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 R.M.D ENGINEERING COLLEGE
EC8391 CONTROL SYSTEM ENGINEERING

Department : ECE
Batch/Year : 2020 - 2024
Created by : Ms. R.AARTHI AP/ECE
Ms.P.SANTHOSHINI AP/ECE

Date : 1.9.2021

4
 Table of Contents
Page
S.No Contents
Number

1 Course Objectives 7

2 Pre Requisites 7

3 Syllabus 8

4 Course outcomes 9

5 CO - PO/PSO Mapping 10

UNIT I - SYSTEMS COMPONENTS AND THEIR

6
REPRESENTATION

6.1 Lecture Plan 11

6.2 Activity based learning 12

6.3 Lecture Notes 16

 Control System: Terminology and Basic Structure 16

 Feed forward and Feedback control theory 21

Mechanical Transfer Function model 23

 Electrical Transfer Function models 42

DC and AC servo Systems 54

Synchronous and Multivariable control system. 63

Block diagram Models 65

Signal flow graphs models 78

6.4 Assignments 88

6.5 Part A Q & A 90

5
 Table of Contents

Page
S.No Contents
Number

6.6 Part B Q 95

6.7 Supportive online Certification courses 101

6.8 Real time Application in day to day life and Industry 102

6.9 Contents beyond the Syllabus 103

7 Assessment Schedule 105

8 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 106

9 Mini Project suggestions 107

6
1.Course Objectives
To introduce the components and their representation of
control systems
To learn various methods for analyzing the time response,
frequency response and stability of the systems
To learn the various approach for the state variable analysis

7
2.Pre Requisites (Course Names with Code)
MA8251 Engineering Mathematics II
EC8251 Circuit Analysis

8
3.SYLLABUS

EC8391 CONTROL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING LTPC 3003

UNIT I SYSTEMS COMPONENTS AND THEIR REPRESENTATION 9

Control System: Terminology and Basic Structure-Feed forward and Feedback control
theory-Electrical and Mechanical Transfer Function Models-Block diagram Models-
Signal flow graphs models-DC and AC servo Systems-Synchronous -Multivariable
control system
UNIT II TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS 9
Transient response-steady state response-Measures of performance of the standard
first order and second order system-effect on an additional zero and an additional
pole-steady error constant and system- type number-PID control-Analytical design
for PD, PI,PID control systems
UNIT III FREQUENCY RESPONSE AND SYSTEM ANALYSIS 9
Closed loop frequency response-Performance specification in frequency domain-
Frequency response of standard second order system- Bode Plot - Polar Plot-
Nyquist plots-Design of compensators using Bode plots-Cascade lead compensation-
Cascade lag compensation-Cascade lag-lead compensation
UNIT IV CONCEPTS OF STABILITY ANALYSIS 9
Concept of stability-Bounded - Input Bounded - Output stability-Routh stability
criterion-Relative stability-Root locus concept-Guidelines for sketching root locus-
Nyquist stability criterion.
UNIT V CONTROL SYSTEM ANALYSIS USING STATE VARIABLE METHOD 9
State variable representation-Conversion of state variable models to transfer
functions-Conversion of transfer functions to state variable models-Solution of state
equations-Concepts of Controllability and Observability-Stability of linear systems-
Equivalence between transfer function and state variable representations-State
variable analysis of digital control system-Digital control design using state feedback.

9
4.Course outcomes

Upon completion of the course, the student should be able to:

CO1: Identify the various Control System components and their representations.
CO1: Analyze the various time domain parameters.
CO3: Analysis the various frequency response plots and its system.
CO4: Apply the concepts of various system stability criterions.
CO5: Design various transfer functions of Control System using State variable
models.
CO6: Analyze the digital Control System using State Feedback

10
5.CO- PO/PSO Mapping
CO

PROGRAMME OUTCOMES(PO) PSO*

PO10

PO11

PO12

PSO1

PSO2

PSO3
PO6
PO1

PO2

PO3

PO4

PO5

PO7

PO9
P08
3 3 3 2 3 3 1 - - - 2 2 1 - -
CO6 CO5 CO4 CO3 CO2 CO1

3 3 3 2 2 3 1 - - - 2 2 1 1 -

3 3 3 3 3 3 - - - - 2 2 1 1 -

3 3 3 3 2 3 - - - - 2 3 1 1 -

3 3 2 3 3 2 - - - - 2 3 1 - -

3 3 2 3 2 2 1 - - - 2 3 - - -

*Program Specific Outcome

11
6.1 Lecture Plan
UNIT I SYSTEMS COMPONENTS AND THEIR REPRESENTATION

Taxonomy
pertaining
Proposed

Delivery
Mode of
Periods

Actual
No. of

Date

level
S.No

date

CO
Topic

Control System:
Online
1 Terminology and 1 CO1 K2
class
Basic Structure
Feed forward and
Online
2 Feedback control 1 CO1 K2
class
theory
Electrical Transfer Online
3 1 CO1 K3
Function models class
Mechanical Transfer Online
4 2 CO1 K3
Function model class
Block diagram Online
5 2 CO1 K4
Models class
Signal flow graphs Online
6 2 CO1 K4
models class
DC and AC servo Online
7 1 CO1 K2
Systems class
Synchronous and
Online
8 Multivariable control 1 CO1 K2
class
system.

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 6.2 Activity based learning
Activity 1

Stick Experiment.
The yardstick puzzle can be used to explain positive and negative feedback, its
description is given below.
Part 1: Negative feedback

Balance a smooth stick on your outstretched forefingers as shown in (Figure a) to see

negative feedback in action. Now move your fingers towards each other until they come
together. Your fingers will end up touching each other right under the stick’s center of
mass, and the stick will balance (Figure b). You can repeat the trick, changing the initial
position of your fingers, but the result will always be the same.
This is an example for negative feedback. The fingers alternate in motion until they touch
each other (Figure a). At any moment in the experiment only one finger at a time moves.
The one that moves experiences less friction. This action continues until the friction
between the stick and the moving finger exceeds the friction of the other finger. This
leads to a switch in fingers roles, the moving finger stops moving, and the stationary
finger starts to move. The process repeats itself until the fingers touch each other. This is
a great experiment to illustrate negative feedback. In fact it always works whatever you
use – a ruler, a walking stick, a broom, or a billiard cue

Part 2: Positive feedback

Once at the center, try to move your fingers away from each other (Figure c). When
attempting to do so, an unexpected motion occurs. Only one finger moves toward the
end of the stick, while the other stays at the center. This is caused by a greater friction
force exerted on the stationary finger. As one finger moves there is less friction with the
stick on that finger, allowing it to move farther away, exerting less and less friction on it
as it moves. In addition, due to unbalanced forces, more force is exerted on the
stationary finger, making it even more unlikely to change its position. This is certainly an
example of positive feedback. The difference in friction forces keeps growing, therefore
causing only one finger to keep moving away from the center of the stick.

13
 8.Activity based learning Quiz

UNIT 1

1. In an open loop control system

a)Output is independent of control input
b)Output is dependent on control input
c)Only system parameters have effect on the control output
d)None of the above

2. For open control system which of the following

statements is incorrect
a)Less expensive
b)Recalibration is not required for maintaining the required
quality of the output
c)Construction is simple and maintenance easy
d)Errors are caused by disturbances

3. The capacitance, in force -current analogy, is analogous

to
a)momentum
b)velocity
c)displacement
d)mass

4. In closed loop control system, with positive value of

feedback gain the overall gain of the system will
a)decrease
b)increase
c)be unaffected
d)any of the above

5. Which of the following is an open loop control system ?

a)Field controlled D.C. motor
b ) Wa r d l e o n a r d c o n t r o l
c)Metadyne
d)Stroboscope
6. Which of the following statements is not necessarily
correct for open control system ?
a)Input command is the sole factor responsible for providing
the control action
b)Presence of non-linearities causes malfunctioning
c)Less expensive
d)Generally free from problems of non -linearities

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7. In open loop system
a)the control action depends on the size of the system
b)the control action depends on system variables
c)the control action depends on the input signal
d)the control action is independent of the output

8. A good control system has all the following features

except
a)good stability
b)slow response
c)good accuracy
d)sufficient power handling capacity

9. A.C. servomotor resembles

a)two phase induction motor
b)Three phase induction motor
c)direct current series motor
d)universal motor

10. Which of the following should be done to make an

unstable
system stable ?
a)The gain of the system should be decreased
b)The gain of the system should be increased
c)The number of poles to the loop transfer function should be
increased
d)The number of zeros to the loop transfer function should be
increased

11. As a result of introduction of negative feedback which

of the following will not decrease ?
a)Band width
b)Overall gain
c)Distortion
d)Instability
12. Force balancing equation of a mass element is (where,
x = displacement).
a ) M d 2x / d t 2
b) M dx/dt
c) M *x
d)any of the above

13. Find the number of nodes.

a)1
b)2
c)3
d)4

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14. Find the number of nodes.
a)1
b)2
c)3
d)0

15. Force balancing equation of a dash-pot element is (where, x =

displacement)
a) B d2x/dt2
b) B dx/dt
c) B *x
d)none of the above

Unit I Quiz Answers:

Questions Answers

1 a

2 b

3 d

4 a

5 a

6 b

7 d

8 b

9 a

10 b

11 a

12 a

13 b

14 b

15 a

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6.3 Lecture notes UNIT I
SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND THEIR REPRESENTATION

1.1 CONTROL SYSTEM

A control system is a system, which provides the desired response by
controlling the output. The following figure 1.1 shows the simple block diagram of a
control system.

Fig. 1.1. Block Diagram of Control System

Here, the control system is represented by a single block. Since, the output is
controlled by varying input, the control system got this name. We will vary this input
with some mechanism. In the next section on open loop and closed loop control
systems, we will study in detail about the blocks inside the control system and how
to vary this input in order to get the desired response.
Examples
Traffic lights control system, washing machine
EXPLANATION WITH EXAMPLE:
Traffic lights control system is an example of control system. Here, a sequence of
input signal is applied to this control system and the output is one of the three lights
that will be on for some duration of time. During this time, the other two lights will
be off. Based on the traffic study at a particular junction, the on and off times of the
lights can be determined. Accordingly, the input signal controls the output. So, the
traffic lights control system operates on time basis.

1.2. BASIC ELEMENTS OF CONTROL SYSTEM

In recent years, control systems have gained an increasingly importance in the
development and advancement of the modern civilization and technology. Figure
shows the basic components of a control system. Disregard the complexity of the
system; it consists of an input (objective), the control system and its output (result).
Practically our day-to-day activities are affected by some type of control systems.
There are two main branches of control systems:
1) Open-loop systems
2) Closed-loop systems
OPEN-LOOP SYSTEMS:
The open-loop system is also called the non-feedback system. This is the simpler of
the two systems. Here, an input is applied to a controller and it produces an
actuating signal or controlling signal. This signal is given as an input to a plant or
process which is to be controlled. So, the plant produces an output, which is
controlled.

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 Fig. 1.2. Open Loop Control System
CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEMS:
The closed-loop system is also called the feedback system. So, the control action is
dependent on the desired output. The following figure shows the block diagram of
closed loop control system.

Fig. 1.3. Closed Loop Control System

The error detector produces an error signal, which is the difference between the
input and the feedback signal. This feedback signal is obtained from the block
(feedback elements) by considering the output of the overall system as an input to
this block. Instead of the direct input, the error signal is applied as an input to a
controller.
So, the controller produces an actuating signal which controls the plant. In this
combination, the output of the control system is adjusted automatically till we get
the desired response. Hence, the closed loop control systems are also called the
automatic control systems. Traffic lights control system having sensor at the input is
an example of a closed loop control system.

1.3. TERMINOLOGY AND BASIC STRUCTURE

Control systems have assumed an increasingly important role in the development
and advancement of modern civilization and technology. Practically every aspect of
our day-to-day activities is affected by some type of control system. A bathroom
toilet tank is a control system. A home-heating system, a refrigerator, an air-
conditioner, and an automobile are all control systems.

18
Control systems are indispensable in modem industrial processes. We find control
systems in all sectors of industry, such as quality control of manufactured products,
automatic assembly line, machine-tool control, space technology and weapon
systems, transportation systems, power systems, robotics, and many others. Even
such problems as inventory control, and socio-economic systems control may be
approached from the theory of feedback control. In control parlance, the system to
be controlled is given various names: process, plant, and controlled system being
perhaps the most common. In the so-called process industries (chemicals,
petroleum, steam power, fuel, etc.). one repeatedly encounters the need to control
temperature, flow rate, liquid-level in vessels, pressure, humidity, chemical
composition, and the like; such applications are generally considered process control
applications.
Figure 1.4 shows the input-output configuration of a process (or plant). Process
outputs are the response variables which we require to behave in some specified
fashion. Process inputs are flows of energy and/or material that cause the process to
react or respond. The inputs are classified into manipulated inputs (subject to our
control) and disturbance inputs (undesirable and unavoidable effects beyond our
control, generated from outside process-environment, and from within). The
presence of the disturbance is one of the main reasons of using control. Clever
management of manipulated variables so as to counteract the effects of
disturbances is the primary role of the controller. Figure 1.5 shows the input-output
configuration of a control system.

Fig. 1.4. Input-Output Process of a System

Fig. 1.5. Input-Output Configuration of a System

19
When the desired value of the controlled outputs is more or less fixed and the main
problem is to reject disturbance effects, the control system is some-times called a
regulator. The command input for a regulator becomes a constant and is called set-
point, which corresponds to the desired value of the controlled output. The set-point
may however be changed in time from one constant value to another, and the need
for the control of manipulated variables arises from the requirements of both the
set-point changes and the disturbance rejection. The control problem is then called
resetting control problem.
In the follow-up or tracking system, the controlled output is required to follow or
track a time-varying command input. For such systems, the need for the control of
manipulated variables arises from the requirements of command-following as well as
disturbance rejection. In the configuration of Fig. 1.6, the controller receives
information about the desired value of the controlled output and uses this
information as a means of control of the manipulated variables. In contrast to this
configuration, the con-figuration of Fig. 1.7 utilizes measurement of the controlled
output in order to compare the actual output with the desired output response. The
controller then uses this difference as a means of control of manipulated variables.
The configuration of Fig. 6 is that of an open-loop control system while that of Fig.
1.7 is that of closed-loop control system or feedback control system.

