ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

(CLE1006)

Name :

Program :

Branch :

Year :

Reg. No. :

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL & BUILDING SCIENCES

VIT – A PLACE TO LEARN; A CHANCE TO GROW

1
 SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL & BUILDING SCIENCES

Branch: Civil Engineering

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

(CLE1006)

Certified that this is a bonafide record of work done by

_________________ of ____________ class during the
year_________________ at VIT University, Chennai Campus 600127.

This record is submitted for the Practical Examination held on _________

Faculty in charge

Internal Examiner External Examiner

2
 Safety Tips

 Always use protective apron and shoes while working in the

laboratory

 Avoid direct mouth pippetting of acids and alkalies; use a pipette

pump

 Handle glass ware with extreme care to avoid breakage/accidents

 Use Asbestos glows while taking samples from hot air oven and
muffle furnace.

 Never add water to concentrated acid

 Never mix any chemicals for fun

 Never play with electrical installations

 Avoid playful or distractive acts in the laboratory

 Maintain discipline while working

 Keep the laboratory working space clean and follow good house
keeping

 Keep the passages and corridors, free from obstructions

 Work in a well ventilated and lighted area

 Never taste a chemical or solution

 Avoid taking food in the laboratory

 Consult faculty if any doubt arises during experimental phase

 Any emergency consult the concerned faculty

3
 INDEX

Cycle 1: Analysis of water

Exp. Date Name of the Experiment Page Marks Remarks
No. No.

1. 1 (a) Determination of pH
1 (b) Determination of Turbidity
1(c) Determination of Conductivity

2. 2(a) Determination of Hardness

2(b) Determination of Alkalinity

3. Determination of Residual
Chlorine/ Available Chlorine in
Water

4. 4(a) Determination of chlorides in

the water
4(b) Determination of sulphates in
the water using Nephelometer

5. Determination of Optimum Dosage

of Coagulant

6. Determination of the MPN index of

the given water sample

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 Cycle 2: Analysis of wastewater

Exp. Date Name of the Experiment Page Marks Remarks

No. No.

1 Determination of Chemical
oxygen demand (COD)

2. 2(a) Determination of Dissolved

Oxygen (DO)

2(b) Determination of
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD)

3. 3(a) Determination of solids,

3(b) SVI determination and

microbiological examination of
Activated sludge.

4. Determination of Oil and grease

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Cycle 3: Analysis of pollutants in water /wastewater
using advanced instrumentation

Sl Date Name of Experiment Page Marks Remarks

No

1. Estimation of Nitrate and

Phosphate in wastewater
using UV-Visible
Spectrometer

2. Estimation of anions
(Flouride, Chloride, Bromide,
Nitrate, Phosphate, Sulphate)
in water using Ion
Chromatography

6
Experiments of
Cycle: 1

Analysis of water

7
 01(a). Determination of pH
Aim To determine the pH of a given water sample.

Apparatus

1. Digital pH meter of accuracy 0.01

Electrode

Standard solutions for calibration: Buffer solution of known pH i.e, 4.0, 7.0 & 9.2

Basic Concept

pH is one of the most important and useful tests in almost every phase of the
environmental engineering practice. Many chemical and biochemical reactions take place
at a certain pH value or within narrow pH range. For example, control of pH is
particularly important in the chemical coagulation of water, disinfection, water softening
and corrosion control, etc. In wastewater treatment employing biological processes, pH
must be controlled within a range favorable to the particular organism involved.

The pH of a solution denotes the intensity of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution and is
defined by the relationship:

pH = - log10 [H+], where [H+] = the concentration of Hydrogen ions in moles

The pH scale runs from 0.0 to 14 with 7.0 being neutral. Most of the surface water pH
ranges from 6.0 to 8.5. The pH can be measured either by the indicator method or by the
electrometric method using a pH meter.

Electrometric method requires a pH meter which is a sensitive instrument to monitor the

milli volts generated by Hydrogen ions and enable the conversion of produced milli volts
to corresponding equivalent pH value in the digital format.

Calibration of pH meter

 Switch on the pH meter at least 15 minutes prior to the measurement.

 Wash the electrode with distilled water and wipe the same with tissue paper.
 Keep the sample on a magnetic stirrer and stir continuously at low rpm (there
should be enough space between the probe and the pellet).
 Dip the electrode in the buffer solution carefully and adjust the temperature knob
to the liquid temperature of the buffer provided if the meter is not equipped with
automatic temperature adjustment.
 Turn the knob in pH mode and note the digital reading on the meter. If the noted
reading is approximately equal to the pH of standard buffer solution used for
calibration, then the instrument is in order.

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  If not, adjust the reading to the pH of the buffer solution by pH adjustment knob.
 Select minimum of two buffers for calibration within the range of pH of sample
being measured.

Procedure

1. Calibrate the pH meter by following the above procedure. Make sure that buffers
are being equilibrated to ambient temperature and stirred when you perform the
calibration. Also, ensure through rinsing of pH probe with distilled water and blot
dry prior to change of buffers. Normally, two buffers are chosen for calibration.
Eg: When pH of sample is expected to be in acidic range; select buffers 4 and 7, if
in basic range; select buffers 7 and 9.2.
2. Once calibrated, the probe should be rinsed and dried with a soft tissue paper
before every sample analysis.
3. During sample analysis, the sample should be mixed continuously ( manually or
mechanically) — extreme care should be taken while mixing to avoid breakage of
electrode
4. Observe the values and record.

5. Rinse the probe when you finish the measurement and leave the probe immersed
in pH 7 buffer solution for storage.

Caution: Never leave the probe in dry condition, always dip in buffer solution.

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Observation and Calculation

Table1 Result of pH values of water/wastewater samples

Sl. Sample pH meter reading Average

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
No
1
2
3

Result: The pH of given water/wastewater samples are given below

1
2

Inference

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 01(b). Determination of Turbidity

Aim

To determine the turbidity of the given water samples.

Basic Concepts
Turbidity is a measure of extend to which suspended matter in water either absorbs or
scatters incident light falling on the suspension. Turbid waters are undesirable from
aesthetic point of view in drinking water supplies and may also affect products in
industries. Turbid water also possesses a number of problems in water treatment plants
especially in filteration and disinfection. Turbidity is measured to evaluate the
performance of water treatment plants. The method is based on the intensity of light
scattered by a sample. Higher the percentage of intensity of scattered lights, higher the
turbidity. Color is the main source of interference in the measurement of turbidity.

