Police Department Meridian Lauderdale MS 11202080 4
Merrillville Police Merrillville Lake IN 12510460 2
Mesa Police Department Mesa Maricopa AZ 13251620 5
Mesilla Marshal's Office Mesilla Dona Ana NM 13260020 1
Mesquite Police Department Mesquite Dallas TX 13572450 1
Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority Police Arlington Arlington VA 13874080 1
Meyersdale Borough Police Department Meyersdale Somerset PA 11785170 3
Miami Beach Police Department Miami Beach Miami-Dade FL 13925190 4
Miami Police Department Miami Ottawa OK 11015800 1
Miami Police Department Miami Miami-Dade FL 13780370 16
Miami Township Police Department Miamisburg Montgomery OH 11494220 1
Miami-Dade (County) Police Department Miami Miami-Dade FL 13076900 26
637
Michigan City Police Michigan City La Porte IN 12080440 1

Michigan State Police East Lansing Ingham MI 13148110 9
Middle Township Police Cape May Court House Cape May NJ 13324130 3
Middlesex County Prosecutor's Office New Brunswick Middlesex NJ 13810580 3
Middlesex County Sheriff's Department New Brunswick Middlesex NJ 11885390 4
Middlesex County Sheriff's Office Saluda Middlesex VA 12439870 1
Middlesex Police Department Middlesex Nash NC 12893750 1
Middletown Borough Police Department Middletown Dauphin PA 11585160 2
Middletown Police Middletown Henry IN 12150450 1
Middletown Police Department Middletown Butler OH 11784260 1
Middletown Police Department Middletown Middlesex CT 13508650 2
Midland Borough Police Department Midland Beaver PA 11245110 2
Midland I.S.D. Police Dept. Midland Midland TX 13550650 1
Midland Park Police Midland Park Bergen NJ 12043150 1
Midland Police Department Midland Midland TX 11877950 1
Midland Police Department Midland Midland MI 12522910 1
Milford Police Department Milford New Haven CT 13750470 2
Millbrook Police Department Millbrook Elmore AL 13432440 1
Millcreek Township Police Department Erie Erie PA 11205130 1
Miller County Sheriff's Office Tuscumbia Miller MO 13334930 1
Millersburg Police Department Millersburg Holmes OH 11794240 1
Millsboro Police Department Millsboro Sussex DE 13212520 1
Milltown Police Milltown Middlesex NJ 12293170 1
Millville Police Millville Cumberland NJ 12323140 7
Milton Police Department Milton Santa Rosa FL 13537250 2
Milwaukee County Sheriff's Office Milwaukee Milwaukee WI 13102210 8
Milwaukee Police Department Milwaukee Milwaukee WI 12207020 85
Minden Police Department Minden Webster LA 12071620 1
Mineral Wells Police Department Mineral Wells Palo Pinto TX 12187920 2
Minerva Police Department Minerva Stark OH 11154230 1
Minneapolis Park Police Department Minneapolis Hennepin MN 13499440 1
Minneapolis Police Department Minneapolis Hennepin MN 12882650 22
Minnehaha County Sheriff's Office Sioux Falls Minnehaha SD 13651260 1
Minnesota State Patrol St. Paul Ramsey MN 13790070 4
Minnetonka Police Department Minnetonka Hennepin MN 12962690 3
Minocqua Police Department Minocqua Oneida WI 12867020 1
638
Mint Hill Police Department Mint Hill Mecklenburg NC 12373710 1

Miramar Police Department Miramar Broward FL 13547050 2
Mission Police Department Mission Hidalgo TX 12417960 2
Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries & Parks Jackson Hinds MS 13252320 3
Mississippi Highway Safety Patrol Jackson Hinds MS 13651560 8
Missoula Police Department Missoula Missoula MT 12873920 1
Missouri Department of Corrections Jefferson City Cole MO 99900166 1
Missouri University of Science And Technology Police Dept Rolla Phelps MO 13818380 1
Missouri Valley Police Department Missouri Valley Harrison IA 13114010 1
MIT Police Department Cambridge Middlesex MA 99900096 1
Moab Police Department Moab Grand UT 12177640 1
Moberly Police Department Moberly Randolph MO 12592270 1
Mobile Police Department Mobile Mobile AL 13610360 4
Modesto Police Department Modesto Stanislaus CA 13421740 6
Moline Police Department Moline Rock Island IL 12500940 1
Moncks Corner Police Department Moncks Corner Berkeley SC 13341430 1
Monmouth County Sheriff's Office Freehold Monmouth NJ 11899740 1
Monongahela City Police Monongahela Washington PA 12705190 1
Monroe County Sheriff's Office Sparta Monroe WI 11529710 2
Monroe County Sheriff's Office Rochester Monroe NY 13001500 3
Monroe County Sheriff's Office Key West Monroe FL 13479940 3
Monroe Police Department Monroe Ouachita LA 12101650 1
Monroe Public Safety Monroe Union NC 13690960 1
Monroeville Police Department Monroeville Huron OH 11724230 1
Monroeville Police Department Monroeville Allegheny PA 12895160 1
Mont Vernon Police Department Mount Vernon Hillsborough NH 13260920 1
Montague County Sheriff's Office Montague Montague TX 11819780 2
Montevallo Police Department Montevallo Shelby AL 13923990 1
Montezuma Police Department Montezuma Macon GA 13120410 2
Montgomery County Police Department Rockville Montgomery MD 11571250 16
Montgomery County Sheriff's Office Clarksville Montgomery TN 13203220 1
Montgomery County Sheriff's Office Dayton Montgomery OH 13233420 1
Montgomery Police Department Montgomery Montgomery AL 11146780 9
Montgomery Police Department Montgomery Fayette WV 11308860 2
Montgomery Town Police Department Montgomery Orange NY 12954790 2
Monticello Police Monticello White IN 12450490 1
639
Montpelier Police Department Montpelier Bear Lake ID 13391230 1

Moore Township Police Department Bath Northampton PA 12995190 2
Moorestown Township Police Moorestown Burlington NJ 12073110 4
Mooresville Police Mooresville Morgan IN 12150410 1
Moosic Borough Police Department Moosic Lackawanna PA 12455160 1
Mora County Sheriff's Office Mora Mora NM 13689960 1
Morgan County Sheriff's Office Decatur Morgan AL 11419700 1
Morgan County Sheriff's Office Martinsville Morgan IN 13704070 2
Morningside Police Department Suitland Prince Georges MD 11941270 1
Morris County Sheriff's Office Morristown Morris NJ 12339740 1
Morristown Police Morristown Morris NJ 12403130 1
Morrisville State College Police Morrisville Madison NY 13744770 1
Morrow County Sheriff's Office Heppner Morrow OR 13953890 1
Morrow Police Department Morrow Clayton GA 13728970 1
Morton Police Dept Morton Tazewell IL 12630910 1
Mosby Police Department Mosby Clay MO 12532250 1
Moss Point Police Department Moss Point Jackson MS 11602040 2
Moulton Police Department Moulton Lawrence AL 13226120 1
Mounds Police Dept Mounds Pulaski IL 12230920 2
Mount Airy Police Department Mount Airy Surry NC 12483720 1
Mount Gilead Police Department Mount Gilead Morrow OH 12004240 1
Mount Healthy Police Department Cincinnati Hamilton OH 12944260 1
Mount Holly Township Police Mount Holly Burlington NJ 12503100 1
Mount Hope Police Department Mount Hope Fayette WV 11168850 3
Mount Kisco Village Police Department Mount Kisco Westchester NY 12584740 1
Mount Pleasant Police Department Mt. Pleasant Titus TX 12047970 1
Mount Pleasant Police Department Mount Pleasant Charleston SC 13614360 1
Mount Rainier Police Department Mt. Rainier Prince Georges MD 11851270 1
Mount Vernon Police Department Mount Vernon Westchester NY 12554740 1
Mount Washington Police Department Mount Washington Bullitt KY 12661850 3
Mountlake Terrace Police Department Mountlake Terrace Snohomish WA 11407310 1
Muhlenberg Township Police Department Temple Berks PA 12375110 1
Mukwonago Police Department Mukwonago Waukesha WI 12817000 1
Mulberry Police Department Mulberry Polk FL 13893580 1
Muncie Police Muncie Delaware IN 11460470 3
Munhall Borough Police Department Homestead Allegheny PA 12885180 2
640
Murfreesboro Police Department Murfreesboro Rutherford TN 11286490 6

Murphy Police Department Murphy Cherokee NC 12913740 1
Murray Police Department Murray Calloway KY 12071800 1
Muscatine Police Department Muscatine Muscatine IA 13795270 1
Muskegon Heights Police Department Muskegon Muskegon MI 12922870 1
Muskogee County Sheriff's Office Muskogee Muskogee OK 12349720 1
Muskogee Police Department Muskogee Muskogee OK 12515800 10
Mustang Police Department Mustang Canadian OK 12175870 1
Myrtle Beach Police Department Myrtle Beach Horry SC 13993690 5
Naperville Police Dept Naperville Du Page IL 12130910 1
Nashua Police Department Nashua Hillsborough NH 13819580 1
Nashville Metro Police Department Nashville Davidson TN 11846420 21
Nashville Police Nashville Brown IN 11200460 1
Nashville Police Department Nashville Berrien GA 13687360 1
Nassau County Police Department Mineola Nassau NY 12974750 6
Nassau County Sheriff's Office Yulee Nassau FL 12059750 2
Natchez Police Dept. Natchez Adams MS 11462030 6
Natchitoches Parish Sheriff's Office Natchitoches Natchitoches LA 13523250 3
Naugatuck Police Department Naugatuck New Haven CT 13099000 2
Navajo Nation Tribal Department of Law Enforcement Window Rock Apache AZ 13381830 3
Navassa Police Department Navassa Brunswick NC 12353720 2
Nebraska City Police Dept Nebraska City Otoe NE 12733510 2
Nebraska State Patrol Lincoln Lancaster NE 13293320 1
Needham Police Department Needham Norfolk MA 12421410 1
Nevada Highway Patrol Carson City Carson NV 13844380 6
New Albany Police New Albany Floyd IN 11510460 1
New Athens Police Department New Athens Harrison OH 99900012 1
New Bedford Police Department New Bedford Bristol MA 12481470 3
New Bern Police Department New Bern Craven NC 12573780 1
New Braunfels Police Department New Braunfels Comal TX 13834680 2
New Britain Borough Police Department Doylestown Bucks PA 12655140 1
New Britain Police Department New Britain Hartford CT 13743070 2
New Brunswick Police New Brunswick Middlesex NJ 12913190 3
New Castle (city) Police Department New Castle Lawrence PA 12355160 2
New Castle County Police Department New Castle New Castle DE 13672160 3
New Castle Police New Castle Henry IN 11410480 1
641
New Castle Police Department New Castle Rockingham NH 11643360 1

