Republic of the Philippines properties such as drug resistance, mating ability, and toxins

Department of Education production. They are small enough to be conveniently

Region III – Central Luzon
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF CITY OF BALANGA manipulated experimentally and furthermore, they will
BATAAN NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL carry extra DNA that is spliced to them.
City of Balanga, Bataan
III. Ligation (join together) of the gene of interest (eg. from
animal) with the vector (cut bacterial plasmid) as shown on
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 step 3 of the above diagram. The resulting molecule is
1st Quarter, 1st Semester called recombinant DNA. It is recombinant in the sense
that it is composed of DNA from two different sources.
Week1 (Day1-4)
LECTURE:
IV. Transfer of the recombinant plasmid into a host cell (that
GENETIC ENGINEERING
would carry out replication to make huge copies of the
recombined plasmid). In the above diagram as shown in
Many people are unaware that humans have been practicing
steps 4, the host cell is a bacterium known also as
genetic engineering since the ancient times. Selective breeding
recombinant bacterium which will undergo cloning or
or classical breeding in agricultural crops and livestock has
replication of recombinant DNA.
altered the genetic make-up of these organisms over the
centuries in such a way that they no longer resemble their non-
V. Selection process to screen which cells actually contain the
domesticated relatives. This practice has been common long
gene of interest. The next step after cloning, therefore, is to
before genes were discovered.
find and isolate that clone among other members of the
library. If the library encompasses the whole genome of an
Genetic engineering involves the use of molecular techniques
organism, then somewhere within that library will be the
to modify the traits of a target organism. The modification of
desired clone.
traits may involve; 1. Introduction of new traits into an
organism as to enhancement of present traits by increasing the
expression of the desired gene or by disrupting the inhibition of VI. Sequencing of the gene to find out the primary structure
of the protein. Once a segment of DNA has been cloned,
the desired genes’ expression.
its nucleotide sequence can be determined. The nucleotide
sequence is the most fundamental level of knowledge of a
Genetic engineering includes classical breeding which is
considered as the traditional way of genetic engineering which gene or genome. It is the blueprint that contains the
instructions for building an organism, and no
practices the mating of organisms with desirable qualities and
understanding of genetic function or evolution could be
Recombinant DNA technology (rDNA), a modern technique of
complete without obtaining this information.
genetic engineering. Recombinant DNA technology is the
joining together of DNA molecules from two different species.
The recombined DNA molecule is inserted into a host organism After the process of recombinant DNA, these plasmids or
gene copies will now be introduced to its host organisms to
to produce new genetic combinations that are of value to
science, medicine, agriculture, and industry confer upon them the desired trait. A gene for pest
resistance for example, as shown from the image above,
may be isolated, cloned and inserted into plant cell.
Alternatively, bacterial cells may express the inserted gene
to produce protein products. Some important human
proteins like hormones and enzymes are produced by this
technique.

These are some ways in which these plasmids may be

introduced into host organisms.
1. Biolistic. In this technique, a “gene gun” is used to fire
DNA-coated pellets on plant tissues. Cells that survive the
‘bombardment’, and are able to take up the expression
plasmid coated pellets and acquire the ability to express the
designed protein.
2. Plasmid insertion by Heat Shock Treatment. Heat Shock
Treatment is a process used to transfer plasmid DNA into
bacteria. The target cells are pre-treated before the
procedure to increase the pore sizes of their plasma
membranes. This pretreatment (usually with CaCl2) is said
The general outline of recombinant DNA are as follows; to make the cells “competent” for accepting the plasmid
I. Cutting or cleavage of DNA by restriction enzymes (REs) DNA. After the cells are made competent, they are
as shown on steps 2 on the diagram. Restriction enzymes are incubated with the desired plasmid at about 4°C for about
called ‘molecular scissors’ cutting the DNA at specific target 30min. The plasmids concentrate near the cells during this
sequences leaving a single-stranded overhang at the site of time. Afterwards, a “Heat Shock” is done on the plasmid-
the cleavage (step 2). These overhangs of the donor DNA cell solution by incubating it at 42°C for 1 minute then back
(gene of interest) will be paired with other overhangs (vector to 4°C for 2 minutes. The rapid rise and drop of temperature
DNA). are believed to increase and decrease the pore sizes in the
II. Selection of an appropriate vector or vehicle which would membrane. The plasmid DNA near the membrane surface is
propagate the recombinant DNA (shown on step 1). The taken into the cells by this process. The cells that took up
most commonly used as vectors are plasmids (circular DNA the plasmids acquire new traits and are said to be
molecules that originated from bacteria, viruses and yeast “transformed”.
cells). Plasmids are not part of the main cellular genome, but
they carry genes that provide the host cell with useful
1|P age
3. Electroporation. This technique follows a similar ACTIVITY 5
methodology as Heat Shock Treatment, but, the expansion Direction: Choose the letter of the correct answer in applying
of the membrane pores is done through an electric “shock”. DNA technology.
This method is commonly used for insertion of genes into 1. Scientist have discovered how to put together a
mammalian cells. bacteriophage with the protein coat of phage T2 and the
Name: ________________ School: _____________ DNA of phage T4. If this composite phage were allowed to
infect the bacterium, the phages produced in the host cell
ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 would have_______.
1st Quarter - Week 1, Day 1-4 (Outline the steps involved in a. The protein and DNA of T2
genetic engineering and discuss the applications of b. The protein and DNA of T4
c. The protein of T2 and the DNA of T4
Recombinant DNA Technology)
d. The protein of T4 and the DNA of T2
2. A geneticist found that a particular mutation had no effect on
ACTIVITY 1 the polypeptide coded by a gene. This mutation probably
Direction: Identify how each of the traits was introduced or involved
developed. Choose either CLASSICAL BREEDING or a. Deletion of one nucleotide
RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY. b. Alteration of the start codon
_____________1. Macapuno trait in coconuts c. Substitution of one nucleotide
_____________2. Flavr-Savr (Delayed-ripening tomatoes) d. Insertion of one nucleotide
_____________3. Human Insulin-producing bacteria 3. Which of the following correctly ranks the structures in order
_____________4. Guapple (Large-sized guava) of size, from largest to smallest?
_____________5. Wagyu Beef (Beef with good fat a. Gene-chromosome-nucleotide-codon
b. Chromosome-gene-codon-nucleotide
distribution)
c. Nucleotide-chromosome-gene-codon
d. Chromosome-nucleotide-gene-codon
ACTIVITY 2
4. The nucleotide sequence of a DNA codon is GTA. A
Direction: Arrange the following steps on DNA messenger RNA molecule with a complementary codon is
recombination into sequence by writing nos. 1-5. transcribed from the DNA. In the process of protein
___ Expression of the gene to produce the desired product. synthesis, a transfer RNA pairs with the mRNA codon. What
___ Insertion of the selected DNA into a cloning vector to is the nucleotide sequence of the tRNA codon?
create an rDNA or chimeric DNA. a. CAT b. CUT c. GUA d. CAU
___ Generation of DNA fragments & selection of the desired 5. Which of the following would be considered a transgenic
piece of DNA. organism?
___ Introduction of the recombinant vectors into host cells. a. a bacterium that has received genes via conjugation
___ Multiplication & selection of clones containing the b. a human given a corrected human blood-clotting gene
c. a fern grown in cell culture from a single fern root cell
recombinant molecules.
d. a rat with rabbit hemoglobin genes
ACTIVITY 3 6. A microbiologist found that some bacteria infected by
Direction: Make a diagram on the steps showing the process phages had developed the ability to make a particular amino
of recombinant DNA. acid that they could not make before. The new ability was
probably a result of
a. Transformation c. Mutation
b. Transduction d. Conjugation
7. When a typical restriction enzyme cuts a DNA molecule, the
cuts are uneven, so that the DNA fragments have single-
stranded ends. These ends are useful in recombinant DNA
work because
a. They enable a cell to recognize fragments produced by
ACTIVITY 4 the enzyme
b. They serve as starting points for DNA replication
Direction: Identify the following products of Recombinant
c. The fragments will bond to other fragments with
DNA technology being asked for in this activity 4 by
complementary ends.
completing the missing letters in each item. d. They enable researchers to use fragments as molecular
1. These are bacterial enzymes that can cut/split DNA at probes.
specific sites 8. A biologist isolated a gene from a human cell, attached it to a
_ _ s t _ _ _ t i_ n _ _ d _ n_ c _ e a s _ s plasmid, and inserted the plasmid into a bacterium. The
bacterium made a new protein, but it was nothing like the
2. The cut DNA fragments are covalently joined together by protein normally produced in a human cell. Why?
_______. DNA _ _ _ a_ e a. The bacterium had undergone transformation
b. The gene contained introns
c. The gene did not have sticky ends
3. It is a small DNA molecule within a cell that is physically
d. The gene did not come from genomic library
separated from a chromosomal DNA and can replicate
9. A paleontologist has recovered a bit of organic material from
independently, commonly used as a vector for gene the 400-year-old preserved skin of extinct dodo. She would
multiplication like to compare DNA from the sample with DNA from living
___s__d birds. Which of the following would be most useful for
increasing the amount of DNA available for testing?
4. These are the viruses that replicate within the bacteria. a. Restriction fragment analysis
__ct____p_a_es b. Electrophoresis
c. Molecular Probe Analysis
5. These are vectors possessing the characteristics of both d. Polymerase Chain Reaction
plasmid & bacteriophages.
_o_m__s