Apparatus

1. Turbidity meter – Digital

2. Test tubes
3. Light shield

Reagents

Standard Formazin solution (40NTU). Std. Formazin solution is prepared as follows:

a. Dissolve 1 g of Hydrazine sulphate and dilute to 100 mL.

b. Dissolve 10 g of Hexamethylene Tetramine and dilute to 100 mL.

c. Mix 5 mL of each of the above solutions (a and b) in 100 mL volumetric flasks

and allow to stand for 24 hours at about 25о C and dilute to 1000 mL. This
solution has a turbidity of 40 NTU.

Procedure

1. Switch on the instrument and allow 10 – 15 minutes to warm up.

2. Select the appropriate range.
3. Set standardize control to maximum.
4. Insert the sample cell with distilled water into cell holder and cover the light
shield.
5. Now with set zero control, adjust the meter indicator to read zero.

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 6 Remove the sample cell containing distilled water and replace it with std.
solution. Place the sample cell as per the marking on the cell holder.
7 Adjust the standardize control such that the meter indicates in accordance
with appropriate range of std. solution.
8 Insert sample cell containing unknown samples in cell holder and note down the
reading from the turbidity meter in NTU.

Observation and Calculation

Parameters Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3

Sample Volume (mL)/ Dilution factor

Turbidity of the given sample (NTU)

Result

The turbidity of given water sample = …………………NTU

Inference

01(c). Specific Conductivity of Water

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Aim
To determine the specific conductivity of the given water sample.

Basic Concept
The term conductance implies the ease with which the current flows through the
conductor. It is the reciprocal of resistance. The reciprocal of specific resistance is known
as specific conductance. It is the conductance due to the ions present in the 1 cc of the
electrolyte solution at a given dilution.

Specific conductance = Measured conductance x cell constant

Procedure

The conductance of a standard decinormal solution of KCl whose specific conductance is

known is measured. From the specific conductance and measured conductance cell
constant of the given cell is determined.

Once the cell constant is known for the given conductivity cell, conductance of the given
sample of water can be determined as follows. The conductivity cell is washed with
distilled water and dip in the given sample of water till the electrodes dip well within the
water. Measure the conductance. Then using the formula specific conductance =
measured conductance x cell constant, the specific conductance of the given sample of
water can be calculated.

Result
The specific conductivity of the given sample of water = …………… /ohm/cm.

Inference

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Observation and Calculation

Table1 Result of conductance of water samples

Sl. Sample Measured conductance (Ohm-1cm-1) Average

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
No
1
2
3

Conductivity Cell Constant = Specific conductance / Measured conductance

Specific conductivity of the given sample = Cell constant x Measured conductance

02 (a). Determination of Hardness

Aim

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To determine total hardness, permanent hardness and temporary hardness for given water
sample.

Apparatus

Burette, pipette, measuring cylinders, conical flasks.

Basic Concept

Hardness in water causes scale formation in boilers. It is also objectionable from view
point of water use for laundry and domestic purposes, since it consumes a large quantity
of soap. Generally, salts of Ca and Mg contribute hardness to natural waters, though other
ions like strontium, ferrous and manganese also contribute hardness. Hardness may be
classified either as (1) carbonate and non-carbonate hardness or (2) calcium and
magnesium hardness or (3) temporary and permanent hardness. In alkaline condition
EDTA reacts with Ca and Mg to form a soluble chelated complex. Ca and Mg ions
develop wine red colour with Eriochrome black ‘T’ under alkaline condition. When
EDTA is added as a titrant the Ca and Mg divalent ions get complexed resulting in sharp
change from wine red to blue which indicates end point of the titration. The pH for this
titration has to be maintained at 10.0 ± 0.1.

Reagents

1. Ammonia Buffer solution: Dissolve 16.9 g of NH4Cl in 143 ml concentrated NH4OH.

Add 1.25 g of Magnesium salt of EDTA and dilute to 250 ml with distilled water.

2. Erichrome black T Indicator

3. Standard EDTA solution 0.01 M: Weigh 3.723 g of AR grade disodium ethylene –

diamene tetra acetate di-hydrate and dissolve in 1 litre of distilled water. Check the
strength by standardizing with calcium solution.
1
4. Standard calcium solution

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Observation and Calculation

Table1: Volume of EDTA consumed

S.No Volume of Type of Burette Reading Volume of

Sample (ml) Hardness EDTA
consumed(ml)
Initial Final Difference

Total

Permanent

Blank

Calculation

A. Total Hardness

Total hardness as mg/l as CaCO3 =(C x D x 1000)/ Volume of sample

Where, C - Vol. of EDTA consumed by sample.
D - 1 ml of EDTA = 1 mg of CaCO3

B. Permanent Hardness

Permanent hardness as mg/l as CaCO3 = (C x D x 1000)/ Volume of sample

Where, C - Vol. of EDTA required by sample.
D - 1 ml of EDTA = 1 mg of CaCO3

B. Temporary Hardness

Temporary Hardness as mg/l as CaCO3 = Total Hardness – Permanent Hardness

Procedure

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A. Total Hardness
1
1. Take 20 ml or suitable portion of sample diluted to 100ml in to a conical flask.
2. Add 1-2 ml buffer solution.
3. Add 1 or 2 drops of Erichrome black T and titrate with standard EDTA (0.01 M) till
wine red colour changes to blue. Note down to vol. of EDTA required. (A)
4. Run a reagent blank if buffer is not checked properly. Note the Vol. of EDTA required
by blank (B).
5. Calculate Vol. of EDTA required by sample, C = (A-B).
B. Permanent Hardness

1. Boil the sample for 30minutes. After boiling cool and filter the sample.
2. Repeat the procedure given for total hardness.

Results: The hardness details of given sample are

Parameters Value (mg/l as CaCO3)

Total Hardness

Permanent Hardness

Temporary Hardness

Inferences

02. (b) Determination of Alkalinity

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Aim

To determine the Alkalinity of given water sample

Apparatus

pH Meter, burette, pipette, measuring cylinders, conical flasks.