New Castle Police Department New Castle Garfield CO 13383330 1
New Ellenton Police Department New Ellenton Aiken SC 12746630 1
New Hampshire State Police Concord Merrimack NH 13164810 3
New Hanover County Sheriff's Office Castle Hayne New Hanover NC 13829480 4
New Haven Police Department New Haven New Haven CT 13787170 9
New Hope Borough Police Department New Hope Bucks PA 12795120 1
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection Trenton Burlington NJ 13100910 1
New Jersey State Police West Trenton Mercer NJ 11285940 16
New Jersey Transit Police Newark Essex NJ 13415440 3
New Lisbon Police Department New Lisbon Juneau WI 12017020 1
New London Police Department New London New London CT 13142710 2
New Martinsville Police Department New Martinsville Wetzel WV 11798820 1
New Melle Police Department New Melle St. Charles MO 12192220 2
New Mexico Department Of Game & Fish Santa Fe Santa Fe NM 13953290 1
New Mexico State Police Santa Fe Santa Fe NM 13671560 13
New Milford Police Department New Milford Litchfield CT 13195110 1
New Orleans Police Department New Orleans Orleans LA 11181690 98
New Port Richey Police Department New Port Richey Pasco FL 13456840 1
New Rochelle Police Department New Rochelle Westchester NY 12884600 2
New York City Department of Environmental Protection Police Valhalla Westchester NY 13218020 1
New York City Police Department New York New York NY 12414630 229
New York City Sheriff's Office New York New York NY 12639700 2
New York State Courts Officers New York New York NY 99900167 1
New York State Metropolitan Transportation Authority Police New York New York NY 13880680 2
New York State Park Police Albany Albany NY 13797870 1
New York State Police Albany Albany NY 13651360 5
Newark Division of Police Newark Licking OH 11644150 1
Newark Police Newark Essex NJ 12593130 9
Newark Police Department Newark New Castle DE 11881820 1
Newaygo County Sheriff's Office White Cloud Newaygo MI 12769700 1
Newburgh City Police Department Newburgh Orange NY 12574640 1
Newbury Police Department Newbury Merrimack NH 11593370 1
Newnan Police Department Newnan Coweta GA 13891280 1
Newport Beach Police Department Newport Beach Orange CA 13916090 1
Newport News Police Department Newport News Newport News City VA 12617570 12
642
Newport Police Department Newport Sullivan NH 11771780 1

Newport Police Department Newport Campbell KY 12761830 3
Newport Township Police Department Nanticoke Luzerne PA 12115170 1
Newton County Sheriff's Office Covington Newton GA 12879780 1
Newton Police Department Newton Middlesex MA 12141410 1
Newtown Police Department Cincinnati Hamilton OH 11134150 1
Newtown Police Department Newtown Fairfield CT 13228920 2
Nez Perce County Sheriff's Office Lewiston Nez Perce ID 13328530 2
Niagara County Sheriff's Office Lockport Niagara NY 13038200 1
Niagara Falls Police Department Niagara Falls Niagara NY 12784660 5
Nicholas County Sheriff's Office Carlisle Nicholas KY 13236020 1
Nicoma Park Police Department Nicoma Park Oklahoma OK 12035820 1
Niles Police Department Niles Berrien MI 12152860 1
Niles Police Dept Niles Cook IL 12400990 1
Noble Police Department Noble Cleveland OK 12885880 3
Noblesville Police Noblesville Hamilton IN 12730400 1
Nogales Police Department Nogales Santa Cruz AZ 13207620 2
Norfolk (City) Sheriff's Office Norfolk Norfolk City VA 12799730 1
Norfolk Police Department Norfolk Norfolk City VA 12937520 15
Normandy Police Department Normandy St. Louis MO 12132230 1
North Adams Police Department North Adams Berkshire MA 12601400 1
North Augusta Public Safety North Augusta Aiken SC 12756640 2
North Bergen Police North Bergen Hudson NJ 12713120 1
North Brunswick Police North Brunswick Middlesex NJ 12323170 1
North Carolina State Highway Patrol Raleigh Wake NC 13708270 9
North Catasauqua Borough Police Department Catasauqua Northampton PA 12645070 1
North Charleston Police Department North Charleston Charleston SC 12336690 5
North Cornwall Township Police Department Lebanon Lebanon PA 12115080 1
North Courtland Police Department North Courtland Lawrence AL 13270120 2
North Forest I.S.D. Police Dept. Houston Harris TX 13221520 1
North Kingsville Police Department North Kingsville Ashtabula OH 11384180 2
North Las Vegas Police Department North Las Vegas Clark NV 12684960 2
North Muskegon Police Department Muskegon Muskegon MI 12052880 1
North Pekin Police Dept North Pekin Tazewell IL 12770980 2
North Providence Police Department No. Providence Providence RI 11426750 9
North Randall Police Department North Randall Cuyahoga OH 11944140 1
643
North Syracuse Village Police Department North Syracuse Onondaga NY 12784690 3

North Topsail Beach Police Department North Topsail Bch Onslow NC 12613790 1
Northampton Police Department Northampton Hampshire MA 12661490 1
Northbridge Police Department Northbridge Worcester MA 12441400 2
Northern Cambria Borough Police Department Barnesboro Cambria PA 12845050 1
Northern Illinois University Police Dekalb DeKalb IL 11764970 1
Northside I.S.D. Police Dept. San Antonio Bexar TX 13083900 2
Northwoods Police Department Northwoods St. Louis MO 13679060 1
Norton Police Department Norton Norton KS 12780170 2
Norwalk Police Department Norwalk Fairfield CT 13459140 6
Norwich Police Department Norwich Chenango NY 12464680 1
Norwich Police Department Norwich New London CT 13340530 6
Nueces County Constable Pct. 3 Bishop Nueces TX 13642860 1
Nye County Sheriff's Office Pahrump Nye NV 13250920 3
O'Fallon Police Department O'Fallon St. Charles MO 13342230 1
Oak Lawn Police Dept Oak Lawn Cook IL 12640830 1
Oak Park Police Dept Oak Park Cook IL 12880850 1
Oakdale Police Department Oakdale Allen LA 11711660 1
Oakland Police Department Oakland Alameda CA 13387330 7
Oakland Police Department Oakland Orange FL 13399830 1
Oakwood Police Department Oakwood Paulding OH 11974140 1
Oakwood Village Police Department Bedford Cuyahoga OH 13090300 1
Ocala Police Department Ocala Marion FL 13824680 2
Ocean Beach Village Police Dept Ocean Beach Suffolk NY 13240620 4
Ocean City Police Department Ocean City Worcester MD 11891250 1
Ocean Shores Police Department Ocean Shores Grays Harbor WA 13701370 1
Ocean Springs Police Department Ocean Springs Jackson MS 11382010 2
Ocean View Police Department Ocean View Sussex DE 11596670 1
Oceanside Police Department Oceanside San Diego CA 13563250 4
Ocoee Police Department Ocoee Orange FL 13313730 1
Ogden Police Department Ogden Weber UT 13172610 2
Ogdensburg Police Department Ogdensburg St. Lawrence NY 13370830 1
Oglesby Police Dept Oglesby La Salle IL 12860800 1
Oglethorpe County Sheriff's Office Lexington Oglethorpe GA 12069700 1
Oglethorpe Police Department Oglethorpe Macon GA 13161210 1
Ohio Department of Natural Resources - Office of Law Enforcement Columbus Franklin OH 13648660 2
644
Ohio Department of Taxation - Enforcement Division Columbus Franklin OH 99900019 1

Ohio State Highway Patrol Columbus Franklin OH 13873780 4
Ohio State University Police Department Columbus Franklin OH 13517650 1
Okaloosa County Sheriff's Office Shalimar Okaloosa FL 13308630 4
Okanogan County Sheriff's Office Okanogan Okanogan WA 12879750 1
Okay Police Department Okay Wagoner OK 12205860 1
Oklahoma City Police Department Okla. City Oklahoma OK 12515860 17
Oklahoma Department of Public Safety Okla. City Oklahoma OK 13400740 6
Olanta Police Department Olanta Florence SC 12566640 1
Olathe Police Department Olathe Johnson KS 12380180 1
Old Forge Borough Police Department Old Forge Lackawanna PA 12555040 1
Oldham County Police Department Lagrange Oldham KY 12461870 2
Olean Police Department Olean Cattaraugus NY 13522550 1
Olmsted Township Police Department Olmsted Twp. Cuyahoga OH 13452740 1
Olney Police Department Olney Young TX 12457940 1
Olyphant Borough Police Department Olyphant Lackawanna PA 12065090 1
Omaha Police Dept Omaha Douglas NE 12783590 6
Onley Police Department Onley Accomack VA 12327570 1
Onondaga County Sheriff's Office Syracuse Onondaga NY 13679960 1
Ontario Police Department Ontario Malheur OR 11625600 1
Opa Locka Police Department Opa Locka Miami-Dade FL 13346830 3
Opelika Police Department Opelika Lee AL 13217820 1
Opelousas Police Department Opelousas St. Landry LA 11231680 1
Orange County Sheriff-Coroner Department Santa Ana Orange CA 13955890 22
Orange County Sheriff's Office Goshen Orange NY 12039610 1
Orange County Sheriff's Office Hillsborough Orange NC 13731470 1
Orange County Sheriff's Office Orlando Orange FL 13823880 17
Orange Police Department Orange New Haven CT 13384630 1
Orangeburg County Sheriff's Office Orangeburg Orangeburg SC 12519610 1
Orangeburg Public Safety Orangeburg Orangeburg SC 12686660 4
Orangetown Town Police Department Orangeburg Rockland NY 12314690 1
Oregon County Sheriff's Office Alton Oregon MO 12139640 2
Orem Department of Public Safety Orem Utah UT 13060000 1
Orlando Police Department Orlando Orange FL 13908790 8
Orleans County Sheriff's Office Albion Orleans NY 12869680 2
Orleans Parish Sheriff's Office (Criminal Division) New Orleans Orleans LA 13457940 4
645
Orleans Police Department Orleans Barnstable MA 11511370 1