Fig. 1.6. Open Loop Configuration of a System

Fig. 1.7. Closed Loop Configuration of a System

20
To understand the basic structure of control systems, let us assume the variable and
discuss with a block diagram.

Fig. 1.8. Basic Structure of Control Systems

The summing junction is a symbol for the error detector which compares the
reference input r with the feedback signal b and generates a signal e ̂ = (r -b). The
feedback elements block is often a sensor for measuring y, but since its functions
sometimes include more than simple measurement (e.g., noise filtering), the name
feedback element rather than sensing element has been chosen.
The signal e ̂ defines the actuating error signal, and not the system error signal
which is logically defined as e ̂= (𝑦𝑟 − 𝑟). Note that 𝑟, 𝑏 and 𝑒 ̂ always have exactly
the same dimensions. The control logic elements block produces the control signal
u, which has the knowledge about the desired control action. The controller is
generally thought of as a system that compares the reference input with the
feedback signal and is also responsible for suitable control action.
The actuator elements block consists of devices that develop manipulated variable,
m to influence the objects under control. The actuator elements are the “Muscle” of
the control system and control logic elements are the “Brain”.

21
FEEDFORWARD-FEEDBACK CONTROL STRUCTURE
Feedback Control System
Feedback control is a very simple technique that compensates for any disturbance
affecting the controlled variable. When a disturbance enters the process, the
controlled variable deviates from its desired value (set-point) and, on sensing the
error, the feedback controller manipulates the process input in a way favoring the
dissolution of error. Feedback control acts upon an error between the set-point and
the controlled variable. This means that once a disturbance enters a process, it must
propagate through the process and force the controlled variable to deviate from the
set-point before corrective action can be taken.
Limitation of Feedback Control System:
The main limitation of a feedback control system is that in order for it to compensate
for disturbances, the controlled variable must first deviate from its desired value.

1.4. FEED-FORWARD CONTROL SYSTEM

Feedforward control compensates for disturbances before they affect the controlled
variable. In this scheme, the disturbances are measured before they enter the
process and required value of the manipulated variable to maintain the controlled
variable at its desired value is calculated; implementation of such a control results in
undisturbed controlled variable. Design of this type of control scheme does not
generally require any specialized control theory; basic system dynamics are sufficient
in most cases. Success of disturbance feedforward control schemes depends on our
ability to:
(i) measure the disturbance and
(ii) estimate the effect of the disturbance on the controlled variable,
so that we can compensate for it.

1.5. MULTIVARIABLE CONTROL SYSTEMS

Complex processes and machines often have several variables (outputs) that we
wish to control, and several manipulated inputs available to provide this control.
Sometimes the control situation is simple; one input affects primarily one output and
has only weak effect on the other outputs.
In such situations, it is possible to ignore weak interactions (coupling) and design
controllers under the assumption that one input affects only one output. Input–
output pairing to minimize the effect of interactions and application of SISO control
schemes to obtain separate controllers for each input–output pair, results in an
acceptable performance.

22
This, in fact, amounts to considering the multivariable system as consisting of an
appropriate number of separate SISO systems. Coupling effects are considered as
disturbances to the separate control systems and may not cause significant
degradation in their performance if the coupling is weak.
A multivariable system is said to have strong interactions (coupling) if one input
affects more than one output appreciably. There are two approaches for the design
of controllers for such systems.
1. Design a decoupling controller to cancel the interactions inherent in the system.
Consider the resulting multivariable system as consisting of an appropriate number
of SISO systems, and design a controller for each system.
2. Design a single controller for the multivariable system taking interactions into
account.
Transfer Function:
In control systems, transfer function characterizes the input output relationship of
components or systems that can be described by Liner Time Invariant Differential
Equation. In a system having two or more components in sequence, it is very
difficult to find graphical relation between the input of the first element and the
output of the last element. This problem is solved by transfer function.
Transfer function of a Linear Time Invariant system is defined as the ratio of the
Laplace Transform of the output variable to the Laplace Transform of the input
variable assuming all the initial condition as zero.
Properties of Transfer Function:
• The transfer function of a system is the mathematical model expressing
the differential equation that relates the output to input of the system.
• The transfer function is the property of a system independent of
magnitude and the nature of the input.
• The transfer function includes the transfer functions of the individual
elements. But at the same time, it does not provide any information regarding
physical structure of the system.
• The transfer functions of many physically different systems shall be
identical.
• If the transfer function of the system is known, the output response can
be studied for various types of inputs to understand the nature of the system.
• If the transfer function is unknown, it may be found out experimentally by
applying known inputs to the device and studying the output of the system.

23
Steps to Find Transfer Function:

(1) Identify the number of nodes (Mass/Moment of Inertia)

(2) Draw the free body diagram for each node

(3) Write the differential equation

(4) Apply Newton’s II Law

(5) Take Laplace Transform

(6) Find the Transfer Function

1.6. MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF CONTROL SYSTEM

The control systems can be represented with a set of mathematical equations known
as mathematical model. These models are useful for analysis and design of control
systems. Analysis of control system means finding the output when we know the
input and mathematical model.

The mathematical models of control systems can be classified as:

• Mechanical System
• Electrical System

The Mechanical System can be classified into two types,

Mechanical Translational System

Mechanical Rotational System

Mechanical Translational systems

The model of mechanical translational systems can obtain by using three basic
elements mass, spring and dashpot. When a force is applied to a translational
mechanical system, it is opposed by opposing forces due to mass, friction and
elasticity of the system.

The force acting on a mechanical body is governed by Newton’s second law of

motion. For translational systems it states that the sum of forces acting on a body is
zero.

24
Force balance equations
MASS, M
Consider an ideal mass element shown in fig. which has negligible friction and
elasticity. Let a force be applied on it. The mass will offer an opposing force which is
proportional to acceleration of a body.

Fig. 1.9. Mass

𝑭𝒎 ∝ 𝒂
𝑭𝒎 = 𝑴𝒂

𝒅𝟐 𝒙
𝑭 = 𝑭𝒎 = 𝑴
𝒅𝒕𝟐

Where,

𝑭– Applied Force

𝑭𝒎 - Opposing Force offered by Mass

𝑴- Mass

𝒅𝟐 𝒙
𝒂= - Acceleration
𝒅𝒕𝟐

𝒙 – Displacement

DASH-POT, B

Consider an ideal frictional element dash-pot shown in fig. which has negligible mass
and elasticity. Let a force be applied on it. The dashpot will offer an opposing force
which is proportional to velocity of the body.

25
 Fig. 1.10. Dash-pot
𝑭𝒃 ∝ 𝒗
𝑭𝒃 = 𝑩𝒗
𝒅𝒙
𝑭 = 𝑭𝒃 = 𝑩
𝒅𝒕

Where,

𝑭– Applied Force

𝑭𝒃 - Opposing Force offered by Dashpot

𝑩- Dashpot

𝒅𝒙
𝒗= 𝒅𝒕
- Velocity

𝒙 – Displacement

SPRING, K

Consider an ideal elastic element spring is shown in fig. This has negligible mass and
friction.

26
 Fig. 1.11. Spring
𝑭𝒌 ∝ 𝒙
𝑭𝒌 = 𝑲𝒙
𝑭 = 𝑭𝒌 = 𝑲𝒙

Where,

𝑭– Applied Force

𝑭𝒌 - Opposing Force offered by Dashpot

𝑲- Spring

𝒙 – Displacement

Ex:1. Write the differential equations governing the Mechanical

Translational system shown in figure and determine the transfer function
𝑿𝟏 (𝑺) 𝑿𝟐 (𝑺)
and
𝑭(𝑺) 𝑭(𝑺)

27
Solution:

Step-1: Identification of Number of Nodes

Masses → Nodes
𝑴𝟏 , 𝑴𝟐 → Nodes
No. of Nodes = 2

Step-2: Free Body Diagram

Node 1 1 Node 2 1

Step-3: To write Differential Equation

Node1

𝒅𝟐 𝒙𝟏 𝒅𝒙𝟏 𝒅(𝒙𝟏 −𝒙𝟐 )

𝒇𝒎𝟏 = 𝑴𝟏 , 𝒇𝒃𝟏 = 𝑩𝟏 , 𝒇𝒃𝟏𝟐 = 𝑩𝟏𝟐 , 𝒇𝒌𝟏 = 𝑲𝟏 𝒙𝟏
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Node2

𝒅𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅(𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏 )

𝒇𝒎𝟐 = 𝑴𝟐 , 𝒇𝒃𝟐 = 𝑩𝟐 , 𝒇𝒃𝟏𝟐 = 𝑩𝟏𝟐 , 𝒇𝒌𝟐 = 𝑲𝟐 𝒙𝟐
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Step-4: Apply Newton’s II Law

Sum of applied forces = Sum of opposing forces

28
Node1
𝒇 𝒕 = 𝒇𝒎𝟏 + 𝒇𝒃𝟏 + 𝒇𝒃𝟏𝟐 + 𝒇𝒌𝟏

𝒅𝟐 𝒙𝟏 𝒅𝒙 𝒅(𝒙𝟏 −𝒙𝟐)
𝒇 𝒕 = 𝑴𝟏 + 𝑩𝟏 𝒅𝒕𝟏 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 + 𝑲𝟏 𝒙𝟏 ---------(1)
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕

Node2
𝟎 = 𝒇𝒎𝟐 + 𝒇𝒃𝟐 + 𝒇𝒃𝟏𝟐 + 𝒇𝒌𝟐

𝒅𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅(𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏 )

𝟎 = 𝑴𝟐 +𝑩𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 + 𝑲𝟐 𝒙𝟐 ------------------(2)
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Step-5: Taking Laplace Transform

(1)→ 𝑭 𝑺 = 𝑴𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑿𝟏 𝑺 + 𝑩𝟏 𝑺 𝑿𝟏 𝑺 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 ( 𝑿𝟏 𝑺 − 𝑿𝟐 𝑺 ) + 𝑲𝟏 𝑿𝟏 𝑺

𝑭 𝑺 = 𝑿𝟏 𝑺 𝑴𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲𝟏 − 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 𝑿𝟐 𝑺 ------(3)

(2)→ 𝟎 = 𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝑿𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑩𝟐 𝑺 𝑿𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 ( 𝑿𝟐 𝑺 − 𝑿𝟏 𝑺 ) + 𝑲𝟐 𝑿𝟐 𝑺

𝟎 = 𝑿𝟐 𝑺 𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲𝟐 − 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 𝑿𝟏 𝑺

𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 𝑿𝟏 𝑺 = 𝑿𝟐 𝑺 𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲𝟐

𝑿𝟐 𝑺 𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐 +𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺+ 𝑲𝟐
𝑿𝟏 𝑺 = ---(4)
𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺

𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 𝑿𝟏 𝑺
𝑿𝟐 𝑺 = 𝟐 -----(5)
𝑴𝟐𝑺 + 𝑩𝟐 +𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺+ 𝑲𝟐

𝑿 (𝑺) 𝑿 (𝑺)
Step-6: To Find Transfer function 𝑭(𝑺)
𝟏
and 𝑭(𝑺)
𝟐

𝑿𝟏 (𝑺)
To Find 𝑭(𝑺)

Substitute (5) in (3),

29
 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 𝑿𝟏 𝑺
𝑭 𝑺 = 𝑿𝟏 𝑺 𝑴𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲𝟏 − 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺
𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲𝟐

𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺
= 𝑿𝟏 𝑺 𝑴𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲𝟏 − 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺
𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲𝟐

𝑴𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲𝟏 𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲𝟐 − 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 𝟐

𝑭(𝑺) = 𝑿𝟏 𝑺
𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲𝟐

𝑿𝟏 (𝑺) 𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲𝟐
=
𝑭(𝑺) 𝑴𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲𝟏 𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲𝟐 − 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 𝟐

𝑿𝟐 (𝑺)
To Find 𝑭(𝑺)

Substitute (5) in (4),

𝑭 𝑺 = 𝑿𝟏 𝑺 𝑴𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲𝟏 − 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 𝑿𝟐 𝑺

𝑿𝟐 𝑺 𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲𝟐
𝑭 𝑺 = 𝑴𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲𝟏 −𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 𝑿𝟐 𝑺
𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺

𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲𝟐
= 𝑿𝟐 𝑺 𝑴𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲𝟏 −𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺
𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺

𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲𝟐 𝑴𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲𝟏 − 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 𝟐

𝑭(𝑺) = 𝑿𝟐 𝑺
𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺

𝑿𝟐 (𝑺) 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺
=
𝑭(𝑺) 𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲𝟐 𝑴𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲𝟏 − 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 𝟐

Ex:2. Write the differential equations governing the Mechanical

Translational system shown in figure and determine the transfer function

30
Solution:

Step-1: Identification of Number of Nodes

Masses → Nodes

𝑴𝟏 , 𝑴𝟐 → Nodes

Number of Nodes =2

Step-2: Free Body Diagram

Step-3: To write Differential Equation

Node1
𝒅𝟐 𝒙𝟏 𝒅𝒙𝟏 𝒅(𝒙𝟏 −𝒙𝟐)
𝒇𝒎𝟏 = 𝑴𝟏 , 𝒇𝒃𝟏 = 𝑩𝟏 , 𝒇𝒃 = 𝑩 , 𝒇𝒌 = 𝑲(𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 )
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Node2

𝒅𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅(𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏)

𝒇𝒎𝟐 = 𝑴𝟐 , 𝒇𝒃𝟐 = 𝑩𝟐 , 𝒇𝒃 = 𝑩 , 𝒇𝒌 = 𝑲(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 )
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Step-4: Apply Newton’s II Law

Sum of applied forces = Sum of opposing forces

31
Node1
𝟎 = 𝒇𝒎𝟏 + 𝒇𝒃𝟏 + 𝒇𝒃 + 𝒇𝒌

𝒅𝟐 𝒙𝟏 𝒅𝒙 𝒅(𝒙𝟏 −𝒙𝟐)
𝟎 = 𝑴𝟏 + 𝑩𝟏 𝒅𝒕𝟏 + 𝑩 + 𝑲(𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 )---------------(1)
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕

Node2
𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒇𝒎𝟐 + 𝒇𝒃𝟐 + 𝒇𝒃 + 𝒇𝒌

𝒅𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅(𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏 )

𝒇(𝒕) = 𝑴𝟐 +𝑩𝟐 +𝑩 + 𝑲(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 )------------(2)
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Step-5: Taking Laplace Transform

