Historical Perspective of robot:

● Origins of "robot" and "robotics":

 The word "robot" conjures up a variety of images, from R2D2 and C3PO of Star Wars fame; to
human-like machines that exist to serve their creators (perhaps in the form of the cooking and
cleaning Rosie in the popular cartoon series the Jetsons); to the Rover Sojourner, which explored
the Martian landscape as part of the Mars Pathfinder mission.  Some people may alternatively
perceive robots as dangerous technological ventures that will someday lead to the demise of the
human race, either by outsmarting or outmuscling us and taking over the world, or by turning us
into completely technology-dependent beings who passively sit by and program robots to do all
of our work.  In fact, the first use of the word "robot" occurred in a play about mechanical men
that are built to work on factory assembly lines and that rebel against their human masters. 
These machines in R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots), written by Czech playwright Karl
Capek in 1921, got their name from the Czech word for slave.
    The word "robotics" was also coined by a writer.  Russian-born American science-fiction
writer Isaac Asimov first used the word in 1942 in his short story "Runabout."  Asimov had a
much brighter and more optimistic opinion of the robot's role in human society than did Capek. 
He generally characterized the robots in his short stories as helpful servants of man and viewed
robots as "a better, cleaner race."  Asimov also proposed three "Laws of Robotics" that his
robots, as well as sci-fi robotic characters of many other stories, followed:
Law-One
        A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to
harm.
Law-Two
        A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except where such orders
would conflict with the First Law.

Law-Three
        A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict
with the First or Second Law.

● Definitions of "robot"

        So what exactly is a robot?  This actually turns out to be a rather difficult question.  Several
definitions exist, including the following:

⮚ "A reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools,

or specialized devices through various programmed motions for the performance of a
variety of task."……………………………..Robot Institute of America, 1979

⮚ "An automatic device that performs functions normally ascribed to humans or a machine
in the form of a human."……………………………Webster's Dictionary

⮚  "a reprogrammable manipulator device"…………………..British Department of

Industry
 ⮚ "Robotics is that field concerned with the intelligent connection of perception to action."