Reagents

1.Standard sulfuric acid, 0.02N

2.Phenolphthalene Indicator
3.Methyl Orange Indicator

 Basic Concept

Alkalinity of water is the measure of its acid-neutralizing capacity. It is the sum of all the
titratable bases. Alkalinity is significant in many uses and treatments of natural waters
and wastewaters. Because the alkalinity of many surface waters is primarily a function of
carbonate, bicarbonate, and hydroxide content, it is taken as an indication of the
concentration of these constituents. The measured values also may include contributions
from borates, phosphates, silicates, or other bases if these are present. Alkalinity in
excess of alkaline earth metal concentrations is significant in determining the suitability
of water for irrigation. Alkalinity measurements are used in the interpretation and control
of water and wastewater treatment processes. Raw domestic wastewater has an alkalinity
less than, or only slightly greater than, that of the water supply. Properly operating
anaerobic digesters typically have supernatant alkalinities in the range of 2000 to 4000
mg calcium carbonate (CaCO3)/L.
Alkalinity Relationships

i. Carbonate (CO32¯) alkalinity is present when phenolphthalein alkalinity is not

zero but is less than total alkalinity.
ii. Hydroxide (OH¯) alkalinity is present if phenolphthalein alkalinity is more than
half the total alkalinity.

Bicarbonate (HCO3¯) alkalinity is present if phenolphthalein alkalinity is less than half

the total alkalinity. These relationships may be calculated by the scheme shown in Table.
2, where P is phenolphthalein alkalinity and T is total alkalinity. Select the smaller value
of P or (T – P). Then, carbonate alkalinity equals twice the smaller value. When the
smaller value is P, the balance (T – 2P) is bicarbonate. When the smaller value is (T-P),
the balance (2P-T) is hydroxide. All results are expressed as CaCO 3. The mathematical
conversion of the results is shown in table 2.

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Observation and Calculation

Table 1. Volume of Acid consumed for alkalinity estimation

S.No Volume of Sample Volume of 0.02 N H2SO4 Consumed (ml)
(ml)

Initial Phenolphthalein end Methyl orange end

point(p) point (m)

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Calculations

a. Phenolphthalein Alkalinity (P):

Phenolphthalein Alkalinity, mg of CaCO3/L  = (p x N x 50 x 1000) / Volume of sample
Total or Methyl orange Alkalinity (T), mg of CaCO3/L  = (m x N x 50 x 1000)/ Volume
of sample.                                                  
Where p = mL standard acid used for Phenolphthalein end point.

m = mL standard acid used for Methyl orange end point

N = normality of standard acid

iii. Table 2. Summary of type and alkalinity in water

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 Hydroxide  Carbonate     Bicarbonate
Result of
Alkalinity Alkalinity Concentration
Titration
as CaCO3  as CaCO3   as CaCO3 
P=0 0 0 T
P < ½T 0 2P T – 2P
P = ½T 0 2P 0
P > ½T 2P – T    2(T – P) 0
P=T 0 0
T
  P – Phenolphthalein alkalinity; T – Total alkalinity.

Procedure

1. Rinse and fill a burette with standard acid solution.

2. Measure 100 ml or appropriate portion of water sample diluted to 100 mL into a

clean, sample-rinsed graduated cylinder; transfer it to a conical flask. (If sample is
highly alkaline dilute the sample -titration goes over one burette full).

3. Add 1- 2 drops of phenolphthalein (P) indicator and if the solution turns pink,
titrate until the colour disappears. Note the burette reading (P).

4. Add 1- 2 drops of methyl orange indicator to this same water sample and
continue the titration until the colour changes from yellow to orange. Note the
burette reading (T).

Note: If pink colour does not appear after addition of Phenolphthalein indicator, continue
titration as explained earlier.

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Results

P. Alkalinity as CaCO3 (mg/L) _______________________

"M.O." or Total Alkalinity as CaCO3 (mg/L) _______________________

(OH)- Alkalinity as CaCO3 (mg/L) _______________________

(CO3)2- Alkalinity as CaCO3 (mg/L) _______________________

(HCO3)- Alkalinity as CaCO3 (mg/L) _______________________

Inference:

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 03(a). Determination of Residual Chlorine in Water

Aim

To determine the amount of residual chlorine in a given water sample.

Apparatus

Burette, Pipette, Conical flask and Measuring Cylinders

Basic Concept

Living microorganisms like algae, fungi, bacteria are harmful if they are present in
drinking water. Control of these micro organisms is achieved by chlorination. However if
there is excess chlorine in drinking water it is undesirable. Hence the amount of free
chlorine in drinking water is estimated prior to domestic supply.

The principle involved in estimation of free chlorine is that when a measured quantity of
water is treated with excess of potassium iodide the free chlorine in water oxidizes the
corresponding amount of potassium iodide to iodine. The liberated iodine is estimated by
titration against standard sodium thiosulphate solution using starch as indicator.

Reagents

1. Std. Sodium thio-sulphate solution (0.05 N)

2. Std. Potassium Iodide Solution (0.1 N): Dissolve 0.4 gm KI in 100 ml distilled
water
3. Concentrated HCl
4. Starch Indicator

Procedure

1. Take 100 mL of the sample or take appropriate amount and dilute it to100 ml in a
conical flask.
2. Add 10 ml of KI Solution to the sample.
3. Shake well and add 2 ml of conc HCl.
4. Titrate the sample with sodium thio-sulphate of 0.05 N using starch as indicator.
5. Note the end point when deep blue color changes to colorless.

Result

The residual Chlorine present in the given sample = mg/L

Inference

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Observation and Calculation

Table1. Volume of Sodium thio-sulphate consumed for residual chlorine estimation

Sl. Volume of sample taken(ml) Burette Reading Volume of Sodium

No. Initial Final Thiosulphate (Na2S2O3)
consumed (ml)
20 0 0.1
0.05
0.01

Calculation

Residual chlorine in mg/l = Volume of Na2S2O3 consumed x 0.05 x 35.45x1000/ Volume

of sample used

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 03 (b). Determination of Available Chlorine

Aim

To determine available chlorine in bleaching powder.

BASIC CONCEPT

The prime purpose of disinfecting public water supplies and wastewater effluents is to
prevent the spread of waterborne diseases. The practice of disinfection with chlorine has
become so wide spread and generally accepted that the real reason is taken very much for
granted. Hypo chlorites are used in the form of solutions of sodium hypochlorite and
calcium hypochlorite in the dry form (Bleaching powder). When bleaching powder
ionizes in water, it gives free chlorine residuals such as hypochlorite (OCl) ions and
hypochlorous acids (HOCL). The distribution of (OCl)- and HOCl depends on the
temperature and pH of the solution.

The principle involved in the estimation of available chlorine in bleaching powder is that
when a measured quantity of bleaching water is heated with excess of KI, the free
chlorine in water oxidizes the corresponding amount of KI to Iodine. The liberated iodine
is estimated by titration against Sodium Thiosulphate Solution using starch as indicator.