(1)→ 𝟎 = 𝑴𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑿𝟏 𝑺 + 𝑩𝟏 𝑺 𝑿𝟏 𝑺 + 𝑩𝑺 ( 𝑿𝟏 𝑺 − 𝑿𝟐 𝑺 ) + 𝑲( 𝑿𝟏 𝑺 − 𝑿𝟐 𝑺 )

𝟎 = 𝑿𝟏 𝑺 𝑴𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩 𝑺 + 𝑲 − 𝑩𝑺 𝑿𝟐 𝑺 ----------------(3)

𝑩𝑺 𝑿𝟐 𝑺 = 𝑿𝟏 𝑺 𝑴𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩 𝑺 + 𝑲

𝑩𝑺 𝑿𝟐 𝑺
𝑿𝟏 𝑺 = -----------------------(4)
𝑴𝟏𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏 +𝑩 𝑺+𝑲

(2)→ 𝑭(𝑺) = 𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝑿𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑩𝟐 𝑺 𝑿𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑩𝑺 ( 𝑿𝟐 𝑺 − 𝑿𝟏 𝑺 ) + 𝑲( 𝑿𝟐 𝑺 − 𝑿𝟏 𝑺 )

𝑭(𝑺) = 𝑿𝟐 𝑺 𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐 + 𝑩 𝑺 + 𝑲 − 𝑩𝑺 𝑿𝟏 𝑺 -------------------(5)

𝑿 (𝑺)
Step-6: To Find Transfer function 𝑭(𝑺)
𝟐

𝑿𝟐 (𝑺)
To Find 𝑭(𝑺)

Substitute (4) in (5),

𝑩𝑺 𝑿𝟐 𝑺
𝑭(𝑺) = 𝑿𝟐 𝑺 𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐 + 𝑩 𝑺 + 𝑲 − 𝑩𝑺
𝑴𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩 𝑺 + 𝑲

32
 𝑩𝑺 𝟐
= 𝑿𝟐 𝑺 𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐 + 𝑩 𝑺 + 𝑲 −
𝑴𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩 𝑺 + 𝑲

𝑴𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩 𝑺 + 𝑲 𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐 + 𝑩 𝑺 + 𝑲 − 𝑩𝑺 𝟐
𝑭(𝑺) = 𝑿𝟐 𝑺
𝑴𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩 𝑺 + 𝑲

𝑿𝟐 𝑺 𝑴𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩 𝑺 + 𝑲
=
𝑭(𝑺) 𝑴𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩 𝑺 + 𝑲 𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐 + 𝑩 𝑺 + 𝑲 − 𝑩𝑺 𝟐

Ex:3. Write the equations of motions in S-domain for the system shown in
figure and determine the transfer function of the system.

Solution:

Here, the Spring K and Dash-pot 𝐵2 are connected in series. Hence, a node must be
assigned between these two elements with value ZERO.

Assume, 𝑴𝟏 = 𝟎 and redraw the system.

33
Step-1: Identification of Number of Nodes

Masses → Nodes

𝑴𝟏 , 𝑴𝟐 → Nodes

Number of Nodes = 2
Step-2: Free Body Diagram

Step-3: To write Differential Equation

Node1

𝒅𝟐 𝒙𝟏 𝒅(𝒙𝟏 −𝒙)
𝒇𝒎𝟏 = 𝑴𝟏 = 𝟎, 𝒇𝒃𝟐 = 𝑩𝟐 , 𝒇𝒌 = 𝑲𝒙𝟏
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕

Node2

𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒅(𝒙−𝒙𝟏 )
𝒇𝒎𝟐 = 𝑴𝟐 𝒅𝒕𝟐 , 𝒇𝒃𝟏 = 𝑩𝟏 𝒅𝒕 , 𝒇𝒃𝟐 = 𝑩𝟐 𝒅𝒕

Step-4: Apply Newton’s II Law

Sum of applied forces = Sum of opposing forces

Node1
𝟎 = 𝒇𝒎𝟏 + 𝒇𝒃𝟐 + 𝒇𝒌

34
 𝑑 2 𝑥1 𝑑 𝑥1 −𝑥
0 = 𝑀1 +𝐵2 + 𝐾𝑥1
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

𝑑 𝑥1 −𝑥
0 = 𝐵2 + 𝐾𝑥1 ---------(1) (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑴𝟏 = 𝟎)
𝑑𝑡

Node2
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑓𝑚2 + 𝑓𝑏1 +𝑓𝑏2

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑(𝑥−𝑥1 )
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑀2 𝑑𝑡 2 +𝐵1 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐵2 ------------(2)
𝑑𝑡

Step-5: Taking Laplace Transform

(1)→ 𝟎 = 𝑩𝟐 𝑺 (𝑿𝟏 𝑺 − 𝑿(𝑺)) + 𝑲 𝑿𝟏 𝑺

𝟎 = 𝑿𝟏 𝑺 𝑩𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲 − 𝑩𝟐 𝑺 𝑿(𝑺)

𝑩𝟐 𝑺 𝑿(𝑺) = 𝑿𝟏 𝑺 𝑩𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲

𝑩𝟐 𝑺 𝑿(𝑺)
𝑿𝟏 𝑺 = ------------(3)
𝑩𝟐𝑺 +𝑲

𝟐 → 𝑭(𝑺) = 𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝑿 𝑺 + 𝑩𝟏 𝑺 𝑿 𝑺 + 𝑩𝟐 𝑺 (𝑿 𝑺 − 𝑿𝟏 𝑺 )

𝑭 𝑺 = 𝑿 𝑺 𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + (𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩𝟐 )𝑺 − 𝑩𝟐 𝑺 𝑿𝟏 𝑺 -----(4)

𝑿(𝑺)
Step-6: To Find Transfer function𝑭(𝑺)

𝑿(𝑺)
To Find 𝑭(𝑺)

Substitute (3) in (4),

𝑭 𝑺 = 𝑿 𝑺 𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + (𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩𝟐 )𝑺 − 𝑩𝟐 𝑺 𝑿𝟏 𝑺

35
 𝑩𝟐 𝑺 𝑿(𝑺)
= 𝑿 𝑺 𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + (𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩𝟐 )𝑺 − 𝑩𝟐 𝑺
𝑩𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲

𝑩𝟐 𝑺 𝟐
𝑭(𝑺) = 𝑿 𝑺 𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + (𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩𝟐 )𝑺 −
𝑩𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲

𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + (𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩𝟐 )𝑺 𝑩𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲 − 𝑩𝟐 𝑺 𝟐
𝑭(𝑺) = 𝑿 𝑺
𝑩𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲

𝑿 𝑺 𝑩𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲
=
𝑭(𝑺) 𝑴𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + (𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩𝟐 )𝑺 𝑩𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲 − 𝑩𝟐 𝑺 𝟐

Mechanical Rotational systems

The model of rotational mechanical systems can be obtained by using three
elements, moment of inertia [J] of mass, dash pot with rotational frictional
coefficient [B] and torsional spring with stiffness[k].
When a torque is applied to a rotational mechanical system, it is opposed by
opposing torques due to moment of inertia, friction and elasticity of the system. The
torque acting on rotational mechanical bodies is governed by Newton’s second law
of motion for rotational systems.
Torque balance equations

MOMENT OF INERTIA, J

Consider an ideal mass element shown in fig. which has negligible friction and
elasticity. The opposing torque due to moment of inertia is proportional to the
angular acceleration.

Fig. 1.12. Moment of Inertia

36
 𝑻𝒋 ∝ 𝜶

𝑻𝒋 = 𝑱𝜶

𝒅𝟐 𝜽
𝑻 = 𝑻𝒋 = 𝑱 𝟐
𝒅𝒕

Where,

𝑻– Applied Torque

𝑻𝒋 - Opposing Torque due to Moment of Inertia

𝑱- Moment of Inertia

𝒅𝟐 𝜽
𝜶= – Angular Acceleration
𝒅𝒕𝟐

𝜽 – Displacement

DASH-POT, B

Consider an ideal frictional element dash pot shown in fig. which has negligible
moment of inertia and elasticity. Let a torque be applied on it. The dash pot will
offer an opposing torque is proportional to angular velocity of the body.

Fig. 1.13. Dash-pot

37
 𝑻𝒃 ∝ 𝝎
𝑻𝒃 = 𝑩𝝎
𝒅𝜽
𝑻 = 𝑻𝒃 = 𝑩
𝒅𝒕

Where,

𝑻– Applied Torque

𝑻𝒃 - Opposing Torque due to Dash-Pot

𝑩- Dashpot

𝒅𝜽
𝝎= – AngularVelocity
𝒅𝒕

𝜽– AngularDisplacement

TORSIONAL SPRING, K

Consider an ideal elastic element, torsional spring as shown in fig. which has
negligible moment of inertia and friction. Let a torque be applied on it. The torsional
spring will offer an opposing torque which is proportional to angular displacement of
the body.

Fig. 1.14. Torsional Spring

𝑻𝒌 ∝ 𝜽
𝑻𝒌 = 𝑲𝜽
𝑻 = 𝑻𝒌 = 𝑲𝜽

38
Where,

𝑻– Applied Torque

𝑻𝑲 - Opposing Torque due to Spring

𝑲- Torsional Spring

𝜽 – Displacement

Ex:4. Write the differential equations governing the Mechanical Rotational

system shown in figure and determine the transfer function of the system.

Solution

In the given system, the node 𝑱𝟏 is not provided with displacement. Assume the
displacement to be 𝜽𝟏 .

Step-1: Identification of Number of Nodes

Moment of Inertia→ Nodes

𝑱𝟏 , 𝑱𝟐 → Nodes

Number of Nodes = 2

Step-2: Free Body Diagram

Node 1 Node 2

39
Step-3: To write Differential Equation

Node1

𝒅𝟐 𝜽𝟏
𝑻𝒋𝟏 = 𝑱𝟏 , 𝑻𝒌 = 𝑲(𝜽𝟏 −𝜽)
𝒅𝒕𝟐

Node2

𝒅𝟐 𝜽 𝒅𝜽
𝑻𝒋𝟐 = 𝑱𝟐 𝒅𝒕𝟐 , 𝒇𝒃 = 𝑩 𝒅𝒕 , 𝑻𝒌 = 𝑲(𝜽 − 𝜽𝟏 )

Step-4: Apply Newton’s II Law

Sum of applied torques = Sum of opposing torques

Node1

𝑻 = 𝑻𝒋𝟏 + 𝑻𝒌

𝒅𝟐 𝜽𝟏
𝑻 = 𝑱𝟏 + 𝑲(𝜽𝟏 −𝜽)-------(1)
𝒅𝒕𝟐

Node2

𝟎 = 𝑻𝒋𝟐 + 𝑻𝒃 + 𝑻𝒌

𝒅𝟐 𝜽 𝒅𝜽
0 = 𝑱𝟐 𝒅𝒕𝟐 +𝑩 𝒅𝒕 + 𝑲(𝜽 − 𝜽𝟏 )------------(2)

Step-5: Taking Laplace Transform

(𝟏) → 𝑻 𝑺 = 𝑱𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟏 𝑺 + 𝑲(𝜽𝟏 𝑺 − 𝜽(𝑺))
𝑻(𝑺) = 𝜽𝟏 𝑺 [𝑱𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑲] − 𝑲𝜽(𝑺)-------(3)

(2)→ 𝟎 = 𝑱𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽 𝑺 + 𝑩𝑺 𝜽(𝑺) + 𝑲(𝜽 𝑺 − 𝜽𝟏 (𝑺))

𝟎 = 𝜽 𝑺 𝑱𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝑺 + 𝑲 − 𝑲𝜽𝟏 (𝑺)

𝑲𝜽𝟏 𝑺 = 𝜽 𝑺 𝑱𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝑺 + 𝑲

𝜽 𝑺 𝑱𝟐 𝑺𝟐 +𝑩𝑺+𝑲
𝜽𝟏 𝑺 = ---------(4)
𝑲

40
 𝜽 𝑺
Step-6: To Find Transfer function𝑻(𝑺)

Substitute (4) in (3),

𝜽 𝑺 𝑱𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝑺 + 𝑲
𝑻(𝑺) = [𝑱𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑲] − 𝑲𝜽(𝑺)
𝑲

𝑱𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝑺 + 𝑲 𝑱𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑲
𝑇 𝑆 =𝜽 𝑺 −𝑲
𝑲
𝑱𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝑺 + 𝑲 𝑱𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑲 − 𝑲𝟐
𝑇 𝑆 =𝜽 𝑺
𝑲

𝜽 𝑺 𝑲
=
𝑻 𝑺 𝑱𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝑺 + 𝑲 𝑱𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑲 − 𝑲𝟐

Ex:5. Write the differential equations governing the Mechanical Rotational

𝜽(𝑺)
system shown in figure and determine the transfer function 𝑻(𝑺).