……………….Mike Brady
The birth of robots
The leap necessary to transition from painted mechanical curiosities to actual robots was made
possible in 1854 because of the work of a professor at Queen’s College, Cork (Ireland) whose
Boolean algebra, based on zeros and ones, laid the foundations for the emergence of computers a
century later.
By the dawn of the 20th century the word robot entered the modern lexicon by way of Czech
writer Karel Capek and his 1920 science-fiction themed play Rossumovi univerzální
roboti (RUR). Inspiration was provided by early Slavic, in which rabota denotes a type of feudal
forced labor or corvée, echoes of which can be heard in modern-day Polish and Slovak
where robotnik means laborer. It should be noted that Capek’s robot was in fact a cyborg, which
is to say a being constructed of both organic and artificial parts and not a purely mechanical
creation.
The first known usage of the word “robotics” can be traced to Isaac Asimov’s short
story Liar published in 1941, in which the celebrated author explores the limits of his self-
created Three Laws of Robotics.
Indeed, the 1940s can be pinpointed as the period when advances in the field of electronics and
the emergence of digital computers would shake up the trajectory of robotics. As early as 1936,
Alan M. Turing was already at work answering the question, “Can machines think?” His article
On Computable Numbers laid out a system for handling massive volumes of information at truly
dazzling speeds. Among the many mathematicians and computer scientists that weighed in was
Hebert Simon, a professor at Carnegie Mellon, who developed a computer to prove mathematical
theorems in 1956. He answered Turing’s question and demonstrated the ability of a non-living
machine to think logically clearing the way for the rise of artificial intelligence. Working
alongside him was Allen Newell and the two elaborated various programs capable of modeling
human problem solving that were in large part informed by advances in psychology.
In the meantime, scientists were coming together in the kind of intellectual ferment that gave
birth to foundations such as the one that organized the Macy conferences. In a series of ten
meetings at regular one-year intervals between 1942-1953, scholars from a range of disciplines
including mathematics, logic, anthropology, psychology, and economics were brought together
in New York to help define the contours of the discipline we now understand as cognitive
science. In many ways, modern cybernetics can be traced to these forums and the influence
MIT’s Norbert Wiener exerted on proceedings following the publication of Cybernetic, or
Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. The discipline emerged as a
response to the need for a general scientific explanation for communication in natural and
artificial systems and was used as an approach toward automatic control in machines.
Cybernetics seeks insight through a deeper understanding of the processes that lead to the
execution of commands. Theory was transformed to reality when William Grey Walter began
building turtle-like, mobile robotic vehicles in order to study the behavior of animals. His
offspring, Else and Elmer, moved autonomously and were guided by photoelectric sensors that
allowed for adjustments based on sources of light.
First generation robots
The use of artificial intelligence was gradually democratized and advances in technology began
to spread benefits across industrial settings. First was the energy sector when Raymond
Goertz created a teleoperated articulated arm for the French Atomic Energy Commission (CEA).
Next was the automotive sector and in 1962, General Motors acquired the first industrial robot
for its factory in New Jersey. The Unimate 001—short for Universal Automation and essentially
two boxes connected to an arm—was created by George Devol and Joseph F. Engelberger. Using
coded commands, the two ton behemoth sequenced and stacked hot pieces of metal in the
company’s Trenton die-cast facility.
It was the moment when the United States became the unprecedented leader in robotics
worldwide, a position it would hold for the next thirty years thanks in no small part to the
contributions of researchers at MIT and Stanford who produced their own versions of articulated
arms. A diverse range of players (American Machine and Foundry, Tralfa, Vicarm, etc.)
produced specialized robots for tasks such as welding and painting.
Far Eastern competitors were soon biting at the heels of the pioneers and by the 1980s Japanese
policies for the promotion of robotics allowed firms such as Kawasaki to roll out mass produced
hydraulic arms.
At a time when US firms became bogged down by soul searching discussions on the moral
implications of robots the Japanese were well on their way to assuming the mantle of leadership
through the creation of a 46-member trade association in 1971 to promote cooperation and
development. Headquartered in Tokyo, it unashamedly sought to cultivate the next world leaders
within a decade.
The second generation: more intelligent machines
The loss of nerve on the American side led to some troubling questions: would man be replaced
by machines? Surpassed? Would machines one day turn against their creators? Social and critical
commentators such as Gilbert Ryle and Hubert Dreyfus opposed fantastical theories while
Herbert Simon went as far as to predict that by 1985 “machines will be capable... of doing any
work a man can do.” The release of Stanley Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey, where theatre
goers were subjected to the paranoid machinations of the computer HAL 9000 on the big screen,
did little to soothe fears.
In industrial settings robots were refined and made more reliable but gains in performance had to
be tempered by the fact that they remained one-trick ponies with little power to adapt to their
surrounding environment. The existence of limitations sparked interest in a new approach toward
research from the 1960s on. Inventors began to program and create mobile machines that
benefited from advances in sensor technology to react to different sets of predefined situations.
Initially, these robots resembled nothing more than a cleverly assembled jumble of mix and
match parts. As they moved in different directions they were capable of detecting their
surroundings through instrumentation consisting of cameras, range finders, and sensors.
Parading through laboratory corridors in places like Stanford and John Hopkins (Baltimore) the
first experiments on the mobile platform were baptised with names such as Cart, Beast,
or Shakey. Clunky in the extreme, these specimens might take an hour or so to complete even the
simplest of maneuvers.
The third generation: liberating the machine
With the arrival of microprocessors and microcomputing in the 1970s robots took another step
forward in the march toward artificial intelligence. Form factors were made more manageable
and software refined through the development of more robust programming languages such
as Robot Basic in 1984.
No longer limited to predefined situations, the new breed of thinking machines became more
reactive thanks to cameras, sensors, software, and actuators. They were equipped to adapt to the
surrounding environment and in some cases change their programs on the fly.
For the first truly walking and talking robot we can look to Japan and the development of Wabot-
1 at Waseda University. It could move, manipulate objects—even exchange pleasantries in
Japanese—and might have been forgiven its only passing resemblance to actual humans.
It is here that the current state-of-the-art has arrived and as robots become more commonplace it
is hard to find any sector of activity where their services have not become essential. Performance
(operation, behavior, precision, autonomy…) increases with each step forward in the innovation
lifecycle. In a recent example, the discovery of graphene, promises batteries that outperform any
existing technology in terms of autonomy, charging time, and ecological footprint (the material
is biodegradable).
Reading between the lines of technological advances and public acceptance of change it may just
be possible to pick out the outlines of our robotic future.
Next generation robots
The proliferation of mobile devices has concentrated the technology we carry in our pockets to
such a degree that the keys to understanding the robots of the future can pass almost unnoticed
for being right under our nose: miniaturization and connectivity.
The acceleration of the trend toward miniaturization of electronic components has been propelled
by the arrival of nanotechnologies. Processors are now measured in nanometers, a mere 22 in the
case of Intel’s Core i3/i5/i7 series, and have shrunk to a point where researchers have begun to
propose quantum computers. These machines operate on the principle that their fundamental unit
of computation, the “qubit”, is no longer limited to the value of 1 or 0, but instead exists in many
simultaneous states. As qubits are added the number of possible states rises exponentially to
unleash phenomenal powers of calculation.
Another non-negligible development, based on prevailing processor technology, is the arrival of
open-source solutions such as the credit-card-sized computer Raspberry Pi. With sales of around
one thousand devices a second, $35 now buys hobbyists the power to construct their own robots
and places various vocations within the grasp of future generations.
As for connectivity, we’ve only just begun to explore the possibilities of a permanently
networked world. Wi-Fi, 4G, WiMax, Bluetooth, and RFID are among the protocols from which
innovators will weave the intelligent objects of the future. Some robots have been adapted to
exploit the resources made available through the widespread diffusion of smartphones. One
example is a bionic arm controlled by a downloadable application, while another is a robot that
mimics the movements of users holding an Android-powered handset (video).
The rise of the Internet has profoundly altered our relationship to information and is shaking up
old habits. We are permanently connected and form part of an information ecosystem that we
simultaneously consume and construct. Aided by ever more powerful robot forms we in turn
process larger chunks of data and are creating a sort of omniscient intelligence—many would
hold up Google as an example—that could one day be introduced to the human body through the
means of an electronic chip. The face of humanity’s future could be thus …
The emergence of the loosely defined Transhumanist movement encourages a belief in a
technological future that is expanding exponentially. The suggestion is that society’s only hope
of keeping pace is to make peace with the notion of enhancements of the type that could one day
lead to the creation of a hybrid form of humanity. Of course, certain assumptions have been
made about possible paths toward the future of technological innovation suggesting the need for
a far-reaching ethical discussion and a healthy dose of prudence as we advance toward an
unknown world.

Classification of robot:
There are a number of factors that help decide the type of robot required for a specific task. The
main factor is the type of movement needed to achieve the desired robotic motion. Some
applications only require a robot to move a product along a desired axis, while other robotic arms
need to manoeuvre about an object through a number of different axes at once. The arrangement
of joints in different ways fulfills different coordinate systems.
Classification by mechanical structure
● Revolve Robot
● Articulated robots: a robot whose arm has at least three rotary joints
● SCARA robots
● Linear robots (including cartesian and gantry robots)
● Parallel robots
● Cartesian Robots
● Cylindrical Robots
● Spherical or Polar Robots
• Parallel robots (delta): a robot whose arms have concurrent prismatic or rotary joints. The best
known of this type is the Delta Robot, also known as a high speed picker; it looks less like a
conventional robot and more like a three- or four-legged spider, with a fourth moving element
extending from the centre to manipulate the end effector, within a hemispherical work envelope.
It has 4 DoF, three translational and one rotational, and because the actuators are mounted off the
lightweight arms on the overhead chassis, there is less mass to accelerate and very high speeds
are possible (up to 150 picks per minute compared to 60-65 ppm for a SCARA). Its key
applications are picking and packaging lighter payloads in the food, pharmaceuticals, plastics
and life sciences industries.
Benefits: Very high speeds, Low installation profile
Drawbacks: Less flexibility, Smaller payloads

Cartesian Robots:

Cartesian robots are used for pick and place work, application of sealant, assembly operations,
handling machine tools and arc welding. It’s a robot whose arm has three prismatic joints, whose
axes are coincidental with the Cartesian coordinators.
Application of Cartesian Robot:
● Applying Adhesive This robot is being used to apply adhesive to a pane of glass. This
robot is capable of handling large sized work pieces. Most laser cutters and CNC
machines work on the principle similar to this robot

● Pallet transfer: This orientation of a Cartesian robot transfers Integrated Circuits (ICs)
from a pallet and transfers the part to a specific place.