Apparatus

1) Burette
2) Pipette
3) Conical flask
4) Measuring Cylinder

Reagents

1) Standard Sodium Thiosulphate Solution 0.1N

2) Starch Indicator solution
3) Potassium Iodide crystals
4) Conc. acetic acid
5) Bleaching powder solution

PROCEDURE

1) Take 20 ml of the sample or take appropriate amount and dilute it to100 ml in a

conical flask.
2) Add a pinch of KI crystals to the sample.
3) Shake well and add 10 ml of conc acetic acid and allow the reaction to complete.

24
 Observation and Calculation

Table1. Volume of Sodium thio-sulphate consumed for Available chlorine

estimation

Sl. Volume of sample taken(ml) Burette Reading Volume of Sodium

No. Initial Final Thiosulphate (Na2S2O3)
consumed (ml)
2.5
8
10

Calculation

Available Chlorine in mg/l = Volume of Na2S2O3 consumed x 0.1 x 35.45x1000/

Volume of sample used

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 4) Titrate the sample with sodium thio-sulphate of 0.1 N normality till pale yellow
colour appears.
5) Add starch as indicator to get deep blue colour
6) Continue the titration till the resulting blue colour turns to colourless
7) Note the volume of burette solution (Na2S2O3) consumed.

Result

The available chlorine in bleaching powder solution is = ------ mg/L

Inference

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 4(a). Determination of Chlorides
Aim

To determine the chloride concentration of a given water sample.

Basic Concept

Chlorides occur in all natural waters in widely varying concentrations. Chlorides are
usually present in water as compounds of Sodium, Calcium and Magnesium. Chlorides in
reasonable concentrations are not harmful. At concentrations above 250 mg/l, it give a
salty taste to water. For this reason, chlorides are generally limited to 250 mg/l for
potable waster. Water usually high in chloride concentration indicates pollution from
domestic sewage or industrial sewage.

The Mohr’s method or Argentometric method for the determination of chloride in water
is based upon the fact that in solution containing chloride and chromate, silver reacts with
all the chloride and precipitates before the reaction with chromate begins. The appearance
of the brick-red color of the silver chromate precipitate is the end-point of the titration.

Reagents

1. Potassium chromate indicator solution

2. Standard silver nitrate titrant, 0.030 N
3. Standard sodium chloride, 0.015 N

Apparatus: Burette, Pipette, Conical flask and Measuring Cylinders.

Procedure

1) Take 100 mL of the sample or take appropriate amount and dilute it to100 mL

2) Fill burette with silver nitrate titrant.

3) Add 2 to 3 drops of the potassium chromate indicator to the sample.

4) Titrate the blank with standard AgNO 3. The end point is the change of colour
from yellow to brick-red (B)

5) Titrate the sample in the same way to the same brick-red color (use blank titration
as reference colour and be consistent in end-point recognition.)(A)

6) Calculate ppm Cl- and record with one decimal.

27
Observation and Calculation

Table1. Volume of AgNO3 consumed for Chlorides estimation

Parameters Blank Sample 1 Sample 2

Sample Volume (ml)

Initial burette reading

Final burette reading

Calculations
If Sample is diluted with distilled water,
ppm Cl- = (A-B) x N AgNO3 x 35450 / mL of sample
A = mL AgNO3 consumed for sample
B = mL AgNO3 consumed for Blank

If Sample not diluted with distilled water,

ppm Cl- = mL AgNO3 consumed for sample x N AgNO3 x 35450 / mL of sample

Result

The amount of chlorides present in the given sample = mg/L

Inference

28
 4(b). Determination of Sulphate in water

Aim

To determine amount of sulphate in a given water sample

Basic Concept

The sulphate ion is one of the major anion occurring in natural waters. It is of importance
in public water supplies because of its cathartic effect up on human when it is present in
excessive amounts. For this reason, the recommended upper limit is 250 mg/l in water
intended for human consumption. Sulphates are important in both public and industrial
water supplies because of the tendency of water containing appreciable amounts to form
hard scale in boilers and heat exchangers. Odour and sewer corrosion problems are
resulted from the reduction of sulphate to hydrogen sulphide under anaerobic conditions.

Sulphate is precipitated in hydrochloric acid medium with Bacl 2 to form BaSO4. The
turbidity of BaSO4 suspension is measured in Turbidity meter.

Apparatus
Turbidity meter, stirrer

Reagents
1. Conditioning agent: Mix 50 ml glycerol with a solution containing 30 ml of
concentrated HCl, 300 ml distilled water, 100 ml 95% ethyl or isopropyl alcohol
and 15 g NaCl.

2. Barium Chloride crystal: 20 to 30 mesh size

3. Standard Sulphate solution: Dissolve 1.479 g of anhydrous Na 2SO4 in 1 litre

distilled water. This suspension contains 1 ml = 100 μg Sulphate.

29
Procedure

Measure 100 ml water sample or suitable portion of sample made to 100 ml with distilled
water. Add 5 ml conditioning agent and a spoon full of BaCl 2 crystals. Stir exactly for 1
minute. Pour the solution in to the glass cell of the turbidity meter and measure the
turbidity. Prepare a calibration graph by using sulphate standard as described earlier. The
standards can be made from 0 to 40 mg/l sulphate range by taking 0-40 ml standard
solution and making up to 100 ml. Determine the concentration of given sample from the
calibration chart plotted with known sulphate concentrations Vs turbidity.

Result

The sulphate concentration of the given water sample = ……….. mg/l.

Inference

30
 5. Determination of Optimum Dosage of Coagulant

Aim

To determine the optimum dosage of coagulant for turbidity removal of a given water
sample.

BASIC CONCEPT

The turbidity may be caused by wide variety of suspended materials, which range in size
from colloidal to coarse dispersion depending upon the degree of turbulence. The surface
water with turbidity resulting from colloidal particles cannot clarified without special
treatments like coagulation and flocculation. Alum (Aluminium Sulphate) is the best
coagulant for the removal of much colloidal dispersion. Alum supplies plenty of Al3+ ions
and they destabilize the strong colloidal dispersion and also help them to flocculate
themselves. The selection and optimum dosage of coagulant are determined
experimentally by conducting jar test. The optimum dosage of coagulant is that at which
the removal of turbidity is maximum. The jar test must be performed on each water that
is to be coagulated and must be repeated with each significant change in quality of given
water.