Oro Valley Police Department Oro Valley Pima AZ 13905390 1
Osawatomie Department of Public Safety Osawatomie Miami KS 12670150 1
Osceola County Sheriff's Office Reed City Osceola MI 12969680 1
Osceola County Sheriff's Office Kissimmee Osceola FL 13308230 2
Osceola Police Department Osceola Clarke IA 13926290 1
Oswego Police Department Oswego Oswego NY 12604600 1
Otero County Sheriff's Office Alamogordo Otero NM 12809650 1
Ottawa County Sheriff's Office West Olive Ottawa MI 13237320 1
Ottawa Hills Police Department Toledo Lucas OH 13948390 1
Ouachita Parish Sheriff's Office Monroe Ouachita LA 13218120 1
Outagamie County Sheriff's Office Appleton Outagamie WI 12399620 1
Overland Police Department Overland St. Louis MO 12412250 1
Owens Crossroad Police Department Owens Crossroad Madison AL 11659230 1
Oxford Police Department Oxford New Haven CT 11658010 1
Oxford Police Department Oxford Butler OH 13086100 2
Oxford Township Police Oxford Warren NJ 12383140 2
Oxnard Police Department Oxnard Ventura CA 13539450 4
Ozaukee County Sheriff's Office Port Washington Ozaukee WI 12599690 1
Pacific Police Department Pacific King WA 11767350 1
Pacific Police Department Pacific Franklin MO 12702290 1
Page County Sheriff's Office Luray Page VA 12769640 13
Palatka Police Department Palatka Putnam FL 13472040 1
Palisade Police Dept Palisade Mesa CO 11284970 1
Palm Bay Police Department Palm Bay Brevard FL 13140510 1
Palm Beach County School District Police West Palm Beach Palm Beach FL 13797570 5
Palm Beach County Sheriff's Office West Palm Beach Palm Beach FL 13141210 13
Palm Beach Gardens Police Department Palm Beach Gardens Palm Beach FL 13631660 2
Palm Springs Police Department Palm Springs Riverside CA 13209920 1
Palmer Township Police Department Easton Northampton PA 11075010 1
Palo Alto Police Department Palo Alto Santa Clara CA 13519250 1
Palos Verdes Estates Police Department Palos Verdes Estates Los Angeles CA 13250820 1
Panama City Police Department Panama City Bay FL 13566150 1
Paola Police Department Paola Miami KS 12100090 2
Paris Police Department Paris Lamar TX 12727950 1
Park Ridge Police Dept Park Ridge Cook IL 12430870 2
646
Parker Police Department Parker Bay FL 13252720 2

Parma Heights Police Department Parma Heights Cuyahoga OH 12804190 1
Parma Police Department Parma Cuyahoga OH 13225220 3
Pasadena Police Department Pasadena Harris TX 12967940 5
Pasco County Sheriff's Office New Port Richey Pasco FL 13290020 4
Passaic County Sheriff's Office Wayne Passaic NJ 13930390 7
Paterson Police Paterson Passaic NJ 12743090 4
Paulding County Sheriff's Office Dallas Paulding GA 13383430 1
Pauls Valley Police Department Pauls Valley Garvin OK 11925710 1
Pawnee County Sheriff's Office Pawnee Pawnee OK 12959640 1
Pawtucket Police Department Pawtucket Providence RI 12206780 2
Peachtree City Police Dept Peachtree City Fayette GA 13329930 1
Pearl Police Department Pearl Rankin MS 11012050 2
Pearson Police Department Pearson Atkinson GA 13245020 1
Pelham Police Department Pelham Hampshire MA 11211360 1
Pelham Police Department Pelham Mitchell GA 13717070 1
Pembroke Pines Police Department Pembroke Pines Broward FL 13658960 1
Pendel Borough Police Department Pendel Bucks PA 99900099 1
Pender County Sheriff's Office Burgaw Pender NC 13681160 1
Penn Hills Township Police Department Pittsburgh Allegheny PA 11855060 1
Pennington County Sheriff's Office Rapid City Pennington SD 13359330 1
Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources Harrisburg Dauphin PA 99900011 1
Pennsylvania State Constable--Allegheny County Pittsburgh Allegheny PA 99900029 3
Pennsylvania State Constable--Montgomery County Norristown Montgomery PA 99900073 1
Pennsylvania State Police Harrisburg Dauphin PA 11916890 36
Pensacola Police Department Pensacola Escambia FL 13928190 1
Peoria Police Department Peoria Maricopa AZ 13804680 1
Peoria Police Dept Peoria Peoria IL 12990860 1
Perry County Sheriff's Office Pinckneyville Perry IL 13112210 1
Perry Police Department Perry Box Elder UT 13282120 1
Perry Township Police Department Massillon Stark OH 12474170 2
Perrysburg Police Department Perrysburg Wood OH 12424120 2
Perrysburg Township Police Department Perrysburg Wood OH 12144160 1
Perryville Police Department Perryville Boyle KY 12381860 1
Petal Police Department Petal Forrest MS 11352010 4
Petersburg Police Department Petersburg Petersburg City VA 12097560 3
647
Petroleum County Sheriff's Office Winnett Petroleum MT 11169640 1

Pewaukee (city) Police Department Pewaukee Waukesha WI 11877030 1
Pharr Police Department Pharr Hidalgo TX 12137930 2
Philadelphia Police Department Philadelphia Neshoba MS 11652060 1
Philadelphia Police Department Philadelphia Philadelphia PA 12035060 70
Phillips County Sheriff's Office Helena Phillips AR 11719620 1
Phoenix Police Department Phoenix Maricopa AZ 13934890 17
Pickens Police Department Pickens Pickens SC 11546650 1
Piedmont Police Department Piedmont Calhoun AL 13246920 1
Pierce County Sheriff's Office Tacoma Pierce WA 13244620 2
Pilot Point Police Department Pilot Point Denton TX 12917950 2
Pima County Sheriff's Dept. Tucson Pima AZ 13536450 1
Pinal County Sheriff's Office Florence Pinal AZ 13565450 2
Pinckney Police Department Pinckney Livingston MI 12362850 1
Pine Bluff Police Department Pine Bluff Jefferson AR 13602860 1
Pine Lake Police Department Pine Lake DeKalb GA 13975090 1
Pine Lawn Police Department Pine Lawn St. Louis MO 12892260 2
Pineland Police Department Pineland Sabine TX 12137810 1
Pinellas County Sheriff's Office Largo Pinellas FL 13244220 8
Pinellas Park Police Department Pinellas Park Pinellas FL 13147710 2
Pinetops Police Department Pinetops Edgecombe NC 12393790 1
Pineview Police Department Pineview Wilcox GA 13484940 1
Pineville Police Department Pineville Rapides LA 11451620 1
Pink Hill Police Department Pink Hill Lenoir NC 12553790 1
Piscataway Township Police Piscataway Middlesex NJ 12543080 1
Pitt County Sheriff's Office Greenville Pitt NC 13264420 3
Pittsboro Police Pittsboro Hendricks IN 12810470 1
Pittsburgh Police Department Pittsburgh Allegheny PA 12355030 26
Pittston City Police Department Pittston Luzerne PA 12165000 1
Placer County Sheriff's Office Auburn Placer CA 13787070 2
Plainfield Police Department Plainfield Union NJ 13551650 5
Plainfield Township Police Department Nazareth Northampton PA 12275050 2
Plainview Police Department Plainview Hale TX 12347800 1
Plano Police Department Plano Collin TX 12147880 1
Plaquemines Parish Sheriff's Office Belle Chasse Plaquemines LA 13820980 1
Platteville Police Department Platteville Grant WI 11167080 1
648
Platteville Police Dept Platteville Weld CO 13254820 2

Plattsburgh Police Department Plattsburgh Clinton NY 11676560 1
Pleasant Hill Police Department Pleasant Hill Polk IA 13354230 2
Pleasant Valley Police Department Pleasant Valley Clay MO 12842240 1
Pleasanton Police Department Pleasanton Alameda CA 13430640 1
Plum Borough Police Department Pittsburgh Allegheny PA 12795030 1
Plymouth Township Police Department Plymouth Meeting Montgomery PA 12635030 1
Pocahontas County Sheriff's Office Marlinton Pocahontas WV 12589650 1
Pocola Police Department Pocola Le Flore OK 11155790 1
Pohatcong Township Police Philipsburg Warren NJ 13026100 1
Point Pleasant Borough Police Point Pleasant Ocean NJ 13612660 1
Pojoaque Tribal Police Department Santa Fe Santa Fe NM 13390230 2
Polk County Police Department Cedartown Polk GA 13662160 3
Polk County Sheriff's Office Cedartown Polk GA 12289630 3
Polk County Sheriff's Office Bartow Polk FL 13297720 14
Polk County Sheriff's Office Des Moines Polk IA 13511750 3
Pompton Lakes Police Pompton Lakes Passaic NJ 13355930 3
Ponchatoula Police Department Ponchatoula Tangipahoa LA 12411640 1
Pontiac Police Department Pontiac Oakland MI 11762840 4
Pontoon Beach Police Dept Pontoon Beach Madison IL 13630660 2
Poplar Bluff Police Department Poplar Bluff Butler MO 11972210 1
Poquoson Police Department Poquoson Poquoson City VA 12817520 1
Port Authority of New York & New Jersey Police Department Jersey City Hudson NJ 13915290 1
Port Barre Police Dept Port Barre St. Landry LA 11990094 1
Port Huron Police Department Port Huron St. Clair MI 11022820 1
Port Jefferson Police Department Port Jefferson Shelby OH 99900105 1
Port Orange Police Department Port Orange Volusia FL 13542550 2
Port Orchard Police Department Port Orchard Kitsap WA 12177360 1
Port Richey Police Department Port Richey Pasco FL 13276320 1
Port St. Lucie Police Department Port St. Lucie St. Lucie FL 13671160 1
Port Vue Borough Police Department Mc Keesport Allegheny PA 12855030 5
Portage County Sheriff's Office Ravenna Portage OH 12939680 1
Porter County Sheriff's Office Valparaiso Porter IN 12019680 2
Portland Police Bureau Portland Multnomah OR 12805650 26
Portland Police Department Portland Cumberland ME 12961140 4
Portsmouth Police Department Portsmouth Portsmouth City VA 12037590 11
649
Portsmouth Police Department Portsmouth Rockingham NH 12883380 1