Companies need to monitor their products to ensure that they are of a high quality.
Cameras mounted on the Cartesian robot above monitor the passing components for
inaccuracy. Due to its construction the robot can move along with the moving conveyor
and focus on a product at once.
● Transfer and stacking: Owing to its linear movement the Cartesian robot is ideal for the
transfer and stacking of sheet metal or timber sheets. It can feed sheets into processing
machines or draw them away as finished products.

Cylindrical robots: Cylinder robots are used in assembly operations, handling of

machine tools, spot welding and handling at die cast machines. They also have many uses
in medical testing. The example below has two prismatic joints and one rotary joint. A
Cylindrical robot is able to rotate along its main axes forming a cylindrical shape.

Application of the Cylindrical Robot:

The medical robot is used in numerous medical applications, for DNA screening, forensic
science, drug development and toxicology. These robots are suitable in medical research
where hundreds of samples must be tested and the same repetitive tasks performed many
times. The robot eliminates human error providing more repeatable yields and consistent
results A typical example of its duties would be to pull out a drawer to access a test
 plates, lift out a sample plate, close the drawer and finally take the sample to another
instrument to be tested.

Spherical or Polar Robots: Spherical or Polar Robots combine rotational movements

with single linear movements of the arm. The polar robot is sometimes referred to as the
gun turret configuration. They are generally used in many welding applications mainly
spot, gas and arc. Polar robots are extremely suitable for reaching into horizontal or
inclined tunnels

Applications of a Polar/ Spherical Robot: The main application for these types of robots
is welding. They can be quite large and weigh over a 1000kg. Polar Robots are used
widely in the car manufacturing industry.

SCARA robot: This configuration was developed to meet the needs of modern assembly work
where fast movement with light payloads is required. The rapid placement of electronic
components on PCB’s is an obvious application. The Scara robot is a combination of two
horizontal rotational axes and one linear that moves vertically.

Applications of a Scara Robot:

● The Scara robot is testing a newly made calculator to ensure it is operational prior to
packaging. The camera observes the screen to see if the operation performed by the robot
is achieving the desired result.
 ● Testing a finished product:

● Stacking lightweight components: The Scara design can quickly remove components
from an assembly line and accurately stack them.
● Part assembly: The Scara robot is excellent for precision positioning and makes it very
suitable for the assembly of components. The picture above shows the robot taking parts
from the supply unit and assembling them. The robot can pivot around to the left and
change its gripping hand to a screw or drilling head. These different heads for the robot
are known as end effectors.

Multi-function: Here the Scara can be seen transferring the component from the assembly stage
to the testing stage. Once the component has passed the quality check the robot arm will place it
on the conveyor belt to be transferred to the next stage.
Revolute Robot:
The revolute robot or Puma as it is also known most resembles the human arm with three main
rotational degrees of freedom. The manipulator rotates on the base much like the human waist.
The other two rotational axes resemble the shoulder and the elbow. The additional wrist action
adds two more degrees of freedom, movement up and down (pitch) and rotation (roll). A final
movement is Yaw which is the movement of the wrist from side to side.

Applications of a Revolute robot: This kind of robot is ideal for spray painting where it can be
taught the human movements required to paint an object.
● Revolute Spraying Robot: Due to their manufacture based on the human hand the
Revolute robot is suitable for numerous application. These include welding, pick and
place operations, component assembly and electrical soldering

Automation and Robotics:

1.1 Automatic systems and robots: Robots can be considered as the most advanced automatic
systems and robotics, as a technique and scientific discipline, can be considered as the
evolution of automation with interdisciplinary integration with other technological fields. An
automatic system can be defined as a system which is able to repeat specific operations
generally with a low degree of intellectual and manipulative levels, but that can be easily
programmed in agreement with demands of productivity. It is worthy of note that an
automatic system is generally able to perform one operation for which its mechanical
structure has been designed. Aspects of flexibility depend on the possibility of
reprogramming the control unit, which is generally able only to modify the time sequence of
the designed operations. Therefore, an automatic system of industrial type can be thought of
as composed of two parts: - hardware with mechanical, electrical, pneumatic, and hydraulic
components that provide the mechanical capability to perform an a priori-determined
operation of movement and/or manipulation; - control and operation counterpart with
electronic components and software that provide the capability of autonomy and flexibility to
the working of the system. The two parts are essential in an automatic system and are
integrated in the sense that their design and operation must be considered as a unique goal in
order to obtain and operate an automatic system with the best performances. Therefore, an
automatic system in which the hardware part is preponderant cannot have a suitable
flexibility for a flexible production in agreement with the demands of productivity and
market. In some cases these limited solutions are still required from productivity , when the
product of a massive production is absorbed from the market with certain regularity during a
 period of time longer than the amortization time of the automatic system. Those systems with
low flexibility are generally denominated as ‘rigid automatic systems’. In Fig. 1.1 the variety
of production systems is represented as a function of the productivity level. Automatic
systems are often designed with the aim of having the possibility of an easy updating of their
structure and operation with the purpose of being adjusted more quickly to the mutable
demands of production and design of products. These very flexible systems are denominated
as ‘flexible automatic systems’. In addition, it is worthy of note that a system with only the
mechanical counterpart, although versatile, cannot be considered an automatic system since
the updating of its operation is not obtained by means of control units. Such a system can be
properly reprogrammed, but it requires the manual action of one or more human operators to
change some components of the machinery or their running. Therefore, these systems can be
properly named as machinery or mechanical systems.