Apparatus
Jar test apparatus
Glass beakers of 1 litre capacity
Measuring cylinders

Reagents: Alum Solution of known concentration.

PROCEDURE:
1. Prepare a standard alum solution that 1 ml = 10mg of alum.
2. Transfer 1 L of turbid sample into each beaker which is thoroughly cleaned.
3. Place the beakers in the jar test apparatus and start the motor.
4. Adjust the speed of the stirrers to about 80 – 100 rpm.
5. Add 2,3,4,5, & 6 ml of alum solution to the respective jars 2, 3, 4, 5 & 6,
simultaneously.
6. The first jar is treated blank for which alum solution is not added.
7. After 1 minute slow down the speed to 30 rpm and maintain it for 20 min. to aid
formation of flocs.
8. Stop the motor after 20 mins. of slow mixing and allow the flocs to settle.
9. Observe the type of flocs formed in each beaker and report as poor, fair, good and
excellent.
10. After 30 min. of settling decant the supernatant and analyze for the turbidity.
11. Determine the turbidity of blank for reference.

31
Observation and Calculation

Strength of alum solution 1 ml = mg of alum.

Table 1 Volume of coagulant requires for different floc formation

Jar Volume Alum Initial Final Final pH Nature of

No. of dosage turbidity turbidity floc

coagulant mg/L NTU NTU

(ml)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Initial pH of water sample =

A graph is drawn between alum dosage (mg/l) on X-axis and percentage removal of
turbidity on Y- axis.

32
Result

The optimum dosage of coagulant for the given water sample is found to be ------- mg/L.

Inference

33
 6. Determination of coliforms in water sample using MPN test

Introduction:

The bacteriological examination of water is performed routinely by

water utilities and many governmental agencies to ensure a safe supply of
water for drinking, bathing, swimming and other domestic and industrial
uses. The examination is intended to identify water sources which have been
contaminated with potential disease-causing microorganisms. Such
contamination generally occurs either directly by human or animal feces, or
indirectly through improperly treated sewage or improperly functioning
sewage treatment systems. The organisms of prime concern are the intestinal
pathogens, particularly those that cause typhoid fever and bacillary
dysentery. Since human fecal pathogens vary in kind (viruses, bacteria,
protozoa) and in number, it would be impossible to test each water sample
for each pathogen. Instead, it is much easier to test for the presence of
nonpathogenic intestinal organisms such as E. coli. E. coli is a normal
inhabitant of the intestinal tract and is not normally found in fresh water.
Therefore, if it is detected in water, it can be assumed that there has been
fecal contamination of the water.

In order to determine whether water has been contaminated by fecal

material, a series of tests are used to demonstrate the presence or absence of
coliforms. The coliform group is comprised of Gram-negative, nonspore-
forming, aerobic to facultatively anaerobic rods, which ferment lactose to
acid and gas. Two organisms in this group include E. coli and Enterobacter
aerogenes; however, the only true fecal coliform is E. coli, which is found
only in fecal material from warm-blooded animals. The presence of this
organism in a water supply is evidence of recent fecal contamination and is
sufficient to order the water supply closed until tests no longer detect E. coli.
In this exercise, you will be testing water samples for the presence of
coliforms. There will be three principal tests: the presumptive, confirmed
and completed tests.

STANDARD WATER ANALYSIS

The Presumptive Test:

In the presumptive test, a series of lactose broth tubes are inoculated
with measured amounts of the water sample to be tested. The series of tubes
may consist of three or four groups of three, five or more tubes. The more

34
tubes utilized, the more sensitive the test. Gas production in any one of the
tubes is presumptive evidence of the presence of coliforms. The most
probable number (MPN) of coliforms in 100 ml of the water sample can be
estimated by the number of positive tubes (see MPN Table).

The Confirmed Test

If any of the tubes inoculated with the water sample produce gas, the
water is presumed to be unsafe. However, it is possible that the formation of
gas may not be due to the presence of coliforms. In order the confirm the
presence of coliforms, it is necessary to inoculate EMB (eosin methylene
blue) agar plates from a positive presumptive tube. The methylene blue in
EMB agar inhibits Grampositive organisms and allows the Gram-negative
coliforms to grow. Coliforms produce colonies with dark centers. E. coli and
E. aerogenes can be distinguished from one another by the size and color of
the colonies. E. coli colonies are small and have a green metallic sheen,
whereas E. aerogenes forms large pinkish colonies.

If only E. coli or if both E. coli and E. aerogenes appear on the EMB plate,
the test is considered positive. If only E. aerogenes appears on the EMB
plate, the test is considered negative. The reasons for these interpretations
are that, as previously stated, E. coli is an indicator of fecal contamination,
since it is not normally found in water or soil, whereas E. aerogenes is
widely distributed in nature outside of the intestinal tract.

The Completed Test

The completed test is made using the organisms which grew on the
confirmed test media. These organisms are used to inoculate a nutrient agar
slant and a tube of lactose broth. After 24 hours at 37°C, the lactose broth is
checked for the production of gas, and a Gram stain is made from organisms
on the nutrient agar slant. If the organism is a Gram-negative, nonspore
forming rod and produces gas in the lactose tube, then it is positive that
coliforms are present in the water sample.

Material:
1. Nine tubes of double-strength lactose broth
2. 10, 1.0 and 0.1 ml pipets
3. Water samples

35
Procedure: (work in groups of four)

Presumptive Test

1. Take a water sample (dilute as instructed in some cases) and inoculate

three tubes of lactose broth with 10 ml, three tubes with 1.0 ml and three
tubes with 0.1 ml.
2. Incubate all tubes at 37oC for 24 hours.

Material:
1. EMB agar plates

Procedure:
Presumptive Test

1. Observe the number of tubes at each dilution that show gas production in
24 hrs. Record results.
2. Reincubate for an additional 24 hours at 37°C.

Confirmed Test
1. Inoculate an EMB plate with material from a tube containing gas.
2. Invert and incubate the plate at 37°C for 24 hours.

Material:
1. Lactose broth tubes
2. Nutrient agar slants

Procedure:
Presumptive Test
1. Observe the number of tubes at each dilution that show gas. Record
results and determine the most probable number index.
Confirmed Test
1. Observe EMB agar plates. A positive confirmed test is indicated by small
colonies with dark centers and a green metallic sheen (E. coli). Record
results.

