FUNCTIONAL FINISHING

The chemical structure of natural, artificial or synthetic fibres determines some of the
properties that are naturally present also in finished products. Some fibres (such as linen, hemp,
silk, nylon, polyester) are stronger than others (wool, viscose, acrylic) according to more or
less controlled distribution of macromolecules in the polymer mass, structure stiffness and any
possible inter and molecular interaction between the chains; other fibres tend to distort when
stretched (cotton, viscose), and others recover their original shape after being distorted (wool);
some others easily burn (cellulose), burn slowly and self-extinguish (wool, silk) or burn and
melt (synthetic fibres). The above mentioned characteristics and many others make up positive
and negative properties of a textile material, which must be accurately considered in view of
their final application. The textile product final application will be considered from many
points of view: wearability, hand, mechanical resistance, wettability, washability,
deformability, fire-proof ability and many others.
The word textile finishing defines a series of processing operations applied to gray fabrics to
enhance their appearance and hand, properties and possible applications. The term finishing
includes all the treatments applied to gray fabrics such as scouring, bleaching, dyeing or
printing while we will use the term functional finishing with reference to all the mechanical or
chemical finishing operations carried out on fabrics already bleached, dyed or printed to further
enhance their properties and possibly add some new ones.
The terms finishing and functional finishing are therefore similar and both play a fundamental
role for the commercial excellency of the results of textiles, strictly depending on market
requirements that are becoming increasingly stringent and unpredictable and permit very short
response times.
Depending upon the type of textile substrate to be treated (staple, yarn or fabric) functional
finishing processes are carried out using different means:

Mechanical means: involving the application of physical principles such as friction,

temperature, pressure, tension and many others.

Chemical substances involving the application of synthesis or natural chemical products,

which bind to the fibres more or less permanently Combined mechanical involving the
application of both chemical and mechanical processes and chemical means

The main purposes of functional finishing processes are the following:

- Develop the "product finishing" in all its fundamental elements such as hand and
appearance;
- Give the finished fabric some properties that grant an optimum behaviour during the
makingup and all through the life of the textile.

The parameters influencing the choice of the most suitable finishing process are the following:

- Fibre nature or fabric to be subjected to functional finishing treatments

- Final application of the fabric to be subjected to functional finishing treatments
Mechanical Finishing Treatments
Mechanical finishing processes can be referred to as those processes generally carried out on
open-width dry fabrics, with or without heat application, which give the fabric good
dimensional stability (shrink proof and shape retention) and modify the "hand" of the textile
product by altering its structure (at least its surface structure)

Dry finishing
Calendering: a lustrous, dense and compact appearance can be obtained by means of
friction, pressure and heat.
Ciréing:
this calendering operation is carried out using special calenders and exploiting
the combined actions of heat, friction and polishing agents.
Embossing:
this particular type of calendering process allows engraving a simple pattern
on the fabric.
Sueding:
thanks to this process, the fabric has a much softer hand and an improved
insulating effect thanks to the fibre end pulled out of the fabric surface. This
process is carried out by means of a roller coated with abrasive material.
Raising:
he fibre end pulled out to the fabric surface imparts an insulating effect. This
process is carried out by means of hook-needles running in different directions
on the fabric.

Shearing: the fibre ends on the fabric surface are cut by using special cutting tools.
the fibre ends pulled out to the fabric surface are burnt by means of a flame
Singeing:
(see preliminary treatments).

Wet finishing
Wet calendering: this process is quite similar to the dry one. The only difference is the use of
steam.
Fulling: the structure, bulk and shrinkage of wool are modified by applying heat
combined with friction and compression.
Sanforising:
the fabric is given an optimum dimensional stability by applying mechanic
forces and water vapour.
Decating:
the lustrous appearance of the textile material is eliminated, the surface is
smoothed and the fabric is given an optimum dimensional stability thanks to
the action of dry or overheated saturated vapour.
Calendering
This non-permanent mechanical finishing treatment is applied to fabrics made of cellulose,
protein and synthetic fibres, by means of a calender. This machine generally includes one or a
series of couples of rollers pressed one against the other with adjustable pressure and identical
or similar tip speeds. The cloth passes through one or more couples of rollers, which exert a
smoothing and a pressing action. Some rollers are stiff while some others are made of softer
material. Stiff rollers are generally made of steel or hardened cast iron and the surface can be
chrome-plated, nickel-plated or made of stainless steel and can be subjected to treatments that
give: a matt appearance similar to the abrasive blasting;
a cross-stripe engraving to improve the fabric resistance to
sliding; a very thin diagonal stripe patterning with silk-sheen
appearance; a patterned engraving with embossed effects.
The fabric passing through the rollers of the calender is subjected to a very uniform pressure
all along its width; if the rollers rotate at a different speed, a vigorous friction effect is
generated.
Steel rollers may be equipped in such a way to be heated from the inside by means of steam,
circulating fluids or electrical power. They are supported by a vertical central frame made of
steel, having the same size of rigid rollers, while the surface is coated with softer material like
cotton (to stand high temperatures), wool paper (to enhance the glaze finish), or jute, wool or
plastic material such as polyamide.
The rollers coated with paper/wool, containing 45-50% of wool, feature good elasticity and
excellent resistance to wear and are suitable for a wide variety of applications; they can also
be used in embossing calendering units.
Rollers made of paper/cotton, are used almost in friction calenders and for treating hard fibres,
thanks to their high resistance capacity. Cotton rollers, featuring higher elasticity than the paper
ones, are mainly used for cotton and blends finishing and for a final full hand effect.
The life of cotton-polyester or polyamide rollers is considerably longer; in fact they are very
resistant and cannot be easily etched by the passage of creases, knots or sewing. Thanks to their
improved hardness, they produce on the fabric a particularly lustrous appearance and allow
higher operating speeds.
The effects on the cloth can be set permanently by using thermoplastic fibres or by applying
suitable (thermosetting resin or reactive-based substances) finishing products. The use of
different types of calenders gives different effects such as:
Sheen appearance: it can be obtained by smoothing the cloth surface, which
ensures a better reflection of light.
Better coverage: it is due to the compression of the cloth, which generates a
flattening of each single yarn.
Softer hand: it is obtained thanks to a slight ironing effect, which
produces a smoother, and softer cloth surface.
Surface patterns: they can be obtained by means of special effects
("embossing" for example) for decorative purposes or to
modify the surface smoothness.
Yarn swelling and rounding effect: they give a modest glaze finishing to the fabric, a surface
smoothness and above all a full and soft hand.
The main types of calendering units are:

Two-roller calenders: they are made up of a smooth roller coupled with a metallic one, which
can be heated. The tip speeds of the two cylinders can be different: this system architecture
produces a certain friction, which gives a high glaze effect to the fabric. The lustrous effect
depends on the different rotation speed, pressure and temperature.
Three-roller calenders: the most common combinations are the following:
- smooth-steel-smooth rollers: this structure allows a better lustrous effect and gives the
clothmore bulk.
- steel-smooth-smooth rollers: this combination allows different effects. When the cloth
passesthrough smooth rollers a matt appearance is given to the cloth together with fuller
hand.
 Picture 116 - Two-roller calender Picture 117 - Three-roller calender

Universal calenders: these calenders, equipped with 3-5-7 or even more rollers, are referred to
as universal calenders. They can give the fabric different effects; some of them are detailed
below:

roll effect: flattened fabric, high coverage ratio, soft hand and moderate glaze;
matt effect: high coverage ratio, soft hand and matt effect;
lustrous effect: this effect originates from friction created during the passage between a smooth
and a steel roller.