Pottawattamie County Sheriff's Office Council Bluffs Pottawattomie IA 13094900 1
Potter County Sheriff's Office Amarillo Potter TX 13733770 2
Poughkeepsie Police Department Poughkeepsie Dutchess NY 11624650 1
Powell County Sheriff's Office Deer Lodge Powell MT 12829610 1
Prattville Police Department Prattville Autauga AL 13159110 1
Prescott Police Department Prescott Pierce WI 12537040 1
Prince George's County Police Department Landover Prince Georges MD 11801260 30
Prince George's County Sheriff's Office Upper Marlboro Prince Georges MD 13865780 3
Prince William County Police Department Prince William Prince William VA 12017510 3
Prince William County Sheriff's Office Manassas Prince William VA 11179530 1
Princeton Borough Police Princeton Mercer NJ 13995390 1
Princeton Police Department Princeton Mercer WV 12708880 2
Prior Lake Police Department Prior Lake Scott MN 11942580 1
Providence Police Department Providence Webster KY 12171870 1
Providence Police Department Providence Providence RI 12356710 7
Provo Police Department Provo Utah UT 12717610 3
Pueblo Police Dept Pueblo Pueblo CO 13667460 4
Pulaski County Sheriff's Office Mound City Pulaski IL 11559500 3
Pulaski Police Department Pulaski Pulaski VA 12137540 3
Purcell Police Department Purcell McClain OK 11185720 2
Putnam County Sheriff's Office Cookeville Putnam TN 11369530 2
Puyallup Police Department Puyallup Pierce WA 12937360 1
Queen Anne's County Sheriff's Office Centreville Queen Annes MD 11499500 1
Quincy Police Department Quincy Norfolk MA 11141380 1
Quincy Police Department Quincy Grant WA 12037350 1
Racine Police Department Racine Racine WI 12677080 1
Radcliff Police Department Radcliff Hardin KY 12031860 1
Rainsville Police Department Rainsville DeKalb AL 13045900 1
Raleigh Police Department Raleigh Wake NC 12513750 8
Ramapo Town Police Department Suffern Rockland NY 11064660 2
Ramsey County Sheriff's Office Saint Paul Ramsey MN 13160810 2
Ramsey Police Ramsey Bergen NJ 13507650 1
Randolph County Sheriff's Office Chester Randolph IL 13288020 1
Randolph Police Department Randolph Clay MO 13586050 1
Ranger Police Department Ranger Eastland TX 13473040 1
650
Rapid City Police Department Rapid City Pennington SD 13888280 2

Rapides Parish Sheriff's Office Alexandria Rapides LA 13119910 3
Ravalli County Sheriff's Office Hamilton Ravalli MT 13491040 1
Ravenna Police Dept Ravenna Buffalo NE 12513480 1
Red Bank Police Red Bank Monmouth NJ 12273060 1
Red Springs Police Department Red Springs Robeson NC 12803700 1
Redding Police Department Redding Shasta CA 13531350 1
Redmond Police Department Redmond Deschutes OR 12345660 2
Redondo Beach Police Department Redondo Beach Los Angeles CA 13884880 1
Reidsville Police Department Reidsville Rockingham NC 12633780 1
Reno Police Department Reno Washoe NV 12564930 3
Revere Police Department Revere Suffolk MA 11661330 1
Reynoldsburg Police Department Reynoldsburg Franklin OH 12914140 1
Rhode Island State Police North Scituate Providence RI 13892980 2
Richfield Police Department Richfield Hennepin MN 12442500 3
Richland County Sheriff's Office Columbia Richland SC 13007300 3
Richland Police Dept Richland Pulaski MO 13333430 1
Richmond (City) Sheriff's Office Richmond Richmond City VA 12259540 2
Richmond County Sheriff's Office Augusta Richmond GA 13743570 5
Richmond Police Department Richmond Ray MO 11391750 1
Richmond Police Department Richmond Richmond City VA 12037560 8
Richmond Police Department Richmond Madison KY 12451800 1
Richmond Police Department Richmond Contra Costa CA 13237220 4
Richmond Police Dept Richmond McHenry IL 11200830 1
Ridgefield Police Department Ridgefield Fairfield CT 13539850 1
Ridgeville Police Ridgeville Randolph IN 11020320 3
Ridgeville Police Department Ridgeville Dorchester SC 11366630 1
Ridley Township Police Department Folsom Delaware PA 11926960 1
Riley County Police Department Manhattan Riley KS 12580040 1
Ringwood Borough Police Ringwood Passaic NJ 12523000 1
Rio Arriba County Sheriff's Office Espanola Rio Arriba NM 12469560 1
Ripley Police Department Ripley Jackson WV 12488880 1
River Rouge Police Department River Rouge Wayne MI 11732840 2
Riverdale Park Police Department Riverdale Park Prince Georges MD 12251270 1
Riverside County Sheriff's Office Riverside Riverside CA 13056100 14
Riverside Police Department Riverside Riverside CA 13931490 12
651
Riverton Borough Police Riverton Burlington NJ 12103080 1

Riviera Beach Police Department Riviera Beach Palm Beach FL 13178410 6
Roanoke City Police Department Roanoke Roanoke City VA 12767530 2
Roanoke County Police Department Roanoke Roanoke VA 12317530 2
Robbins Police Department Robbins Moore NC 12983720 1
Robbins Police Dept Robbins Cook IL 11980880 2
Robbinsdale Police Department Robbinsdale Hennepin MN 13884080 1
Robeson County Sheriff's Office Lumberton Robeson NC 12639510 3
Robinson Police Department Robinson McLennan TX 12467860 1
Robinson Township Police Department Pittsburgh Allegheny PA 11556900 1
Rochelle Police Department Rochelle Wilcox GA 13774070 1
Rochester Police Department Rochester Monroe NY 11484610 3
Rochester Police Department Rochester Olmsted MN 13660160 1
Rock County Sheriff's Office Janesville Rock WI 13817580 2
Rock Hill Police Department Rock Hill York SC 11806690 3
Rockford Police Dept Rockford Winnebago IL 11360890 1
Rockingham County Sheriff's Office Harrisonburg Rockingham VA 13288820 1
Rockledge Police Department Rockledge Brevard FL 13641460 1
Rockmart Police Department Rockmart Polk GA 13257220 1
Rockport Police Department Rockport Essex MA 11911330 1
Rockville Police Department Rockville Montgomery MD 12881240 4
Rocky Mount Police Department Rocky Mount Nash NC 12243710 1
Rocky Mount Police Department Rocky Mount Franklin VA 12797560 2
Rogers Police Department Rogers Benton AR 13534450 1
Roman Forest Police Department Roman Forest Montgomery TX 11947830 1
Romulus Police Department Romulus Wayne MI 11092830 6
Roodhouse Police Dept Roodhouse Greene IL 11870840 1
Roosevelt County Sheriff's Office Wolf Point Roosevelt MT 12959580 1
Roseboro Police Department Roseboro Sampson NC 12303760 2
Rosebud Sioux Tribal Police Rosebud Todd SD 11990043 1
Rosedale Police Department Rosedale Bolivar MS 12882010 1
Roseland Police South Bend St. Joseph IN 11120320 1
Roselle Borough Police Roselle Union NJ 13278720 1
Ross Township Police Department Pittsburgh Allegheny PA 11216940 1
Roswell Police Department Roswell Chaves NM 12684990 2
Round Rock Police Department Round Rock Williamson TX 11507890 1
652
Routt County Sheriff's Office Steamboat Springs Routt CO 13895180 1

Roxbury Township Police Ledgewood Morris NJ 11173090 2
Royal Oak Police Department Royal Oak Oakland MI 11272850 1
Royston Police Department Royston Franklin GA 13551750 1
Ruidoso Police Department Ruidoso Lincoln NM 13346730 1
Russell County Sheriff's Office Phenix City Russell AL 12239590 2
Russellville Police Department Russellville Franklin AL 13758870 8
Rutherford County Sheriff's Office Murfreesboro Rutherford TN 13567350 2
Rutland Police Department Rutland Worcester MA 12361380 2
Rutland Police Department. Rutland Rutland VT 12407400 1
Sacramento County Sheriff's Office Sacramento Sacramento CA 13630060 6
Sacramento Police Department Sacramento Sacramento CA 13762270 6
Sag Harbor Village Police Department Sag Harbor Suffolk NY 11594690 2
Saginaw County Sheriff's Office Saginaw Saginaw MI 13128010 1
Saginaw Police Department Saginaw Saginaw MI 11722860 1
Salem County Sheriff's Office Salem Salem NJ 12299520 1
Salem Police Salem Salem NJ 11803030 1
Salem Police Department Salem Essex MA 12071310 3
Salem Police Department Salem Marion OR 12875690 2
Salinas Police Department Salinas Monterey CA 13753970 4
Saline County Sheriff's Office Salina Saline KS 12859580 1
Saline County Sheriff's Office Harrisburg Saline IL 13221920 1
Salisbury Police Department Salisbury Rowan NC 12103630 1
Salisbury Police Department Salisbury Essex MA 12591390 2
Salisbury Police Department Salisbury Wicomico MD 12881210 1
Sallisaw Police Department Sallisaw Sequoyah OK 13593950 3
Salt Lake City Police Department Salt Lake City Salt Lake UT 12257650 1
Salt Lake County Sheriff's Office Salt Lake City Salt Lake UT 13836780 1
San Antonio Park Rangers San Antonio Bexar TX 13062000 3
San Antonio Police Department San Antonio Bexar TX 11387840 39
San Benito County Sheriff's Office Hollister San Benito CA 12679580 4
San Benito Police Department San Benito Cameron TX 11877820 2
San Bernardino County Sheriff's Office San Bernardino San Bernardino CA 13771270 21
San Bernardino Police Department San Bernardino San Bernardino CA 13415240 2
San Diego County Sheriff's Office San Diego San Diego CA 13846180 7
San Diego Police Department San Diego San Diego CA 13560350 18
653
San Francisco Police Department San Francisco San Francisco CA 13180510 8