Completed Test

36
1. Inoculate a lactose broth tube and a nutrient agar slant with organisms
from the EMB plate.
2. Incubate the broth tube and agar slant at 37°C for 24 hours.
Procedure:

Completed Test
1. Check for gas production in the lactose broth tube.
2. Make a Gram stain from the organisms on the nutrient agar slant.
3. Record results.

Results:

Inference:

37
 Experiments of
Cycle: 2

Analysis of wastewater

38
 1. Determination of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

Aim

To determine the COD of a given sample.

Basic Concept

Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is the measure of the amount oxygen of required for
chemical oxidation of organic matter. The limitation of COD test is that it cannot
differentiate between the biologically oxidizable and biologically inert material.
However, COD test has an advantage over a BOD test that the result can be obtained in a
3-4 hours as compared to 3 days required for BOD test.

Like BOD, COD is also widely used for measuring the organic strength of domestic and
industrial wastewaters. The organic matter gets oxidized completely by K2Cr2O7 in the
presence of H2SO4 to produce CO2 + H2O. The excess K2Cr2O7 remaining after the
reaction is titrated against Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2. The dichromate consumed gives the amount
of O2 required for oxidation of organic matter.

Apparatus

1. HACH COD digester

2. COD digestion tube
3. Pipettes, burettes, conical flasks & Measuring cylinders etc.

Reagents

1. Standard potassium dichromate 0.01667 M: Add to about 500 ml distilled

water 4.903 g K2Cr2O7, primary standard grade, previously dried at 150 оC for 2 h,
167 ml conc. H2SO4 and 33.3 g HgSO4. Dissolve, cool to room temperature and
dilute to 1000 ml.

2. Sulphuric acid: Add 10 g of Ag2SO4 to 1000 ml conc. H2SO4 and keep over night
for dissolution.

39
 3. Standard ferrous ammonium sulphate 0.1 M: Dissolve 39.2 g
Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2.6H2O in about 400 ml distilled water. Add 20 ml conc. H2SO4,
cool and dilute to 1000 ml.

4. Ferroin indicator: Dissolve 1.485 g of 1,10 phenanthroline monohyderate and

695 mg FeSO4, 7H2O and dilute to 100 ml with distilled water.

5. Mercuric sulphate: HgS04 crystals, analytical grade.

Observation and Calculation

Sl. No Burette Reading of Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate Volume of Ferrous
Ammonium Sulphate (ml)
Initial Final Difference

Calculate COD from the following formula:

COD mg/L = (A-B) x N x 8000/ mL of sample

Where, A = ml of Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate for blank.

B = ml of Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate for sample.
N = Normality of Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate

Note: Multiply the above COD value with the dilution factor, if the sample is
diluted.

40
 Procedure

1. Take COD digestion tubes and add 2.5 ml of sample.

2. Add 1.5 ml of K2Cr2O7 by keeping the tube in a cold water bath.
3. Add 3.5 ml conc. H2SO4 by keeping the tube in a cold water bath.
4. Close the digestion tube with cap and mix it to get a uniform suspension
5. Repeat the procedure for the blank (distilled water)
6. Digest the samples at 150 оC for 2 hours.

Cool the tubes up to room temperature and transfer the contents to a conical flask and add
2 drops of ferroin indicator. Titrate the sample using ferrous ammonium sulphate (FAS)
solution as titrant until colour changes from blue-green to reddish brown. Similarly titrate
the blank and note down the ml of titrant consumed by sample and blank.

Result

COD of the given sample = ------------------mg/l.

Inference

41
 2 (a). Determination of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Aim

To determine the dissolved oxygen content in a given water sample.

Basic Concept

All living organism are dependent upon oxygen in one form or another maintain the
metabolic processes that produce energy for growth and reproduction. Aerobic processes
are the subject of great interest because of their need for free oxygen. The solubility of
atmospheric oxygen in fresh waters ranges from 14.6 mg/l at 0ºC to about 7mg/l at 35°C
under 1 atm pressure. Since it is a purely soluble gas, its solubility varies directly with
atmospheric pressure at any given temperature. This is an important consideration at high
altitudes.

Determination of dissolved oxygen serves as the basis of the bio chemical oxygen
demand test and one of the most important single test that environmental engineer uses.
Thus, it is the foundation of the most important determination used to evaluate the
pollution strength of domestic and industrial liquid wastes.

The azide modification of the iodometric method is the most common chemical technique
to measure DO. By the addition of MnSO4 and alkali-iodide-azide, Mn2+ is oxidized, if
oxygen is present, to give brown precipitate. By the addition of concentrated H2SO4, free
Iodine is liberated which is converted into blue color by adding starch as the indicator.
Further addition of sodium thiosulphate, the blue color disappears to give indication of
DO present originally. It is needed that microbial activity must be stopped at the time of
sample collection.

Apparatus

1. BOD Bottles – 300 ml capacity

2. Conical flask – 250 ml capacity
3. Burette
4. Pipette
5. Measuring Cylinder

Reagents

1. Standard 0.025 N Sodium thiosulphate solution

2. Concentrated Sulphuric acid
3. Mangenous sulphate: Dissolve 40 g of MnSO4 in 1 litre of distilled water.

42
 4. Alkali iodide azide solution: Dissolve 500 g of NaOH and 150 g of KI in
distilled water. Add 10 g of NaNO 3 in 40 ml water. Makeup the solution to
1 litre.
Procedure

Take a standard BOD bottle of 300 mL capacity and fill it with water sample completely.
Stopper the BOD bottle and expel the excess sample. Remove the stopper; add 2 ml of
MnSO4 followed my 2 ml of alkali-iodide-azide solution (The tip of the pipette should
dip below the liquid surface). Put stopper carefully to exclude air bubbles and mix by
inverting the bottle many times. Allow the precipitate to settle sufficiently (approximately
half of bottle) to give a clear supernatant above the mangenous hydroxide floc. Now add
2 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid, and mix the bottle by inverting several times until
dissolution of floc is completed. Measure 203 mL of sample in to conical flask and titrate
the sample using standard sodium thiosulphate solution until solution attains a pale straw
yellow color. Add few drops of starch indicator and continue the titration until blue color
disappears completely. Note down the volume of std. sodium thiosulphate solution
consumed.

Result

The dissolved oxygen content in the given water sample = ---------- mg/l

Inference

43
 2(b). Determination of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Aim

To determine BOD of the given wastewater sample.

