Case Study

Environmental Impact Assessment of the

Fabrication of Pipe Rehabilitation Materials
Alhossin Alsadi 1; John C. Matthews, M.ASCE 2; and Elizabeth Matthews 3

Abstract: With the consistent increase in the global population, sustainable construction has become a trend that will need to be practiced in
perpetuity. The three main factors of sustainable construction that should be considered during planning and design of new projects are direct
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cost, social costs, and environmental impacts. Direct costs are regularly evaluated, and social costs are coming under more scrutiny, but the
environmental sustainability of construction is a big issue due to increasing concerns about global climate change and carbon emissions.
If reducing carbon emissions is a target, it is first essential to quantify the environmental impacts of any potential project to set the target to
achieve. In the pipeline industry, carbon footprint analyses for the construction phase have been performed regularly to identify less-carbon-
intensive methods. The pipeline industry, however, has yet to evaluate the environmental sustainability of its construction materials during the
fabrication stages. The objective of this study is to calculate and analyze the environmental sustainability, as determined by carbon footprint
and embodied energy, of 30 m (100 ft) of pipeline during the fabrication stages (material extraction, material production, and pipe manu-
facturing). This study focuses on three commonly used types of pipe/pipeline: prestressed concrete cylinder pipe (PCCP), PVC, and cured-in-
place pipe (CIPP). This paper focuses on a large-diameter 90-cm (36-in.) sewer pressure pipe operating at 689 kPa (100 psi) internal pressure.
Results show the environmental sustainability of PCCP to be lower than PVC and CIPP. The second phase of this project will focus on the
environmental impacts for each material during construction and operation to determine the overall environmental footprint of each material.
DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)PS.1949-1204.0000395. © 2019 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Life cycle analysis; Carbon footprint; Embodied energy; Fabrication stage; Trenchless technology.

Introduction sustainability is a relatively new impact being considered. In the

pipeline industry, carbon footprint analyses for the construction
Globally, increasing population and industrial growth are putting phase have been performed to identify less-carbon-intensive meth-
increased pressure on existing water and sewer infrastructure, as ods. The pipeline industry, however, has yet to evaluate the envi-
is the effect of aging. Many existing water and sewer pipelines ronmental sustainability of its construction materials during the
are rapidly approaching the end of useful service life, so they will fabrication stages.
need to be undertaken for rehabilitation or replacement. New pipe- The objective of this paper is to calculate and analyze the envi-
lines are typically installed using open-cut technology or trench- ronmental sustainability, as determined by carbon footprint and
less technology (i.e., pipe jacking, horizontal directional drilling, embodied energy, of 30 m (100 ft) of pipeline during the fabrication
or horizontal auger boring, among others.) or rehabilitated with stages (material extraction, material production, and pipe manufac-
trenchless methods such as cured-in-place pipe (CIPP), sliplining, turing), which is the most energy-consuming stage when compared
or pipe bursting. with the construction and operation stages. This fabrication stage
When selecting a method or material to be used for the pipeline deals with energy consumed during material extraction, material
construction or repair, the direct cost is typically the primary if not production, and pipe manufacturing, which includes all energy
only factor used in the selection of applicable methods and materi-
until the factory gate. The objective of this study is to analyze and
als. However, with the consistent increase in global population,
compare carbon (CO2 ) emissions during the fabrication phase
sustainable construction has become a trend that will need to be
associated with the three types of pipe: prestressed concrete cylin-
practiced in perpetuity. In sustainable construction, social costs
der pipe (PCCP), PVC, and CIPP, used for large-diameter 90-cm
and environmental impacts must also be considered when mak-
(36-in.) pressure sewer pipelines.
ing decisions. Social costs have long been considered when select-
The Inventory of Carbon and Energy (ICE) database version 2.0
ing pipeline methods (Matthews et al. 2015), but environmental
(Hammond and Jones 2011), which was published by the Univer-
1 sity of Bath in the United Kingdom, was used for this study. The
Ph.D. Student, Graduate Researcher, and Teaching Assistant,
Trenchless Technology Center, Louisiana Tech Univ., Ruston, LA 71272. ICE database provides the embodied energy for each material used
Email: [email protected] in the construction of each pipe and liner material studied. The ICE
2 database contains both embodied energy and embodied carbon, but
Associate Professor and Director, Trenchless Technology Center,
Louisiana Tech Univ., Ruston, LA 71272 (corresponding author). ORCID: the embodied energy coefficients are more accurate (Hammond and
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1478-5182. Email: [email protected] Jones 2011) so in this study, embodied energy coefficients were
3
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Louisiana Tech Univ., used. The ICE database has the boundaries from cradle to gate.
Ruston, LA 71272. Email: [email protected]
Hammond and Jones (2011) defined the embodied energy (EE)
Note. This manuscript was submitted on January 19, 2018; approved on
February 12, 2019; published online on October 8, 2019. Discussion period as the total primary energy consumed during direct and indirect
open until March 8, 2020; separate discussions must be submitted for processes associated with a product or service within the cradle
individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Pipeline Systems to gate boundaries, and this includes all activities from material
Engineering and Practice, © ASCE, ISSN 1949-1190. extraction until the product is ready to leave the final factory gate.

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Fig. 1. Life cycle analysis and life phases of a pipeline. (Adapted from Filion et al. 2004, © ASCE.)