2|P age
10. The control of gene expression is more complex in History of Life on Earth and Mechanism of Evolution
multicellular eukaryotes than in prokaryotes because ____.
a. Eukaryotic cells are much smaller The Earth is around 4.5 billion years old. What was Earth like
b. In a multicellular eukaryote, different cells are million years ago? When did the first living organism evolved?
specialized for different function By studying the Earth’s geological timeline, we will be able to
c. Prokaryotes are restricted to stable environments trace the processes by which fossils and living organisms have
d. Eukaryotes have fewer genes, so each gene must do evolved since the time that life started until the present day.
several jobs.
The Earth’s history is divided into eons, eras, periods, and
ACTIVITY 6
epochs. The geologic time scale is a record of the life forms and
Direction: Answer the following questions in relation to
geological events in Earth’s history. Scientists
Recombinant DNA technology as comprehensive as possible.
developed the time scale by developing by studying the rock
1. Discuss how PCR may be used for the detection of disease- layers and fossils worldwide. Radioactive dating was used to
causing pathogens in a population specifically in detecting determine the absolute divisions in the time scale.
viruses like dengue and COVID -19.
__________________________________________________ When we try to understand the history of the Earth and how
__________________________________________________ our planet changed over time as describes on our geological
__________________________________________________ timeline, we also try to understand how biological processes
__________________________________________________ that take place have caused disruptions in the organismal
__________________________________________________ equilibrium. These biological changes that happens through
the course of geological events that shaped our planet until
2. Discuss how the cloning and expression of certain genes today is explained through the process of evolution.
allows for massive production of the desired product.
__________________________________________________ Basic Mechanism of Evolution
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________ 1. Natural selection – This mechanism of evolution was
__________________________________________________ proposed two naturalists- Charles Darwin and Alfred Russell
__________________________________________________ Wallace in the mid-nineteenth century.
Natural selection was governed with these three principles.
Week2 (Day1-4) First, the characteristics of organisms are inherited, or passed
LECTURE: from parent to offspring. Second, more offspring are
EVOLUTION AND ORIGIN OF DIVERSITY produced than can survive (resources for survival and
reproduction are limited). Thus, there is a competition for
those resources in each generation. Third, offspring vary
among each other regarding their characteristics and those
variations are inherited. Out of these three principles, Darwin
and Wallace reasoned that offspring with inherited
characteristics that allow them to best compete for limited
resources will survive and have more offspring than those
individual with variations that are less able to compete. Since
characteristics are inherited, these traits will be better
represented in the next generation. These will lead to change
in populations over generations in a process that Darwin
called “descent with modification”. These principles were
presented on the book of Darwin “On the Origin of Species”
which was published in 1859.

2. Mutation- this is a change in the DNA sequence of the gene.

Mutation is a source of new alleles in the population. A
mutation can change one allele into another, but the net effect
is change in frequency. The change in frequency resulting
from mutation is small, so its effect on evolution is small also
unless it interacts with one of the other factors such as
selection. The outcomes or effect of mutation in an
organisms’ phenotype or appearance are as follows:
a. It may affect the phenotype of organism in a way that
gives it reduced fitness- lower likelihood of survival,
resulting in fewer offspring.
b. It may produce a phenotype with a beneficial effect on
fitness
c. Neutral mutations will have no effect on fitness.

3. Genetic Drift- It is simple the effect of change. Another way

a population’s allele can change. It is most important in small
populations because drift would be completely absent in a
population with infinite individuals. Genetic drift occurs
because the alleles in an offspring generation are a random
sample of the alleles in the parent generation. Alleles may or
may not make it to the next generation due to chance events
including mortality of an individual, events affecting finding

3|P age
 a mate and even the events affecting which gametes end up Name: ________________ School: _____________
in fertilization. If one individual in a population of ten
individuals happens to die before it leaves any offspring to ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
the next generation, all its genes- a tenth of the population’s 1st Quarter - Week 2, Day 1-4 (Describe general features of
gene pool will be suddenly lost. the history of life on Earth, including generally accepted dates
and sequence of the geologic time scale and characteristics
4. Gene Flow- The flow of alleles in and out of the population and explain the mechanisms that produce change in
resulting from the migration of individuals or gametes. While populations from generation to generation)
some populations are stable, others experience more flux.
Many plants, for example, send their seeds far and wide, by ACTIVITY 1
winds or guts of animals; these seeds may introduce alleles Direction: Answer the following questions about your
common in the source population to a new population in knowledge regarding the history of life on Earth.
which they are rare. Gene flow can occur when an individual
travels from one geographic location to another and joins a 1. What is the age of the Earth?
different population of the species. _______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
5. Recombination- It occurs during meiosis when _______________________________________________
chromosomes exchange genes. This process ultimately leads _______________________________________________
to the formation of unique gametes with chromosomes that _______________________________________________
are different from those in parents. This is one of the _______________________________________________
important means to promote and increase genetic diversity
between generations. 2. What was the Earth million years ago?
_______________________________________________
Types of Fossils _______________________________________________
And What They Tell Us About the Dinosaurs _______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
Fossils can be divided into two categories, fossilized body parts _______________________________________________
(bones, claws, teeth, skin, embryos, etc.) and fossilized traces, _______________________________________________
called ichnofossils (which are footprints, nests, dung,
toothmarks, etc.), that record the movements and behaviors of Note: If you have an internet connection, you can watch a short
the dinosaurs. clip to have an idea regarding the activity.
1. Petrified fossils form when minerals replace the structure of I. Geologic Time Scale
an organism. This process, called permineralization, occurs (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nofyRleo3Vc)
II. “Four Ways to Understand the Earth’s Age.”
when groundwater solutions saturate the remains of buried
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tkxWmhtFGs&spfreload=10)
plants or animals. As the water evaporates the minerals
remain, eventually filling in the spaces left as the organism
slowly decays. ACTIVITY 2
2. A mold fossil is a fossilized imprint made in the substrate. Direction: Match the geological time under column A with
The substrate is the rock or sediment on which a fossil its corresponding era found in Column B.
makes its mark. Unlike cast fossils, mold fossils are hollow.
Due to the way this type of fossil is formed, the resulting Column A Column B
image is a negative image of the part of the organism’s body
that made the impression. In other words, it is backwards. _______ 1. Cretaceous a. Paleozoic
Common mold fossils include skin, leaves, teeth, claws and _______ 2. Jurassic b. Mesozoic
embryos. _______ 3. Cambrian c. Cenozoic
_______ 4. Quaternary
3. Cast fossils are like mold fossils in that they formed, at least _______ 5. Silurian
in part, with an imprint made in a rock or sediment. _______ 6. Triassic
However, cast fossils go one step further. Once the hollow _______ 7. Ordovician
mold is present, they are subsequently filled in with minerals
that later harden for form solid rock. In other words, mold ACTIVITY 3
fossils take up negative space and cast fossils take up Direction: Identify the types of fossils which are the evidence
positive space. Cast fossils also include skin, leaves, teeth, of organisms that lived in the past. Choose your answer on the
class and embryos. choices found inside the table.
4. Trace fossils, also called ichnofossils, do not contain
information about the organism itself. Rather, they contain Cast Molds Petrified
information on traces left by the organism. Common Original Remains Carbon Film Trace
examples of trace fossils include burrows, nests, footprints,
dung and tooth marks. These are the most common type of
fossil, and can sometimes offer more information on how 1. It was made when a mold is filled in.
the organism lived (e.g. how it hunted and how it rested) 2. A fossilized impression made in a substrate- negative image
than fossilized body parts can. of an organism
3. These are carbon impressions in the sedimentary rocks.
5. A carbonaceous film or carbon film is an organism outline 4. These were preserved wholly i.e. frozen in ice, trapped in
of a fossil. It is a type of fossil found in any rock when tar pits.
organic material is compressed, leaving only a carbon 5. These record the movements and behaviors of the organism.
residue or film. When an organism is buried under many 6. These were organic materials converted into stones.
layers of sediment, pressure and heat increase during
diagenesis and if the organism lacks a hard skeleton, it will
only leave this thin film of carbon residue on rock surfaces.
4|P age
 ACTIVITY 4 3. Gene Flow
Direction: Give the meaning of the following items which _______________________________________________
are the ways of fossilization. There are six ways that _______________________________________________
organisms can turn into fossils, including: _______________________________________________
4. Genetic Drift
1. Unaltered preservation
_______________________________________________
________________________________________________
_______________________________________________
________________________________________________
_______________________________________________
________________________________________________
2. Permineralization/ Petrification Week3 (Day1-2)
________________________________________________
________________________________________________ LECTURE:
________________________________________________ EVOLUTION AND ORIGIN OF BIODIVERSITY
3. Replacement Patterns of Descent with Modification
________________________________________________
Biological evolution is a powerful and important process. It is
________________________________________________
a process which, over billions of years, gradually selects the
________________________________________________
organisms that are better adapted to their environment to
4. Carbonization or Coalification continuously change life and make all living organisms in our
________________________________________________ world the way they are today. Evolution is not a finished event
________________________________________________ wherein humans are the final product. Rather, it is a continuing
________________________________________________ process which has been changing and forming life on Earth for
billions of years and continues to do so for as long as organisms
5. Recrystallization
are born, dying, and competing for what they need to survive
________________________________________________
and reproduce.
________________________________________________
________________________________________________ Core Concepts:
• Species - Ernst Mayer’s definition: “Species are groups of
6. Authigenic preservation
interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively
________________________________________________
isolated from other such groups.”
________________________________________________
- Is a closely related organism that are very similar and
________________________________________________
capable of producing fertile offspring.
ACTIVITY 5 • Reproductive Isolating Mechanism
Direction: Practice to make a fossil from a natural and man- The mechanisms of reproductive isolation are a collection
made object. of evolutionary mechanisms, behaviors, and physiological
processes critical for speciation. They prevent members of
I. Choose the object you want to make a fossil of. Any different species from producing offspring or ensure that
natural object (shells, leaves, animal bone) will do as long any offspring are sterile. These barriers maintain the
as it fits in the container. If you choose leaves, be sure it integrity of a species by reducing gene flow between related
is not dry. species
II. Coat the object with petroleum jelly. This will keep the
object from sticking to the plaster when you try to remove 1. Pre-zygotic isolation mechanisms
it. Coat it thoroughly. - prevent fertilization and zygote formation.
III. Mix plaster and water in a bowl. Follow the directions on - happens before fertilization occurs between gametes.
the plaster of Paris packaging. Mix them together 1.1 Geographic or ecological or habitat isolation
thoroughly and let the concoction sit for a few minutes - occurs when two species that could interbreed do not
without stirring. You should need about 2x more water because the species live in different areas. The two
than plaster, but you can adjust the ratio as you see fit. species live in different habitats and will not
IV. Press the object into the plaster of Paris. Be careful not to encounter one another: each is isolated from the other
push too hard! Now your part is done; all it has to do is species.
dry. Set it aside and check it the next day; drying will take
at least one day. 1.2 Temporal or seasonal isolation
V. Remove the object. After you've waited 24 hours, pop - different groups may not be reproductively mature.
your natural item out of the plaster of Paris. It's just like a For example, two populations of plants may produce
shell that was enveloped in soil for thousands of years. It flowers in different seasons, making mating between
was disintegrated and this image was left behind. the populations impossible