Similarly, control systems cannot be considered as automatic systems, since they are not able to
perform mechanical tasks, although they can be provided with a high level of flexibility in terms
of re-programmability and memory capability. Therefore these systems can be properly named
as control units or electrical–electronic–informatics systems. However, an automatic system is
designed and built by using a suitable combination and integration of mechanical systems and
control units. Indeed, the success and engineering application of automatic systems strongly
depends on the practical integration of the above-mentioned counterparts. A robot can be defined
as a system which is able to perform several manipulative tasks with objects, tools, and even its
extremity (end-effector) with the capability of being reprogrammed for several types of
operations. There is an integration of mechanical and control counterparts, but it even includes
additional equipment and components, concerned with sensorial capabilities and artificial
intelligence. Therefore, the simultaneous operation and design integration of all the above-
mentioned systems will provide a robotic system, as illustrated in Fig. 1.2. In fact, more than in
automatic systems, robots can be characterized as having simultaneously mechanical and re-
programming capabilities. The mechanical capability is concerned with versatile characteristics
in manipulative tasks due to the mechanical counterparts, and re-programming capabilities
concerned with flexible characteristics in control abilities due to the electric-electronics-
informatics counterparts. Therefore, a robot can be considered as a complex system that is
composed of several systems and devices to give: - mechanical capabilities (motion and force); -
sensorial capabilities (similar to human beings and/or specific others); - intellectual capabilities
(for control, decision, and memory).

Robot anatomy:
The term robot stems from the Czech word robota, which translates roughly as ‘dull, repetitive
labour’. Although robots are indeed often associated with performing highly repetitive, routine
applications, today’s flexible automation technology lends itself to much more than that,
undertaking sophisticated precision tasks that a human cannot hope to emulate. But to understand
quite what applications the technology is capable of and where it might be integrated into your
own production processes, it is important to appreciate the anatomy of a robot, or more
accurately an industrial robot, since that governs its functionality.
Let’s start by defining an industrial robot. It is usually described as ‘a reprogrammable,
multifunctional manipulator designed to perform various automated tasks’, to which the ISO
standard adds that it must be ‘programmable in three or more axes’. To make more sense of that,
we need to consider a number of core terms that describe the robotic anatomy.
Axis/axes – an axis is a line across which a rotating body turns. Two axes are required to reach
any point in a straight plane, while three axes (X Y Z) are needed to reach any point in space.
Three further axes (roll, pitch and yaw) are needed to control the orientation of the end of the
robot arm or wrist.
End effector – also known as end of arm tooling, this is the ‘hand’ attached to the end of the
robot arm or wrist. End effectors include grippers, vacuum cups, sprayguns, welding tools and
electro-magnetic pick-ups, their performance being vital to precision and repeatability.
Degrees of freedom – this is the number of independent movements the end effector can make
along the axes of its coordinate system. For example, movement along the X Y Z coordinates
only constitutes 3 DoF, whilst adding rotation around the Z axis equals 4 DoF. This term is often
confused with degrees of mobility.
Degrees of mobility – while DoF are often incorrectly determined by simply counting the
number of independent joints on the robot, this is more accurately expressed as degrees of
mobility (DoM). Thus, an industrial robot has a maximum of 6 DoF, but might actually have,
say, 9 DoM.
Kinematics – is the actual arrangement of joints/axes and rigid links in the robot, as well as
being the study of motion in robotics. Common robot kinematics, or configurations, include
Cartesian, Articulated, Parallel and SCARA.
Manipulator – this refers to the arm mechanism, created from a sequence of joint and linkage
combinations, including the wrist. Confusingly, it is often used to describe the robot itself, minus
the power supply and controller.
Joints – robot joints are described as either rotational or translational. Rotational joints have a
rotary action along the joint axis and are also referred to as revolute. Translational joints have a
linear or sliding motion along the joint axis and are also known as prismatic.
Actuators – also referred to as drives, these are devices that convert electrical, hydraulic and
pneumatic energy into robot motion. Nowadays, actuators are typically fast, accurate AC servo
drives, while the robot base rotates using a harmonic drive or, less commonly, ring gear.
Work envelope – this is the total volume of space that the end effector of the manipulator can
reach and is also known as workspace and work volume. The size and shape of the work
envelope is determined by the robot kinematics and the number of DoF; it should be large
enough to accommodate all the points the end effector needs to reach.
Having got to grips with the anatomical terms used in connection with industrial robots, we
should next consider the operating and performance parameters against which any particular
configuration and type is specified:
Payload (kg) – maximum load or carrying capacity, including weight of the end effector
Reach (mm) – the maximum distance a robot can extend its arm to perform a task.
Speed (mm/sec) – how fast a robot can position its end effector or rotate an axis (deg/sec).
Acceleration (mm/sec)– defines how quickly an axis can accelerate to top speed.
Accuracy (± mm) – how closely a robot can move to specified place in the work envelope.
Repeatability (± mm) – how precisely a robot can return repeatedly to a given position.
Mounting – robots can also be ceiling or wall mounted, freeing up effective workspace.
Footprint (m2) – installation space required, often minimised by overhead or wall mounting.
Cycle Time (secs) – cumulative time for completing one full set of process operations.

Basic structure of robotics:

Robotics is a very complex system that is based on their generation (first, second, and third-
generation), or on the difference between autonomous and non-autonomous robots, it is not
enough.
It is necessary to understand the structure of the robots and what their primary functions are to
understand what typology and models of robots exist today. Basically, they have four "functional
units," they must be seen as complex systems that have different "functional organs" (mechanical
organs, sensory organs, control organs, governing, and calculation organs).
Before seeing each of these organs, it is worth remembering the definition of robotics provided
by the Robotic Institute of America (RIA). "A robot is a multifunctional and reprogrammable
manipulator for performing a variety of tasks. A robot also acquires information from the
environment and moves intelligently accordingly. "