San Jacinto County Sheriff's Office Coldspring San Jacinto TX 12709550 1
San Jose Police Department San Jose Santa Clara CA 13415640 10
San Juan County Sheriff's Office Aztec San Juan NM 12719590 2
San Leandro Police Department San Leandro Alameda CA 11489190 3
San Luis Obispo County Sheriff's Office San Luis Obispo San Luis Obispo CA 13047600 2
San Marcos Police Department San Marcos Hays TX 11867850 1
San Rafael Police Department San Rafael Marin CA 13514050 1
San Ramon Police Department San Ramon Contra Costa CA 13832480 2
Sandoval County Sheriff's Office Rio Rancho Sandoval NM 11255390 1
Sandown Police Department Sandown Rockingham NH 13824080 2
Sandusky Police Department Sandusky Erie OH 12714100 3
Sandwich Police Department Sandwich Barnstable MA 12121360 2
Sandy Police Department Sandy Clackamas OR 12465600 2
Sandy Police Department Sandy Salt Lake UT 12987690 1
Sandy Springs Police Department Sandy Springs Fulton GA 13802480 3
Sanford Police Department Sanford Lee NC 12293630 1
Sanford Police Department Sanford Seminole FL 13333130 1
Sanger Police Department Sanger Denton TX 11997850 1
Santa Ana Unified School District Police Dept. Santa Ana Orange CA 13043000 2
Santa Barbara County Sheriff's Office Santa Barbara Santa Barbara CA 13642660 1
Santa Barbara Police Department Santa Barbara Santa Barbara CA 13877680 4
Santa Clara County Sheriff's Office San Jose Santa Clara CA 11671410 2
Santa Clara Police Department Santa Clara Santa Clara CA 13711170 2
Santa Clara Police Department Santa Clara Grant NM 99900009 1
Santa Clara Tribal Police Department Espanola Rio Arriba NM 12144950 1
Santa Fe County Sheriff's Office Santa Fe Santa Fe NM 12309500 2
Santa Fe Police Department Santa Fe Santa Fe NM 12584980 2
Santa Rosa County Sheriff's Office Milton Santa Rosa FL 13874680 2
Santa Rosa Police Department Santa Rosa Cameron TX 11927810 1
Santee Police Department Santee Orangeburg SC 11126610 2
Sarasota County Sheriff's Office Sarasota Sarasota FL 13855480 1
Saratoga County Sheriff's Office Ballston Spa Saratoga NY 12219540 7
Saratoga Springs Police Department Saratoga Springs Saratoga NY 11714650 1
Saugerties Village Police Department Saugerties Ulster NY 11444630 4
Sauk County Sheriff's Office Baraboo Sauk WI 13474340 1
654
Saukville Police Department Saukville Ozaukee WI 11048980 1

Sault Ste. Marie Police Department Sault Sainte Marie Chippewa MI 12672870 1
Savannah-Chatham Metropolitan Police Department Savannah Chatham GA 13229520 6
Schenectady Police Department Schenectady Schenectady NY 11034690 16
Schodack Town Police Department Castleton Rensselaer NY 12274680 1
School District of Philadelphia Police Philadelphia Philadelphia PA 11990037 1
Scotia Village Police Department Scotia Schenectady NY 12444660 1
Scotts Hill Police Department Scotts Hill Henderson TN 12226430 1
Scottsbluff Police Dept Scottsbluff Scotts Bluff NE 12203450 1
Scottsboro Police Department Scottsboro Jackson AL 13569050 1
Scottsdale Police Dept Scottsdale Maricopa AZ 13152810 1
Scranton Police Department Scranton Lackawanna PA 12386950 5
Sea Isle Police Sea Isle Cape May NJ 11813040 1
Seabrook Police Department Seabrook Rockingham NH 12363390 1
Seadrift Police Department Seadrift Calhoun TX 11847800 1
Searcy Police Department Searcy White AR 13734370 1
Seaside Park Police Seaside Park Ocean NJ 11693010 1
Seaside Police Department Seaside Monterey CA 11471270 7
Seaside Police Department Seaside Clatsop OR 12255670 2
Seattle Police Department Seattle King WA 12967330 11
Sedalia Police Dept Sedalia Pettis MO 11512260 1
Sedgwick Police Department Sedgwick Harvey KS 12430070 1
Seguin Police Department Seguin Guadalupe TX 12437890 2
Sellersburg Police Sellersburg Clark IN 12960310 1
Selma Police Department Selma Fresno CA 13199610 1
Selma Police Department Selma Dallas AL 13449440 2
Selmer Police Department Selmer McNairy TN 12826490 1
Seminole County Sheriff's Office Sanford Seminole FL 13185110 2
Seminole Tribal Police Department Hollywood Broward FL 13522450 2
Seneca County Sheriff's Office Romulus Seneca NY 12369410 6
Seneca Police Department Seneca Oconee SC 11776630 1
Senoia Police Department Senoia Coweta GA 13126210 3
Sevierville Police Department Sevierville Sevier TN 12386400 1
Seward Police Dept Seward Seward NE 12263450 1
Seymour Police Seymour Jackson IN 12070340 1
Seymour Police Department Seymour New Haven CT 13427240 3
655
Shafter Police Department Shafter Kern CA 13165510 2

Sharon Hill Borough Police Department Sharon Hill Delaware PA 12456930 2
Sharon Township Police Department Columbus Franklin OH 12824140 1
Sharpsburg Police Department Sharpsburg Nash NC 12643630 1
Shawnee Police Department Shawnee Pottawatomie OK 12295740 1
Sheboygan Falls Police Department Sheboygan Falls Sheboygan WI 11468950 1
Shelby County Sheriff's Office Center Shelby TX 12609420 2
Shelby County Sheriff's Office Memphis Shelby TN 13018600 14
Shelby County Sheriff's Office Sidney Shelby OH 13909990 2
Shelby Police Department Shelby Bolivar MS 11493980 3
Shelby Police Department Shelby Cleveland NC 12713640 1
Shelby Township Police Department Utica Macomb MI 12982800 3
Shelbyville Police Department Shelbyville Shelby KY 11091880 1
Shelton Police Department Shelton Fairfield CT 13851180 3
Shenandoah Borough Police Department Shenandoah Schuylkill PA 12926960 5
Shenandoah Police Department Shenandoah Montgomery TX 12747880 2
Sherman Police Department Sherman Grayson TX 12167840 1
Sherwood Police Department Sherwood Washington OR 12245600 1
Shillington Police Department Shillington Berks PA 12666950 1
Shinnston Police Department Shinnston Harrison WV 12578880 2
Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania Police Shippensburg Cumberland PA 13907190 2
Shively Police Department Shively Jefferson KY 11031890 4
Shreveport Police Department Shreveport Caddo LA 12011620 14
Silverton Police Department Silverton Marion OR 12315600 1
Simpson County Sheriff's Office Franklin Simpson KY 12769430 1
Simpsonville Police Department Simpsonville Greenville SC 11236690 1
Sioux Falls Police Department Sioux Falls Minnehaha SD 11356500 1
Skaneateles Village Police Department Skaneateles Onondaga NY 12964680 1
Slaton Police Department Slaton Lubbock TX 12317800 2
Sleepy Eye Police Department Sleepy Eye Redwood MN 12632560 1
Sleepy Hollow Village Police Department Sleepy Hollow Westchester NY 12124630 2
Slidell Police Department Slidell St. Tammany LA 12151670 12
Smith County Sheriff's Office Tyler Smith TX 12949450 1
Smith Township Police Department Slovan Washington PA 12386920 5
Smithfield Police Department Smithfield Johnston NC 12893600 1
Smithfield Police Department Smithfield Isle of Wight VA 12917590 1
656
Smithville Police Department Smithville Lee GA 13511950 1

Smyrna Police Department Smyrna Kent DE 11570790 1
Smyrna Police Department Smyrna Rutherford TN 12136440 1
Snohomish County Sheriff's Office Everett Snohomish WA 11356130 2
Socorro County Sheriff's Office Socorro Socorro NM 12819480 3
Socorro I.S.D. Police Dept. El Paso El Paso TX 13299220 1
Solano County Sheriff's Office Fairfield Solano CA 13691860 1
Solon Police Department Solon Cuyahoga OH 12354120 1
Somerset Police Department Somerset Perry OH 12204190 1
Somerton Police Department Somerton Yuma AZ 11387900 1
Somerville Police Department Somerville Burleson TX 12197810 2
Somerville Police Department Somerville Middlesex MA 12691360 2
South Bend Police South Bend St. Joseph IN 12080380 9
South Carolina Department of Mental Health-Public Safety Columbia Richland SC 99900172 1
South Carolina Department of Natural Resources Columbia Richland SC 13666460 1
South Carolina Highway Patrol Blythewood Richland SC 13640860 11
South Carolina Law Enforcement Division Columbia Richland SC 13187110 2
South Charleston Police Department South Charleston Clark OH 12134030 1
South Fayette Township Police Department Morgan Allegheny PA 13316730 3
South Londonderry Township Police Department Campbelltown Lebanon PA 12196950 1
South Milwaukee Police Department South Milwaukee Milwaukee WI 11368920 1
South Ogden Police Department South Ogden Weber UT 12737660 1
South Plainfield Police South Plainfield Middlesex NJ 11463000 1
South Shore Police Department South Shore Greenup KY 11291830 1
South Tucson Police Dept. South Tucson Pima AZ 13121010 1
Southampton Town Police Department Hampton Bays Suffolk NY 12154600 4
Southbury Police Department Southbury New Haven CT 13928090 2
Southern University and A & M College Police Baton Rouge East Baton Rouge LA 13179610 1
Southgate Police Department Southgate Wayne MI 12652820 3
Southport Police Department Southport Marion IN 99900103 1
Southside Police Department Southside Etowah AL 13885880 1
Southwest City Police Dept Southwest City McDonald MO 12062280 2
Spartanburg County Sheriff's Office Spartanburg Spartanburg SC 13986890 2
Spencer Police Department Spencer Clay IA 13699960 1
Spokane County Sheriff's Office Spokane Spokane WA 13323030 2
Spokane Police Department Spokane Spokane WA 12637380 6
657
Spring Grove Police Dept Spring Grove McHenry IL 11000730 1