ACTIVITY 6 1.3 Behavioral isolation

Direction: Explain the following mechanisms that change - patterns of courtship is different. For example, eastern
gene and genotype frequencies of population. Use your own & western meadowlark songs differ.
words in your explanation. 1.4 Mechanical isolation
1. Mutation - differences in reproductive organs prevent successful
_______________________________________________ interbreeding. Mechanical isolation occurs when
_______________________________________________ mating is physically impossible.
_______________________________________________ 1.5 Gametic isolation
2. Selection - incompatibilities between egg and sperm prevent
_______________________________________________ fertilization. Often this occurs because the female
_______________________________________________ immune system recognizes sperm as foreign and
_______________________________________________ attacks it.

5|P age
2. Post-zygotic isolation mechanisms Name: ________________ School: _____________
- allow fertilization but nonviable or weak or sterile hybrids
are formed. In these cases, the zygote formed is called a ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
hybrid. However, even after a hybrid zygote forms, 1st Quarter - Week 3, Day 1-2 (Show patterns of descent
reproduction may still not be successful. with modification from common ancestors to produce the
organismal diversity observed today)
2.1 Hybrid inviability - fertilized egg fails to develop past
the early embryonic stages. For example, when tigers
ACTIVITY 1
and leopards are crossed, the zygote begins to develop
Direction: Compare and contrast the following evolutionary
but the pregnancy ends in miscarriage or stillborn.
terms based on your own understanding. Write your answer on
2.2 Hybrid inviability - their hybrids are sterile because the spaces provided for each item.
gonads develop abnormally or there is abnormal
segregation of chromosomes during meiosis. A horse 1. Species vs. Speciation
and a donkey may produce a hybrid offspring, a mule. ________________________________________________
Mules are sterile. ________________________________________________
________________________________________________
2.2 Hybrid breakdown - F1 hybrids are normal, vigorous
________________________________________________
and viable, but F2 contains many weak or sterile
individuals
2. Descent with modification vs. Common Ancestry
• Speciation - is the evolutionary process by which ________________________________________________
populations evolve to become distinct species. It is the ________________________________________________
process by which new species develop from existing ________________________________________________
species. ________________________________________________

A. Allopatric Speciation 3. Natural Selection vs. Artificial Selection

- allo – other, patric – place; ‘other place’ ________________________________________________
- Allopatric speciation or geographic speciation ________________________________________________
occurs when some members of a population ________________________________________________
become geographically separated from the other ________________________________________________
members thereby preventing gene flow. Examples
of geographic barriers are bodies of water and 4. Reproductive Isolating Mechanism vs. Mode of Speciation
mountain ranges. ________________________________________________
________________________________________________
B. Sympatric Speciation ________________________________________________
• sym – same, patric – place; ‘same place’ ________________________________________________
• occurs when members of a population that initially
occupy the same habitat within the same range 5. Macroevolution vs. Microevolution
diverge into two or more different species. It ________________________________________________
involves abrupt genetic changes that quickly lead ________________________________________________
to the reproductive isolation of a group of ________________________________________________
individuals. Example is change in chromosome ________________________________________________
number (polyploidization).
ACTIVITY 2
C. Parapatric Speciation Direction: Based on the description, identify the specific
- para – beside, patric – place; ‘beside each other’ isolating mechanisms for the ff given:
• occurs when the groups that evolved to be separate
1. Two species of garter snakes live in the same region but
species are geographic neighbors. Gene flow
one lives in water and the other on land.
occurs but with great distances is reduced. There is
2. Two species of meadowlarks with different mating songs
also abrupt change in the environment over a
3. When tigers and leopards are crossed, the zygote begins to
geographic border and strong disruptive selection
develop but the pregnancy ends in miscarriage or stillborn
must also happen.
4. Mule is the sterile offspring of a horse and a donkey
5. Two species of plants flower at different months
6. Least fly catcher is seen in open woods, farms and orchards
while Acadian fly catcher is found in deciduous forests
particularly in beech trees and swampy woods.
7. Wood frog usually mates in late March when water
temperature is about 7.2 0C while Leopard frog usually
mates in mid-April when water temperature is 12.8 0C.
8. Black sage and White sage grow in the same areas, but
hybrids rarely form because flowers of two species have
become specialized for distinct pollinator. Black sage
flowers are pollinated by small bees while white sage
flowers are pollinated by large bees.
9. Blue-footed boobies select their mates only after an
Note: The present-day species evolved from earlier species and that the elaborate courtship ritual, which is unique to them
relatedness of organisms is the result of common ancestry. This can be 10. Sea urchins of more than one species might reproduce in
supported by morphological and anatomical data, homology, biogeography, the same place at the same time, but the sperm of species A
DNA, and protein sequences (molecular data), and embryology. might be incompatible with the ova of species B and vice
versa.

6|P age
 ACTIVITY 3 2. How did the population of ground finches change because of
Direction: Based on the descriptions, identify the mode of environmental changes?
speciation for the ff given: ________________________________________________
________________________________________________
1. Some grasses that grow around mines are tolerant of heavy ________________________________________________
metals in soil. Meanwhile, neighboring grasses don't live in ________________________________________________
polluted soil, but they occupy a continuous geographic
population. The two grasses have evolved different 3. Does evolution happen quickly or slowly? Explain further.
flowering times (niche). ________________________________________________
2. The apple maggot lays its eggs inside an apple, causing it to ________________________________________________
rot. As the apple falls from the tree, the maggots dig in the ________________________________________________
________________________________________________
ground and emerge as flies later. The original hawthorn
species still only lays its eggs in hawthorn apples.
4. What is the definition of a species?
3. When Arizona's Grand Canyon formed, squirrels and other ________________________________________________
small mammals that had once been part of a single ________________________________________________
population could no longer contact and reproduce with each ________________________________________________
other across this new geographic barrier. ________________________________________________
4. Within the past 2 million years in Lake Malawi, over 400
species of fish have descended from a single common 5. How did one ancestral population give rise to many species,
ancestral species. Some of these species may have each with different adaptations?
________________________________________________
developed when fluctuating water levels isolated small sub-
________________________________________________
populations of the original ancestral species and prevented ________________________________________________
interbreeding ________________________________________________
5. Plants that live on boundaries between very distinct
climates may flower at different times in response to their ACTIVITY 5
different environments, making them unable to interbreed.
ACTIVITY 4 Direction: Choose and encircle the letter of the best answer.
Direction: Read the article below and answer the questions
that follow. Direction: Choose and encircle the letter of the best
The Beak of the Pinch answer.