Mechanical structure: 
Looking at the definition of robotics provided by the Robotic Institute of America, the
mechanical structure of a robot represents the "multi-function manipulator". In reality, this is
mostly true for industrial robotics because if you look at service robotics, the mechanical
structure corresponds to the robot's movement and locomotion system.
The mechanical organs are distinguished between apparatus to perform operations and activities
in a fixed place or devices able to move. If we wanted to make a parallelism with the organs of
the movement of human beings, we would divide the mechanical organs into upper limbs and
effectors. These are the tools like pine and robotic hands for manipulation and lower arms (not
necessarily "mechanical legs," today the prerogative of the most sophisticated robots, but
mechanical organs such as wheels, wheels, sleds, or kinematics systems).
 Sensory structure:
 The robotic systems are endowed with a sensory capacity that allows them to "perceive" the
context in which they operate. It is not a question of human sensations, of course, but of a
sensory structure that allows the robot to acquire data, both on the internal state of the
mechanical structure. For example, position and speed), and on the surrounding external
environment (exteroceptive sensors that make one perceives, for example, strength and
proximity and give the robot an artificial vision).
 Control structure (robot control organs):
The control organs act as connectors between perception and action and are the systems that
guarantee the robot to perform the activities for which it is developed.
The control structure is given by actuators (electric motors, hydraulic or pneumatic systems, etc.)
and control algorithms for driving the actuators.
 Governance structure (memorization and calculation organs):
In this case, we refer to the systems that allow programming, calculate, check the activities, and
the work done by the robotic machines. The governance and calculation structure is usually
made up of hardware systems (microprocessors, memories, etc.) and software systems
(application programs, calculation algorithms coded in programming languages, standard or
dedicated).
Software architecture and programming:
The governance unit must manage the operations that the robot system must perform based on an
internal model of the automaton (its mechanical structure) and the data provided by the sensors.
The control architecture should be divided into hierarchical levels with the algorithms that
determine the signals of the actuators and on the top step of the hierarchical scale. In a
hierarchical structure of this type, each level sends the result of its computation to the underlying
level, from which it is, however, retroactively influenced.
There are three main approaches to Looking at the programming of a robotic system:
- Teaching-by-showing: the robot is guided along a path and learns the positions reached thanks
to the sensors; later, it merely replicates that sequence of positions.
- Robot-oriented: there is a high-level programming language with complex data structures,
variables, routines.
Object-oriented: as in the previous one, only that the language is object-oriented.
Among the computing organs today, there are also algorithms and artificial intelligence
techniques that contribute to raising the level of independence of autonomous robots (for
example, through machine learning).
Robot movement: kinematic analysis and dynamic analysis
As we have seen, a robot is a complex system that has an articulated mechanical structure. So
that its functioning is adequate for the activities that its "behavior" (movement, functioning) must
accomplish. It must be schematized in a mathematical model that takes into account the cause-
effect bonds between the various constituent organs (mechanical organs, sensory organs, control
organs).
These mathematical models can concern the kinematic analysis and the dynamic analysis of the
motion of the robot.
- Kinematic analysis: it is the quantitative description of the motion of a robot (regardless of the
causes of the motion itself). However, a distinction must be made between kinematics and
differential kinematics. The first deals with the links between the internal parameters of the robot
and their position and orientation that affect movement; the second defines speed-dependent
relationships (to describe the motion of the robot in more detail).
- Dynamic analysis: It is the study of the motion of the automaton starting from its causes; that is
the circumstances that determine and modify it. As we have seen, the actuators (control organs)
that guarantee the robotic system the power necessary to perform a task or an activity have an
impact on motion. But in this case, we must distinguish between dynamics and reverse
dynamics. The first is for the calculation of the accelerations of the components of a robot as a
function of the actuation forces. The inverse dynamics search for methods to determine the
actuation forces that allow reaching the desired accelerations. 

RESOLUTION:
The resolution of a robot is a feature determined by the design of the control unit and is mainly
dependent on the position feedback sensor
The control resolution: It is the smallest change in position that the feedback device can sense.
It  is determined by the robot's position control system and its feedback measurement system. It
is the controllers ability to divide the total range of movement for the particular joint into
individual increments that can be addressed in the controller.
For control resolution, the joint-link combination consists of a lead-screw drive mechanism
identical with numerical control mechanisms outlined earlier, so the control resolution equations
used there may be deployed here once again. This electro-mechanical control resolution may be
denoted CR1. Owing to the wide variety of joints used by robots, and their individual mechanical
characteristics, it is not possible to characterise each joint in detail. There is, however, a
mechanical limit on the capacity to divide the range of each joint-link system into addressable
points, and that limit is given by CR1.
CR2 is the bit storage capacity of the controller. This is given by:

where CR2 is the control resolution determined by the robot controller; R is the range of the
joint-link combination, expressed in linear or angular units; and B is the number of bits in the bit
storage register devoted to a particular joint. The maximum of CR1 and CR2 gives the control
resolution. For repeatability, the mechanical errors that make the robot’s end-of-wrist return to
slightly different locations than the programmed point are to blame. For a single joint-link
mechanism:

where Re is repeatability; and σ is the standard deviation of the error distribution. For accuracy,
we have:

where CR is control resolution; and σ is the standard deviation of the error distribution.
Spatial resolution: It is the smallest increment of movement into which the robot can divide its
work volume. Spatial resolution depends on two factors: the systems control resolution and
the robots mechanical inaccuracies. It is easiest to conceptualize these factors in terms of
a robot with 1 degree of freedom.

ACCURACY & REPEATABILITY:

An industrial robot has many metrology or measurable characteristics, which will have a direct
impact on the effectiveness of the robot during the execution of its tasks. The main measurable
characteristics are repeatability and accuracy. Roughly speaking, the repeatability of a robot
might be defined as its ability to achieve repetition of the same task. On the other hand, accuracy
is the difference (i.e. the error) between the requested task and the obtained task (i.e. the task
actually achieved by the robot). In robotics, when talking about repeatability and accuracy, their
meanings are often confused. So, repeatability is doing the same task over and over again, while
accuracy is hitting your target each time.
First, let’s introduce the main characteristics of a robot whose repeatability and accuracy are
likely to be important to evaluate: path, position and orientation. These are the factors that you
want to assure you are achieving each and every time you set your robot and end-effector in
motion. The combination of position and orientation with the robot’s end-effector is called a
pose. Furthermore, the pose accuracy generally will have some effect on the path accuracy,
which because of its inherent movement is a dynamic characteristic. However, in order to avoid
confusion in this short paper, we will focus on static characteristics without considering motion
effects. Therefore, only the pose accuracy and repeatability will be discussed. The pose accuracy
and repeatability of the robot are divided into the two previously mentioned components:
position and orientation. To simplify even further, the following explanations are set forth
describing  position only, though they can be extended to orientation as well.
The absolute position accuracy is the ability of the robot to reach a specific programmed position
with a minimum of error. Note that here we use the word absolute to refer to the fact that the
position accuracy is evaluated with respect to a unique reference frame, mainly the work
reference frame (or the world reference frame). Often these are arbitrary frames of reference
used specifically to measure the variations in position accuracy. To assess the static accuracy of
the robot movement, the position measurements are carried out after a complete stop of the end-
effector’s movement (regardless of the path taken to reach the desired position) from the
previous pose of the end-effector.
Geometrically, the position accuracy of the robot for a given position can be defined as being the
distance between the desired position and the centroid position (centroid is the mean position of
all the points in all of the coordinate directions) which is actually achieved after repetitive
movements of the end-effector toward the original desired position (see the Figure below).
Mathematically, absolute accuracy is the compilation of the composed errors for each of the x, y,
z cartesian positional errors. Finally, the robot position accuracy for a specific workspace can be
described as the maximum composed error available for several positions uniformly distributed
inside the predetermined workspace or reference frame.
Repeatability can be defined as the closeness of agreement between several positions reached
by the robot’s end-effector for the same controlled position, repeated several times under the
same conditions. Geometrically, the position repeatability can be defined as the radius of the
smallest sphere that encompasses all the positions reached for the same requested position. All in
all it is important not to confuse accuracy with repeatability and vise versa. Though the ultimate
objective is to have both; a robot that can repeat its actions while hitting the target every time.