Spring Lake Police Department Spring Lake Cumberland NC 12073630 5
Spring Valley Village Police Department Spring Valley Rockland NY 12714680 1
Springettsbury Township Police Department York York PA 12846970 1
Springfield Dept of Public Safety Springfield Calhoun MI 12752860 1
Springfield Police Department Springfield Orangeburg SC 11086690 1
Springfield Police Department Springfield Clark OH 12034020 1
Springfield Police Department Springfield Hampden MA 12241330 17
Springfield Police Department Springfield Windsor VT 12977400 1
Springfield Police Department Springfield Bay FL 13150810 1
Springfield Police Dept Springfield Sangamon IL 11610710 1
Springfield Police Dept Springfield Greene MO 12812270 3
Springfield Township Police Department Springfield Union NJ 99900165 1
St. Bernard Parish Sheriff's Office Chalmette St. Bernard LA 13692460 1
St. Charles County Sheriff's Office O Fallon St. Charles MO 13653060 2
St. Charles Parish Sheriff's Office Hahnville St. Charles LA 13368230 1
St. Charles Police Dept St Charles St. Charles MO 12902240 1
St. Cloud Police Department St. Cloud Osceola FL 13465640 4
St. Croix County Sheriff's Office Hudson St. Croix WI 13281920 1
St. Edward's University Police Department Austin Travis TX 99900158 1
St. George Police Department St. George Dorchester SC 11656640 1
St. George Police Dept St Louis County St. Louis MO 12542230 1
St. Helena Parish Sheriff's Office Greensburg St. Helena LA 11229450 1
St. John The Baptist Parish Sheriff's Office La Place St. John the Baptist LA 13069700 3
St. Joseph County Airport Police South Bend St. Joseph IN 13875580 1
St. Joseph County Sheriff's Office South Bend St. Joseph IN 13990390 3
St. Joseph Police Dept St Joseph Buchanan MO 12982220 1
St. Landry Parish Sheriff's Office Opelousas St. Landry LA 11776320 4
St. Louis (city) Police Dept St Louis St. Louis City MO 12882250 12
St. Louis County Police Dept St Louis St. Louis MO 12052210 2
St. Louis County Sheriff's Office Clayton St. Louis MO 99900002 4
St. Lucie County Sheriff's Office Fort Pierce St. Lucie FL 13030900 2
St. Martin Parish Sheriff's Office Saint Martinville St. Martin LA 11139430 1
St. Martinville Police Department Saint Martinville St. Martin LA 11511590 1
St. Mary's County Sheriff's Office Leonardtown St. Marys MD 13948090 1
St. Mary's University Police Department San Antonio Bexar TX 99900004 1
658
St. Marys Police Department St. Marys Auglaize OH 12664110 2

St. Matthews Police Department Louisville Jefferson KY 11501850 1
St. Paul Police Department St. Paul Wise VA 12247550 1
St. Paul Police Department St. Paul Ramsey MN 13723970 9
St. Petersburg Police Department St. Petersburg Pinellas FL 13135210 7
St. Tammany Parish Sheriff's Office Covington St. Tammany LA 13723070 2
Stafford Police Department Stafford Fort Bend TX 11817740 1
Stallings Police Department Stallings Union NC 13676160 1
Stamford Police Department Stamford Fairfield CT 13625060 6
Stanislaus County Sheriff's Office Modesto Stanislaus CA 13613660 1
Stanly County Sheriff's Office Albemarle Stanly NC 13195810 1
Stark County Sheriff's Office Dickinson Stark ND 13556550 1
Starr County Sheriff's Office Rio Grande City Starr TX 13902290 1
State College Borough Police Department State College Centre PA 12586930 1
State University at Albany Police Albany Albany NY 13257720 1
Statesville Police Department Statesville Iredell NC 12763660 2
Stayton Police Department Stayton Marion OR 12275630 1
Steger Police Dept Steger Cook IL 11070730 1
Stephens County Sheriff's Office Duncan Stephens OK 11109400 4
Stephens County Sheriff's Office Toccoa Stephens GA 11539480 1
Steuben County Sheriff's Office Bath Steuben NY 11069420 1
Steubenville Police Department Steubenville Jefferson OH 12484090 1
Stillwater Police Department Stillwater Payne OK 12385700 1
Stillwater Police Department Stillwater Washington MN 13709170 1
Stockton Police Department Stockton San Joaquin CA 13711570 2
Stoneville Police Department Stoneville Rockingham NC 12933610 1
Stoughton Police Department Stoughton Norfolk MA 12271350 6
Stover Police Department Stover Morgan MO 12322290 1
Stratford Police Department Stratford Fairfield CT 13100110 3
Stratham Police Department Stratham Rockingham NH 12443350 1
Streamwood Police Dept Streamwood Cook IL 11900770 1
Struthers Police Department Struthers Mahoning OH 12894060 1
Stuart Police Department Stuart Guthrie IA 13789270 1
Sturgis Police Department Sturgis St. Joseph MI 11772750 1
Suffolk County Police Department Yaphank Suffolk NY 12534630 8
Suffolk Police Department Suffolk Suffolk VA 12847520 1
659
Sugar Land Police Department Sugar Land Fort Bend TX 11157770 2

Sugarcreek Borough Police Department Franklin Venango PA 12116850 1
Sugarcreek Police Department Sugarcreek Tuscarawas OH 12124020 1
Suisun City Police Department Suisun City Solano CA 13097900 1
Sullivan City Police Department Sullivan City Hidalgo TX 11997700 1
Sullivan County Sheriff's Office Monticello Sullivan NY 12109400 1
Sullivan County Sheriff's Office Blountville Sullivan TN 13418240 1
Summerhill Township Police Department Beaverdale Cambria PA 12196800 1
Summit County Sheriff's Office Akron Summit OH 13347930 2
Sumter Police Department Sumter Sumter SC 11946640 3
Sunland Park Police Department Sunland Park Dona Ana NM 12894910 1
Sunrise Police Department Sunrise Broward FL 13827680 1
Sunset Hills Police Department Sunset Hills St. Louis MO 12332240 5
Superior Police Department Superior Douglas WI 12458940 3
Surfside Beach Police Department Surfside Beach Brazoria TX 11397730 1
Surfside Beach Public Safety Department Surfside Beach Horry SC 11426630 1
Surfside Police Department Surfside Miami-Dade FL 13190710 1
Surprise Police Department Surprise Maricopa AZ 13309730 1
Sutter County Sheriff's Office Yuba City Sutter CA 12199430 1
Swampscott Police Department Swampscott Essex MA 12891370 1
Swansea Police Department Swansea Lexington SC 11246610 1
Sweetwater Police Department Sweetwater Monroe TN 11166310 1
Sylvania Police Department Sylvania Lucas OH 12824050 1
Syracuse Police Department Syracuse Onondaga NY 11144590 3
Syracuse Police Department Syracuse Davis UT 13722170 1
Tabor City Police Department Tabor City Columbus NC 13942090 4
Tacoma Police Department Tacoma Pierce WA 12597370 5
Tahlequah Police Department Tahlequah Cherokee OK 12255730 3
Talbot County Sheriff's Office Talbotton Talbot GA 11389330 3
Tallahassee Police Department Tallahassee Leon FL 13151310 1
Tampa Police Department Tampa Hillsborough FL 13287620 4
Tarpon Springs Police Department Tarpon Springs Pinellas FL 11790820 2
Tarrytown Village Police Department Tarrytown Westchester NY 11184590 1
Taylorsville Police Department Taylorsville Salt Lake UT 11307670 1
Tea Police Department Tea Lincoln SD 12776570 1
Tempe Police Department Tempe Maricopa AZ 13350630 1
660
Temple Police Department Temple Carroll GA 13342830 2

Temple Terrace Police Department Temple Terrace Hillsborough FL 13754670 2
Tennessee Department of Safety Nashville Davidson TN 13306930 7
Tennessee State Constable--Carter County Elizabethton Carter TN 99900110 1
Tennessee State University Nashville Davidson TN 13035400 2
Terrebonne Parish Sheriff's Office Houma Terrebonne LA 13402040 2
Terrell County Sheriff's Office Sanderson Terrell TX 11599350 1
Texarkana Police Department Texarkana Bowie TX 13863880 1
Texas Alcoholic Beverage Commission Austin Travis TX 13951090 1
Texas City Police Department Texas City Galveston TX 11395620 2
Texas Department of Public Safety Austin Travis TX 11198080 9
Thebes Police Department Thebes Alexander IL 99900164 1
Thibodaux Police Department Thibodaux Lafourche LA 11391560 2
Thief River Falls Police Department Thief River Falls Pennington MN 12882550 2
Thomas County Sheriff's Office Thomasville Thomas GA 11069330 2
Thomasville Police Department Thomasville Davidson NC 12533620 1
Tilton Police Dept Tilton Vermilion IL 12890790 1
Tiltonsville Police Department Tiltonsville Jefferson OH 13043300 1
Tinley Park Police Dept Tinley Park Cook IL 12320700 2
Tipton Police Department Tipton Tillman OK 12895770 1
Titusville Police Department Titusville Brevard FL 13749370 1
Tohono O'Odham Tribal Police Sells Pima AZ 13575850 2
Toledo Police Department Toledo Lucas OH 13184510 15
Tolleson Police Department Tolleson Maricopa AZ 13597550 1
Topeka Police Department Topeka Shawnee KS 12740040 5
Torrington Police Department Torrington Litchfield CT 13784270 1
Towns County Sheriff's Office Young Harris Towns GA 13318930 1
Travelers Rest Police Department Travelers Rest Greenville SC 11436610 1
Traverse City Police Department Traverse City Grand Traverse MI 11332790 1
Trenton Police Trenton Mercer NJ 12143090 7
Trotwood Police Department Trotwood Montgomery OH 12984020 1
Troy Police Department Troy Rensselaer NY 11524560 1
Truro Police Department Truro Barnstable MA 12141320 1
Tucson Police Department Tucson Pima AZ 13353730 9
Tucumcari Police Department Tucumcari Quay NM 12024930 1
Tukwila Police Department Tukwila King WA 12237330 1
661
Tulare County Sheriff's Office Visalia Tulare CA 13775670 3