Solution

Step-1: Identification of Number of Nodes

Moment of Inertia→ Nodes

𝑱𝟏 , 𝑱𝟐 → Nodes

Number of Nodes = 2

Step-2: Free Body Diagram

41
Step-3: To write Differential Equation

Node1

𝒅𝟐 𝜽𝟏 𝒅
𝑻𝒋𝟏 = 𝑱𝟏 , 𝑻𝒃𝟏𝟐 = 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝒅𝒕 (𝜽𝟏 − 𝜽), 𝑻𝒌 = 𝑲(𝜽𝟏 −𝜽)
𝒅𝒕𝟐

Node2

𝒅𝟐 𝜽 𝒅 𝒅𝜽
𝑻𝒋𝟐 = 𝑱𝟐 𝒅𝒕𝟐 , 𝑻𝒃𝟏𝟐 = 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝒅𝒕 (𝜽 − 𝜽𝟏 ), 𝑻𝒃 = 𝑩 𝒅𝒕 , 𝑻𝒌 = 𝑲(𝜽 − 𝜽𝟏 )

Step-4: Apply Newton’s II Law

Sum of applied torques = Sum of opposing torques

Node1

𝑻 = 𝑻𝒋𝟏 + 𝑻𝒃𝟏𝟐 + 𝑻𝒌

𝒅𝟐 𝜽𝟏 𝒅
𝑻 = 𝑱𝟏 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝒅𝒕 (𝜽𝟏 − 𝜽) + 𝑲(𝜽𝟏 −𝜽)-------(1)
𝒅𝒕𝟐

Node2

𝟎 = 𝑻𝒋𝟐 + 𝑻𝒃𝟏𝟐 + 𝑻𝒃 + 𝑻𝒌

𝒅𝟐 𝜽 𝒅 𝒅𝜽
0 = 𝑱𝟐 𝒅𝒕𝟐 +𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝜽 − 𝜽𝟏 + 𝑩 𝒅𝒕 + 𝑲(𝜽 − 𝜽𝟏 )------------(2)

42
Step-5: Taking Laplace Transform

(𝟏) → 𝑻 𝑺 = 𝑱𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟏 𝑺 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺( 𝜽𝟏 𝑺 − 𝜽 𝑺 + 𝑲(𝜽𝟏 𝑺 − 𝜽(𝑺))

𝑻 𝑺 = 𝜽𝟏 𝑺 𝑱𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲 − [𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲]𝜽(𝑺)-------(3)

(2)→ 𝟎 = 𝑱𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽 𝑺 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 𝜽(𝑺) − 𝜽𝟏 𝑺 + 𝑩𝑺 𝜽(𝑺) + 𝑲(𝜽 𝑺 − 𝜽𝟏 (𝑺))

𝟎 = 𝜽 𝑺 𝑱𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + (𝑩𝟏𝟐 + 𝑩)𝑺 + 𝑲 − [𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲]𝜽𝟏 (𝑺)

[𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲]𝜽𝟏 (𝑺) = 𝜽 𝑺 𝑱𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + (𝑩𝟏𝟐 + 𝑩)𝑺 + 𝑲

𝜽 𝑺 𝑱𝟐 𝑺𝟐 +(𝑩𝟏𝟐+𝑩)𝑺+𝑲
𝜽𝟏 𝑺 = ---------(4)
[𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺+𝑲]

𝜽 𝑺
Step-6: To Find Transfer function𝑻(𝑺)

Substitute (4) in (3),

𝜽 𝑺 𝑱𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + (𝑩𝟏𝟐 + 𝑩)𝑺 + 𝑲
𝑻(𝑺) = 𝑱𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲 − [𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲]𝜽(𝑺)
[𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲]

𝑱𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + (𝑩𝟏𝟐 + 𝑩)𝑺 + 𝑲 𝑱𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲

𝑻 𝑺 =𝜽 𝑺 − [𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲]
[𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲]

𝑱𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + (𝑩𝟏𝟐 + 𝑩)𝑺 + 𝑲 𝑱𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲 − [𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲]𝟐

𝑻 𝑺 =𝜽 𝑺
[𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲]

𝜽 𝑺 [𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲]
=
𝑻 𝑺 𝑱𝟐 𝑺𝟐 + (𝑩𝟏𝟐 + 𝑩)𝑺 + 𝑲 𝑱𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲 − [𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑲]𝟐

1.7. ELECTRICAL ANALOGY

Two systems are said to be analogous to each other if the following two conditions
are satisfied.
 The two systems are physically different
 Differential equation modelling of these two systems are same
Electrical systems and mechanical systems are two physically different systems.
There are two types of electrical analogies of translational mechanical systems.
Those are force voltage analogy and force current analogy.

43
The two types of electrical analogies of rotational mechanical systems. Those are
torque voltage analogy and torque current analogy
ELECTRICAL ANALOGY OF MECHANICAL TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEM

Table. 1.1. Electrical Analogy of Mechanical Translational System

ELECTRICAL ANALOGY OF MECHANICAL ROTATIONAL SYSTEM

Table. 1.2. Electrical Analogy of Mechanical Rotational System

44
STEPS:
 Write the differential equation for the given mechanical translational or rotational
system.
 In the differential equation replace the displacement terms into velocity and
𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝒙
rewrite the equation. Replace 𝒅𝒕𝟐 → 𝒅𝒕 , 𝒅𝒕 → 𝒗, 𝒙 → 𝒗 𝒅𝒕 for Mechanical
𝒅𝟐 𝜽 𝒅𝝎 𝒅𝜽
translational system. Replace 𝒅𝒕𝟐
→ 𝒅𝒕
, 𝒅𝒕
→ 𝝎, 𝜽 → 𝝎𝒅𝒕 for Mechanical
rotational system.
 Draw the equivalent electrical network for the given mechanical system.
 For mechanical translational system, draw the equivalent force voltage and force
current electrical networks. For force-voltage, find mesh equations by applying
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law. For force-current, find nodal equations by applying
Kirchoff’s Current Law.
 For mechanical rotational system, draw the equivalent force voltage and force
current electrical networks. For torque-voltage, find mesh equations by applying
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law. For torque-current, find nodal equations by applying
Kirchoff’s Current Law.
 Verify the design.
Ex:6. Write the differential equations governing the Mechanical system
shown in figure. Draw Force-Voltage and Force-Current electrical
analogous circuits and verify by writing mesh and node equations.

Solution:

Step-1: Identification of Number of Nodes

Masses → Nodes
𝑴𝟏 , 𝑴𝟐 → Nodes
No. of Nodes = 2

45
Step-2: Free Body Diagram

Node 1 1 Node 2 1

Step-3: To write Differential Equation

Node1

𝒅𝟐 𝒙𝟏 𝒅(𝒙𝟏 −𝒙𝟐)
𝒇𝒎𝟏 = 𝑴𝟏 , 𝒇𝒃𝟏 = 𝑩𝟏 , 𝒇𝒌𝟏 = 𝑲𝟏 (𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 )
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕

Node2

𝒅𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝒅(𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏) 𝒅𝒙𝟐

𝒇𝒎𝟐 = 𝑴𝟐 , 𝒇𝒃𝟏 = 𝑩𝟏 , 𝒇𝒃𝟐 = 𝑩𝟐 , 𝒇𝒌𝟏 = 𝑲𝟏 (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 ), 𝒇𝒌𝟐 = 𝑲𝟐 𝒙𝟐
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Step-4: Apply Newton’s II Law

Sum of applied forces = Sum of opposing forces

Node1
𝟎 = 𝒇𝒎𝟏 + 𝒇𝒃𝟏 + 𝒇𝒌𝟏

𝒅𝟐 𝒙𝟏 𝒅(𝒙𝟏 −𝒙𝟐 )
𝟎 = 𝑴𝟏 +𝑩𝟏 + 𝑲𝟏 (𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 )---------------(1)
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕

Node2
𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒇𝒎𝟐 + 𝒇𝒃𝟏 + 𝒇𝒃𝟐 + 𝒇𝒌𝟏 + 𝒇𝒌𝟐

46
 𝒅𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝒅(𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏 ) 𝒅𝒙𝟐
𝒇(𝒕) = 𝑴𝟐 +𝑩𝟏 + 𝑩𝟐 +𝑲𝟏 (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 )+𝑲𝟐 𝒙𝟐 ------------(2)
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝒙
Replace → , → 𝒗, 𝒙→ 𝒗 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝒗𝟏
(1)→ 𝟎 = 𝑴𝟏 + 𝑩𝟏 (𝒗𝟏 -𝒗𝟐 )+𝑲𝟏 (𝒗𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐 )𝒅𝒕 --------(3)
𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝒗𝟐
(2)→ 𝒇 𝒕 = 𝑴𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏 (𝒗𝟐 − 𝒗𝟏 )+𝑩𝟐 𝒗𝟐 + 𝑲𝟏 (𝒗𝟐 − 𝒗𝟏 )𝒅𝒕 + 𝑲𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝒅𝒕 -----(4)
𝒅𝒕

Step-5: Force-Voltage Analogous circuit

1
Replace, 𝐵 → 𝑅, 𝑀 → 𝐿, 𝐾 → 𝐶
1 1
𝐵1 → 𝑅1 , 𝐵2 → 𝑅2 , 𝑀1 → 𝐿1 , 𝑀2 → 𝐿2 , 𝐾1 → ,𝐾2 → , 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 → 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝐶1 𝐶2

Apply Kirchoff’s Voltage Law to Loop (1) and (2),

𝒅𝒊𝟏 𝟏
𝟎 = 𝑳𝟏 𝒅𝒕
+ 𝑹𝟏 𝒊𝟏 − 𝒊𝟐 + 𝑪 𝒊𝟏 − 𝒊𝟐 𝒅𝒕-------(5)
𝟏

𝒅𝒊𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑳𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏 𝒊𝟐 − 𝒊𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝒊𝟐 + 𝑪 𝒊𝟐 − 𝒊𝟏 𝒅𝒕 + 𝑪 𝒊𝟐 𝒅𝒕 -----(6)
𝒅𝒕 𝟏 𝟐

Step-6: Force-Current Analogous circuit

1 1
Replace, 𝐵 → , 𝑀 → 𝐶, 𝐾 →
𝑅 𝐿
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑩𝟏 → , 𝑩𝟐 → , 𝑴𝟏 → 𝑪𝟏 , 𝑴𝟐 → 𝑪𝟐 , 𝑲𝟏 → , 𝑲𝟐 → , 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 → 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐

47
Step-6: Force-Current Analogous circuit
1 1
Replace, 𝐵 → , 𝑀 → 𝐶, 𝐾 →
𝑅 𝐿
1 1 1 1
𝐵1 → , 𝐵2 → , 𝑀1 → 𝐶1 , 𝑀2 → 𝐶2 , 𝐾1 → ,𝐾2 →
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐿1 𝐿2

Apply Kirchoff’s Current Law to the nodes (1) and (2),

𝒅𝑽𝟏 𝟏 𝑽𝟏 −𝑽𝟐
𝟎 = 𝑪𝟏 +𝑳 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 𝒅𝒕 + -------(7)
𝒅𝒕 𝟏 𝑹𝟏

𝒅𝑽𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝑽𝟐 −𝑽𝟏 𝑽
𝒊 𝒕 = 𝑪𝟐 +𝑳 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏 𝒅𝒕 + 𝑳 𝑽𝟐 𝒅𝒕 + + 𝑹𝟐 ----(8)
𝒅𝒕 𝟏 𝟐 𝑹𝟏 𝟐

Ex:7. Write the differential equations governing the Mechanical system

shown in figure. Draw Force-Voltage and Force-Current electrical
analogous circuits and verify by writing mesh and node equations.

48
Solution:

Step-1: Identification of Number of Nodes

Masses → Nodes
𝑴𝟏 , 𝑴𝟐 , 𝑴𝟑 → Nodes
No. of Nodes = 3
Step-2: Free Body Diagram

Node 1 Node 2 Node 3

Step-3: To write Differential Equation

Node1

𝒅𝟐 𝒙𝟏 𝒅𝒙𝟏 𝒅(𝒙𝟏 −𝒙𝟐) 𝒅(𝒙𝟏 −𝒙𝟑)

𝒇𝒎𝟏 = 𝑴𝟏 , 𝒇𝒃𝟏 = 𝑩𝟏 , 𝒇𝒃𝟐 = 𝑩𝟐 , 𝒇𝒃𝟑 = 𝑩𝟑 , 𝒇𝒌𝟏 = 𝑲𝟏 𝒙𝟏
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Node2

𝒅𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝒅(𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟑 ) 𝒅(𝒙𝟐− 𝒙𝟏)

𝒇𝒎𝟐 = 𝑴𝟐 , 𝒇𝒃𝟐𝟑 = 𝑩𝟐𝟑 , 𝒇𝒃𝟐 = 𝑩𝟐 , 𝒇𝒌𝟐𝟑 = 𝑲𝟐𝟑 (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟑 )
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Node3

𝒅𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝒅(𝒙𝟑 −𝒙𝟐 ) 𝒅(𝒙𝟑− 𝒙𝟏)

𝒇𝒎𝟑 = 𝑴𝟑 , 𝒇𝒃𝟐𝟑 = 𝑩𝟐𝟑 , 𝒇𝒃𝟑 = 𝑩𝟑 , 𝒇𝒌𝟐𝟑 = 𝑲𝟐𝟑 (𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙𝟐 )
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

49
Step-4: Apply Newton’s II Law

Sum of applied forces = Sum of opposing forces

Node1
𝟎 = 𝒇𝒎𝟏 + 𝒇𝒃𝟏 + 𝒇𝒃𝟐 + 𝒇𝒃𝟑 + 𝒇𝒌𝟏

𝒅𝟐 𝒙𝟏 𝒅𝒙 𝒅(𝒙 −𝒙 ) 𝒅(𝒙𝟏 −𝒙𝟑 )

𝟎 = 𝑴𝟏 +𝑩𝟏 𝒅𝒕𝟏+𝑩𝟐 𝟏𝒅𝒕 𝟐 + 𝑩𝟑 +𝑲𝟏 𝒙𝟏 ------(1)
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕

Node2
0 = 𝒇𝒎𝟐 + 𝒇𝒃𝟐𝟑 + 𝒇𝒃𝟐 + 𝒇𝒌𝟐𝟑
𝒅𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝒅(𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟑) 𝒅(𝒙𝟐− 𝒙𝟏 )
0 = 𝑴𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐𝟑 + 𝑩𝟐 + 𝑲𝟐𝟑 (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟑 ) -----------(2)
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Node3
𝟎 = 𝒇𝒎𝟑 + 𝒇𝒃𝟐𝟑 + 𝒇𝒃𝟑 + 𝒇𝒌𝟐𝟑
𝒅𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝒅(𝒙𝟑 −𝒙𝟐 ) 𝒅(𝒙𝟑− 𝒙𝟏)
0 = 𝑴𝟑 + 𝑩𝟐𝟑 + 𝑩𝟑 + 𝑲𝟐𝟑 (𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙𝟐 ) ----------(3)
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝒙
Replace → , → 𝒗, 𝒙→ 𝒗 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒗𝟏
(1)→ 0 = 𝑴𝟏 + 𝑩𝟏 𝒗𝟏 +𝑩𝟐 (𝒗𝟏 −𝒗𝟐 )+𝑩𝟑 (𝒗𝟏 −𝒗𝟑 )+ 𝑲𝟏 𝒗𝟏 𝒅𝒕 ------(4)
𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝒗𝟐
(2)→ 𝟎 = 𝑴𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐𝟑 𝒗𝟐 −𝒗𝟑 + 𝑩𝟐 𝒗𝟐 −𝒗𝟏 + 𝑲𝟐𝟑 𝒗𝟐 −𝒗𝟑 𝒅𝒕 −−−− − 𝟓
𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝒗𝟑
(3)→ 𝟎 = 𝑴𝟑 + 𝑩𝟐𝟑 𝒗𝟑 −𝒗𝟐 + 𝑩𝟑 𝒗𝟑 −𝒗𝟏 + 𝑲𝟐𝟑 𝒗𝟑 −𝒗𝟐 𝒅𝒕 −−−− − 𝟓
𝒅𝒕