Basic concept

BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) is the most widely used parameter to measure the
organic pollution load in both wastewater and surface water. It is defined as the amount
of oxygen required to oxidize organic matter biochemically under aerobic condition. The
quantity of oxygen required may be taken as the measure of its content of decomposable
organic matter. The BOD exertion is governed by the characteristics of sewage, its
decomposable organic content, bacterial population and temperature. Larger the
concentration of organic matter, greater the value of BOD. This test has high significance
in stream pollution control as it enables to determine the degree of pollution in the stream
at any time. The BOD is an important factor in deciding the method of treatment suitable
for a specific wastewater. This test is also useful in evaluating the efficiency of the
treatment.

Apparatus/Glassware

1. BOD bottles of capacity 300 mL

2. BOD incubator

Reagents

1. Alkali-iodide-azide reagent
2. MnSO4
3. Concentrated H2SO4
4. Std. Na2S2O3 (0.025N)
5. Starch Indicator.
6. Dilution water

Preparation Of Dilution Water: Dilution water is prepared by adding the following

chemicals prepared as per Standard Method’s procedure to 1 litre of distilled water.

a. 1 mL of Ferric chloride
b. 1 mL of Calcium chloride
c. 1 mL of Magnesium sulphate
d. 1 mL of Phosphate buffer

44
Observation and Calculation

Wastewater Volume Dilution Burette reading Volume Initial Final

Sample of factor of D.O D.O
details sample Initial Final Na2S2O3 (mg/l) (mg/l)
(ml) (ml)

BOD (mg/l) = [DO difference of Blank – DO difference of sample] x Dilution Factor

Dilution factor = Total Volume of sample taken (300 ml)/ ml of wastewater added.

Procedure

Select required dilutions (to get a minimum final DO of 1.5 mg/L after incubation) and
prepare three BOD bottles to find initial as well as final dissolved oxygen. Use bottle one
for finding initial DO and keep other two bottles in incubator for three days at 27±1º C.

Determine the DO of first bottle and note as initial DO. Ensure that the water seal is
maintained in the annular space between the stopper and bottle mouth to avoid diffusion
of oxygen from the atmosphere. After 3 days of incubation, find out the DO of incubated

45
samples and note as final DO. Calculate the BOD of the samples as per the given
formula.

Result

The BOD of given wastewater sample = ……………… mg/l

Inference

46
 3(a). Determination of Solids

Aim

To determine the total solids (TS), suspended solids (TSS), dissolved solids (TDS) and
volatile solids (TVS) in wastewater.

Basic Concept

The usual definition of solids refers to the matter that remains as residual upon
evaporation and drying at 103 to 105 оC. The environmental engineer is concerned with
the measurement of solid matter in a wide variety of liquids and semi liquid materials
ranging from potable waters through polluted water, domestic and industrial wastes, and
sludge produced in various treatment processes. The amount of dissolved solids present
in the water is important in deciding its suitability for the domestic use. In general, water
with TDS of less than 500 mg/L are most desirable for such purposes.

The suspended solids determination is of greatest value in assessing the strength of

domestic water and lightly polluted water. Effluent discharge to river stream as per BIS
standard is 100 mg/L.

Apparatus

1. Crucible to withstand 650 оC

2. Digital balance
3. Hot Air Oven/Muffle Furnace
4. Wattman filter paper # 42

Procedure

Take 25 mL of wastewater sample in a thoroughly cleaned and perfectly dried crucible.

Take the weight of the empty crucible (say W 1 g). Evaporate the water content of the
sample at 103 оC to 105 оC in an hot air oven (may take 4- 6 hours). After the
evaporation, take out the crucible from oven and place it in a dessicator and cool to the
room temperature. Take the weight of crucible with residue (say W 2 g). Take the same
crucible and keep it in Muffle furnace at a temperature of 650 оC for 30 minutes. Cool the
crucible and weigh it with the solids residue (Say W3 g).

Take 25 ml of filtered sample (filtered through Wattman filter paper, #42) in a clean and
perfectly dried crucible of known empty weight (W 1 g). Place crucible in a hot air oven
and dry it to a temperature of 103 оC to 105 оC. Remove the crucible and place it in a
dessicator, cool it and take its weight (Say W2 g).

47
Observation and Calculation

1) Volume of liquid sample taken = 25 ml

Weight of empty crucible (W1 g) =
Weight of crucible after heating in hot air oven (W2 g) =
Weight of crucible after heating in muffle furnace (W3 g) =

Total solids (mg/l) = (W2- WI) x 106/ Volume of sample

Fixed solids (mg/l) = (W3- WI) x 106/ Volume of sample

Volatile solids (mg/l) = Total solids – Fixed solids

2) Volume of liquid filtered sample taken = 25 ml

Weight of empty crucible (W1 g) =
Weight of crucible after heating in hot air oven (W2 g) =

Dissolved Solids (mg/l) = (W2- WI) x 106/ Volume of sample

Suspended solids (mg/l) = Total Solid s – Dissolved solids

48
Result

The solids present in the given wastewater are reported below:

Sl. No Parameter Value (mg/l)

1 Total Solids
2 The fixed Solids
3 The Volatile solids
4 The dissolved solids
5 The suspended solids

Inference

49
 3(b). SVI determination and microbiological examination of
Activated sludge

Aim: To determine SVI and examine the morphology of activated sludge.

Principle:
Settling of activated sludge is an important characteristic which will decide the
design of secondary clarifier. The settling characteristics depend upon the physiological
nature and type of micro organism present in the sludge. A typical way to determine the
settling characteristics of the sludge is by estimating the Sludge Volume Index (SVI).
The SVI is the volume of 1 gm sludge after 30 min of settling in an imhoff cone.
The SVI value is normally used in controlling activated sludge process (ASP). The values
of SVI for healthy activated sludge process normally vary from 100 to 150 mL/g. SVI
more than 150 indicates bulking of sludge. The bulking of sludge could be due to
filamentous bacteria. Microscopic examination of sludge will show the presence of
different kinds of microorganism in the activated sludge.

Apparatus/ Glassware:

1. Imhoff cone (1L)

2. Stopwatch
3. Vacuum pump
4. Filtration assembly
5. Whatmann No 42 Filter paper
6. Hot air oven

Procedure:
1. Mix the Activated sludge before pouring to the imhoff cone and take duplicate
sample for suspended solids determination (MLSS).
2. Fill the imhoff cone to 1 L capacity.
3. Allow the sludge to settle for 30 min.
4. Note down the volume of sludge in mL.