Tulare Police Department Tulare Tulare CA 13202820 1
Tulsa Police Department Tulsa Tulsa OK 12995740 11
Tupelo Police Department Tupelo Lee MS 13588850 1
Turkey Creek Police Department Turkey Creek Evangeline LA 11771500 1
Turlock Police Department Turlock Stanislaus CA 13679860 1
Turner Police Department Turner Marion OR 12575610 1
Turrell Police Department Turrell Crittenden AR 13970990 2
Tuscaloosa Police Department Tuscaloosa Tuscaloosa AL 13576450 1
Tuscola County Sheriff's Office Caro Tuscola MI 12529350 1
Tuscumbia Police Department Tuscumbia Colbert AL 13597150 2
Tuskegee Police Department Tuskegee Macon AL 13554750 2
Tuskegee University Police Department Tuskegee Macon AL 99900027 1
Tutwiler Police Department Tutwiler Tallahatchie MS 13272520 1
Tuxedo Park Village Police Department Tuxedo Park Orange NY 11084560 1
Twin Falls Police Department Twin Falls Twin Falls ID 13655360 1
Tyrone Police Department Tyrone Fayette GA 13426340 2
Ulster County Sheriff's Office Kingston Ulster NY 12219350 1
Unified Police Department Salt Lake Salt Lake UT 99900007 1
Union City Police Union City Hudson NJ 12603050 3
Union City Police Department Union City Obion TN 11656360 1
Union County Sheriff's Office Liberty Union IN 12309320 1
Union County Sheriff's Office Monroe Union NC 13964790 1
Union Police Department Union Newton MS 11928480 1
Union Public Safety Department Union Union SC 12076650 1
Uniontown Police Department Uniontown Fayette PA 12246820 1
United I.S.D. Police Dept. Laredo Webb TX 13953790 1
University of Alabama - Birmingham Police Dept Birmingham Jefferson AL 13506650 1
University of Arkansas Medical Sciences Dept of Pub Little Rock Pulaski AR 11954480 1
University of California - Los Angeles Police Los Angeles Los Angeles CA 13449340 1
University of Colorado - Colorado Springs Police Dept. Colorado Springs El Paso CO 13029200 1
University of Florida Police Gainesville Alachua FL 11990107 1
University of Illinois Police Dept Urbana Champaign IL 13997090 1
University of Maryland Eastern Shore Dept of Public Safety Princess Anne Somerset MD 13351730 1
University of North Texas Police Department Denton Denton TX 13201320 1
University of Pittsburgh - Main Campus Police Pittsburgh Allegheny PA 13295020 1
662
University of Pittsburgh at Johnstown Police Johnstown Cambria PA 13089800 1

University of South Carolina - Upstate Police Department Spartanburg Spartanburg SC 13554650 1
University of Tennessee at Knoxville Police Knoxville Knox TN 13000900 2
University of Texas - Austin Police Austin Travis TX 11990045 1
University of West Alabama Police Livingston Sumter AL 11572650 1
Uplands Park Police Department Uplands Park St. Louis MO 11212150 5
Upper Sandusky Police Department Upper Sandusky Wyandot OH 12294060 1
Upshur County Sheriff's Office Gilmer Upshur TX 13869780 1
Utah Department of Public Safety Salt Lake City Salt Lake UT 13510150 2
Utica Police Department Utica Oneida NY 11464590 2
Vacaville Police Department Vacaville Solano CA 13030800 1
Vail Police Department Vail Eagle CO 13129510 1
Valdosta Police Department Valdosta Lowndes GA 13982290 1
Valencia County Sheriff's Office Los Lunas Valencia NM 13543650 2
Valley Brook Police Department Valley Brook Oklahoma OK 12185720 1
Valparaiso Police Valparaiso Porter IN 12220390 1
Van Buren Township Police Department Belleville Wayne MI 11832750 1
Vanderbilt University Police Department Nashville Davidson TN 99900159 1
Vandergrift Borough Police Department Vandergrift Westmoreland PA 13902790 2
Velda City Police Department Velda City St. Louis MO 11782150 1
Venice Police Dept Venice Madison IL 12660720 1
Ventura College Ventura Ventura CA 13090700 1
Ventura County Sheriff's Office Ventura Ventura CA 13904790 1
Vergennes Police Department Vergennes Addison VT 12027460 2
Vermont State Police Waterbury Washington VT 13167510 1
Vernal Police Department Vernal Uintah UT 12957600 1
Vernon Parish Sheriff's Office Leesville Vernon LA 12419390 2
Vian Police Department Vian Sequoyah OK 12505760 1
Victoria Police Department Victoria Victoria TX 12997730 2
Vidalia Police Department Vidalia Concordia LA 11861500 1
Vidor Police Department Vidor Orange TX 12057790 1
Vigo County Sheriff's Office Terre Haute Vigo IN 12149380 1
Vineland Police Vineland Cumberland NJ 12313010 2
Vinita Police Department Vinita Craig OK 12355730 1
Virginia Beach Police Department Virginia Beach Virginia Beach City VA 12417590 10
Virginia Commonwealth University Police Dept. Richmond Richmond City VA 11956410 2
663
Virginia Marine Resources Commission Newport News Newport News City VA 13976990 1
Virginia Police Department Virginia St. Louis MN 12512590 1
Virginia State Police Richmond Chesterfield VA 13186710 3
Visalia Department of Public Safety Visalia Tulare CA 13058300 1
Vivian Police Department Vivian Caddo LA 11111570 2
Volusia County Beach Patrol Daytona Beach Volusia FL 11961470 3
Volusia County Sheriff's Office Deland Volusia FL 11811330 4
Waco Police Department Waco McLennan TX 12777760 8
Wagoner Police Department Wagoner Wagoner OK 12005760 2
Waite Hill Police Department Waite Hill Lake OH 11234090 1
Wake County Sheriff's Office Raleigh Wake NC 13154110 4
Wakeman Police Department Wakeman Huron OH 11474050 1
Walker County Sheriff's Office La Fayette Walker GA 12589340 2
Walkerton Police Walkerton St. Joseph IN 12210350 1
Wall Township Police Wall Township Monmouth NJ 12403070 1
Walla Walla Police Department Walla Walla Walla Walla WA 12107320 1
Wallace Police Department Wallace Duplin NC 12153650 2
Waller Police Department Waller Waller TX 12227750 1
Wallingford Police Department Wallingford New Haven CT 11188590 1
Walnut Cove Police Department Walnut Cove Stokes NC 12913650 1
Walnut Creek Police Department Walnut Creek Contra Costa CA 13447140 3
Walton County Sheriff's Office Defuniak Springs Walton FL 13503350 4
Warren County Sheriff's Office Warrenton Warren NC 13200420 1
Warren Police Department Warren Macomb MI 11752700 1
Warren Police Department Warren Worcester MA 12771350 1
Warren Police Department Warren Trumbull OH 13332530 3
Warrensburg Police Dept Warrensburg Macon IL 12650780 2
Warsaw Police Department Warsaw Gallatin KY 11701890 1
Washington County Sheriff's Office Hagerstown Washington MD 12819290 1
Washington County Sheriff's Office Johnson City Washington TN 13831380 1
Washington Court House Police Dept. Washington Court House Fayette OH 13453240 1
Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority Police Washington District of Columbia DC 13375830 3
Washington Metropolitan Police Department Washington District of Columbia DC 13766670 32
Washington Park Police Dept Washington Park St. Clair IL 12940720 3
Washington Police Department Washington Beaufort NC 12413660 1
Washington State Patrol Olympia Thurston WA 13008900 2
664
Washington Township Police Sewell Gloucester NJ 12233060 1

Washington Township Police Department Bangor Northampton PA 11276820 1
Washington Township Police Department Belle Vernon Fayette PA 11756820 1
Washoe County Sheriff's Office Reno Washoe NV 13378930 4
Washtenaw County Sheriff's Office Ann Arbor Washtenaw MI 13571750 4
Waterbury Police Department Waterbury New Haven CT 13775970 5
Waterford Township Police Atco Camden NJ 11124990 2
Waterloo Police Department Waterloo Black Hawk IA 13707570 5
Waukegan Police Dept Waukegan Lake IL 12000700 3
Waukesha County Sheriff's Office Waukesha Waukesha WI 13793370 2
Waukomis Police Department Waukomis Garfield OK 12205710 1
Wausau Police Department Wausau Marathon WI 13721670 1
Waxhaw Police Department Waxhaw Union NC 12563650 1
Wayne County Sheriff's Office Goldsboro Wayne NC 13412140 2
Wayne County Sheriff's Office Detroit Wayne MI 13497440 1
Wayne Police Department Wayne McClain OK 12275780 1
Wayne State University Dept of Public Safety Detroit Wayne MI 13755870 1
Wayne Township Police Wayne Passaic NJ 11954940 1
Waynesboro Borough Police Department Waynesboro Franklin PA 11386830 1
Waynesboro Police Department Waynesboro Burke GA 13677860 2
Waynesburg Borough Police Department Waynesburg Greene PA 11526880 1
Waynesville Police Department Waynesville Haywood NC 12643670 1
Webb County Constable Pct. 1 Laredo Webb TX 11331230 1
Weirton Police Department Weirton Hancock WV 11118770 1
Weld County Sheriff's Office Greeley Weld CO 12189230 1
Wellston Police Department Saint Louis St. Louis MO 13423240 2
Wesson Police Department Wesson Copiah MS 12163960 1
West Bloomfield Township Police Department West Bloomfield Oakland MI 13283120 1
West Chester Borough Police Department West Chester Chester PA 11696860 1
West Chester Police Department West Chester Butler OH 11014000 1
West Columbia Police Department West Columbia Brazoria TX 11867330 1
West Concord Police Department West Concord Dodge MN 12322500 1
West Des Moines Police Department West Des Moines Polk IA 13312330 1
West Fargo Police Department West Fargo Cass ND 11163540 1
West Haven Police Department West Haven New Haven CT 13033500 2
West Jordan Police Department West Jordan Salt Lake UT 13990890 2
665
West Manchester Township Police Department York York PA 12816820 1