Step-5: Force-Voltage Analogous circuit

1
Replace, 𝐵 → 𝑅, 𝑀 → 𝐿, 𝐾 → 𝐶
1
𝐵1 → 𝑅1 , 𝐵2 → 𝑅2 , 𝐵3 → 𝑅3 , 𝐵23 → 𝑅23 , 𝑀1 → 𝐿1 , 𝑀2 → 𝐿2 , 𝑀3 → 𝐿3 , 𝐾1 → ,𝐾23 →
𝐶1
1
𝐶23

50
 𝒅𝒊𝟏 𝟏
0 = 𝑳𝟏 + 𝒊𝟏 𝑹 𝟏 +𝑹 𝟐 (𝒊𝟏 −𝒊𝟐 )+𝑹 𝟑 (𝒊𝟏 −𝒊𝟑 )+ 𝒊𝟏 𝒅𝒕 ---------(7)
𝒅𝒕 𝑪𝟏

𝒅𝒊𝟐 𝟏
𝟎 = 𝑳𝟐 𝒅𝒕
+ 𝑹𝟐𝟑 𝒊𝟐 −𝒊𝟑 + 𝑹𝟐 𝒊𝟐 −𝒊𝟏 + 𝑪 𝒊𝟐 −𝒊𝟑 𝒅𝒕 -------------(8)
𝟐𝟑

𝒅𝒊𝟑 𝟏
𝟎 = 𝑳𝟑 + 𝑹𝟐𝟑 𝒊𝟑 −𝒊𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 𝒊𝟑 −𝒊𝟏 + 𝑪 𝒊𝟑 −𝒊𝟐 𝒅𝒕 ---------------(9)
𝒅𝒕 𝟐𝟑

Step-6: Force-Current Analogous circuit

1 1
Replace, 𝐵 → , 𝑀 → 𝐶, 𝐾 →
𝑅 𝐿
1 1 1 1
𝐵1 → , 𝐵2 → , 𝐵3 → , 𝐵23 → , 𝑀1 → 𝐶1 , 𝑀2 → 𝐶2 , 𝑀3 → 𝐶3 ,
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅23
1 1
𝐾1 ,𝐾23 →
𝐿1 𝐿23

51
Apply Kirchoff’s Current Law to the nodes (1), (2) and (3),
𝒅𝑽𝟏 𝑽 (𝑽𝟏 −𝑽𝟐 ) (𝑽 −𝑽 ) 𝟏
𝟎 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑹𝟏 + + 𝟏𝑹 𝟑 + 𝑳 𝑽𝟏 𝒅𝒕----(10)
𝒅𝒕 𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝟑 𝟏

𝒅𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐 −𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝟐 −𝑽𝟏 𝟏

𝟎 = 𝑪𝟐 + + +𝑳 𝑽𝟐 −𝑽𝟑 𝒅𝒕------(11)
𝒅𝒕 𝑹𝟐𝟑 𝑹𝟐 𝟐𝟑

𝒅𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝟑 −𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟑 −𝑽𝟏 𝟏

𝟎 = 𝑪𝟑 + + +𝑳 𝑽𝟑 −𝑽𝟏 𝒅𝒕 ------(12)
𝒅𝒕 𝑹𝟐𝟑 𝑹𝟑 𝟐𝟑

Ex:8. Write the differential equations governing the Mechanical Rotational

system shown in figure. Draw Torque-Voltage and Torque-Current
electrical analogous circuits and verify by writing mesh and node
equations.

Solution

Step-1: Identification of Number of Nodes

Moment of Inertia→ Nodes

𝑱𝟏 , 𝑱𝟐 → Nodes

Number of Nodes = 2

Step-2: Free Body Diagram

52
Step-3: To write Differential Equation

Node1

𝒅𝟐 𝜽𝟏 𝒅
𝑻𝒋𝟏 = 𝑱𝟏 , 𝑻𝒃𝟏𝟐 = 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝒅𝒕 (𝜽𝟏 − 𝜽), 𝑻𝒌 = 𝑲(𝜽𝟏 −𝜽)
𝒅𝒕𝟐

Node2

𝒅𝟐 𝜽 𝒅 𝒅𝜽
𝑻𝒋𝟐 = 𝑱𝟐 𝒅𝒕𝟐 , 𝑻𝒃𝟏𝟐 = 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝒅𝒕 (𝜽 − 𝜽𝟏 ), 𝑻𝒃 = 𝑩 𝒅𝒕 , 𝑻𝒌 = 𝑲(𝜽 − 𝜽𝟏 )

Step-4: Apply Newton’s II Law

Sum of applied torques = Sum of opposing torques

Node1

𝑻 = 𝑻𝒋𝟏 + 𝑻𝒃𝟏𝟐 + 𝑻𝒌

𝒅𝟐 𝜽𝟏 𝒅
𝑻 = 𝑱𝟏 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝒅𝒕 (𝜽𝟏 − 𝜽) + 𝑲(𝜽𝟏 −𝜽)-------(1)
𝒅𝒕𝟐

Node2

𝟎 = 𝑻𝒋𝟐 + 𝑻𝒃𝟏𝟐 + 𝑻𝒃 + 𝑻𝒌

𝒅𝟐 𝜽 𝒅 𝒅𝜽
0 = 𝑱𝟐 𝒅𝒕𝟐 +𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝜽 − 𝜽𝟏 + 𝑩 𝒅𝒕 + 𝑲(𝜽 − 𝜽𝟏 )------------(2)

𝒅𝟐 𝜽 𝒅𝝎 𝒅𝜽
Replace → , → 𝝎, 𝜽 → 𝝎𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

𝒅 𝝎𝟏
(1)→ 𝑻 = 𝑱𝟏 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 (𝝎𝟏 − 𝝎) + 𝑲 (𝝎𝟏 −𝝎)𝒅𝒕 ---------(3)
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝝎
(2)→ 0 = 𝑱𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝝎 − 𝝎𝟏 + 𝑩𝝎 + 𝑲 (𝝎 − 𝝎𝟏 )𝒅𝒕 ------(4)
𝒅𝒕

Step-5: Torque-Voltage Analogous circuit

1
Replace, 𝐵 → 𝑅, 𝐽 → 𝐿, 𝐾 → 𝐶

53
Apply KVL to Loops (1) and (2),

𝒅 𝒊𝟏 𝟏
𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑳𝟏 + 𝑹𝟏𝟐 (𝒊𝟏 − 𝒊𝟐 ) + 𝑪 (𝒊𝟏 − 𝒊𝟐 )𝒅𝒕 ------(5)
𝒅𝒕

𝒅 𝒊𝟐 𝟏
0 = 𝑳𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏𝟐 𝒊𝟐 −𝒊𝟏 + 𝑹 𝒊𝟐 + 𝑪 ( 𝒊𝟐 −𝒊𝟏 )𝒅𝒕 -------(6)
𝒅𝒕

Step-6: Torque-Current Analogous circuit

1 1
Replace, 𝐵 → , 𝐽 → 𝐶, 𝐾 →
𝑅 𝐿

𝒅 𝑽𝟏 (𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 ) 𝟏
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑪𝟏 + +𝑳 (𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 )𝒅𝒕 -------(7)
𝒅𝒕 𝑹𝟏𝟐

𝒅 𝑽𝟐 (𝑽 − 𝑽 ) 𝑽 𝟏
0 = 𝑪𝟐 + 𝟐𝑹 𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑳 ( 𝑽𝟐 −𝑽𝟏 )𝒅𝒕 -----(8)
𝒅𝒕 𝟏𝟐

54
1.8. AC SERVOMOTOR
An AC servo motor is essentially a two-phase induction motor with modified
constructional features to suit servo applications. The schematic of a two phase or
servo motor is shown

Fig. 1.15. AC Servomotor

It has two windings displaced by 90oon the stator One winding, called as
reference winding, is supplied with a constant sinusoidal voltage. The second
winding, called control winding, is supplied with a variable control voltage which is
displaced by -- 90o out of phase from the reference voltage.
The major differences between the normal induction motor and an AC servo
motor are The rotor winding of an ac servo motor has high resistance (R)
compared to its inductive reactance (X) so that its X / R ratio is very low.
For a normal induction motor, X / R ratio is high so that the maximum torque is
obtained in normal operating region which is around 5% of slip. The torque speed
characteristics of a normal induction motor and an ac servo motor are shown in
fig

Fig. 1.16. Graph showing the difference between normal induction and AC
Servomotor
The Torque speed characteristic of a normal induction motor is highly nonlinear
and has a positive slope for some portion of the curve.
This is not desirable for control applications. as the positive slope makes the
systems unstable. The torque speed characteristic of an ac servo motor is fairly
linear and has negative slope throughout.

55
 The rotor construction is usually squirrel cage or drag cup type for an ac servo
motor. The diameter is small compared to the length of the rotor which reduces
inertia of the moving parts. Thus, it has good accelerating characteristic and good
dynamic response. The supplies to the two windings of ac servo motor are not
balanced as in the case of a normal induction motor.
The control voltage varies both in magnitude and phase with respect to the
constant reference vulture applied to the reference winding. The direction of
rotation of the motor depends on the phase (± 90°) of the control voltage with
respect to the reference voltage. For different rms values of control voltage the
torque speed characteristics are shown in Fig.
The torque varies approximately linearly with respect to speed and also controls
voltage. The torque speed characteristics can be linearized at the operating point
and the transfer function of the motor can be obtained.

Fig. 1.17. Torque Vs Speed Graph

1.8. DC SERVOMOTOR
if we control a DC motor by means of servomechanism, it would be referred as DC
servo motor. There are different types of DC motor, such shunt wound DC motor,
series DC motor, Separately excited DC motor, permanent magnet DC motor,
Brushless DC motor etc. Among all mainly separately excited DC motor, permanent
magnet DC motor and brush less DC motor are used as servo.

Fig. 1.18. Types of DC Servomotor

56
Separately Excited DC Servo Motor

DC Servo Motor

The motors which are utilized as DC servo motors, generally have separate DC
source for field winding and armature winding. The control can be archived either by
controlling the field current or armature current. Field control has some specific
advantages over armature control and on the other hand armature control has also
some specific advantages over field control. Which type of control should be applied
to the DC servo motor, is being decided depending upon its specific applications.

Field Controlled DC Servo Motor

The figure below illustrates the schematic diagram for a field controlled DC servo
motor. In this arrangement the field of DC motor is excited be the amplified error
signal and armature winding is energized by a constant current source

Fig. 1.18. Schematic Diagram of a Field Controlled DC Servo Motor

The field is controlled below the knee point of magnetizing saturation curve. At that
portion of the curve the mmf linearly varies with excitation current. That means
torque developed in the DC motor is directly proportional to the field current below
the knee point of magnetizing saturation curve.

Fig. 1.18. Magnetizing Saturation Graph

From general torque equation of DC motor it is found that, torque 𝑇 ∝ 𝜑𝐼𝑎. Where,
φ is field flux and Ia is armature current.

57
But in field controlled DC servo motor, the armature is excited by constant current
source, hence Ia is constant here. Hence,
𝑻 ∝ 𝝋
As field of this DC servo motor is excited by amplified error signal, the torque of the
motor i.e. rotation of the motor can be controlled by amplified error signal. If the
constant armature current is large enough then, every little change in field current
causes corresponding change in torque on the motor shaft.
The direction of rotation can be changed by changing polarity of the field. The
direction of rotation can also be altered by using split field DC motor, where the field
winding is divided into two parts, one half of the winding is wound in clockwise
direction and other half in wound in anticlockwise direction.
The amplified error signal is fed to the junction point of these two halves of the field
as shown below. The magnetic field of both halves of the field winding opposes each
other. During operation of the motor, magnetic field strength of one half dominates
other depending upon the value of amplified error signal fed between these halves.
Due to this, the DC servo motor rotates in a particular direction according to the
amplified error signal voltage.
The main disadvantage of field control DC servo motors, is that the dynamic
response to the error is slower because of longer time constant of inductive field
circuit. The field is an electromagnet so it is basically a highly inductive circuit hence
due to sudden change in error signal voltage, the current through the field will reach
to its steady state value after certain period depending upon the time constant of
the field circuit. The main advantage of using field control scheme is that, as the
motor is controlled by field – the controlling power requirement is much lower than
rated power of the motor.
Armature Controlled DC Servo Motor Theory

The figure below shows the schematic diagram for an armature controlled DC servo
motor. Here the armature is energized by amplified error signal and field is excited

Fig. 1.18. Armature Controlled DC Servo Motor

The field is operated at well beyond the knee point of magnetizing saturation curve.
In this portion of the curve, for huge change in magnetizing current, there is very
small change in mmf in the motor field. This makes the servo motor is less sensitive
to change in field current. Actually for armature controlled DC servo motor, we do
not want that, the motor should response to any change of field current.

58
Again, at saturation the field flux is maximum. As we said earlier, the general torque
equation of DC motor is, torque T ∝ φIa. Now if φ is large enough, for every little
change in armature current Ia there will be a prominent changer in motor torque.
That means servo motor becomes much sensitive to the armature current.

Fig. 1.19. Magnetizing Curve Graph

As the armature of DC motor is less inductive and more resistive, time constant of
armature winding is small enough. This causes quick change of armature current
due to sudden change in armature voltage. That is why dynamic response of
armature controlled DC servo motor is much faster than that of field controlled DC
servo motor. The direction of rotation of the motor can easily be changed by
reversing the polarity of the error signal.

Permanent Magnet DC Servo Motor

Field control is not possible in the case of permanent magnet DC motor as the field
is a permanent magnet here. DC servo motor working principle in that case is similar
to that of armature controlled motor.

1.9. TRANSFER FUNCTION OF ARMATURE CONTROLLED DC MOTOR

The speed of DC motor is directly proportional to armature voltage and inversely

proportional to flux in field winding. In armature controlled DC motor the desired
speed is obtained by varying the armature voltage.