Types of robot control:

 
1. Point-to-point (PTP) control robot
 
2. Continuous-path (CP) control robot
 
3. Controlled-path robot
 
4. Stop-to-Stop
 
Point to Point Control Robot (PTP):
 
The PTP robot is capable of moving from one point to another point. The locations are
recorded in the control memory.
 
PTP robots do not control the path to get from one point to the next point. Common applications
include:
Component insertion
 Spot welding 
 hole drilling
 Machine loading and unloading 
 Assembly operations

Continuous-Path Control Robot (CP):

 
The CP robot is capable of performing movements along the controlled path. With CP from
one control, the robot can stop at any specified point along the controlled path.
 
All the points along the path must be stored explicitly in the robot's control memory.
Applications Straight-line motion is the simplest example for this type of robot.
 
Some continuous-path controlled robots also have the capability to follow a smooth curve
path that has been defined by the programmer.
 
 
In such cases the programmer manually moves the robot arm through the desired path and
the controller unit stores a large number of individual point locations along the path in memory
(teach-in).
 
Typical applications include:
spray painting 
 finishing
 gluing
 Arc welding operations
Controlled-Path Robot:
 
In controlled-path robots, the control equipment can generate paths of different geometry
such as straight lines, circles, and interpolated curves with a high degree of accuracy.
 
Good accuracy can be obtained at any point along the specified path.
 
Only the start and finish points and the path definition function must be stored in the robot's
control memory.
 
It is important to mention that all controlled-path robots have a servo capability to correct
their path.
 
Stop-to-Stop:
  It is open loop system
  Position and velocity unknown to controller
  On/off commands stored as valve states
  End travel set by mechanical

Robot Drive Systems

 
The actions of the individual joints must be controlled in order for the manipulator to perform a
desired move its body, arm, motion and wrist. The is provided by the drive system used to power
the robot.
The joints are moved by actuators powered by a particular form of drive system.
Common drive systems used in robotics are electric drive, hydraulic drive, and pneumatic drive.
 Mechanical Drive Systems
 
The drive system determines the speed of the arm movement, the strength of the robot, dynamic
performance, and, to some extent, the kinds of application.
A robot will require a drive system for moving their arm, wrist, and body. A drive
system is usually used to determine the capacity of a robot. For actuating the robot joints, there
are three different types of drive systems available such as:
      Electric drive system,
   Hydraulic drive system, and
      Pneumatic drive system.
The most importantly used two types of drive systems are electric and hydraulic.
 
(i)                Electric Drive System:
 
The electric drive systems are capable of moving robots with high power or
speed. The actuation of this type of robot can be done by either DC servo motors or DC stepping
motors. It can be well –suited for rotational joints and as well as linear joints. The electric drive
system will be perfect for small robots and precise applications. Most importantly, it has got
greater accuracy and repeatability. The one disadvantage of this system is that it is slightly
costlier. An example for this type of drive system is Maker 110 robot.
 
 
 Hydraulic Drive System:
 
The hydraulic drive systems are completely meant for the large –sized robots. It can deliver high
power or speed than the electric drive systems. This drive system can be used for both linear and
rotational joints. The rotary motions are provided by the rotary vane actuators, while the linear
motions are produced by hydraulic pistons. The leakage of hydraulic oils is considered as the
major disadvantage of this drive. An example for the hydraulic drive system is Unimate 2000
series robot. 

Pneumatic Drive System: 

The pneumatic drive systems are especially used for the small type robots, which have less than
five degrees of freedom. It has the ability to offer fine accuracy and speed. This drive system can
produce rotary movements by actuating the rotary actuators. The translational movements of
sliding joints can also be provided by operating the piston. The price of this system is less when
compared to the hydraulic drive. The drawback of this system is that it will not be a perfect
selection for the faster operations.

Robotic application:
⮚ Robotic Applications in Automotive Manufacturing & INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS

The following robotic applications are the most common in the automotive industry:

1. Collaborative Robots
These collaborative robots are built to work together with other robots, on enormous assembly
lines. Robots must collaborate between handling and welding robots to make such assembly lines
function properly.
2. Robotic Painting
Professional painters are difficult to find and the job is a highly toxic one. This makes it perfect
for robots, because the paint job needs to be highly consistent over a large area of paint, and
reducing the amount of wasted material can add up to quite a bit of savings over time.
3. Robotic Welding
Robotic welding has been the top robotic application in the automotive sector for a long time, as
every car needs a high number of welds before it’s complete. Given the high value of the
finished product, productivity from automation is enormous.
4. Robotic Assembly
In many automotive plants, robots are assembling smaller components like pumps and motors at
high speeds. Often, robots are performing tasks like windshield installation and wheel mounting
to increase throughput.
5. Material Removal
High consistency and repeatability make robots perfect for material removal processes like
trimming and cutting. This could be in the form of cutting fabrics, trimming plastic moldings and
die castings or even polishing molds.
6. Part Transfer and Machine Tending
Pouring molten metal, transferring metal stamps, and loading and unloading CNC machines are
all best completed by a robot as they are dangerous. When completed consistently with little
downtime they can also be a source of major productivity.
Robots have been used in the automotive industry for a long time, and while today they are used
in many different ways, but the 6 applications mentioned above are some of the most common
uses of robotics in this industry.