Mercerising-like calenders: by means of a high pressure (300-400 Kg/cm 2) and temperature,

applied during the passage of the cotton cloth (which is still wet when passing through the
rollers) a highly glazy effect can be created, similar to the one obtained with the mercerising
process.

Silk calenders (silky effect): the silky effect is obtained by feeding the cloth between a steel
roller engraved with very thin diagonal stripes and a paper, cotton or rubber roller.
Satin or poplin fabrics are generally treated with this type of calender. The engraved cylinder
can be headed to enhance the modification of the fabric surface.
 Silk effect Roll effect Matt effect

Mangling calenders: they exert a strong pressure on a cloth wound in rolls. The effect of such
a pressure between the yarns leads to an accentuated rounding of the yarn with a subsequent
increase of the fabric density and a highly lustrous finish. Mangler calendering can be carried
out by feeding the wound cloth between two or three cylinders, which exert a powerful pressure
by an alternating rolling-off and rewinding motion. This treatment is particularly valuable for
pure linen or linen blend fabrics, which can be subjected to pressures up to 40 t.

Chaising calenders: the arrangement of rollers in chaising calenders allow the fabric to be
wound several times inside the calender in a number of layers ranging from 5 to 13. In this way
the pressure is not exerted directly by the flat surfaces of the cylinders but by the fabric itself.
The warp and weft yarns carry out a progressive rounding action; the result is a precious
lustrous effect, a more bulky, full and compact hand, similar to the one obtained with mangling
calenders.

Raising calenders: these calenders are used for finishing wool fabrics. They are made up of a
single roller on which a metal raisers is pressed. The metal raising device envelops almost half
of the whole circumference of the roller. This special calandering process gives a good lustrous
effect, obtained by friction and by a moderate pressure exerted on the fabric.

Moiré effect: this attractive effect can be produced by means of a process that is essentially one
of minute surface embossing or pressing of a fabric with crenellated, or ridged rollers. The
pattern is imprinted on the raised filling yarns and the luster is produced by the divergent
reflection of light on the lines impressed on the patterned design. This effect can be preferably
given to silk, Rayon, wool, and linen fabrics. A good MoirØ effect can be with fabrics with
coarse weft yarns and fine warp ones.

6 fabric
positions

Picture 118 – Winding-unwinding mangler Picture 119 - Chaising calender

Embossing
Embossing is a particular calendering process through which a simple pattern can be engraved
on the cloth.
The embossing machine is made up of a heated and embossed roller made of steel, which is
pressed against another roller coated with paper or cotton, its circumference being exactly a
whole multiple of the metal roller. A gear system drives the harmonised motion of the rollers,
preventing them from sliding and granting a sharp engraving of the patterned design. After
being engraved, the pattern can be stabilised by means of an appropriate high-temperature
treatment or by applying suitable starchy substances.

Sueding
This operation is often carried out before the raising process to reduce the friction between the
fibres making up the cloth and consequently to facilitate the extraction of the fibre end.
The sueding process is carried out on both sides of the fabric and modifies the appearance and
the final hand of the cloth; when touched it gives a soft and smooth sensation similar to the one
given by a peach-grain surface.
The sueding machine is made up of some rotating rollers coated with abrasive paper, which
emerise the cloth and produce a more or less marked effect depending upon the pressure
exerted on the fabric by the abrasive rollers. The abrasive paper used can vary according to the
desired sueding degree and must be replaced after a given number of operating hours, or when
it does not properly carry out suitably the sueding function. In some cases, it is possible to use
also metal rollers with the surface coated with uneven and rough grains or pumice rollers
performing an excellent sueding action on both dry or wet fabrics. For a very superficial
sueding, the natural abrasive power of pumice can be applied with successful results.
Gray fabrics as well as dyed ones can be subjected to the sueding process; the cloth to be
emerised must be completely free from any finishing resin or adhesive substance remaining on
the fabric surface after desizing. The sueding process reduces mechanic and dynamometric
resistance of the fabric, thus making it more subject to tearing and seaming.
The fabric can run at different speeds inside the sueding unit; a smooth pressure is kept thanks
to two balancing arms assembled at the entry and at the exit of the unit. The pieces of cloth
must be sewn with abrasion-resistant material such as polyester or nylon. The gears must be
suitably cleaned with compressed air jets since the presence of pile residues could clog the ball
bearings or drop again on the fabric surface thus creating some problems with dyeing machines
filters. The sueding process, which can affect the fabric with a very wide range of effects, can
give some problem when applied to knitted tubular goods but it s widely used on woven fabrics
with different weights and weaves (its application ranges from coarse jeans cloth to light and
delicate silk or microfibre, coated fabrics and imitation leather).

Picture 120 – A 6-cylinder sueding machine Picture 121 –A 24-cylinder sueding machine

The sueding unit is equipped with 6 rollers performing the sueding action on the face of the
fabric and 1 roller performing its action of the back of the fabric; an advantage of this system
is the possibility to use sueding cloths with different grains on each single roller. Thanks to
three dandy rollers, the sueding action can be automatically adjusted during the fabric
processing thus allowing the sueding process to be carried out also on knitted goods.

The 24-roller sueding unit assembled on 2 rotating drums features some advantages if
compared to traditional machines equipped with 4-6-8 rollers: the combined action of several
rotating rollers and the beating effect grant a smooth sueding, and a much softer hand than any
other machine; no differences are generated between the centre and the selvedge; no stripes are
formed on the fabric; the wide contact surface allows very high operating rates. The great
number of moving rollers performs a gentle action on each single sueding roller thus granting
the maximum sueding smoothness. Furthermore the life of the abrasive cloth is much longer
than the one assembled on conventional machines. In fact, 100,000 150,000 meters of synthetic
fabric and up to 200,000 250,000 meters of 100% cotton fabric can be processed in standard
processing conditions before replacing the abrasive; sueding units can also be transformed into
raising (napping) units by assembling a special conversion kit.
All sueding machines are equipped with a brushing unit assembled at the exit to reduce the
powder resulting from the sueding process.
Raising (Napping)
The raising process is a very old technique known also to Romans (as pictured in some
paintings found in Pompeii). This operation is particularly suitable for wool and cotton fabrics;
it gives a fuzzy surface by abrading the cloth and pulling the fibre end to the surface. During
those last years this process has also been applied on polyester/viscose blends and acrylic
fabrics.
By means of this process a hairy surface can be given to both face and back of the cloth
providing several modifications of the fabric appearance, softer and fuller hand and bulk
increase. This enhances the resistance of the textile material to atmospheric agents, by
improving thermal insulation and warmth provided by the insulating air cells in the nap. The
fuzzy surface is created by pulling the fibre end out of the yarns by means of metal needles
provided with hooks shelled into the rollers that scrape the fabric surface. The ends of the
needles protruding from the rollers are 45 -hooks; their thickness and length can vary and they
are fitted in a special rubber belt spiral-wound on the raising rollers. These rollers are generally
alternated with a roller with hooks directed toward the fabric feed direction (pile roller), and a
roller with the hooks fitted in the opposite direction (counterpile roller).