The 13 species of finches in the Galápagos Island have different 1. Mules are sterile because they cannot produce functional
beaks adapted to different diets. DNA evidence indicates that gametes. This is evidence that
the Galápagos finch species are all more related to one another a. Horses and donkeys are members of the same species.
than any one is to a species on the mainland; they all evolved b. Horses and donkeys are separated by genetic drift.
from one ancestral species. Traits like the size and shape of c. Horses and donkeys are separated by a prezygotic barrier.
beaks can change when the environment and thus the food d. Horses and donkeys are separated by a postzygotic
supply changes. barrier.
Habitats and ecological niches are constantly changing. In
1977, because of drought, large seeds were abundant and birds 2. In which mode of speciation does a new species emerge
with large, strong beaks had a competitive advantage. Over from within the geographic range of its ancestor?
generations, the average beak depth changed. In 1983, abundant a. Allopatric speciation
precipitation allowed vines to flourish. During the 1985 b. Parapatric speciation
drought, smaller seeds were more abundant, so that birds with c. Sympatric speciation
smaller beaks had a competitive advantage, survived well, and d. Mechanical isolation
their offspring had smaller beaks. Evolutionary change can
occur rapidly, in only a few generations, if there is genetic 3. Which of the following statements about biological species
variation among individuals in a population and if natural is(are) correct?
selection acting on this variation is strong. I. Biological species is a group of individuals whose
members interbreed with one another.
Species are defined as populations whose members do not II. Biological species are the model used for grouping
interbreed with members of other populations. Reproductive extinct forms of life.
isolation can result in speciation. Song and appearance both III. Members of biological species produce viable, fertile
played a role in keeping members of different species from offspring.
mating with each other. It is likely that a finch species arrived a. I only c. II only
on one island from the mainland, then as descendants populated b. I and III d. II and III
other islands, their traits changed over time. If the changes
included traits in mating, they became distinct species. 4. The following isolating mechanisms prevent fertilization
Review Questions: and formation of zygote except
a. Temporal isolation c. Hybrid breakdown
1. What evidence did scientists use to determine that all 13 b. Gametic isolation d. Ecological isolation
species of finches on the Galápagos have one common
ancestor? 5. Genetic drift can be defined as:
________________________________________________ a. changes in the gene pool due to random.
________________________________________________ b. the movement of individuals from land to water
________________________________________________ c. gene flow
________________________________________________ d. continental shift of the plates on the Earth’s surface

7|P age
 Week3 (Day3-4)
Father of Paleontology
LECTURE Theory of Catastrophism =
DEVELOPMENT OF EVOLUTIONARY THOUGHT boundaries represent floods,
droughts, etc. that destroyed
“A major obstacle in the acceptance of the idea that organisms many species living at that
change over time was the belief of the general public in the time.
doctrine of creationism.” According to him, fossils are
remains of extinct life forms
Core Concepts:
• Early scientists who contributed in shaping and developing George Cuvier
(Source: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Georges-Cuvier)
evolutionary thought.

Theory of Gradualism =
Profound changes can result
from cumulative effect of
Proposed that the Earth was
shaped by geological forces
occurring over very long
periods of time and is
MILLIONS not THOUSANDS
of years old.

James Hutton
• Swedish naturalist and explorer that was the first to frame (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton)
principles for defining natural genera and species of
organisms and to create a uniform system for naming them, Principles of Geology = argued
known as binomial nomenclature. that the formation of Earth's
crust took place through
countless small changes
• Linnaean System of Classification
occurring over vast periods of
❖ The most influential early classification system was time, all according to known
developed by Carolus Linnaeus. In fact, all modern natural laws. His
classification systems have their roots in Linnaeus’ "uniformitarian" proposal was
system. In 1735, he published his classification system that the forces molding the
in a work called Systema Naturae (“System of planet today have operated
Nature”). continuously throughout its
history.
❖ The taxa are below:
Kingdom - This is the highest taxon in Linnaean Charles Lyell
taxonomy, representing major divisions of (Source: https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/717890/view/sir-charles-lyell-
british-geologist)
organisms. Kingdoms of organisms include the plant
and animal kingdoms. One of first scientists to
Phylum (plural, phyla) - This taxon is a division of a recognize that living things
kingdom. Phyla in the animal kingdom include changed over time and that all
species were descended from
chordates (animals with an internal skeleton) and other species.
arthropods (animals with an external skeleton). Lamarckism
Class - This taxon is a division of a phylum. Classes - He proposed that the
in the chordate phylum include mammals and birds. characteristics that an animal
o Order - This taxon is a division of a class. Orders acquired during its lifetime in
in the mammal class include rodents and primates. response to life’s struggles or
Family - This taxon is a division of an order. felt needs could be passed on
Families in the primate order include hominids (apes to its offspring
and humans) and hylobatids (gibbons). 1809- Published his ideas about
“Inheritance of Acquired
Genus - This taxon is a division of a family. Genera Characteristics”
in the hominid family include Homo (humans) and
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
Pan (chimpanzees). (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck)
Species - This taxon is below the genus and the
lowest taxon in Linnaeus’ system. Species in the The inheritance of such a characteristic means its reappearance in one or
Pan genus include Pan troglodytes (common more individuals in the next or in succeeding generations. An example
would be found in the supposed inheritance of a change brought about by
chimpanzees) and Pan paniscus (pygmy the use and disuse of a special organ.
chimpanzees).

An English cleric, scholar, and influential

economist in the fields of political
economy and demography.
Author of the 1798 book, An Essay on
the Principle of Population.
He observed that an increase in a nation's
food production improved the wellbeing
of the populace, but the improvement was
temporary because it led to population
growth, which in turn restored the original
per capita production level.

Thomas Robert Malthus

(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus)
8|P age
 ACTIVITY 2
Charles Robert Darwin was a Direction: Give specific example(s) that explain Jean Baptiste
British naturalist and biologist
Lamarck’s theory on evolutionary change.
known for his theory of evolution
and his understanding of the
process of natural selection. A. Principle of use and disuse
Although Charles Darwin __________________________________________________
originally went to college to be a __________________________________________________
physician, he changed career __________________________________________________
paths when he realized that he __________________________________________________
couldn't stomach the sight of
blood. B. Inheritance of acquired characteristics
__________________________________________________
Charles Darwin __________________________________________________
(Source: https://www.biography.com/scientist/charles-darwin) __________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Evolution of Darwin’s Theory
ACTIVITY 3
• His voyage and his observations led him to write ‘The
Origin of Species Direction: Read the article below and answer the questions
• In 1831, 22-year-old Charles Darwin left England as that follow.
naturalist aboard the HMS Beagle for 5-year voyage
around the world. His mission is to chart the South The Origin of Species: The Making of a Theory
American coastline
Darwin and Wallace independently embarked on
• He noticed plants and animals were different from those
voyages and made observations of the natural world. In 1852,
he knew in Europe
Alfred Russel Wallace left the Amazon, but lost his specimens
• He wrote thousands of pages of observations and and research notes in a fire. Special creation was the idea that
collected vast number of specimens. God specially created each species in its present form and
• He spent a month observing life on the Galapagos Islands constant. Darwin discovered the origin of species 20 years
and realized that each island has different rainfall and before Wallace (in 1832) during his voyage on the HMS
vegetation and its own unique assortment of plant and Beagle.
animal species. In South America, Darwin noticed fossils of species
• He collected 14 species of finches and hypothesized that that were like, but different from, modern species. On the
the Galapagos had be colonized by organisms from the Galápagos Islands, Darwin noticed differences among animals
mainland that had then diversified on the various. that lived on different islands: the tortoises had different shells
• In 1859, his book On the Origin of Species by Means of and the mockingbirds had different colorations.
Natural Selection was published. It presented evidence
and proposed a mechanism for evolution that he called Darwin realized that species might change and that
NATURAL SELECTION. organisms today arose from older species. Darwin shared
• It took Darwin years to form his theory of evolution by accounts of his voyage but was reluctant to share his ideas
natural selection about species changing over time because they were in
opposition to the widely accepted idea of special creation.