Fig. 1.20. Field Controlled DC Motor

59
This speed control system is an electromechanical control system. The electrical
system consists of armature and field circuit but for analysis purpose, only the
armature circuit is considered because the filed is excited by a constant voltage. The
mechanical system consists of the rotating part of the motor and load connected to
the shaft.
Let,
𝑅𝑎 → Armature resistance,Ω
𝐿𝑎 → Armature Inductance, H
𝑖𝑎 → Armature Current, A
𝑉𝑎 → Armature Voltage, V
𝑒𝑏 → Back EMF, V
𝐾𝑡 → Torque Constant, Nm/ A
𝑇 → Torque developed by motor, Nm
𝜃 → Angular displacement of shaft, Rad
𝐽 → Moment of inertia of motor and load, Kg 𝑚2 / Rad
𝐵 → Frictional coefficient of motor and load, Nm/(Rad/Sec)
𝐾𝑏 → Back EMF constant, V /(Rad/Sec)

By applying Kirchoff's voltage law in equivalent circuit of armature we can write,

𝒅𝒊𝒂
𝒊𝒂 𝑹𝒂 + 𝑳𝒂 + 𝒆𝒃 = 𝑽𝒂 ------(1)
𝒅𝒕

Torque of DC motor is proportional to the product of flux and current. Since flux is
constant in the system the torque is proportional to armature current alone.
𝑇 ∝ 𝑖𝑎
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒, 𝑻 = 𝑲𝒕 𝒊𝒂 ------(2)

60
The expression for the mechanical system is,
𝒅𝟐 𝜽 𝒅𝜽
𝑱 𝒅𝒕𝟐 + 𝑩 = 𝑻--------(3)
𝒅𝒕

𝑑𝜃
𝑒𝑏 ∝
𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝜽
𝒆𝒃 = 𝑲𝒃 ------(4)
𝒅𝒕

On taking Laplace transform for (1),(2),(3) and (4),

(1)→ 𝑰𝒂 (𝑺)𝑹𝒂 + 𝑳𝒂 𝑺𝑰𝒂 (𝑺) + 𝑬𝒃 (𝑺) = 𝑽𝒂 (𝑺) (5)
(2)→ 𝑻(𝑺) = 𝑲𝒕 𝑰𝒂 (𝑺) (6)
(3)→ 𝑱𝑺𝟐 𝜽(𝑺) + 𝑩 𝑺𝜽(𝑺) = 𝑻(𝑺) (7)
(4)→ 𝑬𝒃 (𝑺) = 𝑲𝒃 𝜽(𝑺) (8)
Equate (6) and (7),
𝑲𝒕 𝑰𝒂 𝑺 = 𝑱𝑺𝟐 𝜽(𝑺) + 𝑩 𝑺𝜽(𝑺)
[𝑱𝑺𝟐 +𝑩 𝑺]𝜽(𝑺)
𝑰𝒂 𝑺 = (9)
𝑲𝒕

From (5),
𝑰𝒂 (𝑺)[𝑹𝒂 +𝑳𝒂 𝑺] + 𝑬𝒃 (𝑺) = 𝑽𝒂 (𝑺)
Substitute (9) and (8),
[𝑱𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩 𝑺]𝜽(𝑺)
[𝑹𝒂 +𝑳𝒂 𝑺] + 𝑲𝒃 𝜽(𝑺) = 𝑽𝒂 (𝑺)
𝑲𝒕
[𝑱𝑺𝟐 +𝑩 𝑺][𝑹𝒂 +𝑳𝒂 𝑺]+𝑲𝒃
𝜽(𝑺) =𝑽𝒂 (𝑺)
𝑲𝒕

The required transfer function is,

𝜽(𝑺) 𝑲
= [𝑱𝑺𝟐 +𝑩 𝑺][𝑹 𝒕 +𝑳 (10)
𝑽𝒂 (𝑺) 𝒂 𝒂 𝑺]+𝑲𝒃

𝜽(𝑺) 𝑲𝒕
=
𝑽𝒂 (𝑺) 𝑅𝑎 𝐽𝑺𝟐 + 𝑹𝒂 𝑩 𝑺 +𝑳𝒂 𝑱𝑺𝟑 +𝑳𝒂 𝑩𝑺𝟐 + 𝑲𝒃 𝑲𝒕 𝑆

𝜽(𝑺) 𝑲𝒕
=
𝑽𝒂 (𝑺) 𝑆[𝐽𝐿𝑎 𝑆 2 + 𝐽𝑅𝑎 + 𝐵𝐿𝑎 𝑆 + 𝐵𝑅𝑎 + 𝐾𝑏 𝐾𝑡 ]

𝜽(𝑺) 𝑲𝒕 /𝐽𝐿𝑎
= 𝐵𝑅𝑎 +𝐾𝑏 𝐾𝑡
-----(11)
𝑽𝒂 (𝑺) 𝑆[𝑆 2 +
𝐽𝑅𝑎 +𝐵𝐿𝑎
𝑆+ ]
𝐽𝐿𝑎 𝐽𝐿𝑎

61
Using equation (10), the transfer function can also be written as,
𝜽(𝑺) 𝑲𝒕
(10)->𝑽 = [𝑹 𝟐 +𝑩 𝑺] +𝑲
𝒂 (𝑺) 𝒂 +𝑳 𝒂 𝑺][𝑱𝑺 𝒃

𝑲𝒕
=
𝑳 𝑺 𝑱𝑺𝟐
𝑹𝒂 𝑹𝒂 + 𝟏 𝑩𝑺 𝟏 + 𝑩 𝑺 + 𝑲𝒃 𝑲𝒕 𝑺
𝒂
𝜽(𝑺) 𝑲𝒕 /𝑹𝒂 𝑩
=
𝑽𝒂 (𝑺) 𝑲 𝑲
𝑺 𝑺𝑻𝒂 + 𝟏 𝟏 + 𝑺𝑻𝒎 + 𝑹𝒃 𝑩𝒕
𝒂
Where,
𝑳𝒂
= 𝑻𝒂 → 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝑹𝒂
𝑱
= 𝑻𝒎 → 𝑴𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝑩
1.10. TRANSFER FUNCTION OF FIELD CONTROLLED DC MOTOR

The speed of DC motor is directly proportional to armature voltage and inversely

proportional to flux in field winding. In armature controlled DC motor the desired speed is
obtained by varying the armature voltage.

Fig. 1.21. Field Controlled DC Motor

This speed control system is an electromechanical control system. The electrical

system consists of armature and field circuit but for analysis purpose, only the
armature circuit is considered because the filed is excited by a constant voltage. The
mechanical system consists of the rotating part of the motor and load connected to
the shaft.
Let,
𝑅𝑎 → Armature resistance,Ω
𝐿𝑎 → Armature Inductance, H
𝑖𝑎 → Armature Current, A
𝑉𝑎 → Armature Voltage, V
𝑒𝑏 → Back EMF, V
𝐾𝑡 → Torque Constant, Nm/ A
𝑇 → Torque developed by motor, Nm

62
𝜃 → Angular displacement of shaft, Rad
𝐽 → Moment of inertia of motor and load, Kg 𝑚2 / Rad
𝐵 → Frictional coefficient of motor and load, Nm/(Rad/Sec)
𝐾𝑏 → Back EMF constant, V /(Rad/Sec)
By applying Kirchoff's voltage law, we can write,
𝒅𝒊𝒇
𝒊𝒇 𝑹𝒇 + 𝑳𝒇 = 𝑽𝒇------(1)
𝒅𝒕

Torque of DC motor is proportional to the product of flux and armature current.

Since armature current is constant in the system the torque is proportional to field
current alone.
𝑇 ∝ 𝑖𝑓
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒, 𝑻 = 𝑲𝒕𝒇 𝒊𝒇------(2)
The expression for the mechanical system is,
𝒅𝟐 𝜽 𝒅𝜽
𝑱 𝒅𝒕𝟐 + 𝑩 = 𝑻--------(3)
𝒅𝒕

On taking Laplace transform for (1),(2) and (3),

(1)→ 𝑰𝒇 (𝑺)𝑹𝒇 + 𝑳𝒇𝑺𝑰𝒇(𝑺) = 𝑽𝒇 (𝑺) (4)
(2)→ 𝑻(𝑺) = 𝑲𝒕𝒇 𝑰𝒇(𝑺) (5)
(3)→ 𝑱𝑺𝟐 𝜽(𝑺) + 𝑩 𝑺𝜽(𝑺) = 𝑻(𝑺) (6)
Equate (5) and (6),
𝑲𝒕𝒇 𝑰𝒇 𝑺 = 𝑱𝑺𝟐 𝜽(𝑺) + 𝑩 𝑺𝜽(𝑺)
[𝑱𝑺𝟐 +𝑩 𝑺]𝜽(𝑺)
𝑰𝒇 𝑺 = (7)
𝑲𝒕𝒇

From (4),
𝑰𝒇 (𝑺)[𝑹𝒇+𝑳𝒇 𝑺] = 𝑽𝒇 (𝑺)
Substitute (7),
[𝑱𝑺𝟐 + 𝑩 𝑺]𝜽(𝑺)
[𝑹𝒇 +𝑳𝒇𝑺] = 𝑽𝒇 (𝑺)
𝑲𝒕𝒇
𝑺[𝑱𝑺+𝑩 ][𝑹𝒇 +𝑳𝒇 𝑺]
𝜽(𝑺) =𝑽𝒂 (𝑺)
𝑲𝒕𝒇
𝜽(𝑺) 𝑲𝒕𝒇
=
𝑽𝒇 (𝑺) 𝑺[𝑱𝑺 + 𝑩 ][𝑹𝒇 +𝑳𝒇 𝑺]
𝜽(𝑺) 𝑲𝒕𝒇
=
𝑽𝒇 (𝑺) 𝑳𝒇 𝑺 𝑱𝑺
𝑺𝑹𝒇 𝑹 + 𝟏 𝑩 𝟏 + 𝑩
𝒇

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 𝜽(𝑺) 𝑲𝒎
=
𝑽𝒂 (𝑺) 𝑺 𝑺𝑻𝒇 + 𝟏 𝟏 + 𝑺𝑻𝒎
Where,
𝑳𝒇
= 𝑻𝒇 → 𝑭𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝑹𝒇
𝑱
= 𝑻𝒎 → 𝑴𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝑩
𝑲𝒕𝒇
𝑲𝒎 = → 𝑴𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝑮𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝑹𝒇 𝑩
1.11. SYNCHRONOUS
A synchronous motor is one in which the rotor normally rotates at the same speed
as the revolving field in the machine. The stator is similar to that of an induction
machine consisting of a cylindrical iron frame with windings, usually three-phase,
located in slots around the inner periphery. The difference is in the rotor, which
normally contains an insulated winding connected through slip rings or other means
to a source of direct current.

Fig. 1.22. Synchronous Motor

The principle of operation of a synchronous motor can be understood by considering

the stator windings to be connected to a three-phase alternating-current supply. The
effect of the stator current is to establish a magnetic field rotating at 120 𝑓/𝑝
revolutions per minute for a frequency of f hertz and for p poles. A direct current in
a p-pole field winding on the rotor will also produce a magnetic field rotating at rotor
speed. If the rotor speed is made equal to that of the stator field and there is no
load torque, these two magnetic fields will tend to align with each other. As
mechanical load is applied, the rotor slips back a number of degrees with respect to
the rotating field of the stator, developing torque and continuing to be drawn around
by this rotating field. The angle between the fields increases as load torque is
increased. The maximum available torque is achieved when the angle by which the
rotor field lags the stator field is 90°. Application of more load torque will stall the
motor.

64
One advantage of the synchronous motor is that the magnetic field of the machine
can be produced by the direct current in the field winding, so that the stator
windings need to provide only a power component of current in phase with the
applied stator voltage, i.e., the motor can operate at unity power factor. This
condition minimizes the losses and heating in the stator windings.
The power factor of the stator electrical input can be directly controlled by
adjustment of the field current. If the field current is increased beyond the value
required to provide the magnetic field, the stator current changes to include a
component to compensate for this over magnetization. The result will be a total
stator current that leads the stator voltage in phase, thus providing to the power
system reactive volt-amperes needed to magnetize other apparatuses connected to
the system such as transformers and induction motors. Operation of a large
synchronous motor at such a leading power factor may be an effective way of
improving the overall power factor of the electrical loads in a manufacturing plant to
avoid additional electric supply rates that may otherwise be charged for low power-
factor loads.
Three-phase synchronous motors find their major application in industrial situations
where there is a large, reasonably steady mechanical load, usually in excess of 300
kilowatts, and where the ability to operate at leading power factor is of value. Below
this power level, synchronous machines are generally more expensive than induction
machines.
The field current may be supplied from an externally controlled rectifier through slip
rings, or, in larger motors, it may be provided by a shaft-mounted rectifier with a
rotating transformer or generator.
A synchronous motor with only a field winding carrying a direct current would not be
self-starting. At any speed other than synchronous speed, its rotor would experience
an oscillating torque of zero average value as the rotating magnetic field repeatedly
passes the slower moving rotor. Normally, a short-circuited winding similar to that of
an induction machine is added to the rotor to provide starting torque. The motor is
started, either with full or reduced stator voltage, and brought up to about 95
percent of synchronous speed, usually with the field winding short-circuited to
protect it from excessive induced voltage. The field current is then applied and the
rotor pulls into synchronism with the revolving field.
This additional rotor winding is usually referred to as a damper winding because of
its additional property of damping out any oscillation that might be caused by
sudden changes in the load on the rotor when in synchronism. Adjustment to load
changes involves changes in the angle by which the rotor field lags the stator field
and thus involves short-term changes in instantaneous speed. These cause currents
to be induced in the damper windings, producing a torque that acts to oppose the
speed change.
Protection for synchronous motors is similar to that employed with large induction
motors. Temperature may be sensed in both the stator and field windings and used
to switch off the electric supply. Considerable heating occurs in the rotor-damper
winding during starting, and a timer is frequently installed to prevent repeated starts
within a limited time interval.

65
1.12.BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION

A control system consists of number of components. It is the pictorial

representation of the functions performed by each component and of the flow of the
signals. This depicts the interrelationship that exits among the various components.
The elements of block diagram are block, branch point and summing point.
Block: In a block diagram, all the system variables are linked to each other
through functional blocks. It is the symbol for the mathematical operation on the
input signal. The transfer function of the components are entered in the
corresponding blocks.
SUMMING POINT: It is used to add two or more signals in the system. A
circle with a cross is the symbol for summing operation. The plus or minus sign in
the arrowhead indicates whether the signal is to be added or subtracted.
BRANCH POINT: It is a Point from which a signal goes concurrently to other
blocks. It is also called as takeoff point.

transfer function of the system by following certain rules. These rules are fFig. 1.23.
Block Diagram
The block diagram can be reduced to find the overall ramed such that any
modifications made on the diagram does not alter the input-output relation.
RULES FOR BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION
RULE 1 – Combining the blocks in cascade

RULE 2 – Combining the blocks in parallel

66
RULE 3 – Moving the branch point ahead the block

RULE 4 - Moving the branch point before the block

RULE 5 - Moving the Summing point ahead the block

RULE 6 - Moving the Summing point before the block

67
RULE 7 – Interchanging the summing points

RULE 8 – Splitting the summing point

RULE 9 – Combining the summing points

RULE 10 – Elimination of positive feedback

68
 C= RG + CHG
C – CHG = RG
C(1-GH) = RG
𝑪 G
=
𝑹 𝟏−𝑮𝑯
RULE 11 – Elimination of negative feedback

C= RG - CHG
C +CHG = RG
C(1+GH) = RG
𝑪 G
=
𝑹 𝟏+𝑮𝑯
Problem 1:
Find the transfer function of a system whose block diagram is given below.

69
Solution:

Step 1: Moving the branch point before the block.

Step 2: Rearranging the branch point and combining the blocks in cascade.

Step 3: Eliminating the feedback path.

70
Step 4: Combining cascaded blocks and eliminating the feedback path.

Step 5: Combining cascaded blocks.

Step 6: Eliminating the feedback path.

71
 Step 7: Combining cascaded blocks.

The transfer function of the system is given by

𝐶(𝑆) 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3𝐺4
=
𝑅(𝑆) 1+𝐺3 𝐺4 𝐻1+𝐺2 𝐺3𝐻2+𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3𝐺4
Problem 2:
Find the transfer function of a system C1/R1 and C2/R1, whose block diagram is
given below.

72
Solution:

Case 1: To find C1/R1

Here R2 = 0 and we have only one output C1. So, there is no C2. The summing
point that adds R2 can be removed and the block G6 can be removed as it is in
open path.
Step 1: Eliminating the feedback path.

Step 2: Combining cascaded blocks and splitting the summing points.

73
Step 3: Eliminating the feedback path.

Step 4: Combining the cascaded blocks.

Step 5: Eliminating the feedback path.

74
 Step 5: Eliminating the feedback path.

The transfer function C1/R1 is given by,

𝐶1 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 (1+𝐺4 )
=
𝑅1 1+ 𝐺1 𝐺2 1+ 𝐺4 −𝐺1 𝐺4 𝐺5 𝐻1 𝐻2

Case 2: To find C2/R1

Here R2 = 0 and we have only one output C2. So, there is no C1. The
summing point that adds R2 can be removed and the block G3 can be removed as it
is in open path.
Step 1: Eliminating the feedback path

75
Step 2: Combining cascaded blocks and splitting the summing points.

Step 3: Eliminating the feedback path

76
Step 4: Combining the cascaded blocks.

Step 5: Eliminating the feedback path

77
 Step 6: Combining the cascaded blocks.

The transfer function C2/R1 is given by,

𝐶2 𝐺1 𝐺4 𝐺5 𝐺6 𝐻2)
=
𝑅1 1+ 𝐺1 𝐺2 1+ 𝐺4 −𝐺1 𝐺4 𝐺5 𝐻1 𝐻2

78
1.13. SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS

The block diagram reduction process takes more time for complicated
systems. Because, we have to draw the (partially simplified) block diagram after
each step. So, to overcome this drawback, signal flow graphs (representation) is
used.
 Signal flow graph depicts the flow of signals from one point of a system to
another point and gives the interrelationships among the signals.

 It consists of a network in which nodes are connected by branches.

 Each branch has a gain or transmittance. When a signal passes through a

branch, it gets multiplied by the gain of the branch. The direction of flow of
signal is indicated by an arrow placed on the branch.

Signal flow graph is a graphical representation of algebraic equations.

Nodes and branches are the basic elements of signal flow graph. The following are
the terms used in signal flow graphs.
Terms in Signal Flow Graph:
Node- Node is a point representing a variable.
Branch - Branch is a directed line segment joining two nodes
Transmittance- The gain acquired by the signal when it travels from one node
to another is called as transmittance .
Input node (Source)- A node that has only outgoing branches is said to be input
node.
Output node(Sink)- A node that has only incoming branches is said to be output
node.
Mixed node - A node that has both incoming and outgoing branches is said to
be a mixed node.
Path- Path is a traversal of connected branches. A path should not cross a node
more than once.
Open path- A path that starts at one node and ends in another node is said to
be a open path.
Closed path- A path that starts and ends at the same node is said to be a closed
path.
Forward path- Path from input node to output node is called as forward path.
Loop gain- Product of branch gains in a loop is called as loop gain.
Non touching loop- The loops that doesn’t have common nodes are said to be
non touching loops.

79
Properties of Signal flow graph:
The basic properties of signal flow graph are as follows:
The signal flow graph is applicable to linear systems only.
A node sums the signals of all incoming branches and transmits the sum to all the
outgoing branches.
A signal can travel in the marked direction and when it travels it get multiplied by
the gain of the branch.
The signal flow graph of a system is not unique.
The algebraic equations used to construct signal flow graph must be in the form
of cause and effect relationship.
A branch indicates the functional dependence of one signal on the other.
Rule for signal flow graph reduction:
The transfer function of a system can be found by reducing the signal flow
graph of the system using the following rules.
Rule 1: The incoming signal to a node is given by the product of the signal at the
previous node and the gain of that branch.

Rule 2: Cascaded branches can be combined into a single branch whose gain is
equal to the product of individual gains.

Rule 3: parallel branches can be combined into a single branch whose gain is
equal to the sum of individual gains.

80
 Rule 4: A mixed node in the system can be eliminated by multiplying the gain of
the outgoing branch to the gain of all the incoming branches of the mixed node.

Rule 5: A loop in the system can be eliminated by writing algebraic equations.

X2 = aX1+cX3 ---------------- (1)

X3 = bX2 ---------------- (2)

Substitute (1) in (2)

So, X3 = b(aX1+ cX3) = abX1 + bcX3
X3 – bcX3 = abX1
X3 (1 - bc) = ab X1
x3 𝑎𝑏
=
x1 1−𝑏𝑐
Signal flow graph Reduction:
The signal flow graph of a system can be reduced either by using rules of
signal flow graph or by using Mason’s Gain formula. Finding Transfer function of a
system using rules of signal flow graph is time consuming and tedious. S.J.Mason,
developed a simple procedure to determine the transfer function of a system, which
can be directly used to find it.

81
Mason’s gain formula:
As per Mason’s gain formula, the transfer function of a system is
𝑪(𝑺) 𝟏
T(s) = =∆ 𝒌 𝑷𝒌 ∆𝒌
𝑹(𝑺)

K= No. of forward path

Pk= Path gain of kth forward path
∆ = 1 - (Sum of individual loop gains)
+ (Sum of gain products of all possible combination of two non-touching loops)
- (Sum of gain products of all possible combination of three non-touching
loops)+ -----
∆k = ∆ for the part of the graph that is not touching the kthforward path.

Problem 1:
Find the transfer function of a system whose signal flow graph is given below.

Solution:
No. of forward path K = 2.
Let the path gains be P1 and P2.
Path 1:

Path 2:

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Gain of Path 1 is P1=G1G2G3G4G5
Gain of Path 2 is P2=G4G5G6
No. of individual loop = 3
Let the loop gains be P11, P21 and P31.

P11 = -G2H1
P21 =- G2G3H2
P31=- G5H3
Non-Touching loops:
There are two non-touching loops. Let the gains be P12 and P22.

P12 = P11 * P31 = G2G5 H1H3

P22 = P21 * P31 = G2G3G5H2H3
∆ = 1 – (P11 + P21 +P31 ) + (P12 + P22)
= 1 – (-G2H1 - G2G3H2 - G5H3 ) + (G2G5 H1H3 + G2G3G5H2H3)
= 1 + G2H1 + G2G3H2 + G5H3 + G2G5 H1H3 + G2G3G5H2H3
∆1 =1, Since, there is no part of the graph that is not touching the first forward path.
∆2 = 1 – P11 = 1 + G2H1
Transfer Function:
𝟏
T=∆ 𝒌 𝑷𝒌 ∆ 𝒌
𝑷𝟏 ∆𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 ∆𝟐 G1G2G3G4G5 G4G5G61 (1+ G2H1
T= = + )
∆ 1 + G2H1 + G2G3H2 + G5H3 + G2G5 H1H3 G2G3G5H2H3
+

83
 Problem 2:
Find the transfer function of a system whose signal flow graph is given
below.

No. of forward path K = 2.

Let the path gains be P1 and P2.
Path 1:

Path 2:

Gain of Path 1 is P1=G1G2G3G4G5

Gain of Path 2 is P2=G1G2G6G5
No. of individual loop = 4
Let the loop gains be P11, P21 , P31 and P41.

84
 P11 = G2H1
P21 = G3H2
P31= G4H3
P41= G6 H2H3
Non-Touching loops:
There is only one non-touching loop. Let the gain be P12.

P12 = P11 * P31 = G2G4 H1H3

∆ = 1 – (P11 + P21 +P31 +P41) + (P12 )
= 1 – (G2H1 +G3H2 + G4H3 + G6 H2H3 ) +G2G4 H1H3
∆1 =1, Since, there is no part of the graph that is not touching the first forward path.
∆2 =1, Since, there is no part of the graph that is not touching the second forward
path.
𝟏
T= 𝒌 𝑷𝒌 ∆𝒌
∆
𝑷 𝟏 ∆𝟏 + 𝑷 𝟐 ∆𝟐 G1G2G3G4G5 G1G2G5G6
T= = +
∆ 1− G2H1−G3H2− G4H3 + G6H2H3 G2G4H1H3
+
Construction of Signal Flow Graph from block diagram:
Let us convert the following block diagram into its equivalent signal flow graph.

85
Represent the input signal R(s) and output signal C(s) of block diagram as input
node R(s)and output node C(s) of signal flow graph.
Just for reference, the remaining nodes (y1 to y9) are labeled in the block diagram.
There are nine nodes other than input and output nodes. That is four nodes for four
summing points, four nodes for four ranch points and one node for the variable
between blocks G1and G2.
The following figure shows the equivalent signal flow graph.

86
 LINKS TO VIDEOS

UNIT I
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t7faBuP0454
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vVFDm__CdQw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5NltqMpJG2k
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4hPVxZlrPU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tDXgiStzbcY&feature=youtu.be

E-book References
Control System Engineering - I J Nagrath & M Gopal
Feedback Control Systems - Katsuhiko Ogata
Control System Engineering - A Nagoor Kani

87
6.4 Assignments

UNIT I
Let us obtain the equivalent viscous-friction coefficient beq for each of the
damper systems. An oil-filled damper is often called a dashpot. A dashpot is a
device that provides viscous friction, or damping. It consists of a piston and oil-
filled cylinder. Any relative motion between the piston rod and the cylinder is
resisted by the oil because the oil must flow around the piston (or through orifices
provided in the piston) from one side of the piston to the other. The dashpot
essentially absorbs energy. This absorbed energy is dissipated as heat, and the
dashpot does not store any kinetic or potential energy

Consider the spring-mass-dashpot system mounted on a massless cart as

shown in Figure . Let us obtain mathematical models of this system by assuming
that the cart is standing still for t<0 and the spring-mass-dashpot system on the
cart is also standing still for t<0. In this system, u(t) is the displacement of the
cart and is the input to the system. At t=0, the cart is moved at a constant speed,
or constant. The displacement y(t) of the mass is the output. (The displacement
is relative to the ground.) In this system, m denotes the mass, b denotes the
viscous-friction coefficient, and k denotes the spring constant. We assume that
the friction force of the dashpot is proportional to ẏ - ů and that the spring is a
linear spring; that is, the spring force is proportional to y-u.

88
Consider the inverted-pendulum system shown in Figure . Since in this system the
mass is concentrated at the top of the rod, the centre of gravity is the centre of
the pendulum ball. For this case, the moment of inertia of the pendulum about its
centre of gravity is small, and we assume I=0 . State the mathematical model for
this system.

Figure (a) shows a schematic diagram of an automobile suspension system. As

the car moves along the road, the vertical displacements at the tires act as the
motion excitation to the automobile suspension system. The motion of this system
consists of a translational motion of the centre of mass and a rotational motion
about the centre of mass. Mathematical modelling of the complete system is quite
complicated. A very simplified version of the suspension system is shown in
Figure (b).Assuming that the motion xi at point P is the input to the system and
the vertical motion xo of the body is the output, obtain the transfer function
Xo(s)Xi(s). (Consider the motion of the body only in the vertical direction.)
Displacement xo is measured from the equilibrium position in the absence of input
xi

89
 6.5 TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS-UNIT I

1.Name any two dynamic models used to represent control systems.

(K1, CO1)
Distributed parameter and lumped parameter models, Time varying and time
invariant models, Stochastic and deterministic models, Nonlinear and linear
models.

2.What is control system? (K1, CO1)

A system consists of a number of components connected together to perform a
specific function. In a system when the output quantity is controlled by varying
the input quantity then the system is called control system.

3.What are the two major types of control system? (K1, CO1)
The two major types of control system are open loop and closed loop.

4.Define open loop control system. (K1, CO1)

The control system in which the output quantity has no effect upon the input
quantity are called open loop control system. This means that the output is not
feedback to the input for correction.

5.Define closed loop control system. (K1, CO1)

The control system in which the output has an effect upon the input quantity so
as to maintain the desired output values are called closed loop control system.

6.What are the components of feedback control system? (K1, CO1)

The components of feedback control system are plant, feedback path elements,
error detector and controller.

7.Define transfer function. (K1, CO1)

The T.F of a system is defined as the ratio of the laplace transform of output to
laplace transform of input with zero initial conditions.

8.What are the basic elements used for modeling mechanical translational
system. (K1, CO1)
Mass, spring and dashpot
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9.What are the basic elements used for modeling mechanical rotational
system? (K1, CO1)
Moment of inertia J, dashpot with rotational frictional coefficient B and torsional
spring with stiffness K.

10.Name two types of electrical analogous for mechanical system.

(K1, CO1)
The two types of analogies for the mechanical system are Force voltage and
Force current analogy.

11.What is block diagram? (K1, CO1)

A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions
performed by each component of the system and shows the flow of signals. The
basic elements of block diagram are block, branch point and summing point.

12.What is the basis for framing the rules of block diagram reduction
technique? (K1, CO1)
The rules for block diagram reduction technique are framed such that any
modification made on the diagram does not alter the input output relation.