Picture 122 - Raising rollers Pile raising roller

Counterpile raising
roller (“CP”) (“P”)
The machine also includes some
rotating brushes, which suction-clean the nibs in pile and
counterpile directions. Actually the trend goes towards a ratio of raising
rollers/pile rollers equal to? or 1/3. The two series of rollers have independent
motion and can rotate with different speed and direction thus carrying out different effects.
 Picture 123 – Raising (napping) machine:1: roller; 2: rollers equipped with
hooks; 3: fabric;4: nib cleaning brushes;5: fabric tension adjustment

The action of these systems is almost powerful and the results depend upon the effects and the
type of fabric desired .
The raising effect can be obtained by adjusting the fabric tension (5) or by adjusting the speed
and the roller rotation direction (2).
Once a certain limit has been exceeded, the excessive mechanical stress could damage the
fabric: it is therefore better, when carrying out a powerful raising, to pass the wet fabric through
the raising machine many times (dry when processing cotton fabrics) and treat the fabrics in
advance with softening-lubricating agents.
The pile extraction is easier when carried out on single fibres: it is therefore suitable to reduce
the friction between the fibres by wetting the material or, in case of cellulose fibres, by
previously steaming the fabric.
For the same reasons, it is better to use slightly twisted yarns.
The same machine allows different options of independent motions:

- fabric moving between entry and exit

- motion of large drum
- motion of raising rollers
 Picture 124 - Raising the face and back of the fabric: a) scheme; b) view

The raising intensity can be adjusted by suitably combining the above mentioned independent
motions, the tension of the textile material, the number of pilewise or counterpile raising rollers
and their relative speed.
It is possible to obtain combed pile raising effect, "semi-felting" effect with fibres pulled out
and re-entered in the fabric, and complete felting effect.

Picture 125 –Raising machine equipped with 2 rotary drums, each featuring 24 rollers
The raising machine shown in Picture 125 is equipped with two overlapping drums each one
featuring 24 rollers, which can process two faces or face and back of the same fabric.
The drums assembled on a standard machine can rotate separately one from the other in the
fabric feeding direction or in the opposite direction by carrying out a counter rotation.
In this model all the functions are carefully monitored and controlled by a computer system; in
particular all the commands are driven by alternating power motors controlled by "Sensorless"
vector inverters. The control electric system features:
- PLC programmable controller for machine and alarms automation;
- touch screen to program and update all processing parameters;
- operating conditions of each single raising process (up to one million recipes") that can
bestored to facilitate the batch reproduction.
Furthermore, a series of special pressure rollers can be assembled on the feeding cylinders to
prevent the fabric from sliding, thus granting an extremely smooth raising.
The raising process ability lies merely in raising the desired quantity of fibre ends without
excessively reducing the fabric resistance.
For this reason, the technique applying the alternated use of pile and counterpile rollers is the
most widely used since it minimises the loss of fibres from the fabric and the consequent
resistance reduction.
Standard raising machines have been designed to work with fabrics powerfully tensioned
essentially because they are not equipped with an efficient and reliable tension control. This
gives rise to the effects detailed below:
1) the contact surface between the fabric and the raising cylinders is quite small;
2) the hook nibs work only superficially on the fabric and the raising effect is quite
reduced;3) the fabric width is drastically reduced.
The above mentioned inconveniences have now been eliminated thanks to the last generation
of raising machines (shown in Paris at ITMA 99), which reduce the number of passages and
carry out the raising process by gently tensioning the fabric.
These recent raising machines have been equipped with an extremely accurate and self-
adjusting system for feed tension control; the relationships between the ratios of the roller
relative speed of the cylinders are electronically controlled by a PLC.
The above mentioned parameters are constantly monitored and adjusted and a wider range of
effects can be homogeneously carried out and reproduced; all this results in - quality
excellency with higher coverage and limited loss o fibres; - higher production output with a
reduced number of passages (up to 50%); - consequent saving with lower costs per treated
fabric unit.
A 24-roller machine can feature one of the following possible architectures :
1:1 Conventional system - 12 CPs + 12 Ps

2:1 System - 16 CPs + 8 Ps

A greater pile density can be obtained with this system

since this machine features 4 extra CP rollers (performing
as true raisers ), but the pile length is slightly shorter due
to the reduced number of P rollers.

3:1 System - 18 CPs + 6 Ps

Same as above but now the number of CP cylinders is still

greater than 2. Consequently the hair pulled out is thicker
but its length is further reduced.
In most cases the shorter piles do not create any problem
since the raising process is followed by a shearing (cutting)
one.
 System 1 – 24 CPs napping unit

This system is used for napping purposes, i.e. to felt the fibre
end previously passed on special fabrics such as blankets,
cotton plush and/or polyester, polar fleece.

System 1.3 - 6 CPs + 18 Ps

This system is used to loosen the hairs; the number of P
rollers is greater that the CP one.
This system is mainly used to loose the hair on polar fleece
fabrics before the final shearing process.

Picture 126 – The most common arrangements for a 24-

roller raising machine

Wool Glazing Machine

This special machine is used to perform functional finishing on wool fabrics after raising. The
machine is made up of two different units.

The starching unit includes:

- a vat containing water and silicones;
- a variable-speed extracting cylinder to reduce the quantity of liquid to be passed
onto thefabric;
- a brush coated with horsehair adhering to the extracting cylinder and passing
the liquidonto the fibre ends of the fabric, simultaneously combing and lining up the
fibres.

The glazing unit includes:

- a crenellated polishing cylinder (made of steel and coated with hard chrome)
heated bymeans of electric resistances at temperatures up to 220 C and four spiral
grooves on which hard-steel combs are assembled. These combs have very fine teeth
to enhance the efficiency of fibre ironing during the process;
- a felt sleeve, rotating at the same speed of the fabric, presses the fabric onto the
polishing cylinder. The contact arc on the polishing cylinder can vary and the cylinder
can reach a temperature of 130 C.
The fabric with the fibre ends already combed and wet come under the polishing cylinder,
which dries and irons the pile, and confers a lustrous appearance by giving a soft and smooth
hand, also thanks to the silicones added to the starching vat (thanks to this process the fabric
acquires a hand similar to the precious wool one).
By adjusting the temperature and the speed of the polishing cylinder, the contact arc of the
fabric on the cylinder and the contrasting pressure of the felting material, it is possible to obtain
different types of finishing (from the laid down to the perfectly lined up one).

Picture 127 – Wool glazing machine

Shearing
This cutting operation, complementary to raising, determines the height of the fibre end
irregularly raised during the raising process; the resulting effect affects the appearance and the
hand of the fabric, which becomes velvet-like. The machine is made up of:
- velveting brush
- velveting table
- shearing cylinder equipped with helical blades
- doctor blade
- shearing table
- lubrication felt.
The fabric, after a brushing operation facilitating the raising, is fed on a shearing table forcing
it to follow an acute angle direction. In this way the fibres raised by the cutting cylinder are
correctly positioned to be sharply cut; the cutting cylinder rotates very quickly and carries out
the first blade-cutting operation; the second fixed blade is represented by the doctor blade that
stops the pile and cuts it. At this point the action of another brush adjusts uniformly the pile
covering the fabric and the suction unit removes the sheared ends.
When the shearing is carried out on velvet fabrics, during the final brushing the pile is not only
adjusted but also set by blowing overheated steam on the back of the fabric.
Obviously, to perform a perfectly smooth operation the shearing drum must not oscillate and
must show a perfectly circular section.
Also the doctor blade must have a sharp and perfectly even profile and the shearing table must
be always positioned at perfectly uniform distance from the doctor blades, with no raised areas.
Depending upon the desired length of the pile, the shearing table, the helical blades and the
fixed blade are perfectly adjusted and calibrated: the resulting effects depend upon these
adjustments (one tenth of a millimetre accuracy is allowed) and upon the blade grinding.
 Picture 128 - A shearing machine: A = fabric; B = gib;C = fixed
blade; D = helical blades;E = suction unit; F = brushing drum.

The fabric passes under a rotating brush, which raises the pile and pushes it towards the fixed
blade. The fabrics is tensioned by means of special gears and slides on a bar provided with a
cutting edge that keeps it the fabric in a correct position and drives the pile through the two
bladesThe fibre ends are cut by the contact between the fixed blade and the rotating helical
blade; the contact point moves quickly on the whole width of the fabric following the
cylinder rotation and cuts the fibre ends between the two blades. Obviously the following
cuttin

Washing Rinsing and washing are the operations carried out most frequently
during a complete textile finishing cycle. They are almost always connected
to key treatments and aimed at removing from the fabric insoluble matters,
matters already in solution or an emulsion of other impurities. During the
fabric preparation process, for example, washing is carried out after
desizing, boiling and other bleaching and mercerising processes; in dyeing,
the washing stage is necessary to complete the dyeing process itself or to
eliminate the dyestuff which has not been fixed; during the printing stage,
washing performs a finishing action. When using vat dyes or disperse dyes,
the washing process aims at removing insoluble pigment substances from the
fibre surface by means of wetting or dissolving agents. This could
therefore be considered a crucial treatment in the whole textile process,
because of the frequent use and strong economic impact. Manufacturers
increasingly focus their attention on reducing water consumption, which
leads to subsequent energy and hot water saving as well as a reduction in
wastewater. Together with traditional washing systems with vats equipped
with "vertical cylinders" the market offers horizontal washing units, which
reduce the liquor ratio and the energy and water consumption for each
kilogram of washed material. Washing includes a chemical-physical process,
which removes the dirt from the substrate, and a series of physical
operations aiming at improving the "feedback action". The sequence of the
various washing steps is the following: a. formation of the detergent
liquor (transfer of matter + energy by mixing); b. reaching of the process
temperature and wetting (transfer of the liquor to the material); c.
separation of impurities and emulsification (transfer of matter from one
step to the other); d. removal of the liquor from the fibre (transfer of
macroscopic matter); e. drying (interstage transfer of heat and matter).
Often these steps occur simultaneously. The use of surfactants (detergents)
during the washing stage is extremely important to speed up the wetting of
the textile material, to facilitate the removal of dirt from the substrate,
thus keeping the emulsion inside the liquor and preventing the particles
laying down again on the fibre. Crucial factors are water (which must be
quite soft to avoid precipitation of Ca and Mg salts which could give a
rough and coarse hand to the textile) and chemical products to be used
(emulsifying agents, softening agents and surfactants). Contaminants to be
eliminated Obviously the use of detergents, as well as operating
conditions, depends on the nature of the chemical substances to be
eliminated, which need to be generally classified. A general classification
is shown here below: 2g passages must be as close as possible to make the weaves on the
fabric surface less
The scheme below shows all the categories of machines now in use; washing-
milling machines are not included (combined washing and milling machines):
Traditional washing Conventional washing Fast washing Nozzle washing
Conveyor belt Rope washing Delicate washing Drum Combined with air Washing-
milling Washing Traditional Batch-type washing Beating hammer washing
Conveyor Hydroplus Open-width washing Series washing Continuous washing
Continuous system Vibrocompact Solvent 26 Washing can be performed on
fabrics either in open-width or in rope form.
Rope washing is more effective than open-width washing thanks to a stronger
mechanic action, which favors the cleansing, and the relaxation of the
fabric structure; for delicate fabrics an open-width washing must be
preferred to avoid marks and creases. Open-width washing is also the best
choice for processing huge lots.
Rope washing Substantially, batch piece washing machines are made up of a
couple of squeezing cylinders, which make the fabric swell (the fabric is
previously sewn on top and bottom and takes the shape of a continuous
ring); these cylinders are assembled inside a vessel, whose lower part
contains the detergent liquor. It is possible to wash a fabric inside this
vessel, by feeding it into restricted area without laying it stretched out.
The efficiency of this operation is enhanced by the mechanic action, which
facilitates both detergency and tension relaxation. This operation is
highly cost-efficient because open-width washing allows only one working
position and therefore only limited loads can be processed (max. 180 kg)
while a rope washing machine can include from one to eight ropes, with an
overall weight exceeding 600 kg. Furthermore rope washing machines grant
reduced operating times thanks to a more effective mechanic action. Picture
15 - Rope washing machine Open-width washing An open-width washing machine
is usually a system featuring a vertical path washing with driven cycle of
multiple action baths, with a resulting 30/40% water and steam saving. This
operating unit is manufactured in several versions (10-15-30 meters) and
can be used for every kind of preparation and finishing treatment. Four
different washing actions alternate inside this machine: 1) washing on
rising paths; 2) washing on sloping-down paths, carried out by means of
spray nozzles, which atomise on both face and back of fabrics, performing a
strong penetration action; 3) "vibraplus" effect washing, which removes
from the fabric the threadlike elements (fibrils) that do not dissolve in
water; 4) extraction washing by means of vessel intermediate squeezing. The
longitudinal tension of the fabric remains perfectly unchanged on the whole
path; it can be adjusted between 5 and 20 kg by means of upper cylinders
equipped with self-adjusting control system which generates a sliding
motion crease-and-fold proof also on extremely delicate fabrics. Plush
fibrils are removed from the vessel with no need for brushes or liquor
dilutions. Another type of machine divides the washing process into single
steps, which are systematically repeated. In this way the whole process can
be not only constantly monitored but also accurately calculated. Picture 16
- Open-width washing machine 27 Inside every separated washing unit, an
exchange takes place between the washing liquor and the chemicals-mixed-
with-impurities on the fabric in a percentage ranging between 50 and 80%.
The washing liquor absorbs both impurities and chemicals. Thanks to a
squeezing step carried out by means of squeezing drums assembled at the
exit of each unit, the dirty liquor does not leave the unit with the
fabric. In the next unit the liquor exchange process repeats once more, but
the washing liquor contains always-lower quantities of dirty particles. The
repeatability of the process together with the addition of fresh water, are
basic elements to estimate in advance the efficiency of the washing
process. High-performance washing units, equipped with double-rope system
and upper supporting cylinders made of rubber, recommended above all for
medium and heavy fabrics, allow the maximum washing efficiency. Upper
cylinders, individually driven and equipped with supporting squeezing
cylinders, grant an accurate system control. In each washing unit the
fabric is soaked twice in the liquor, which washes the fabric by passing
through it, and squeezed by the cylinders. The powerful liquor exchange in
the fabric is also enhanced by the synergic crosswise flow of the bath.
Continuous washing systems From an output point of view, the continuous
treatment of fabrics for open-width washing allows operating speeds of at
least 25 m/minutes: these speeds are extraordinarily higher than the one
obtained with batch open-width or batch rope washing. The output is also
strictly related to the overall dimension of the system (quantity of
washing and rinsing units) and can be substantially increased. From a
technical point of view, the main problems to be solved in a continuous-
system plant, are detergency and relaxation of internal tensions,
essentially related to washing processes, above all when carried out with
open-width systems. We sketch here below the example of an up-to-date
plant, including: 1. a prewashing unit, where the fabric is sprayed with a
detergent solution atomized by 7 nozzles: the treatment takes place outside
the bath. The solution is collected into the cavity created by the slanting
path of the fabric and is forcedly driven through it (Idropress system);
the alternating direction of the solution passage allows the treatment on
both sides and the particular design of the driving rollers (the roller
inside part is driven by a motor and the outside by the fabric) allows a
minimum tension on the fabric; Picture 18 - Continuous washing range
Picture 17 - Open-width washing unit 28 2. a soapingñwashing unit (working
when the fabric is not immersed in the bath), whose capacity (25 and 50
meters respectively) determines the output speed of the plant, since the
time needed for the operation cannot be changed (1 min); 3. two or three
rinsing units, by means of Idropress system. An extremely innovative
machine features a basic element made up by 8 vibrating fabric guides,
which push the water under pressure against both fabric sides, beating them
alternatively against the fabric guides; since the flow follows the fabric
motion, the effect of the driving tension is also contrasted; this is
crucial to allow fabric relaxation in the direction of the warp (obviously,
also in all the other machine versions, manufacturers pay the maximum
attention to keep tension as low as possible). Picture 19 - Idropress
system Picture 20 - Continuous washing: detail of the vibrating system Some
machines feature special water blade devices (replacing spray nozzles)
which convey a huge quantity of water, homogeneously and at high speed, on
the whole width of the fabric, thus performing a really efficient wash. The
system includes a pipe with a special nozzle releasing water jets similar
to blades; these water blades perform a powerful action on the fabric and
remove filaments, thickening agents, non-fixed dyestuff, etc. Many of these
machines have modular structures, and therefore can be adapted to specific
operating requirements. 29 Picture 21 - Water-blade washing system Among
all the possible solutions, manufacturers offer also counterflow washing
systems where the fabric flows from the dirtiest section of the washing
bath to the cleanest. Through a series of recycling processes it is
possible to use the washing liquor many times.
Drying The frequency of processes, requiring impregnation of the textile
substrate (washing, impregnation in dyeing or finishing liquor, desizing
and so on), consequently leads to the need of subsequent drying processes,
with a high impact on processing costs. Depending on their nature and
structure, textile fibres absorb greater or lower quantities of water; the
water absorbed by the textile material is partly retained between the
fibres and in the pores of the fabric and partly more deeply in the fabric
by the swollen fibres. The water between the fibres or on the fabric
surface can be eliminated mechanically while the water in the swollen
fibres can be eliminated with a drying processes. General remarks on drying
techniques The drying process aims at eliminating exceeding water and
achieving the natural moisture content of the fibre. Excessive drying can
negatively affect the final appearance and the hand of the textile. It is
possible to adjust automatically the drying process by means of modern
electric gauges. When choosing a drying technique, the cost efficiency of
the drying system must be carefully evaluated: the cost-efficiency of a
drying process includes many factors such as the quantity of steam, water
and energy required to evaporate one kilogram of water as well as the
evaporation capacity of a machine, expressed in kilograms of water
evaporated in one operating hour. 30 Adjustment of the moisture content in
the drying process The drying speed is determined by the difference between
the tension of water steam on the textile surface and the tension of the
water steam in the drying unit: it increases proportionally to the decrease
of the moisture content in the air of the unit. In order to keep this
content on low levels it is necessary to blow in the drying units huge
quantities of heated air at the same temperature of the drying unit, which
leads to huge energy consumption. When setting the desired moisture degree
of the air in the drying unit, it is worth considering that the best degree
results from a correct proportion between efficient output speed and
costeffective energy consumption. Adjustment of the drying speed The
optimum time a fabric spends within a drying unit must correspond exactly
to the time necessary to eliminate the moisture on the surface and between
the free spaces of the fibres; the stay time must not exceed the optimum
drying time (this would cause an extra drying) since the "natural" moisture
of the textile must not be eliminated. The feeding speed of the fabric is
adjusted by means of the special devices assembled at the exit of the
drying unit, which vary proportionally to the moisture of the fabric
leaving the unit. Heating of the drying unit The drying units are usually
heated by means of steam with an average thermal efficiency of about 64%.
Better thermal efficiency is granted by dryers heated with thermal fluid
(about 80%). Highly efficient heating is obtained by means of direct gas
combustion, with an efficiency of almost 95%. The operating temperature can
be reached in very short times and heating can be stopped simultaneously
with the machine. Hydroextraction This process removes the water (the water
quantity varies according to the type of fibre) dispersed in the fibres by
mechanical action; this process aims at reducing energy consumption and is
carried out before the final fabric drying or between the various wet
processing stages (washing, dyeing). It can be carried out in the following
ways: - squeezing: the water dispersed on the surface and in the spaces of
the fabric is removed by means of the pressure applied by two cylinders. -
centrifugation: this process eliminates the greatest quantity of water
dispersed on the surface of the textile by centrifugal force. It is applied
above all to resistant yarns, knitted goods and fabrics. - steam pressure:
a high-speed steam jet blown on the whole width of the stretched fabric
passes through the cloth and eliminates the water in excess. Extracted
water and steam are condensed and reused. 31 - vacuum: this method applies
vacuum technology and is used to dry very wet fabrics or delicate fabrics
that do not stand up to the pressure of the cylinders of a squeezing unit,
which could negatively affect the surface structure. The stretched fabric
slides open-width above the opening of a cylinder-shaped structure
connected to a suction system. The air drawn from outside removes the
exceeding water when passing through the textile cloth. Picture 22 - Vacuum
drying machine Drying systems The water dispersed in a textile material by
chemical-physical process is generally eliminated by the action of hot air,
which makes the water evaporate; during the drying process, it is very
important to carefully consider the way heat is directed on the fabric. The
drying process can be carried out: - by heat convection - by contact with
heated metal surfaces - by infrared radiation - by means of microwaves or
high-frequency waves - by combustion Yarns and textile materials in bulk
are generally dried inside hot air compartments. For the drying of piece
fabrics, manufacturers have designed different drying units, which apply
different principles, briefly described here below. Drying by heat
convection The heat diffusion onto the wet fabric is carried out by means
of hot air circulating inside the drying unit. There are two different
types of dryers applying this operating principle: compartment dryers and
tunnel dryers. 1 ñ Compartment dryers Suspended fabric dryer: it is made up
of hot air compartments where the folded fabric with a maximum width of 3
meters is suspended on a series of rotating cylinders leading the fabric
toward the exit. The circulating air is blown slowly downward. This system
is suitable for light and medium-weight fabrics that can withstand the
stress of mechanical feeding. TO THE COLLECTION TROUGH 1 = wet folded
material 2 = spreader 3 = vacuum slot 4 = pre-dried fabric roller 32 Short-
loop dryer: this system eliminates almost completely the tension applied by
the fabric weight; it also avoids the risk of possible downward migration
of dyestuff or finish. Hot-flue dryer: the vertically folded fabric is
guided through a hot air compartment. The feeding motion is determined by
means of different sets of rollers, while special cylinders separate the
fabric folds. The drying temperature ranges between 80 and 100° C. This
drying system is suitable for printed fabrics, above all for light and
medium-weight fabrics, as well as the intermediate drying after printing,
after impregnation in general, and after the application of background dyes
and other similar operations. Picture 23 - A hot-flue 1 Fabric; 2 Heaters–
blowing units; 3 Hot air blow; 4 Exhausted air blow The use of belt or
perforated-drum dryers is often extremely effective to cut costs and
increase output rates in continuous drying processes on fabrics and yarns
in various forms. Thanks to suction effect of the hot air drawn into the
cylinder through the holes, the fabric perfectly adheres to the external
side of the rotating cylinders, moving forward inside the drying unit where
it is dried gradually. 2 ñ Tunnel dryers Supporting nozzles dryers: the
fabric is suspended on an air cushion generated by blowing nozzles arranged
in proper layout. Stenter: it is made up of modular elements (arranged
lengthwise and heated by means of forced hot air circulation) where the
fabric passes horizontally, supported by a belt, by supporting nozzles or
by air cushion. When the hot air comes into contact with the fabric, it
cools down and removes the evaporated moisture. The air is partly drained
and replaced by an equal quantity of fresh air. The remaining air is
recycled, added to with fresh air and passed again through the heating
element. 33 Picture 24 – Air flows inside a stenter featuring a hot air
convection drying system This machine is extensively used in the fabric
drying sector, but is also used for the heat setting and polymerisation of
finishing or bonding agents in pigment printing processes; it includes an
ìentryî area for the fabric provided with a pad-batch, where finishes and
finishing products are applied or where the fabric is simply squeezed. The
use of a drum coated with porous material, which dehydrates the fabric
before the drying step, proves particularly efficient. The unit is equipped
with a stretching system to keep the fabric stretched and also with a
special device that controls the perpendicularity of the weft to the warp.
All the drying systems are assembled in the second section; they include a
feeding system equipped with a fabric guiding system and the drying unit.
The endless chains, with clips or pins for fastening the fabric, are
positioned all along the front part, the drying compartment and the exit
section; they guide the fabric by the selvedge. At the exit the fabric is
released automatically from the fastening devices and wound up. Picture 25
- A stenter 1- fabric 5- exhaust pipe 2- weft straightener 6- grids 3-
spreader C1, C2.-sections 4- pad-batch B- Heater/blowing system Spreading
section – Fabric path - Belts 34 Picture 26 - Multi-level stenter with
fabric entry and exit on the same side Picture 27 - Multi-level stenter
used for coating processes and incorporated on an existing operating line
Picture 28 - Longitudinal section of a multi-level stenter with internal
exhaust channels In the latest generation of stenters, manufacturers have
tried to improve the quality of the fabrics with more rational fabric
feeding systems and innovative solutions for heat treatment and
reproducibility of the various processing stages. Together with an
increased output in continuous operating conditions, manufacturers also aim
at improving the machine utilization, reducing maintenance to a minimum and
cutting energy consumption. 35 Multi-level stenter Thanks to an excellent
ratio between capacity and overall size, the multi-level stenter is also
particularly cost effective for treatments requiring a certain standby
time, such as for example the heat setting of synthetic fibres, chemical
treatment setting and carbonising. The diagram shows a comparative
evaluation of production costs with a flat stenter and with a multi-layer
stenter: drying kges vary according to gw fabric weight. Advantages of the
multi-level stenter: - Compact structure: thanks to the multi-level design,
the overall space required for the installation of the stenter is smaller
than the one required for a standard flat stenter with the same output
rates. - High-performance drying process: for heavy textiles the efficiency
of the machine does not depend on the evaporation on the surface but on the
time required for the drying process. Powerful ventilation, generally
applied to flat stenters, could cause an excessive drying of the textile
surface and damage the material, while fibres inside the fabric could
remain wet. The internal moisture migrates very slowly to the surface. -
Delicate drying: in a multi-level stenter, the drying process does not
affect the material negatively and eliminates the moisture in the best
possible way. In fact, we know that a delicate treatment, e.g in a drying
or heat setting process, can be ensured only with a slow ventilation of the
material. Furthermore a longer treatment time, even at lower temperatures,
gives a better appearance to the finished material, compared to tougher
treatment conditions. The result is a bulky fabric with a softer hand,
which gives the sensation of more weight. - Lower operating costs: thanks
to reduced number of operators, smaller space required, slight reduction of
the yield for heavy textiles and reduced consumption of energy with the
same output rate of a flat stenter. Limits of multi-level stenters: - only
a few multi-level stenter models can be equipped with pin chains. - in the
path between one level and the next one, the fabric must be sustained to
avoid the formation of wrinkles and therefore deformation. Telescopic drums
are used to convey the piece of cloth by moving forward the whole fabric
width thus sustaining it from one selvedge to the opposite one;
unfortunately with delicate textiles, such as raised velvets and very
lustrous viscose fabrics, this system causes evident and unpleasant stripes
and marks on the surface. kges (fabric pfennig/m) flat stenter multi-level
stenter Gw(gm2 ) 36 Picture 29 - Flat stenter Contact drying Drum dryer:
with this system, the fabric moves forward arranged on several heated
drums. The drying temperature ranges between 120-130° C and the cylinders
are heated by means of steam at a pressure of 1-3 atm. This very efficient
and low-cost drying system is particularly suitable for flat fabrics, with
slightly evidenced structure, which cannot be easily affected by tension
during feeding. Used for intermediate drying and for light finishes; this
system is not suitable for durable thermosetting resin finishes. Picture 30
- Drawing of a drum dryer Infrared radiation drying Infrared radiation
(near and medium infrared field) can be absorbed by the fabric and
transformed into heat by energy "degradation". In fact their absorption
intensity is proportional to the vibration levels "excited" by the bonds of
the atomic groups from which the passage to the basic level takes place by
means of energy release. Therefore only radiation with a wavelength
corresponding to the absorption levels of the textile material is absorbed
by the textile material and therefore transformed into heat. The capacity
of a large amount of radiation to penetrate deeply corresponds to its
capacity to develop heat inside the material. 37 This can be highlighted
for example with cellulosic fibres, whose absorption spectrum in the near
infrared field being such as to: a) radiation with wavelength λ = 2.5 µm
is only partially absorbed; it releases a small quantity of heat and passes
through a very thick textile. b) radiation with wavelength λ = 3 µm is
highly absorbed by the fabric and therefore it does not penetrate the
surface, to which it releases all its energy in the form of heat. c)
radiation with wavelength λ = 3,4 µm corresponds to a medium absorption;
it partially penetrates the material and creates a heat source inside. Also
water absorbs infrared radiation (its maximum absorption is equal to 3 5
µm). If we consider that this is the absorption wavelength for almost all
the textile materials (cellulosic, polyamide and protein fibres) as well as
water, the same area can be considered the most important section of the
infrared field for the drying process. In fact these degrees of radiation
feature, in almost all the textile materials, an excellent absorption
coefficient on the surface and therefore a quick heating potential, which
leads to an excellent thermal efficiency. This section represents only a
small part (from 3 to 7%) of the infrared radiation emitted by a standard
source. 3 µm radiation is also absorbed by water vapour, while that with a
lower λ passes through the water vapour with insignificant absorption
levels. The infrared radiation sources, generally used, are characterised
by a different emission spectrum and can be divided into three main
categories: a) short infrared radiation lamps; b) incandescent emitters
(for medium infrared radiation) c) no-light infrared emitters (for long
radiation). The presence of bonding agents, dyes and finishing products on
the fabric does not modify the absorption spectrum and therefore has slight
impact in most cases. Microwave drying The application of microwaves and
high frequencies in fabric drying The heat transfer in the fabric, from the
surface toward the inner part, takes place with a certain difficulty due to
the poor thermal conductivity of the fabric with subsequent problems to
obtain a temperature uniformity in the whole heated mass, in relatively
short times. By means of radio frequency waves, heat develops inside the
material in a quantity that is proportional to the water dispersed in it.
In fact, water molecules subject to an electric field are polarised in the
direction of the electric field: in an alternated electric field, each
field displacement corresponds to an inversion of the polarisation
direction. Water molecules in an alternated electric field are forced to
displace by oscillating with the same frequency of the field, thus
dissipating energy by effect of molecular friction.

Stabilisation
This process produces greater density and stability (e.g. the Sanforset process) and gives the
fabric a controlled compression shrinkage, which eliminates distortions originated during
previous processes. The fabric finished with this treatment keeps its shape also after repeated
washing thus providing an excellent dimensional stability of the textile substrate. The fabric
is
fed into an opener/tension-adjusting device, and subsequently passes through a wetting unit
where the quantity of water necessary for bulking the material is sprayed on the fabric.
A steaming treatment can be carried out by passing the fabric onto a heated cylinder, which
allows the water spreading in the fibre bulk and completes its swelling.
The textile material passes to a stenter which gives the fabric the desired width and is then
fed
into the rubber-belt squeezing unit.
The fabric shrinkage is carried out with several simple operations: the rubber belt pressed
between the squeezing cylinder and the drum is stretched and, once out of this squeezing unit,
it
again takes its original shape. The fabric is made to adhere to the rubber belt in the squeezing
area and, since it can slide more easily on the heated and mirror-polished surface of the drum
than on the rubber one, it is forced to follow it during the subsequent shrinkage.
The resulting effect is a continuous and steady sliding between the drum and the rubber belt
and
consequently between the drum and the fabric. Since the stretching of the rubber belt depends
upon the intensity of the pressure exerted by the squeezing cylinder, each pressure variation
corresponds to a shrinkage variation.
Therefore the higher the pressure the greater the shrinking effect.
121122
Picture 129 - Compacting process
After leaving the squeezing unit the fabric is sent out to the drying unit (180°-190°) with the
slightest possible tension. The fabric is fed into a felt calender, which sets the shrinkage.
The fabric immediately after the squeezing compression must be subjected to the slightest
tensions and the moisture must not exceed optimum values.
Picture 130 – Shrink area
Tubular knitted goods can be treated on stenters (to impart dimensional stability), only after
the
cutting operation and eventual bonding. Drying and dimensional stabilisation of tubular
knitted
goods can be obtained by passing the relaxed fabric into belt drying units and by steaming
them
in the final path.
extention

fabric line

rubber

pressure

roller
fabric

warmed

roller

fabric

fabricPicture 131 – Compacting process for tubular knitted fabrics

The fabric (T), wet or dampened with a solution containing softening agents in a vat (V), is
laid
down, overfed by a little calender (C), on metal-mesh vibrating conveyor belts (N) into a
drying
unit. On the first two conveyor belts, the fabric is dried with hot air (1) while vibrations make
the fabric shrink freely; the steaming treatment (2), which sets the dimensional stability,
increases the fabric bulk and gives a soft hand to the fabric, is carried out on a third conveyor
belt. The fabric is then folded in a special folding unit (A). In case of further cutting and
bonding units, a shrinking machine can be added to the system.

Decating
This process is mainly carried out on wool by exploiting its elastic properties in hot and wet
conditions by the direct action of the steam on the fabric. This treatment gives the processed
fabric the following characteristics:
1) dimensional stability;
2) setting of pile after raising;
3) reduction of possible glazing effect after calendering, thank to the swelling caused by
steam
blown on fibres;
4) modification of the hand, which is much more consistent after the treatment;
5) pre-stabilisation to autoclave dyeing
This category of treatments does not include the stabilisation of wool fabrics such as potting,
where the dimensional stabilisation is obtained thanks to the "plasticisation" phenomenon
occurring when the wool fabric is immersed in hot water.
On fabrics made with other fibres, the same treatment can be carried out as "steam ironing"
alternatively to the calendering treatment, when an excessive "glazing effect" could result
from
the treatment.
The steam decating, which is also referred to as dry decating, is carried out on decating
machines in one continuous treatment or two discontinuous ones, according to the following
operating techniques:
- drum decating (alternated at atmospheric pressure);
- autoclave vacuum decating (KD);
- continuous decating.
123124
Alternated decating.

In discontinuous decating processes, the fabric is wound, together with the ìsatinî (2) or
ìbeaverteenî blanket (1) ñ on a large perforated drum (90 cm) on which some meters of
blanket
or similar cloth have been previously rolled.
By using large rollers, it is possible to wind the same quantity of cloth with a thinner density
of
the roller, to allow the steam imparting a more uniform effect and reducing the differences
between the tail and the head.
The steam, at a temperature that can reach 130°C and a pressure of up to 6 bars, is forced into
the cylinder through the fabric roll (i.e. it is forced through both fabric and blanket) for an
interval of time that can range from 1 and 3-4 minutes, according to the desired effect. The
steam is then exhausted by means of a pump.
Autoclave decating (Kessel-Dekatur)

Thanks to the possibility of reaching higher temperatures (130°C) and greater pressures (up
to 6
bar), the setting effect is markedly more durable than when working at atmospheric pressure.
This treatment is now well appreciated and commonly used to give dimensional stability to
all
combed fabrics and also to some carded ones. The machine can be divided into two main
compartments: the fabric taking up area and the horizontal autoclave. Recently, semi-
automatic
systems have been successfully developed and improved thanks multiple-position stations,
which allow preparing a new roller and unloading the treated one while a third roller is
undergoing the decating treatment.
Picture 132 – Loading system of a pressure decating unit
(1) Beaverteen: raised technical fabric, used as a

blanket in fabric decating process when the desired

effect is a bulky hand and a matt appearance.