Name: ________________ School: _____________ Darwin and Wallace met in 1853, just before
Wallace’s second research trip. From his observations of
species in the Malay Archipelago and the Amazon, Wallace
ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 concluded that new species arise near similar species. Wallace
1st Quarter - Week 3, Day 3-4 found more evidence in the patterns of distribution of species,
(Trace the development of evolutionary thought) variations among species, and vestigial structures. Vestigial
structures are evidence that species are a modified form of an
ACTIVITY 1 older species. The Wallace Line splits the Malay Archipelago
Direction: Identify scientists who contributed on shaping and according to the distribution of species. Charles Lyell and
developing evolutionary thought based on the statement(s) other geologists of the time argued that landforms had looked
below. Choose the letter of the correct answer different throughout Earth’s history. Individuals within a
species vary in small ways. Thomas Malthus’ writing about
A. Carolus Linnaeus population influenced Wallace.
B. Thomas Malthus Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace
C. Georges Cuvier independently discovered the natural origin of species and
D. James Hutton formulated the theory of evolution by natural selection based
E. Charles Lyell on distinct sets of observations and facts. Darwin published
On the Origin of Species in 1859. Wallace also published a
1. He proposed the theory of gradualism. book about evolution, titled Darwinism
2. His focus of studies include fossils, paleontology, and the
theory of Catastrophism. Review Questions:
3. His study about evolutionary thought gave importance to
principles of geology. 1. What was the predominant view about the origin of species
4. He wrote “An Essay on the Principle of Population”, which in the mid-1800s?
explained his predictions and changed the view of many ________________________________________________
people. ________________________________________________
5. He proposed a new system of organization for plants, ________________________________________________
animals, and minerals based upon their similarities

9|P age
 2. What did Darwin notice about the tortoises and the ACTIVITY 5
mockingbirds?
________________________________________________ Direction: On a separate sheet of paper, write an essay about
________________________________________________ Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection. Make sure
________________________________________________ that you will be able to include the following in your output.
3. What evidence did Darwin use to support his idea that A. Descent with modification
species come from other species? B. Existence of variation
________________________________________________ C. Struggle for existence
________________________________________________ D. Artificial selection, natural selection, and adaptation
________________________________________________
Week4 (Day1-4)
4. What did Wallace conclude about where new species arise?
________________________________________________
LECTURE
________________________________________________
PIECES OF EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION
________________________________________________
5. What observations and facts did Wallace use to support his In the previous lessons, it is said that evolution is the process
idea? of change in species over time. Some changes are easily
________________________________________________ visible. Other changes occur so gradually through time and are
________________________________________________ not easily observed.
________________________________________________
Concrete Evidence of Evolution and How to Infer Using its
ACTIVITY 4
Evolutionary Relationship
Direction: Choose and encircle the letter of the best answer. A. Fossils - are preserved remnants of once living organisms
trapped in rocks, tar pits, frozen in ice or embedded in
1. Catastrophism, meaning the regular occurrence of amber. The most common fossils are bones, shells and
geological or meteorological disturbances (catastrophes), seeds or pollen grains. Most fossils are formed in
was Cuvier's attempt to explain the existence of sedimentary rock. Paleontologists (a specialist in the
a. Evolution. study of the forms of life existing in prehistoric or
b. The fossil records geologic times), use the fossils found in rocks to track the
c. Uniformitarianism evolutionary history of many organisms.
d. The origin of new species
e. Natural selection
2. Which of the following represents an idea that Darwin
learned from the writings of Thomas Malthus?
a. Technological innovation in agricultural practices will
permit exponential growth of the human population into
the foreseeable future.
By identifying the age of rocks in which fossils appear,
b. Populations tend to increase at a faster rate than their
we can obtain an accurate idea of how old the fossils are.
food supply normally allows.
Geologists use Relative dating rocks were dated by their
c. Earth changed over the years through a series of
position with respect to one another; rocks in deeper strata
catastrophic upheavals.
are generally older. On the other hand, in absolute dating
d. The environment is responsible for natural selection.
rocks are dated by measuring the degree of decay of
e. Earth is more than 10,000 years old.
certain radioisotopes contained in the rock; the older the
3. In the mid-1900s, the Soviet geneticist Lysenko believed rock, the more its isotopes have decayed. Since
that his winter wheat plants, exposed to ever-colder radioactive isotopes decay at a constant rate unchanged by
temperatures, would eventually give rise to ever more cold- temperature or pressure, the isotopes in a rock act as an
tolerant winter wheat. Lysenko's attempts in this regard internal clock, determining the time after the rock was
were most in agreement with the ideas of formed. Hence, the records found in the rocks show a
a. Cuvier. b. Hutton. c. Lamarck. gradual evolutionary descent from simpler to more
d. Darwin. e. Lyell. complex life forms. Furthermore, the fossil record
provides a clear record of the major evolutionary
4. Which of the following ideas is not included in Darwin’s
transitions that have occurred through time.
theory?
a. All organisms that have ever existed arose through B. Embryology
evolutionary modifications of ancestral species.
An embryo is an organism in its initial phases of
b. The great variety of species live today resulted from the
development. While embryology is the study of the
diversification of ancestral species.
development of the anatomy of an organism to its
c. Natural selection drives some evolutionary change.
adult form also gives evidence of relatedness between
d. Natural selection preserves favorable traits.
now widely different groups of organisms. Scientists
e. Natural selection eliminates adaptive traits.
observed that at some point during the development
process, embryos of many different animals appeared so
5. Which of the following statements is not compatible with
similar that it was difficult to tell them apart. During
Darwin’s theory?
development, at some time all vertebrates have a
a. All organisms have arisen by descent with modification.
supporting dorsal rod, called a notochord, and
b. Evolution has altered and diversified ancestral species.
demonstrate paired pharyngeal pouches. This could
c. Evolution occurs in individuals rather than in groups.
indicate that an organism passes through some of the
d. Natural selection eliminates unsuccessful variations.
embryonic stages that its ancestors passed through. Then
e. Evolution occurs in because some individuals function
better than others in a particular environment
10 | P a g e
 numerous variations occur in ways appropriate to an Vestigial structures seem like to give more evidence for
organism’s final form. evolutionary change. Vestigial structures are anatomical
However, the similarities in the early stages of embryo features that are usually reduced and have no function in
development are further evidence that living organisms many organisms. These are organs that were previously
have evolved from earlier living things and that they do functional in the ancestors of the species but are only
share a common ancestry. remnants in the present-day species. For example, skeletal
extremities discovered in certain snakes have no known
use to these animals. In humans, appendix is thought to
have no use, but in other mammals it aids in the digestion
of cellulose.

D. Biochemical

Living organisms shared numerous related biochemical

molecules, such as DNA, ATP, amino acids, and
enzymes. This finding supports descent from a common
ancestor. The more closely linked organisms are the more
related is their biochemical genetic makeup.
Haeckel's 1874 version of vertebrate embryonic development. The top row
shows an early stage common to all groups, the second row shows a middle
stage of development, and the bottom row shows a late-stage embryo.
1. DNA/Nucleic acids
(Adapted from [Gilbert, 1997]). Genes are in the chromosomes, which are made of DNA
or deoxyribonucleic acid. The more closely related two
C. Anatomical Evidence living organisms are, the more similar the sequence of
In comparing the anatomy and the development of their DNA molecules will be.
organisms, it shows a unity of plan among those that are
closely related. The more body structures that two species
have in common, the more closely they are related. It
adopts the idea of “descent from a common ancestor”.
Similar structures in different species irrespective of their
functions are called homologous structures. Homology
seems to indicate descent from common ancestor. The
limb skeletons of vertebrates is homologous structures.

The phylogenetic tree of the hemoglobin gene (with its

branches) shows the number of nucleotide changes that
have occurred.
Source:https://evidenceforevolution13bio.weebly.com/bi
ogeography.html

2. Proteins
Proteins are molecules that are used to build up and
repair body parts. Scientists believe that the more
similar the structure of protein molecules of different
https://www.geo.arizona.edu/Antevs/nats104/00lect12Homologous.jpg organisms is, the more related they are and the more
recent the existence of their common ancestor.
Analogous structures are structures which are different Unrelated species have different amino acids.
in appearance but have the similar function. Analogy does
not indicate common ancestry. Examples of are the limbs
of insects and mammals, and wings of butterflies and
birds.

11 | P a g e
E. Biogeography Part 2
Biogeography is the study of the geographic distributions
of organisms. Darwin’s trip around South America Choices:
allowed him to observe the diversity of organisms in A. Homologous Structures
different areas and the resemblance of such species of B. Analogous Structures
birds and tortoises in an island to nearby mainland. C. Vestigial Structures
Darwin believed that the group of organisms in each
island is adapted to a distinct way of life. The common Description:
ancestors of these organisms had come from one place,
expanding out into other accessible regions. ____ 1. These are structures serve the same function but
originated independently in different groups of
organisms that do not share a common ancestor.
____ 2. These are anatomical features that are fully developed
in one group of organisms but are reduced and may
have no function in related groups.
____ 3. These are structures that are anatomically similar
because they are inherited from a common ancestor.
____ 4. Example of these structures are the wings of birds and
insects
____ 5. Both the tail bone and wisdom teeth in human are
examples of these structures

ACTIVITY 2
Direction: Describe how the embryos changed for each of
Pangolins share similar characteristics with anteaters and armadillos these organisms from their earliest to latest stages

Name: ________________ School: _____________

ACTIVITY SHEET IN GENERAL BIOLOGY 2

1st Quarter, Week 4, Day 1 & 2
(Explain evidences of evolution e.g., biogeography,
fossil record, DNA/protein sequences, homology,
and embryology)

ACTIVITY 1

Direction: Choose the best answer for each description below.