West Melbourne Police Department West Melbourne Brevard FL 13923690 1
West Memphis Police Department West Memphis Crittenden AR 13972490 3
West Mifflin Borough Police Department West Mifflin Allegheny PA 12526880 3
West Milton Police Department West Milton Miami OH 11154020 2
West New York Police West New York Hudson NJ 11784960 1
West Palm Beach Police Department West Palm Beach Palm Beach FL 13509150 3
West Paterson Borough West Paterson Passaic NJ 11024990 1
West Pittston Borough Police Department Exeter Luzerne PA 12706810 1
West Point Police Department West Point Hardin KY 11451830 1
West Reading Borough Police Department Reading Berks PA 12126820 3
West Richland Police Department West Richland Benton WA 12037380 2
West Seneca Town Police Department West Seneca Erie NY 13024200 2
West Valley City Police Department West Valley City Salt Lake UT 13503650 1
West View Borough Police Department Pittsburgh Allegheny PA 12566880 1
West Warwick Police Department West Warwick Kent RI 12066710 1
West Yellowstone Police Department West Yellowstone Gallatin MT 12663900 1
West York Borough Police Department York York PA 12916890 2
Westchester County Department of Public Safety Hawthorne Westchester NY 12464500 3
Westchester Police Dept Westchester Cook IL 12140710 1
Westerly Police Department Westerly Washington RI 12376790 1
Westfield Police Westfield Hamilton IN 12910330 4
Westlake Hills Police Department Austin Travis TX 12177790 1
Westminster Police Department Westminster Orange CA 13775170 3
Westminster Police Dept Westminster Adams CO 13399330 4
Westmoreland County Sheriff's Office Greensburg Westmoreland PA 12919210 1
Weston Police Department Weston Platte MO 13581550 2
Wetumpka Police Department Wetumpka Elmore AL 13091300 1
Weymouth Police Department Weymouth Norfolk MA 12231380 1
Wheatland Police Department Wheatland Yuba CA 13365630 1
Wheaton Police Dept Wheaton Du Page IL 12290700 1
Wheeler Police Department Wheeler Dunn WI 99900104 2
Wheeling Police Department Wheeling Ohio WV 11138760 3
White Cloud Police Department White Cloud Newaygo MI 13515450 1
White County Sheriff's Office Sparta White TN 12349200 1
White County Sheriff's Office Cleveland White GA 13037600 1
666
White House Police Department White House Sumner TN 12236320 1

White Plains Police Department White Plains Westchester NY 12674580 1
White Township Police Department Beaver Falls Beaver PA 12746840 1
Whitehall Police Department Whitehall Franklin OH 12114010 1
Whitemarsh Township Police Department Lafayette Hill Montgomery PA 12406880 1
Whiteville Police Department Whiteville Hardeman TN 12816390 1
Whitfield County Sheriff's Office Dalton Whitfield GA 13740270 1
Whitley County Sheriff's Office Williamsburg Whitley KY 13748770 1
Whitpain Township Police Department Blue Bell Montgomery PA 12836840 1
Wichita Falls Police Department Wichita Falls Wichita TX 12917740 4
Wichita Police Department Wichita Sedgwick KS 11980090 2
Wicomico County Sheriff's Office Salisbury Wicomico MD 13013200 1
Wildwood Police Wildwood Cape May NJ 11784990 2
Wilkes Barre City Police Department Wilkes Barre Luzerne PA 12286800 1
Wilkesboro Police Department Wilkesboro Wilkes NC 11673600 1
Wilkinsburg Borough Police Department Pittsburgh Allegheny PA 12006890 3
Will County Sheriff's Office Joliet Will IL 11552330 1
Williams Police Department Williams Colusa CA 13599050 1
Williamsburg Police Department Williamsburg Whitley KY 12171810 2
Williamson County Sheriff's Office Marion Williamson IL 11439200 2
Williamson County Sheriff's Office Franklin Williamson TN 11569200 2
Williamson County Sheriff's Office Georgetown Williamson TX 13387030 2
Willimantic Police Department Willimantic Windham CT 13654060 1
Wilmette Police Dept Wilmette Cook IL 12360770 1
Wilmington Police Department Wilmington New Castle DE 11324450 2
Wilmington Police Department Wilmington New Hanover NC 13250420 2
Wilson County Sheriff's Office Lebanon Wilson TN 13711670 1
Wilson Police Department Wilson Ellsworth KS 11730030 1
Wilson Police Department Wilson Wilson NC 12553670 2
Wilton Police Department Wilton Fairfield CT 13587450 2
Windber Borough Police Department Windber Somerset PA 11316760 1
Windermere Police Department Windermere Orange FL 13476040 4
Windsor Locks Police Department Windsor Locks Hartford CT 11005730 2
Winfield Police Department Winfield Lincoln MO 11222100 1
Winkler County Sheriff's Office Kermit Winkler TX 13810280 2
Winn Parish Sheriff's Office Winnfield Winn LA 11549240 1
667
Winnebago County Sheriff's Office Rockford Winnebago IL 13877180 2

Winnemucca Police Department Winnemucca Humboldt NV 12514880 1
Winnfield Police Dept Winnfield Winn LA 12061580 1
Winnsboro Police Department Winnsboro Franklin LA 12601520 1
Winooski Police Department Winooski Chittenden VT 12917440 1
Winsted Police Department Winsted Litchfield CT 99900016 3
Winston-Salem Police Department Winston-Salem Forsyth NC 11962750 3
Winter Haven Police Department Winter Haven Polk FL 13206020 1
Winters Police Department Winters Yolo CA 13447540 2
Winterville Police Department Winterville Pitt NC 11883620 1
Wisconsin Dells Police Department Wisconsin Dells Columbia WI 12058980 1
Wisconsin Dept of Justice - Criminal Investigation Division Madison Dane WI 13504950 1
Woburn Police Department Woburn Middlesex MA 12571250 1
Wolcott Police Department Wolcott New Haven CT 13276520 1
Wolfeboro Police Department Wolfeboro Carroll NH 12813370 1
Womelsdorf Police Department Womelsdorf Berks PA 11946700 1
Wood County Sheriff's Office Parkersburg Wood WV 11159200 2
Woodbridge Police Woodbridge Middlesex NJ 11844900 2
Woodburn Police Department Woodburn Marion OR 11005580 2
Woodford County Sheriff's Office Eureka Woodford IL 12059260 1
Woodland Police Department Woodland Yolo CA 13599450 1
Woodridge Police Dept Woodridge Du Page IL 12130640 1
Woodruff County Sheriff's Office Augusta Woodruff AR 13059400 1
Woodstock Police Department Woodstock Grafton NH 12223320 1
Woodstock Police Department Woodstock Cherokee GA 13278820 1
Woodstock Police Dept Woodstock McHenry IL 12100670 1
Woonsocket Police Department Woonsocket Providence RI 12326710 4
Worcester Police Department Worcester Worcester MA 12141260 5
Worthington Police Department Worthington Greenup KY 12661820 1
Wyandotte Police Department Wyandotte Wayne MI 12852770 1
Wynona Police Department Wynona Osage OK 12585650 1
Wyoming Borough Police Department Wyoming Luzerne PA 11126760 1
Wyoming Highway Patrol Cheyenne Laramie WY 11224330 1
Wyoming Police Department Wyoming Kent DE 13116110 2
Yakama Nation Tribal Police Toppenish Yakima WA 12937390 2
Yakima County Sheriff's Office Yakima Yakima WA 12689230 2
668
Yakima Police Department Yakima Yakima WA 12467370 1

Yamhill County Sheriff's Office McMinnville Yamhill OR 12859210 1
Yellowstone County Sheriff's Office Billings Yellowstone MT 12399280 1
Yemassee Police Department Yemassee Hampton SC 12766620 1
Yonkers Police Department Yonkers Westchester NY 12984510 2
York Police Department York York PA 11686760 1
Yorkville Police Department Yorkville Jefferson OH 12534080 1
Yorkville Police Dept Yorkville Kendall IL 12670640 1
Youngsville Police Department Youngsville Lafayette LA 12081510 2
Yuma Police Department Yuma Yuma AZ 13165910 2
Zanesville Police Department Zanesville Muskingum OH 12464040 4
Zapata County Sheriff's Office Zapata Zapata TX 12799240 1
Zolfo Springs Police Department Zolfo Springs Hardee FL 13452440 1
669
Appendix E. Entity Relationship Diagram of Stinson’s Police Crime Database

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The author(s) shown below used Federal funds provided by the U.S.

Department of Justice and prepared the following final report:

Document Title: Police Integrity Lost: A Study of Law

Author(s): Philip Matthew Stinson, Sr., J.D, Ph.D., John

Document No.: 249850

Date Received: April 2016

Award Number: 2011-IJ-CX-0024

Opinions or points of view expressed are those

Final Technical Report

Award Number: 2011-IJ-CX-0024

Philip Matthew Stinson, Sr., J.D, Ph.D.

John Liederbach, Ph.D.

Steven P. Lab, Ph.D.

Steven L. Brewer, Jr., Ph.D.

Criminal Justice Program

data that previously did not exist in any useable format.

This is a quantitative content analysis study of archived records reporting several

a rate of 1.7 officers arrested per 100,000 population nationwide.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...............................................................................................14

The Problem of Police Crime ..................................................................................14

The Purpose of the Study .........................................................................................16

Statement of the Problem .........................................................................................33

Literature Citations and Review ..............................................................................41

Statement of Rationale for the Research ..................................................................60

Coding and Content Analysis ..................................................................................65

Statistical Analysis ...................................................................................................69

Strengths and Limitations ........................................................................................72

Part I: Full Police Crime Data Set Models...............................................................76

Part II: Sex-related Police Crime Data Set Models ...............................................104

Part III: Alcohol-related Police Crime Data Set Models .......................................124

Part IV: Drug-related Police Crime Data Set Models............................................139

Part V: Violence-related Police Crime Data Set Models .......................................151

Part VI: Profit-motivated Police Crime Data Set Models ......................................167

Part VII: Employing Law Enforcement Agencies of Arrested Officers ................177

Implications for Policy and Practice ......................................................................199

Implications for Further Research .........................................................................207

DISSEMINATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS...........................................................232

Table 1 – Arrested Officers and Agencies .............................................................238

Table 2 – Most Serious Offense Charged ..............................................................239

Table 3 – Victim Characteristics............................................................................240

Table 4 – Police Crime Arrest Cases: Bivariate Associations of Conviction ........241

Table 5 – Police Crime Arrest Cases:

Table 7 – Police Crime Arrest Cases:

Table 8 – Police Crime:

Table 9 – Police Crime:

Table 10 – Police Crime:

Table 11 – Police Crime:

Table 12 – Police Crime:

Table 13 – Police Crime:

Table 14 – Police Crime:

Table 15 – Police Crime:

Table 16 – Police Crime:

Table 17 – Police Crime:

Table 18 – Civil Rights Litigation as a Correlate of Police Crime:

Table 19 – Logistic Regression Model Predicting Being Named

Table 20 – Arrested Officers and Agencies in Sex-related Cases .........................278

Table 21 – Most Serious Offense Charged in Sex-related Cases ..........................279

Table 22 – Victim Characteristics in Sex-related Cases ........................................280

Table 23 – Bivariate Associations of Conviction in

Table 24 – Sex-related Arrest Cases: