Introduction to Computer

Networks and Telecommunications

Carnegie Mellon University

The Practical Software Engineering Series

Network Models and Asynchronous Communication

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 1

Objectives

† Network Models

„ Understand the OSI and TCP/IP model layers

„ Understand the difference between Connection Oriented and

Connectionless Services

† Asynchronous Communication

„ Understand Asynchronous communication (RS-232)

„ Understand how digital information is sent via RS-232

„ Understand the limitations of hardware

„ Understand the concept of bandwidth

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 2

 OSI Model Principles

† A layer should be created where a different abstraction is

needed

† Each layer should perform a well-defined function

† The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye

toward defining internationally standardized protocols

† The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the

information flow across the interfaces

† The number of layers should be large enough that distinct

functions need not be thrown together in the same layer
out of necessity and small enough that the architecture
does not become unwieldy

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 3

7 Layer OSI Model

Application Protocol
7 Application Application 7

Presentation Protocol
6 Presentation Presentation 6

Session Protocol
5 Session Session 5

Transport Transport Protocol Transport

4 4

Network Protocol
3 Network Network 3

Data Link Protocol

2 Data link Data link 2

Physical Protocol
1 Physical Physical 1

transmission media

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 4

 Physical Layer

† Physical layer concerned with transmitting raw bits over a

communication channel

„ Each side must recognize a 1 bit as a 1 bit, not a 0 bit

„ How many volts should be used?

„ How many nanoseconds a bit lasts?

„ Simultaneous transmission 7 Application

Application Protocol
Application 7

Presentatio Presentation Protocol Presentatio

6 6
n n

„ Initial connection 5 Session

Session Protocol
Session 5

„ Network connector pins

Transport Protocol
4 Transport Transport 4

Network Protocol
3 Network Network 3

Data Link Protocol

2 Data link Data link 2

Physical Protocol
1 Physical Physical 1

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 5

Data Link Layer

† Data link layer transforms a raw transmission facility into a

line that appears free of undetected transmission errors to
the network layer

„ Sender breaks up data into data frames

„ Receiver confirms each frame with an acknowledgement frame

„ Controls flow rates based on buffer space Application Protocol

7 Application Application 7

„ Broadcast networks control channel access 6

Presentatio
n
Presentation Protocol Presentatio
n
6

Session Protocol
5 Session Session 5

Transport Protocol
4 Transport Transport 4

Network Protocol
3 Network Network 3

Data Link Protocol

2 Data link Data link 2

Physical Protocol
1 Physical Physical 1

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 6

 Network Layer

† Network Layer controls operation of the subnet

„ Determines how ‘packets’ are routed from source to destination

„ Determines the start of each conversation

„ Regulate routing of packets

„ Ensures heterogeneous networks can communicate with each

other
Application Protocol
7 Application Application 7

Presentatio Presentation Protocol Presentatio

6 6
n n

Session Protocol
5 Session Session 5

Transport Protocol
4 Transport Transport 4

Network Protocol
3 Network Network 3

Data Link Protocol

2 Data link Data link 2

Physical Protocol
1 Physical Physical 1

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 7

Transport Layer

† Transport Layer accepts data from the upper layer, splits it

into smaller units, passes to the network layer and ensures
pieces arrive correctly at the other end

„ Isolates service from upper layers

„ Offers different types of services

„ Provides end-to-end service Application Protocol

7 Application Application 7

Presentatio Presentation Protocol Presentatio

6 6
n n

Session Protocol
5 Session Session 5

Transport Protocol
4 Transport Transport 4

Network Protocol
3 Network Network 3

Data Link Protocol

2 Data link Data link 2

Physical Protocol
1 Physical Physical 1

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 8

 Session Layer

† Session layer allows different machines to establish

sessions between them

„ Provides dialog control (whose turn to transmit)

„ Token management

„ Synchronization (checkpointing)
Application Protocol
7 Application Application 7

Presentatio Presentation Protocol Presentatio

6 6
n n

Session Protocol
5 Session Session 5

Transport Protocol
4 Transport Transport 4

Network Protocol
3 Network Network 3

Data Link Protocol

2 Data link Data link 2

Physical Protocol
1 Physical Physical 1

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 9

Presentation Layer

† Presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and

semantics of the information transmitted

„ Electronic data interchange (EDI)

Application Protocol
7 Application Application 7

Presentatio Presentation Protocol Presentatio

6 6
n n

Session Protocol
5 Session Session 5

Transport Protocol
4 Transport Transport 4

Network Protocol
3 Network Network 3

Data Link Protocol

2 Data link Data link 2

Physical Protocol
1 Physical Physical 1

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 10

 Application Layer

† Application layer contains a variety of protocols such as

HTTP, FTP, Email, and Network News

Application Protocol
7 Application Application 7

Presentatio Presentation Protocol Presentatio

6 6
n n

Session Protocol
5 Session Session 5

Transport Protocol
4 Transport Transport 4

Network Protocol
3 Network Network 3

Data Link Protocol

2 Data link Data link 2

Physical Protocol
1 Physical Physical 1

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 11

TCP/IP Reference Model

Application Application

Presentation

Session

Transport Transport

Network Internet

Data link
Host-to-Network

Physical

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 12

 TCP/IP Model: Host-to-Network Layer

† Not defined

† Many different networks exist

† Many different hosts exist

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 13

TCP/IP Model: Internet Layer

† The Internet Layer is a connectionless layer that injects

packets into the network traveling independently to
destinations

† Similar to international mail systems

† Packets arrive in different order than originally sent

† This layer delivers IP packets to where they are supposed

to go

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 14

 TCP/IP Model: Transport Layer

† This Transport Layer allows entities to carry on a

conversation

† Consists of two protocols

„ TCP – a connection oriented protocol

† Flow control

† Message assembly and re-assembly

† Error and sequencing control

„ UDP – a connectionless protocol

† One time request-reply queries

† Time sensitive messages

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 15

TCP/IP Model: Application Layer

† Applications

„ SMTP – Network management application

„ FTP – File transfer application

„ HTTP – Web server and client application

„ USENET – Information application

„ DNS – Internet name and IP service

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 16

 Disadvantages
TCP/IP Model
OSI Model
† Too Late † Model does not clearly
distinguish service,
† Too Complex
interface, and protocol
† Poor Implementations concepts
† Very specific to the
implementation
† Host-to-network layer
not really defined
† Some protocols are
not well thought out

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 17

Connection Oriented and Connectionless

† Connection Oriented Networks

„ Packets are sent through an establish route when the

connection is established

„ Connection oriented networks allow service providers to ensure

a desired Quality of Service (QoS)

„ Connection oriented networks provide a convenient mechanism

to bill

† Connectionless Networks

„ Each packet is sent independently

„ Software must deal with packet assembly at the destination

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 18

 Layered Network Model

Now that you understand the layered network model

Let’s start with layer 1 – The Physical Layer

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 19

Physical Layer

† Sending and receiving side must agree on what constitutes

a 1 bit and a 0 bit

† How many volts should be used to represent a 1 and a 0?

† How many nanoseconds does the representation last?

† Set up and tear down of a connection?

† How many pins does the network connector have and what
are they used for?

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 20

 Asynchronous Communication

† Asynchronous communication means that the sender and

receiver do not have to coordinate before data can be
transmitted

† Sender can wait arbitrarily long between transmissions

† Sender sends when data is ready

† Receiver must be ready to receive whenever data arrives

† Used for modems, keyboards, and terminals

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 21

Representing Bits

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 22

 RS-232

† Specifies the transmission of characters

† Senders can transmit any time

† Transmission time can be any length

† Once transmission begins, there can be no delays

† Never leaves 0 volts on the line, negative voltage

corresponding to 1

† Sender and receiver must agree on length of time the

voltage will be held for each bit

† Sender must leave phantom 1 bit at the end of each

character (minimum idle time)

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 23

Positive and Negative Volts Transmit Data

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 24

 Limitations

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 25

Baud Rate, Framing, and Errors

† Baud rate is the number of changes in the signal per second

that the hardware generates

† RS-232 connections operate at 300, 9600, and 19200 bits

per second

† Framing errors occur when voltages do not agree or the

stop bit does not occur where it is supposed to occur

† With RS-232 connections, baud rate = bits/sec

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 26

 Full Duplex Asynchronous Communication

Communicating simultaneously!

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 27

Bandwidth

† Bandwidth is the maximum rate that the hardware can

change a signal

† Bandwidth is measured in cycles per second or Hz

† 4000 Hz hardware can transmit a signal that oscillates back

and forth at a rate of 4000 cycles per second

† Nyquists theorem states that the maximum rate at which

data can be sent is 2B, where B is the bandwidth

† If the transmission system uses K possible values of voltage

instead of 2, then the maximum rate in bits per second is:

D = 2Blog2K

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 28

 Summary

† The OSI model presents 7 layers which are not all

implemented in today’s networks

† The TCP/IP model is currently used, but doesn’t define all

network functions required

† Each layer provides specific services and were designed to

be simple and efficient

† The physical layer defines and interprets the signals on the

physical medium

† Bandwidth is a function of the physical medium and the

number of bits that can be represented on the physical
medium

Jun 2008 © 2008, Shawn A. Butler, Ph.D. 29