Write the letter of your answer before each item.
Part 1
Choices:
A. Evidence from molecular biology
B. Structural evidences: homology, analogy, vestigial
structures Source: Biology (12th Edition by Sylvia S. Mader and Michael Windelspecht)
C. Evidence from biogeography
D. Evidence from embryology
E. Evidence from fossils Species Anatomical Changes From Early to
Late Stages
Description: Salamander

____ 1. The range and distribution of plants and animals in

different places throughout the world and how, and Tortoise
when, they came to be distributed as they are today
____ 2. The records found in the rocks show a gradual
evolutionary descent from simpler to more complex Chick
life forms.
____ 3. Darwin was able to show how descent from a
common ancestor can explain anatomical similarities Human
among organisms.
____ 4. All living organisms use the same basic biochemical
molecules, including DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid),
RNA (ribonucleic acid), and ATP (adenosine Does this suggest an evolutionary relationship? Explain how
triphosphate these embryos can be used as evidence of a common ancestor
____ 5. Common structures are shared in the embryo stage between each of these four organisms.
and disappear by the time the embryo reaches the __________________________________________________
juvenile or adult form. __________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
12 | P a g e
 ACTIVITY 3 Brief Background: Changes in Bone Structures with Time
Direction: Read the descriptions below and compare the The changes in horses over the last 55 million years have been
anatomy of the butterfly and bird wing by answering the given shown by studies of large numbers of fossils. The earliest kind
questions below. of horse was small and had teeth that were adapted to
browsing on young shoots of trees and shrubs. The present-
day horse is much larger and has larger teeth that are adapted
to grazing on the tough leaves of grasses. Early horses were
adapted to living in wooded, swampy areas where more toes
were an advantage. The single-hoofed toes of the present-day
horse allow it to travel fast in the plains.

1. Examine the pictures below. They show fossils of the front

foot bones and the teeth of horses. The foot bones at the
upper right of each diagram indicate the relative bone sizes
Description for Butterfly: of each kind of horse.
A butterfly has four wings – two on each side. They are broken
2. Look for and color the following kinds of bones for each
into two forewings and two hindwings. The wings are attached
fossil horse.
to the second and third thoracic segments (the meso- and meta-
a. Color the toe bones red, these are marked for you with an
thorax). When a butterfly is in flight, the wings move up and
x.
down in a figure-eight pattern. Butterfly wings are made up of
b. Color the foot bones blue, these are marked with a y.
two chitinous layers (membranes). Each wing is covered by
c. Color the ankle bones green, these are marked with a w.
thousands upon thousands of colorful scales and hairs. These
d. Color the heel bones yellow, these are marked with a z.
wing scales are tiny overlapping pieces of chitin on a butterfly
or moth wing. They are outgrowths of the body wall and are
modified, plate-like setae (hairs). Most butterflies have
different patterns on the front and back of their wings.

Source: (https://australianbutterflies.com/what-are-butterfly-wings-made-
of/#:~:text=Butterfly%20wings%20are%20made%20up%20of%20two%20chitonous%20l
ayers%20(membranes).&text=These%20wing%20scales%20are%20tiny,and%20back%20
of%20their%20wings.)

Description for Birds:

Birds are endothermic tetrapod vertebrates. They are bipedal,
which means they walk on two legs. Flight is used by birds
as a means of locomotion to find food and mates and to
avoid predators. Although not all modern birds can fly, they
all evolved from ancestors that could. Wings are an obvious
adaptation for flight. They are modified front legs. Birds
move their wings using muscles in the chest. These muscles
are quite large, making up as much as 35 percent of a bird’s
body weight.

Guide Questions:
3. Using the pictures, make measurements to fill in the Table
1. What is the function of each of these structures? below:
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________ EQUUS HYDRACOTHERIUM MYOHIPPUS METYCHIPPUS
__________________________________________________ No.
of toe
__________________________________________________ bones
No.
2. How are they different in form? Give specific differences of
__________________________________________________ foot
__________________________________________________ bones
__________________________________________________ No.
__________________________________________________ of
ankle
bones
No.
Week4 (Day3-4) of
Name: ________________ School: _____________ heel
bones

ACTIVITY SHEET IN GENERAL BIOLOGY 2

4. Using the information above, answer the following
1st Quarter, Week 4, Day 3 & 4
(Infer evolutionary relationships among organisms questions:
using the evidence of evolution) A. Describe the overall changes in foot length, number of toes,
and size of toes in the horse over time.
ACTIVITY 1 _______________________________________________
Direction: Compare the leg structures and tooth structures of _______________________________________________
the horse species shown below. _______________________________________________
_______________________________________________

13 | P a g e
B. How would natural selection have caused changes in the All living organisms have DNA which codes for sequences of
size, feet, and teeth of the horse? amino acids which form proteins. Proteins that are essential
for life such as Cytochrome C (a protein that helps in cellular
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________ respiration) take a long time to mutate. This allows us to see
_______________________________________________ evolutionary relationships between distantly related (have a
_______________________________________________ distant ancestor) organisms.
**For organisms who are closely related (have a recent
C. What environmental changes happened from the time of the ancestor) proteins that mutate quickly must be examined. In this
earliest to the most recent horses? activity, you will be comparing the amino acid sequences in
_______________________________________________ Cytochrome-C Proteins in different species to determine how
_______________________________________________ closely they are related.
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________ Procedure:

D. How did the species adapt through time? 1. Find the human, rhesus monkey, kangaroo, snapping turtle,
_______________________________________________ bullfrog, and tuna on the "Amino Acid Sequences in
_______________________________________________ Cytochrome-C Proteins from 20 Different Species" chart
_______________________________________________ provided and underline/highlight their names.
_______________________________________________
2. Compare the human amino acid sequence with each of these
five animals by counting the number of times an amino acid
in that animal’s cytochrome c is different from the amino
acid in that same position of the human sequence.
ACTIVITY 2
For example, the number of differences between human and
Direction: Study the chart below and do the procedure that dog =10.
follows.

14 | P a g e
Number of amino acid differences between human and 5. Do organisms with fewer shared anatomical traits also have
more amino acid differences?
a. Rhesus monkey - ______ ________________________________________________
b. Kangaroo - ______ ________________________________________________
c. Snapping turtle - ______ ________________________________________________
d. Bullfrog - ______ ________________________________________________
e. Tuna - ______
6. Based on the molecular data, how does the "human-
3. The cladogram diagram below shows the relationship of monkey" relationship compare to the "duck-chicken"
selected animals based on their shared anatomical features. relationship (which shows three amino acid differences)?
For example, out of seven key traits, all these animals have ________________________________________________
a dorsal nerve cord, but only humans, monkeys and ________________________________________________
kangaroos have mammary glands. ________________________________________________
________________________________________________
A complete list of anatomical traits compared is below:
7. If the molecular data, the structural similarities, and the
o Dorsal nerve cord and notochord: in all seven species fossil record all support the same pattern of relationships,
o Paired appendages and spinal column: in all species can we be confident that the pattern is accurate? Why or
except lamprey why not?
o Paired legs: in all species except lamprey and tuna ________________________________________________
o Amnion: in all species except lamprey, tuna, and ________________________________________________
bullfrogs
________________________________________________
o Mammary glands: in kangaroo, rhesus monkeys, and
________________________________________________
humans only
o Placenta: in rhesus monkeys and humans only 8. Neurospora (bread mold) and Saccharomycetes (baker’s
o Foramen magnum positioned forward (indicating yeast) are both fungi. Chickens and turkeys are both birds.
bipedalism): in humans only What can you say about the inferred evolutionary
relationships between the two birds compared to the
relationship between the two fungi? Explain your reasoning.
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________

Week5 (Day1-4)
LECTURE
TAXONOMY AND SYSTEMATICS

Through evolution, all species are related to one another, more

or less distantly. This is not an insignificant announcement.
Although it appears that most have nothing in common, they
share the different characteristics of life like the ability to
Record the total number of amino acid differences between reproduce or make something of themselves.
humans and each animal shown below.
Latest estimates of the biological diversity of the planet
Write your answer in the hexagon below the arrow pointing indicate that there are as low as half a million or as high as
to the name of that animal. 100 million species, or possibly more. To effectively research
the myriad organisms that occupy the biosphere, we attempt to
classify species into groups that represent evolutionary
relationships.

Structural and developmental characteristics and

relatedness of DNA sequences
Anatomy and embryology

Anatomical features shared between organisms (including

ones that are visible only during embryonic development) can
indicate a shared evolutionary ancestry. There are more
closely related species groups with more recent common
ancestors, and each group would appear to share the
characteristics that were present in their last common ancestor.
If a particular physical feature, such as a complex bone
4. Does the data from the amino acid sequence generally agree structure or a body plan, is shared by two or more animals,
with the anatomical data that was used to make the they may all have inherited this feature from a common
cladogram? ancestor. It is said that physical characteristics shared due to
________________________________________________ evolutionary history (a common ancestor) are homologous. To
________________________________________________ give one example, the forelimbs of whales, humans, and birds
________________________________________________ are homologous structures.
________________________________________________
15 | P a g e
Not all physical traits that appear identical are indicators of
shared ancestors. Instead, some physical similarities are
analogous: in different species, they developed independently
because the organisms lived in similar environments or
encountered similar selective pressures. A duck and a platypus
are similar in that they both lay eggs, however, the egg laying
capability likely developed independently rather than from a Figure 2. The taxonomic classification system uses a hierarchical
common ancestor. model to organize living organisms into increasingly specific
categories. The common dog, Canis lupus familiaris, is a subspecies of
Molecular biology Canis lupus, which also includes the wolf and dingo. (credit “dog”:
modification of work by Janneke
Structural homologies, similarities may reflect shared Source:https://d3bxy9euw4e147.cloudfront.net/oscms-
evolutionary ancestry between biological molecules. prodcms/media/documents/Biology2e-WEB_ICOFkGu.pdf
Similarities and variations in various species between the
Figure 3 demonstrates how the levels move with other species
"same" gene (that is, a pair of homologous genes) will help us
toward specificity. Note how the dog shares a domain, like
decide how closely the organisms are related.
plants and butterflies, with the largest diversity of species. At
DNA evidence for evolutionary relationships
each sub-level, since they are more closely related, the species
All living organisms share the same genetic material (DNA), become more similar. Scientists have traditionally categorized
identical genetic codes, and the same basic gene expression organisms using characteristics, but as DNA technology has
mechanism at the most basic level (transcription and been developed, they have determined more precise
translation). The sequences of associated (or homologous) phylogenies.
genes are also contrasted by biologists. If the "same" gene is
found in two animals, it is because they inherited it from a
shared ancestor. In general, the more DNA similarities between
the two species in homologous genes, the more closely related
the species is.
It is possible to examine segments of DNA using gel
electrophoresis, in which fragments of DNA are separated by
size. Fragments are represented by horizontal bands. Bands
between samples that are identical in size will be on the same
horizontal line and suggest that the sequence of DNA is shared.
The more fragments two samples share, the more related they
are to each other. (figure1)

Taxonomy vs. Systematics

Systematics is the study of the diversification of life forms over
time, both past and present, and their relationships between
other species. On the other hand, taxonomy is the science of Figure 3. At each sublevel in the taxonomic classification system,
organizing and categorizing living organisms into classes called organisms become more similar. Dogs and wolves are the same
taxa. species because they can breed and produce viable offspring, but they
Both a systematist and a taxonomist provide scientific names; are different enough to be classified as different subspecies.
give detailed descriptions of organisms; collects and keeps Source: https://d3bxy9euw4e147.cloudfront.net/oscms-
volumes of specimens; offer classifications for the organisms prodcms/media/documents/Biology2e-WEB_ICOFkGu.pdf
by constructing identification keys and data on their occurrence
and distribution. However, it is the systematist that investigates The following table shows four species that are classified using the
Linnaean system of classification. Features are used as bases for
on evolutionary histories and considers environmental classification.
adaptation of species.
Taxonomic Classification
The method of taxonomic classification (also referred to as the
Linnaean system after the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus,
Zoologist, and doctor) uses a hierarchical model. Moving from
the point of origin, the groups become more precise until the
branch terminates as a single species. For a start, scientists split
species into three large groups after the usual beginning of all
life. Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya are groups called domains.
After domains, the following categories of increasing
specificity are kingdoms: phylum, class, order, family, genus,
and species (Figure 2)

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Phylogeny Cladistics
Phylogeny is the study of relationships and their evolutionary
The most common way to integrate information into
development among different groups of organisms. A
phylogenetic trees is called cladistics. Based on features of
phylogeny is commonly represented by a phylogenetic tree
ancestor and descendant species, cladistics explains theories
called a tree diagram. An early example of a phylogenetic tree
about how organisms are linked. In the 1950s, a scientist named
is the "Tree of Life" by Darwin (Figure 4).
Willi Hennig established cladistics. It became very popular over
the next few decades, and is still used widely today.

Cladistics is derived from the term clade. A clade is a

collection of organisms that include an ancestor species and all
of their descendants. A diagram showing evolutionary
relationships is called a cladogram within one or more clades.
A clade is a relative concept. How a clade is described
depends on the species that you are interested in classifying.
Small clades may have as few as two species and a shared
ancestor. Many more species and their shared ancestors may
be found in the larger clades. (Figures 7 & 8)

Darwin was attempting to explain in this diagram how he felt

evolution had happened. The tree reveals how animals, from
the bottom of the tree to the top, developed over time. They
developed new branches on the tree of life as species evolved.
Eventually, some of these species branched into more
descendant species. Others died without leaving any heirs or
went extinct.

To reflect evolutionary history, modern biologists still use

phylogenetic trees. Figure 5 shows a basic phylogenetic tree.
Genetically related species represent the tips of the branches.
Common ancestors reflect the branching points.

The ancestor to which two descendant species shared before

they took separate evolutionary paths is a common ancestor. Figure7. Clade
Species 1 and 2 have shared a more recent common ancestor Source:
with each other in the tree than with species 3 (Figure 5). https://www.chino.k12.ca.us/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstancei
d=4464&dataid=41803&FileName=LAB%20Review%20Cladistics
Species 1 and 2 are, thus, more closely related to each other
than to species 3.

Figure 8. Vertebrate Clade

Source:
https://www.chino.k12.ca.us/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstancei
d=4464&dataid=41803&FileName=LAB%20Review%20Cladistics.pdf

17 | P a g e
A monophyletic group (clade) can be separated from the root ____ 6. Cannabis sativa
with a single cut, whereas a non-monophyletic group (not a ____ 7. Aeropyrum pernix.
clade) needs two or more cuts. In Figure 9, grouping 1 is ____ 8. Ignisphaera aggregans
monophyletic; grouping 2 is paraphyletic while grouping 3 is ____ 9. Staphylococcus aureus
polyphyletic. ____ 10. Sulfolobus tokodaii

ACTIVITY3
Direction: Construct a phylogenetic Tree of Life and tell
multiple lines of evidence that converge to tell the story of
Mammalia as a branch in the big Tree of Life.
Mammalia (Mammals)

Prototheria
Monotremata (Egg-laying mammals)
Ornithorhynchidae (Platypus)
Tachyglossidae (Echidnas)
Theria
Eutheria (Placentals)
Afrotheria (Golden mole, hyrax, shrew,
Name: ________________ School: _____________ elephant, manatee, aardvark)
Carnivora (Dog, cat, mongoose, hyena,
ACTIVITY SHEET IN GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 skunk, otter, weasel, bear, pinniped)
Cetartiodactyla (Whale, dolphin,
1st Quarter - Week 5, Day 1- 4 (Explain how the structural hippopotamus, ruminantes, pig)
and developmental characteristics and relatedness of DNA Chiroptera (Bats) Dermoptera (Flying
sequences are used in classifying living things) lemur) Edentata (Sloth, armadillo, anteater)
Insectivora (Hedgehog, shrew, moles)
ACTIVITY 1 Lagomorpha (Rabbits and hares)
Direction: Identify the term that’s being describe by Perissodactyla (Odd-toed ungulates: horses,
unscrambling the letter zebra, rhinoceros, tapir)
Pholidota (Pangolins) Primates (Old and
1. The evolutionary history of a species or group of species New World monkeys, hominid, gibbon,
(GLPHYYONE) lemur) Rodentia (Rats, mice, guinea pig,
chinchilla, capybara, porcupine, squirrel)
2. The study of the kinds and diversity of organisms and of all Scandentia (Tree shrews)
relationships among them. (ETISSASYCTM)
3. A similarity due to ancestry. (GOOOLYMH) Metatheria (Marsupials)
Dasyuromorphia (Marsupial mice,
4. A yardstick for measuring the absolute time of evolutionary Tasmanian devil, dunnart)
change based on the observation that some genes and other Didelphimorphia (Opossums)
regions of genomes appear to evolve at constant rates Diprotodontia (Possums, tree kangaroo,
(MUEOCLRLA KOCCL) wallaby, koala)
Microbiotheria (Monito del monte)
5. The existence of a wide range of
Notoryctemorphia (Marsupial moles)
different types of organisms in a given place at a given time. Paucituberculata (Shrew opossums)
(RDYBIOSIITVE) Peramelemorphia (Bandicoots)
6. A study of living things that focuses primarily on evolution.
(URTIOAEVLYNO YLBIOOG) ACTIVITY4
Direction: Write on the space before the number the BEST
7. The science of naming, describing, and classifying answer to the given statement.
organisms and includes all plants, animals, and
microorganisms of the world. (OAYMTNXO) ____1. The following data shows the presence of four
8. The science that investigates how a variety of interacting enzymes across three species. Which of the following
processes generate an organism’s heterogeneous shapes, phylogenetic trees best represents this data?
size, and structural features that arise on the trajectory from
Species Enzyme Enzyme Enzyme Enzyme
embryo to adult, or more generally throughout a life cycle.
1 2 3 4
(ADLNTLEVPEMOE YLOIGOB) Manatee present present absent present
Otter absent absent present absent
ACTIVITY2 Elephant present present absent present
Direction: Identify the biological domain of the given living
thing, then write A for Archaea, B for Bacteria and E for a) Manatee c) Manatee
Elephant Otter
Eukarya.
Otter Elephant
____ 1. Psilocybe semilanceata
____ 2. Felis catus
____ 3. Equus caballus
____ 4. Escherichia coli
____ 5. Pseudomonas aeruginosa

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 ACTIVITY 5
Manatee Elephant
b) Elephant Otter
d) Direction: Describe in your own words the lines of evidence
Otter and how these are used to infer evolutionary relationships.
Manatee

1. Fossil evidence.
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
____2. Based on the phylogenetic tree below, which statement ________________________________________________
best describes a relationship between the common
ancestor and the other organisms? 2. Homologies
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________

3. Biogeography
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________

4. Molecular clocks
a. Rhesus monkeys have the exact same DNA as ________________________________________________
the common ancestor. ________________________________________________
b. The common ancestor is more closely related ________________________________________________
to humans than baboons.
c. Chimpanzees were the first organisms to 5. Genetics
evolve from the common ancestor. ________________________________________________
d. The common ancestor shares DNA with each ________________________________________________
of the other organisms. ________________________________________________

____3. Based on the phylogenetic tree below, which of the ACTIVITY 6

following species has hair? Direction: Answer the following questions comprehensively.