Microscopic examination:

7. Dilute the activated sludge appropriately to get dispersed sludge.

8. Follow the standard procedure for microscopic examination
9. Sketch and record the morphology of Activated Sludge.

50
Calculation:

SVI (mL/g) = Settling volume sludge (mL/L) / suspended solids (g/L)

51
Result:

Inference:

52
 4. Determination of Oil & Grease

Aim

To determine the oil and grease of the given water sample.

Basic Concept

Oil and grease present in the water can be extracted in petroleum ether, which is
immiscible in water and can be separated by a separatory funnel. The residue, after
evaporation of this petroleum ether will yield the oil and grease.

Samples for determination of oil and grease should be collected in a wide mouth glass
bottle (200 – 250 ml) separately, and it is preferable to use the entire sample, without
subdivision for analysis. For preservation of the sample acidify with sulfuric acid, never
use chloroform as preservative.

Apparatus

1. Separatory funnel
2. Water bath
3. Filter paper

Reagents

1. Sulfuric acid (1+2): Mix one part of concentrated sulfuric acid with two parts of
water.
2. Petroleum ether (boiling range 400 C – 600 C).
3. Ethyl alcohol

Procedure

1. Take 200 to 250 ml of sample (entire contents of the bottle in which sample has
been collected) in separatory funnel.

2. Add 10ml of sulfuric acid (1+2) and 25 to 50 ml of petroleum ether to the sample.

3. Shake well, and if suspension prevails, add small amount of ethyl alcohol. Keep
for some time to separate the two distinct layers, the upper one of petroleum ether
and lower one of the sample.

4. Discard lower layer of the sample through separatory funnel.

53
5. Take a pre-weighed dish or a small beaker and run into it, the petroleum ether
from the separatory funnel through a filter paper which has already been
moistened with fresh petroleum ether.

6. Add little more petroleum ether through the wall of filter paper to remove any
residual oil and grease on the filter paper.

7. Evaporate the petroleum ether on a water bath and take the final weight of the
dish or the beaker after cooling in a desiccator. Never heat petroleum ether on a
flame.

Result

The Oil & Grease content in the given water sample = ---------- mg/l

Inference

54
 Appendix –I

Drinking water standards (IS 10500: 2012)

Amendment No.1 on June 2015

55
56
57
58
 Appendix II

Drinking Water Standards (IS: 10500 -1991)

Sl. Parameter Desirable limit Permissible
No. limit in the
absence of
(mg/l) alternate
sources
1 Colour (Hazen units) 5 25
2 Odour Unobjectionable -
3 Taste Agreeable -
4 Turbidity 5 10
5 pH 6.5- 8.5 No relaxation
6 Total Hardness as CaCO3 300 600
7 Iron as Fe 0.3 1.0
8 Chloride 250 1000
9 Free residual Chlorine 0.2 -
10 Total Dissolved Solids 500 2000
11 Calcium as Ca 75 200
12 Copper as Cu 0.05 1.5
13 Manganese as Mn 0.1 0.3
14 Sulphate as SO42- 200 400
15 Nitrate as NO3- 45 100
16 Fluoride as F- 1.0 1.5
17 Phenols as C6H5OH 0.001 0.002
18 Mercury as Hg 0.001 No relaxation
19 Cadmium as Cd 0.01 No relaxation
20 Selenium as Se 0.01 No relaxation
21 Arsenic as As 0.05 No relaxation
22 Cyanide as Cn 0.05 No relaxation
23 Lead as Pb 0.05 No relaxation
24 Zinc as Zn 5 15
25 Anionic detergents as MBAS 0.02 1.0
26 Chromium as Cr (VI) 0.05 No relaxation
27 Mineral oil 0.01 0.03
28 Pesticides Nil 0.001
29 Radioactive materials
- Alpha emitters, Beq/1 - 0.1
-Beta emitters, Pci/1 - 1.0
30 Alkalinity as CaCO3 200 600
31 Aluminum as Al 0.03 0.2
32 Boron 1 5
33 Faecal Streptococci Nil -
34 M.P.N (in 100 ml) 1 10
35 Cyclopes (or Guinea worms) Nil Nil

59
 Appendix –II

Effluent Standards

Suggested ranges for pollutants in mg/l in industrial effluents for their discharge
into (i) Inland surface waters (ii) On to land (iii) Sewers and (iv) Marine waters
Sl. Pollutant (mg/l) Surface Land for Public Oceans
No. waters Irrigatio Sewers
n
1 BOD 30 100 350 100
2 C.O.D 250 - - 250
3 Suspended Solids 100 200 600 100
4 Total Dissolved Solids 2100 2100 2100 -
о
5 Temperature, C 40 - 45 45
6 Oil & Grease 10 10 20 20
7 pH 5.6-9.2 5.6-9.2 5.6-9.2 5.6-9.2
8 Ammonical Nitrogen as N 50 - 50 50
9 Total Kjeldhal Nitrogen as N 100 - - 100
10 Free Ammonia as NH3 5 - - 5
11 Chlorides as Cl- 1000 600 1000 -
12 Sulphates as SO4 1000 1000 1000 -
13 Total residual chlorine 1.0 - - 1.0
14 Arsenic as As 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20
15 Mercury as Hg 0.01 - 0.01 0.01
16 Lead as Pb 0.1 - 1.0 1.0
17 Cadmium as Cd 2.0 - 2.0 2.0
18 Chromium as Cr(VI) 0.10 - 2.0 1.0
19 Total cromium 2.0 - 2.0 2.0
20 Copper as Cu 3.0 - 3.0 3.0
21 Zinc as Zn 5.0 - 15 15
22 Selenium as Se 0.05 - 0.051 0.05
23 Nickel as Ni 3.0 - 3.0 5.0
24 Boron as B 2.0 2.0 2.0 -
25 Sodium as Na - 60 % 60 % -
26 Cyanide as Cn 0.20 0.20 - 0.20
27 Fluoride as F 2.0 - 2.0 -
28 Phosphate as PO4 5.0 - 15 15
29 Sulphide as S 2.0 - - 5.0
30 Phenolic compounds 1.0 - 5.0 5.0
(C6H5OH)
31 Pesticides Nil Nil Nil Nil

60
This Environmental Engineering Laboratory Manual is prepared by

Dr. Anjali Gopakumar

Assistant Professor (Senior)
&
Dr. P.C. Sabumon
Professor

Environmental Water Resource and Transportation

Division (EWRT)
School of Civil Engineering
VIT Chennai-600127

61