7. Material Handling: During the sixties and the seventies automation has primarily affected the
manufacturing process and too control but not the auxiliary functions such as handling, setup,
loading, and unloading. The time spent to transfer a workpiece from one station to the next is
still high. Up to 95 percent of the time involved in manufacturing a part is composed of transfer
and waiting time, and only about 5 percent of the total time is the part in the actual processing
time. Whereas the processing time has been reduced considerably by automation, much less
progress has been made in handling and loading. The fully automatic systems that were
developed for mass production (e.g., transfer lines in the automobile industry) are rigid (hard
automation) and not suitable for batch production (in the order of 50 to 100,000 parts annually).
A more flexible automation technology which takes into account frequent changes in production
is needed for this category of industrial production, which accounts for about 75 percent of the
manufactured parts. Hence, with the development of industrial robots a new solution is offered to
the handling and machine tool loading of small and medium series of parts. Actually, loading
and unloading machine tools are the major applications of robots.

Robots are utilised to load and unload machine tools in two basic configurations :

(a) a robot tending a single machine, and

(b) a robot serving several machines. The first configuration is applied when typical machining
times per part are short, and second system, when a chain of operations must be executed to
complete a part. This category includes a wide variety of applications. The items being handled
by robots may weigh anything from a few grams to some tonnes. Obviously the type of robot
applied will also vary considerably, from lightweight non-servo-controlled pneumatic robots,
through medium sized electric types, to massive hydraulic manipulators. For many applications
the cylindrical, polar and articulated types are equally suitable, and for some light duty work in
restricted areas rectangular types may be used. For material handling applications point to point
control is necessary. The controller should be able to store a large number of points and have the
facility to easily program horizontal and vertical increments. Thus, by defining only the start
point the robot arm can be programmed to pick or place components at equal steps along the X,
Y and Z axes by simply defining the length, direction and number of steps.

8. Spray Painting: The unhealthy and unpleasant environment of the painting booth in industry
made this process an ideal candidate for the application of robots. The solvent materials that are
used in spray painting are toxic, and therefore the operators must be protected by masks and be
provided with fresh-air ventilation. The painting area must be dust-free and temperature-
controlled, and consequently the painting booth is small in size and inconvenient for the
operators. Furthermore, the noise arising from the air discharge through the painting nozzles can
cause irreversible damage to the ears. For all these reasons, spray painting became one of the
first applications of robots. The requirement for robots in spray painting are different from those
of other robot applications, and therefore many robot manufacturers offer a robot dedicated to
this one application. The spray painting robots are of CP capability and have the following
characteristics : (a) high level of manipulator dexterity, (b) large working volume for small-base
manipulator, (c) compact writs, 55 Applications (d) small payload, and (e) low accuracy and
repeatability. The painting robot must be able to carry any type of spray gun. Spray guns,
however, are light in weight and therefore painting robots are designed for small payloads (e.g.,
1 kg). Finally, the requirements for repeatability and resolution are the least severe in painting
robots. The exact location of end points is not critical, and in many jobs can be even outside the
painted surface. Therefore, a repeatability of 2 mm throughout the working volume is regarded
as sufficient for spray-painting robots.

9. Machining: There are five basic types of machine tools to perform machining : drilling
machine, lathe or turning machine, milling machine, shaper, and grinder. Out of all these
machining operations, only drilling is being successfully done with robots, and mainly in the
aircraft industry. Another application related to machining which is performed by robots is
deburring metal parts. Most metal parts made by machining operations (either by machine tools
or by mass production machines) contain burrs, that is, rough edges or ridges left on the
machined surfaces. The removal of these burrs can be done by robots.

10. Drilling: Robots can replace the manual operators if the template hole is provided with a
chamfered guide. The gripper of the robot holds a portable pneumatic drill and guides from hole
to hole. At each hole, a fixed drill cycle is performed, and then the robot moves the drill to the
next hole. Programming the robot to perform the task is quite simple. Since drilling is PTP
operation, the manual teaching method is appropriate. The programming and control methods are
much more complicated when CP machining operations (e.g. deburring) are applied. Deburring
Burrs are generated almost always when machining is performed on metal parts. Burrs are
generated between a machined surface and a raw surface, or at the intersection between two
machined surfaces. The removal of these burrs is an expensive operation. Most deburring is
performed manually by workers equipped with appropriate tools. By closely following the
manual method, the industrial robot can solve most deburring problems. There are two basic way
to perform robotised deburring. If the part is relatively lightweight, it can be picked up by the
robot and brought to the dubrring tool. If the part is heavy, then the robot holds the tool. The
support of the tool is very important, whether it is held by the robot or mounted on the work
table. In both cases the relative motion between the tool and the part is of a CP type with high
repeatability (approximately 0.2 mm) and highly controlled speed. Therefore, deburring is one of
the most difficult tasks for robots.

Future of Robotics:

1. Adoption of Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) Technology

Robots will increasingly deploy smart sensors at the edge of production to collect data previously
inaccessible to manufacturers. This trend is currently underway and will lead to new levels of
productivity and efficiency.

2. Industrial Cybersecurity as a Priority

As robots become more connected to internal systems for data collection, the cybersecurity risks
increase. Manufacturers will be forced to address vulnerabilities in their processes and invest
heavily in cybersecurity to ensure safe, reliable production.

3. Big Data Analysis Becomes a Competitive Differentiator

Robots will become a key source of information on the factory floor. The collection of data,
however, is just one piece of the puzzle. Manufacturers will have to implement systems to
organize and analyze all of this information in order to act on it.

4. Open Automation Architectures Will Be Implemented

As robotic automation gains widespread adoption, the need for open automation architectures
grows. Large industry players will work with industry organizations to produce standards and
open documentation that make robotic integration easier while improving product compatibility.

5. Virtual Solutions Will Invade Physical Processes

Virtual solutions will become an integral part of industrial robotics. One current growing
application is the virtual representation of robotic systems for proof of concept and offline
programming.

6. Collaborative Robots Will Continue to Grow in Popularity

Collaborative robots can work safely alongside humans and are often far cheaper than their
industrial counterparts. As collaborative robots become more capable in tough industrial settings,
they will see greater adoption by manufacturers with strict ROI requirements.