1. What is the connection of phylogeny and classification?

Explain.
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
a. Species I c. Species III
b. Species II d. Species IV 2. Some organisms that appear very closely related on a
phylogenetic tree may not actually be closely related. Why
____ 4. The following data shows four amino acids found is this?
across three species. Which phylogenetic tree best ________________________________________________
represents the information in the chart? ________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Species Amino Acid Sequence ________________________________________________
Manatee Arg - Lys - His - Lys ________________________________________________
Otter Lys - Glu - His - Lys ________________________________________________
Elephant Arg - Lys - His - Lys
3. Why is it so important for scientists to distinguish between
a) Manatee Manatee homologous and analogous characteristics before building
Otter Elephant
c) phylogenetic trees?
Elephant Otter ________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
b) Elephant d) Manatee Elephant ________________________________________________
Otter

Manatee Otter

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Name: ________________ School: _____________ ACTIVITY 3
Direction: Fill in the blank. Give what is being asked.
ACTIVITY SHEET IN GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
1st Quarter - Week 6 (Day 1-4)

Learning Competency with Code:

• identify the unique/distinctive characteristics of a

specific taxon relative to other taxa 1. A dichotomous key to these species shows above.
STEM_BIO11/12IIIhj-15 Complete the missing information for sections 5a and 5b.
- describe the Linnean system of classification
- classify organisms into a hierarchy 1. a. has small wings…………….……….. Go to 2
- construct and use dichotomous keys for b. has large wings……………………… Go to 3
identification
• describe species diversity and cladistics, including
2. a. has a single pair of wings……………. Species
the types of evidence and procedures that can be
A
used to establish evolutionary relationships
b. has a double pair of wings……….….. Species B
STEM_BIO11/12IIIhj-16
- demonstrate how shared derived characters can
be used to reveal degrees of relationship 3. a. has a single pair of wings…………… Go to 4
- build cladograms to infer evolutionary b. has a double pair of wings………….… Species C
relatedness

The practice of classification is almost everywhere such 4. a. has spots……………………………. Go to 5

that, humans tend to classify almost everything. For b. does not have spots………………… Species
instance, one can describe the clothes to wear, types of D
utensils used in the kitchen and even the type of footwear.
Classification becomes an essential part of everyday life and 5. a. _____________________ Species E
the habit can be quite useful. In the past humans have b. _____________________ Species F
classified living organisms based on their general form and
economic use. The type of classification may not be that
systematic as compared to the ones we used today. 2. Use the key to identify the drawings of species A, B, C and
However, it does not deny the fact that they were useful. D, Place the letter of each species on the line located below
Early taxonomists (e.g. Emperor Shen Nung of China the drawing of the species.
around 3000BC) have classified plants based on practical
uses—for food, as herbal medicine, for shelter and others.
How about you? How do you classify the items you
encounter every day?

ACTIVITY 1
Direction: Fill in the inverted pyramid with the correct
hierarchy of Linnean system with its corresponding example. 3. Base your answers to the following questions on the bird
Then construct your own Mnemonic of the Linnean System. head diagrams below and the dichotomous key that
follows. Birds are labeled A, B, C and D.
Example of Mnemonic: Most Vegetables Eat More Juice So
Usually Never Pee (Planets of the Solar System)

1. a. beak longer than head…………… Go to 2

b. beak shorter than head………….. Go to 3

2. a. streaked feathers…………………. Dunlin

b. non streaked feathers………..…….. Black
skimmer

3. a. hooked beak………….………….. Go to 4
b. non hooked beak ……………..…… Baird’s
sparrow

4. a. striped head………………………. Osprey

b. no striped-on head….…………… Bald Eagle

Mnemonic: ______________________________________

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3.1. Based on the dichotomous key, which bird is a Baird’s 2. Next, find organisms
sparrow? that have more than one
a. A c. C difference, B differs
b. B d. D from C by 2 features, so
the last common
3.2. Which characteristic could be best be used to distinguish ancestor of this pair
between birds B and C? lived before the
a. Beak shape c. Stripe on head common ancestor of
b. Beak length d. Shape of eye A&B and C&F. Draw a
dot to represent the
common ancestor of
ACTIVITY 4 both these pair and link
Constructing a phylogenic tree. In this activity, there are six them together.
beetle-like organism labelled A to F. Organisms D&E also
differ by just two
features, so they are
closely related to each
other but not to the
other organisms, D & E
are paired up by linking
them with a common
ancestor. Establish
I. Complete the table below listing the features of the organisms which organisms differ
by 3 or 4
Body Color Head Antennae Jaws Spots on Color
Shape Color present? visible? back? of characteristics. In this
Spots way, we can confirm
A Oval 5. White 12. Yes 19. Black the earlier assumption
B 1. Yellow 8. 13. 16 Yes 23 of the relationship
C Round 6. 9. No 17 20 24
between A, B, C and F
D 2. Pink 10. 14. No No None
E 3. 7. Black Yes 18 21 25 3. Next, look for
F 4. Orange 11. 15 Yes 22 White organisms that differ by
5 features. These are
II. Record the number of differences of their characteristics in beetles A&D, C&E and
the table below (15pts) E&F. When these
groups are linked by a
B C D E F common ancestor the
A tree is complete.
B
C ACTIVITY 5
D Building a Cladogram
E Cladograms are diagrams which depict the relationships
between different groups of taxa called “clades”. By depicting
To create the tree, Drawing Area these relationships, cladograms reconstruct the evolutionary
proceed as follows: history (phylogeny) of the taxa. Cladograms are constructed
1. Start by finding the by grouping organisms together based on their shared derived
closest relatives – the characteristics.
pair or pairs of
organisms that have Both cladograms and phylogenetic trees show the
the least differences relationships between organisms, but their main difference is
between them. In this how they compare them. Cladograms are concerned with the
case, beetles A and B way organisms are related to common ancestors through
have only 1 difference, shared characteristics. Phylogenetic trees compare organisms
so they are the closest over evolutionary time and the amount of change that has
relatives. C & F also occurred over time to figure out the relationships. Both
have 1 difference, so cladograms and phylogenetic trees are drawn using lines to
they are very close show relationships. The difference is that the length of the
relatives as well. Place lines in a phylogenetic tree represents time while the lines in
the pairs at the top of cladograms are the same length because it only compares the
the tree. The last characteristics.
common ancestor of A EXAMPLE:
and B lived relatively Given these characteristics and taxa
recently. Mark a dot
under A and B, Characteristics Shark Bullfrog Kangaroo Human
showing the separation Vertebrae X X X X
of evolutionary lines 2 pairs of
X X X
leading to the limbs
contemporary forms of Mammary
X X
A & B. Do it as well to glands
C&F. Placenta X

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Draw a Venn diagram. Start with the characteristic that is
shared by all the taxa on the outside. Inside each box, write
the taxa that have only that set of characteristic.

Placenta: Human

Mammary glands: kangaroo

2 pairs of limbs: Bullfrog

Vertebrae: Shark

Task: Convert it to a Cladogram:

1. Dorsal nerve cord (running along the back or "dorsal"

body surface); Notochord (a flexible but supporting
cartilage like rod running along the back or "dorsal"
surface)
2. Paired appendages (legs, arms, wings, fins, flippers,
antennae); Vertebral column ("backbone")
3. Paired legs
4. Amnion (a membrane that holds in the amniotic fluid
surrounding the embryo; may or may not be inside an
egg shell)
5. Mammary glands (milk-secreting glands that nourish the
young)
6. Placenta (structure attached to inside of uterus of mother,
and joined to the embryo by the umbilical cord; provides
nourishment and oxygen to the embryo)
7. Canine teeth short (same length as other teeth) Foramen
magnum forward (spinal cord opening, located forward,
under skull)

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