Technical features of the most common types of beaver

teens: width ranging from 176 to 178cm, weight varying

from 190 to 600 gr/m 2; thickness 1.5-2mm; structure:

polyester warp, cotton weft; polyamide warp, cotton

weft; warp and weft 50% polyester/50% cotton.

(2) Satin: technical textile used as a blanket in

discontinuous decating (in drum or autoclave).

The main characteristics of a “satin” are the following:

1) dimensional stability;

2)consistent steam permeability;

3) resistance to chemical agents and to steam;

4) no negative side effects.

The most common fibre structures are the following:

1) polyester (65-50%)/cotton (35-50%), weft and warp;

2) 65% polyester warp / 35% cotton; 65% cotton warp/

35% polyamide;

3) warp and weft 65% cotton / 35% polyamide.

The life of a “ satin” depends upon:

1) the presence of chemical products on the fabric;

2) the quality of the steam. It is worth considering that the setting effect is directly proportional to
the increase of process
time and steam pressure and consequently to temperature. The increase of both factors causes
a
marked yellowing of the wool together with a progressive deterioration of the peculiar
qualities
of the fibre (resistance, elasticity and soft hand).
Continuous decating
The need to speed up the processing cycles has led to the development of continuous systems,
which give better output rates, no head-tails differences, no marks on the fabrics due to seams
necessary to sew the heads and sometimes moirÈ effects (surface pattern resembling water
ripples). The only disadvantage is a less powerful effect given by the treatment; in particular
an
unsuitable stabilisation for all products.
The continuous decating process carried out under pressure allows a permanent setting of the
wool fabric, which is obtained through a first processing step with saturated vapour under
pressure (which can reach a temperature exceeding 135°C), while a second cooling step
grants
the surface and dimensional stabilisation.
For handling purposes, the fabric is compressed between a large perforated roller, coated with
a
heavy textile coat and a thick endless layer made of dense cotton/polyester felting material.
All along its path the fabric is treated (using different systems) with steam supplied by means
of
special delivering units assembled under the conveyor belt in the lower part of the cylinder,
and
subsequently cooled with air. The intensity of the treatment can be adjusted by adjusting the
process speed, the pressure between the cylinder and the conveyor belt, the moisture degree
and
the steam pressure.
Picture 133 - Continuous pressure decating process

Steaming
The tensionless steaming process of wool fabrics is the most widely used technique to obtain
a
good dimensional stability to ironing with steam press.
The steam action involves the hygroscopic swelling of the fibres with a subsequent relaxation
or
shrinkage of the fabric, which recovers its "natural" shape.
The steaming process eliminates also all the residual tensions. The machines used to carry out
this treatment are called tensionless steaming machines (tensionless steaming) or steaming
shrinking machines.
125The tensionless steaming units can be divided into four main sections:
1) feeding section where the fabric is laid on a continuous conveyor belt by means of an
overfeeding system coated with a technical fabric made of synthetic material, stable in
regard to the action of heat, featuring such a weave to ease passage of steam. It generally
vibrates for a better relaxation of the fabric and keeps it quite suspended inside the steaming
tunnel.
2) steaming area with one or two steaming tunnels with a suction system.
3) cooling area equipped with a suction unit assembled under the conveyor belt to eliminate
the residual moisture.
4) fabric take up area, where a dandy roller or an optical control system adjust the speed to
prevent any stretching of the rolled or folded fabric.
Technical innovations applied to the steaming processes aim at obtaining a better and final
relaxation of the fabric and a reduction of the steaming stage, which requires a great quantity
of
steam (which is mostly dispersed outside through vents) and long processing times, since
good
results can be obtained only by keeping the fabric in contact with steam for a long time. The
various machine manufactures have developed special systems to cut processing times and
steam quantity and obtain an optimum relaxation of the fabric. The system shown in Picture
134, features a programmed and controlled dampening system assembled before the steaming
tunnel.
Picture 134 - Steaming-shrinking unit: 1) double braking bar; 2) fabric centring device; 3)
dampener; 4) adjusting cylinder; 5) compensating cylinder; 6) moisture sensor; 7) feeding

cylinder; 8) feeding sensor; 9) steam application field; 10) suction hood; 11) vibrating device;
12) blowing unit; 13) suction unit; 14) fabric unloading regulator; 15) fabric unloading
cylinder; 16) variable folding device.
126Picture 135 - Detail of the automatic fabric dampening system
The dampening system has been introduced into the steaming unit for the reasons detailed
below.
- Steaming generally tends to reduce the moisture percentage dispersed in the fabric and
therefore the pre-dampening operation grants a recovery ratio of the fabric after the treatment
certainly better than the one obtained with a standard system.
- The moisture dispersed in the dampened fabric fed into the steaming system is transformed
into steam thus providing better shrinkage and relaxation results.
- Commercial tests have shown a remarkable steam saving obtained thanks to the
vaporisation
of water previously sprayed on the fabric.
The set up of the steaming-shrinking-crabbing unit has allowed great steam saving, a
remarkably increased output rate and high-quality final results.
The basic elements characterising this new type of steaming unit are detailed below:
- the steaming tunnel with new design and architecture, grants an efficient air exhaust and the
addition of a saturated vapour compartment with almost no-oxygen prevents any possible
fabric defect caused by standard steam feeding units;
- the steam is fed and controlled according to the real consumption, thus avoiding any
dispersion inside the tunnel;
- the temperature is controlled and adjusted according to the type of fabric and fibre to be
treated;
- any outlet exhausting in the atmosphere has been eliminated and consequently all heat
dispersion has been eliminated.
127In another type of steaming machine the fabric is exposed to the steam action with
tensionless
feeding thanks to a suspended fabric system which avoids the use of a conveyor belt.
Picture 136 – Shrinking-steaming machine with hanging fabric
The suspended fabric system has the following advantages:
- energy saving with the same relaxation effect thanks to the steam recirculated into the
steaming compartments;
- lower processing temperatures, greater quantity of water vapour;
- longer dampening times with the same machine speed, due to a greater quantity of fabric
fed
into the "hanging fabric compartments ";
- automatic self-adjustment of the tensionless take-up of the fabric inside the compartments,
thanks to the shrinkage controlling system which monitors each single cloth and to the
improved driving system.
The system includes a double cooling compartment with forced ventilation (thermal shock) in
the final section aiming at simultaneously cooling down the fabric and relaxing the internal
tensions of the fabric structure.