Robotic automation has been a revolutionary technology in the manufacturing sector, but it’s still
poised to transform the industry over the next couple of years

7. Increased Use of Autonomous Mobile Robots

Autonomous Mobile Robots (AMRs) are the latest innovation that have been transforming
traditional robot tasks through increased flexibility and diversified applications, including their
unique ability to navigate in an uncontrolled environment with a higher level of understanding.

Companies in every industry are investigating how AMRs can help them, as evidenced by the
sold-out Autonomous Mobile Robot Conference our trade association sponsored in 2019 in
Louisville, Ky. Our next event will be on June 9, 2020 in Boston.

As ecommerce expands, there’s a greater need for rapid fulfillment. It’s hard for companies like
Amazon and Walmart to hire enough people to ensure consumers get their products on time,
especially during the holiday season. The growing demand can’t be met without automating.
AMRs also keep the supply chain moving faster in manufacturing facilities, and are playing an
increasing role in retail environments for tasks like shelf scanning and floor cleaning.

The Robotic Industries Association (RIA) is developing a new standard to address all aspects
related to the safety of people around AMRs: the R15.08 American National Standard for
Industrial Mobile Robots and Robot Systems – Safety Requirements, to be released in 2020.

8. Expanded Use of Machine Vision

Traditionally, machine vision was thought of as primarily a technology for tasks like inspection
and identification. However, vision now plays an expanding role in all fields, enabling all sorts
of interesting new applications.

Embedded vision is bringing a whole new range of capabilities to existing products, combining
both image capture and image processing into one device. Embedded systems are lightweight,
consume lower amounts of energy, feature lean designs and create opportunities for new
functionality, making them perfect for integration with existing systems, as well as products such
as mobile phones and computers.

In heavy manufacturing operations, VEO Robotics is attempting to use machine vision to allow
millions of industrial robots that are currently fenced off in factories to work safely around
people.

Vision also is enabling advances in driverless cars, drones and even in shopping, with the advent
of stores like Amazon Go.

9.  New Applications for Robotics Enabled by AI

Solutions leveraging the power of artificial intelligence (AI) are already paying off in automation
and manufacturing. AI—in many shapes and forms—will be the stitching that weaves together a
new age of industry. We expect to see many advances in the year ahead, especially related to
robotics.

Machine learning software can help robotic systems adapt to their work environments, rather
than designing every aspect of the environment and processes to suit the limitations of the
machines. These advances will enhance both productivity and safety, and lead to more
applications involving true collaboration between humans and robots.

With more and more connected systems featuring advanced sensor technology, AI can identify
patterns in the data that are associated with breakdowns and other mechanical issues. This data
will drive predictive applications, where AI can detect patterns that indicate a robot needs
maintenance soon. It can automatically alert engineers to take necessary steps towards repairing
a machine before it breaks down, saving companies costly downtime. AI-powered analysis of
this data could also help businesses optimize their processes to improve quality and reduce
waste.

We also see machine learning being used by robots to teach themselves how to perform tasks
more successfully. Ultimately these advances will lead to robots sharing that knowledge via the
cloud, allowing robots to learn from each other, which will improve the effectiveness of robot
technology and speed deployment.
10. Grasping Advances

End effectors are the ultimate touchpoint for every product or part that goes out the door.
Hardware and software advances enable safer, closer human-robot collaboration, ease of use and
flexibility for handling a wide variety of shapes and sizes.

To date, the challenge has been developing gripping solutions that are fast, don’t require lots of
training and can be used on any product, even ones the robot hasn’t seen before. Great progress
is being made in this area, in part due to the advances in machine vision and AI discussed earlier.

Improvements in gripping enable robots to handle products of all kinds, including frozen bakery
items, fruits and vegetables, and parts for consumer electronics, just to name a few. This leads to
the use of robots in areas they’ve rarely or never been used before, such as food processing,

Current applications of robotics:

At the moment being, the number of robotics fields is nearly uncatchable, since robot technology
is being applied in s-o many domains that nobody is able to know how many and which they are.
Such an exponential growth cannot be fully tracked and we will try to identify and discuss upon
the most evident fields of application, which, as far as we, comprehend are:

Healthcare Robotics; Robotics used in the context of patient monitoring/evaluation, medical

supplies delivery, and assisting healthcare professionals in unique capacities as well as,
Collaborative robots and robotics used for Prevention

Medical and Surgery Robotics; Devices used in hospitals mostly for assisting surgery since
they allow great precision and minimal invasive procedures

Body-machine interfaces help amputees to feed-forward controls that detect their will to move
and also receive sensorial feedback that converts digital readings to feelings

Telepresence Robotics; Act as your stand-in at remote locations it is meant to be used in

hospitals and for business travellers, with the idea of saving both time and money

Cyborgs, Exoskeletons, and Wearable Robotics. Allow users to augment their physical
strength, helping those with physical disabilities to walk and climb

Humanoids. Combine artificial intelligence and machine learning technologies to give robots
human-like expressions and reactions
Industrial. Arms, grippers and all of the warehouse robotics used for automation of industrial
processes. They are used both for saving money and speed up the productions

Housekeeping. Floors, Gardens Pools and all the Robot Cleaners

Collaborative Robots. Recently the market has been opened to Domotics and other Home and
Public Spaces (e.g. Shops) Automation coordinators

Military Robotics. Drones, Navigators, Researchers, Warriors and all of the possible robotics
extensions which are to be applied in spying operations and battle fields

Underwater, Flying and Self -Driving Machines. All the Robotics that deals with self-piloting
in all circumstances, on earth, air and water

Space Robots. All of the Robotics used in Space missions, therefore highly resistant, expert in
exploration and material data collection

Entertainment. Toys, Games and Interactive Robotics for children

Art. Most creative robotics, which don’t aim at a specific functionality but follows criteria of
beauty and conceptual inspiration

Environmental and Alternately powered robots use sources like solar, wind and wave energy
to be powered indefinitely and open up applications in areas that are off-grid

Swarm and Microbots allow emergency responders to explore environments that are too small
or too dangerous for humans or larger robots; deploying them in “swarms” compensates for their
relatively limited computational ability

Robotic networks emerge and allow robots to access databases, share information and learn
from one another’s experience

Modular Robotics. Robots that can arrange themselves in pre-set patterns to accomplish
specific tasks