13.What is a signal flow graph? (K1, CO1)

A signal flow graph is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous algebraic
equations. By taking L.T the time domain differential equations governing a
control system can be transferred to a set of algebraic equations in s-domain.

14.What is transmittance? (K1, CO1)

The transmittance is the gain acquired by the signal when it travels from one
node to another node in signal flow graph.

15.What is sink and source? (K1, CO1)

Source is the input node in the signal flow graph and it has only outgoing
branches. Sink is a output node in the signal flow graph and it has only incoming
branches.

16.Define nontouching loop. (K1, CO1)

The loops are said to be non touching if they do not have common nodes.

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17.Write Mason’s Gain formula. (K1, CO1)
Mason’s Gain formula states that the overall gain of the system is
T = (1/ Δ)Ʃ Pk Nk
K - No.of forward paths in the signal flow graph.
Pk-Forward path gain of kth forward path
Δ = 1-[sum of individual loop gains ]+[sum of gain products of all possible
combinations of two non touching loops]-[ sum of gain products of all
possible combinations of three non touching loops]+…
Δk - Δ for that part of the graph which is not touching kth forward path.

18.Write the analogous electrical elements in force voltage analogy for the
elements of mechanical translational system. (K1, CO1)

Force-voltage e
Velocity v-current i
Displacement x-charge q
Frictional coeff B-Resistance R
Mass M-Inductance L
Stiffness K-Inverse of capacitance I/C

19.Write the analogous electrical elements in force current analogy for the
elements of mechanical translational system. (K1, CO1)
Force-current i
Velocity v - voltage v
Displacement x - flux ф
Frictional coeff B - conductance I/R
Mass M-capacitance C
Stiffness K -Inverse of inductance I/L

20.Write the force balance equation of ideal mass element. (K1, CO1)
F=M d2x/dt2
21.Write the force balance equation of ideal dashpot element. (K1, CO1)
F=B dx/dt

22.Writ e the force balance equation of ideal spring element. (K1, C01)
F=Kx

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23. Distinguish between open loop and closed loop system. (K1, CO1)

Open Loop Closed Loop

Inaccurate Accurate

Simple and Economical Complex and Costlier

The changes in output due to The changes in output due to

external disturbance are not external disturbance are
corrected corrected automatically
Great efforts are needed to
They are generally stable
design a stable system

24.What is servomechanism? (K1, CO1)

The servomechanism is a feedback control system, in which the output is
mechanical position (or time derivatives of position velocity and acceleration).

25.Why negative feedback is invariably preferred in closed loop system?

(K2, CO1)
The negative feedback results in better stability in steady state and rejects any
disturbance signals.

26.Name three functional components used in control system. (K1, CO1)

The components of feedback control system are plant , feedback path elements,
error detector and controller.

27.Define Synchro. (K1, CO1)

It is used to convert an angular motion to an electrical signal or vice versa

28.State the applications of Synchro. (K1, CO1)

i. It is used in positional control system as error detector.
ii. It is used in control system to transmit angular motions from one place to
another.

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29.What are the advantages of signal flow graphs ( S F G ) with reference
to the block diagram? (K1 , CO1)
i. It has standard procedure to find the transfer function
ii. It is not tedious

30.Define thermal resistance. (K1, CO1)

Thermal resistance = change in temperature ,°c /change in heat flow rate,
kcal/sec

31.What are the basic components of block diagram. (K1, CO1)

The basic elements of block diagram are block, branch point and
summing point.

32.Distinguish between the D.C motor and a servo motor. (K1, CO1)
The motors used in automatic control systems or in servomechanism are Called
servomotors.
They are used to convert electrical signal into angular motion.
The DC motors are used to convert electrical signal into linear motion.

33.What are the conditions to be satisfied for a linear time – invariant ( L T

I ) system to be stable? (K1, CO1)
(i) The conditions to be satisfied for a linear time – invariant ( L T I ) system to
be stable are independent of Time
(ii) it has to obey principle of supposition and homogeneity

34.State the basic elements for modeling in translational and Rotational

Systems. (K1, CO1)
Translational System
1. Mass (M) : F=M d2x/dt2
2. Dashpot (B) : F = B dx/dt
3. Spring co efficient (K) : F = Kx
Rotational System
1. Moment of Inertia (J) : T=J d2Ɵ/dt2
2. Rotational Dashpot (B) : T= B d Ɵ /dt
3. Rotational Spring co efficient (K) : T = K Ɵ

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 6.6 PART B UNIT 1

1.Write the differential equations governing the Mechanical system

shown in fig. and determine the transfer function. (K3, CO1)

2.Explain the following (i) Synchronous and (ii) Multivariable control

system. (K2 , CO1)

3.Explain the detail about A.C servo system and D.C servo system.
(K2, CO1)

4.For the mechanical system shown below obtain. (K3 , CO1)

(i) Differential equations
(ii) Torque-Voltage Analogous Circuit
(iii) Torque-Current Analogous Circuit

5.Determine the transfer function of the given electrical network.

(K3, CO1)

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6.Write the differential equation for the electrical network as shown in
figure. (K1, CO1)

7.For the block diagram of the system shown below, determine the
transfer function using the block diagram reduction technique.
(K3, CO1)

8.For the mechanical system shown below obtain. (K3, CO1)

(i) Differential equations
(ii) Force-Voltage Analogous Circuit
(iii) Force-Current Analogous Circuit

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9.For the mechanical system shown below obtain. (K4, CO1)
(i) Force-Voltage Analogous Circuit
(ii) Force-Current Analogous Circuit

10.For the block diagram of the system which is shown below, determine
the output by block diagram reduction technique when (a) input R(s)
only acts on the system (b) disturbance input D(s) only acts on the
system and (c) both the inputs act on the system. (K3, CO1)

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11.For the block diagram shown in below determine the transfer function
using block diagram reduction technique. (K3, CO1)

12.The SFG for a system is shown below. Obtain the transfer function of
the system using Mason’s gain formula. (K3, CO1)

13.The SFG for a system is shown below. Obtain the transfer function of
the system using Mason’s gain formula. (K3, CO1)

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14. For the signal flow graph shown below, find C(s) /R(s) by using
Mason Gain formula. (K3, CO1)

15.Explain the working principle and derive the transfer function for
armature controlled DC servomotor. (K2, CO1)

16.The block diagram of the system is shown below. Determine the

transfer function using Mason's gain formula (K4, CO1)

17.Determine the transfer function of the given translational system.

(K3, CO1)

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18. Write the simultaneous equation for the given system also find X1(s)
for the given system. (K3, CO1)

19.The block diagram of the system is shown below. Determine the

transfer function using Mason's gain formula. (K4, CO1)

20.Construct the signal flow graph for the following set of simultaneous
equations and also find its transfer function. (K4, CO1)

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 6.7 Supportive Online Certification courses (NPTEL, Swayam,
Coursera, Udemy, etc.,)

Swayam - Control Systems

 Udemy - Introduction to Control System for Engineers

 Udemy - Applied Control System for Engineers – Autonomous Vehicles

 NPTEL - Control System Engineering.

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6.8 Real time Applications in day to day life and to industry

UNIT I
 Room Air Conditioner which adaptively controls the temperature of a room
 Electric Power System which controls power quality parameter like Frequency,
Peak Voltage, Power Factor, etc.,
Industry Applications
Control systems are mainly used for controlling the equipments of machines in
industry. In recent years control systems have proliferative applications in in
modern industry and technology. Control systems are found in abundance in all
sectors of industry such as:
 Quality control of manufactured products
 Automatic assembly line
 Machine tool control
 Space technology and weapon systems
 Computer control
 Power Systems
 Robotics
 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems(MEMS)
 Smart transportation systems
 Ship stabilization systems
 Temperature control systems
 Steering control of automobiles
 Missile launching system
 Sun tracking control of solar collectors

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6.9 Contents beyond Syllabus ( COE related value
added courses)
COE related value added courses:
1. Embedded COE
2. Robotic s COE
Content beyond syllabus:
UNIT I - Nonlinear System
 Nonlinear control theory is the area of control theory which
d e a l s w i t h s y s t e m s t h a t a r e n o n l i n e a r, t i m e - v a r i a n t , o r b o t h .
Control theory is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering
and mathematics that is concerned with the behavior
of dynamical systems with inputs, and how to modify the output
by changes in the input using feedback, feedforward, or signal
filtering.

 These systems are often governed by nonlinear differential

equations. The mathematical techniques which have been
developed to handle them are more rigorous and much less
general, often applying only to narrow categories of systems.
T h e s e i n c l u d e l i m i t c y c l e t h e o r y, a n d d e s c r i b i n g f u n c t i o n s . I f
only solutions near a stable point are of interest, nonlinear
systems can often be linearized by approximating them by a
linear system obtained by expanding the nonlinear solution in
a series, and then linear techniques can be used. Nonlinear
systems are often analyzed using numerical
methods on computers, for example by simulating their
operation using a simulation language. Even if the plant is
l i n e a r, a n o n l i n e a r c o n t r o l l e r c a n o f t e n h a v e a t t r a c t i v e f e a t u r e s
s u c h a s s i m p l e r i m p l e m e n t a t i o n , f a s t e r s p e e d , m o r e a c c u r a c y, o r
r e d u c e d c o n t r o l e n e r g y, w h i c h j u s t i f y t h e m o r e d i f f i c u l t d e s i g n
procedure.
 The mos t e ffe ctive and advance d nonlinear control sche mes are
the adaptive controllers. The basic idea of an adaptive
controller is to estimate uncertain parameters and to tune the
controller online to adopt to the dynamic situation where the
variations in the system parameters or environment are
significant.

103
 H o w e v e r, d u e t o l a c k o f w e l l - u n d e r s t o o d s t a b i l i t y t o o l s a n d
proper hardware, it lost its charm Another particular reason for
this loss of interest was incident of the plane crash which was
controlle d by an adaptive law. Ne ve rtheless , inte re st in
adaptive control has revived especially in social robotic
b e c a u s e o f i t s s u i t a b i l i t y f o r a h i g h l y n o n l i n e a r, u n s t r u c t u r e d
and dynamic human environment as compared to the controlled
and well-ordered industrial work cells.
 The mos t e ffe ctive and advance d n on lin ear con trol adaptive
controllers are very powerful in terms of tracking accuracy and
f a s t r e s p o n s e . H o w e v e r, a d a p t i v e c o n t r o l a c t i o n u s u a l l y i n v o l v e s
high energy and aggressiveness . This may be a major
disadvantage in application where optimal usage of resources is
c r i t i c a l e . g U AV d r o n e s a n d a u t o n o m o u s r o b o t s . O n t h e o t h e r
hand, traditional linear optimal control techniques e.g. LQG and
H∞ are offline techniques and require very accurate model of
the system as well as full state feedback.
 In the last two decades, the advancements in nonlinear control
s ys tems have be e n in two folds ; advances in the ore tical
approaches and more importantly application driven
d e v e l o p m e n t s . I n t h e o r y, m a j o r b r e a k t h r o u g h h a s b e e n s e e n i n
the areas of sliding control, feedback linearization and
n o n l i n e a r a d a p t i v e s t r a t e g i e s . R e c e n t l y, n o n l i n e a r c o n t r o l
systems have gained high popularity primarily due to the
extensive application of theoretical concepts to solve real world
problems in various domains like e le ctrical, me chanical,
m e d i c a l , a v i o n i c s , s p a c e e t c . M o r e o v e r, t h e a d v a n c e s i n
computer hardware and information technology have greatly
r e s o l v e d t h e c o m p u t a t i o n a l c o n s t ra i n t s o n a n a l y s i s a n d d e s i g n
of nonlinear control systems. Now we see numerous
applications of nonlinear control systems ranging from ‘drive by
wire’ cars to ‘fly by wire’ aircraft flight control systems, to
robotic, medical, industrial and space systems.
 Robotic manipulators have reshaped the industrial automation
and are now an integral part of most of the modern plants.
Although linear control strategies like PID have been the main
w o r k h o r s e i n i n d u s t r y s i n c e d e c a d e s , h o w e v e r, t h e t r e n d t o
employ nonlinear approaches is gradually increasing . A typical
example of implementation of a nonlinear approach i.e. SMC on
a custom developed pseudo-industrial platform is presented in .
The control objective was to ensure tracking of desired
t r a j e c t o r y ( q d) . T h i s w a s a c h i e v e d b y d e f i n i n g a s l i d i n g
manifold (S =ė+Ce) based on error signal (e = qd − q).

104
7.Assessment Schedule

Assessment Proposed Date Actual Date

Unit 1 Assignment
Assessment
Unit Test 1

Unit 2 Assignment
Assessment
Internal Assessment 1

Retest for IA 1

Unit 3 Assignment
Assessment
Unit Test 2

Unit 4 Assignment
Assessment
Internal Assessment 2

Retest for IA 2

Unit 5 Assignment
Assessment
Revision Test 1

Revision Test 2

Model Exam

Remodel Exam

University Exam

105
 8.Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

TEXT BOOK:
 M.Gopal, - “Control System – Principles and Design”, Tata McGraw Hill, 4th
Edition, 2012.
REFERENCES:
 J.Nagrath and M.Gopal, - “Control System Engineering”, New Age International
Publishers,5th Edition, 2007.
 K. Ogata, - “Modern Control Engineering”, 5th edition, PHI, 2012.
 S.K.Bhattacharya, Control System Engineering, 3rd Edition, Pearson, 2013.
 Benjamin.C.Kuo, “Automatic control systems”, Prentice Hall of India, 7th
Edition,1995

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 9.Mini Project suggestions

S.No Name of the project

1 Auditorium Control System Using IR

2 Appliances Security Controller Using

Power Line
3 Access Control System
Using Microcontroller/Microprocessor
4 Conversion of CD Player from Audio to Video

5 Automatic Sprinkler Control System

6 A u t o m a t i c S p e e d C o n t r o l l e r f o r Fa n s a n d
Coolers Using Current Sensor
7 Bomb Detection Robotics Using
Embedded Controller
8 Bi-Directional Visitors Counter

9 Identification of Power Theft using Micro Controller

10 Voting Machine in Cellular using Microcontroller

11 Detection of Over Speed Automatically

12 RFID Based Door Access Control

13 Automatic Solar Tracker

14 Cell Phone Operated Land Rover

15 PC Based Wireless Appliance Control

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