This would include all phases of fabrication, as seen in the life to 61 cm (24 in.), and the DIP was largest among the other pipes.
stages in Fig. 1. The emissions and generation resource integrated For pipe diameters larger than or equal to 76 cm (30 in.), PVC had
database (eGRID214) was used for this study. The eGRID is a the highest CO2 emissions. For all pipe sizes, the concrete pipe had
general source of data on the environmental aspects of almost all the lowest CO2 emissions (Du et al. 2013).
electric power generated in the United States. The eGRID is based For this study, three pipe materials were used, namely PCCP,
on available plant-specific data for all U.S. electricity generating CIPP, and PVC. These materials are briefly described in the sub-
plants that produce energy to the electric grid and report data to sequent sections.
the U.S. government. The eGRID is developed from a variety of
data collected by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
and the Energy Information Administration (EIA). Texas regional Prestressed Concrete Cylinder Pipe
entity (TRE) = 1.2038 lb CO2 emission/kWh for electricity usage
(EPA 2014) PCCP has been manufactured and in use since 1942 for pressure
Most previous carbon emission studies have been about build- pipeline applications. PCCP can be designed for operating pressures
ings and not about water or sewer pipelines. There are a few studies greater than 2,758 kPa (400 psi) and underground covers of 30-m
on pipeline carbon emissions, but none of these compare CIPP liners (100-ft) [AWWA C301 (AWWA 2014b)]. There are two types of
with other pipe materials such as PCCP, PVC, or high-density poly- PCCP: line cylinder pipe (LCP) and embedded cylinder pipe (ECP).
ethylene pipe (HDPE). Chilana (2011) and Chilana et al. (2016) LCP is designed with a steel cylinder core lined with concrete and
researched and analyzed the carbon footprints for 241 km (150 mi) subsequently wrapped with a prestressing wire directly on the steel
of pipeline of different large diameters (66, 72, 84, and 108 in.). cylinder and coated with mortar. The diameter range of LCP is be-
The pipe materials were PCCP and steel. Chilana (2011) found that tween 41 and 152 cm (16 and 60 in.) ECP is designed with a core
PCCP pipes are better in terms of ecological impacts because they composed of a steel cylinder encased in concrete and subsequently
have a smaller carbon footprint than steel pipes. Khan and Tee wire-wrapped with prestressing wire over the concrete core and
(2015) analyzed the life cycle assessment between steel pipe, ductile coated with cement mortar. The pipe diameter is manufactured
mostly in a size range of 122 cm (48 in.) and larger. For both types
iron pipe (DIP), and PVC pipe, for a 1,524-m (5,000-ft)-long, 40-cm
of PCCP, the lengths in general are between 5 and 7.3 m (16 and
(15.7-in.)-diameter pipe. The results indicated that PVC emitted
24 ft) [AWWA M9 (AWWA 2008); AWWA C304-14 (AWWA
less carbon compared with steel and ductile iron pipe. Kyung et al.
2014a)]. Key differences are highlighted in Table 1 and Fig. 2.
(2017) estimated the total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for
whole life cycle stages of a sewer pipeline system for various
pipeline materials including PVC, polyethylene (PE), concrete, and
cast-iron pipe (CIP). The results show that concrete pipe generated a Table 1. Differences between lined cylinder pipe and embedded cylinder
pipe
lower amount of GHG than pipes made from other materials (Kyung
et al. 2017). Lined cylinder pipe Embedded cylinder pipe
Du et al. (2013) carried out a life cycle analysis (LCA) study Parameter (LCP) (ECP)
for six different pipe materials: PVC, CIP, HDPE, DIP, concrete, Diameter 400–1,500 mm (16–60 in.) 750–6,500 mm (30–256 in.)
and reinforced concrete. The objectives were to compare the six Design Steel cylinder lined with Steel cylinder embedded in a
pipe materials regarding global warming potential through the four a cast concrete core concrete core
life cycle phases. The pipe diameters ranged from 10 to 122 cm Prestressing Wrapped over steel Wrapped over concrete core
(4 to 48 in.) for that study. The results for CO2 emissions in the wire cylinder
fabrication phase shows that pipe diameters were less than or equal Source: Data from Romer et al. (2007).

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Fig. 2. Schematic showing the different in wall cross sections between LCP and ECP pipe. (Reprinted with permission from AWWA C304-14 Design
of Prestressed Concrete Cylinder Pipe Copyright © AWWA 2014. All rights reserved.)

To determine the carbon emissions involved with the manufac- described subsequently. Assumptions for the design of all three
ture of PCCP, the steps of manufacture must be understood. There pipe materials in this study include an outside diameter of 90-cm
are eight steps to manufacture PCCP (AWWA M9) (Manda 2014): (36-in.), internal operating pressure of 689 kPa (100 psi), and a total
1. Manufacture and fabricate the steel cylinder. length of 30 m (100 ft).
2. Attach the joint rings to the steel cylinder pipe. After acquiring In this study LCP was used, which is more common for 90-cm
the desired shape and sizes of the steel cylinder, the joints are (36-in.)-diameter pipes. The minimum design thickness of the core
attached and welded to the steel cylinder. including the thickness of the steel cylinder should be 1=16 of
3. Perform hydrostatic test for steel cylinder. There are two ways to the design pipe diameter based on AWWA C301. So, the core
do the test: horizontally or vertically. thickness is
4. Place the concrete core around the steel cylinder. The main com- 36
ponents of concrete are cement, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, ¼ 57 mm ð2.25 in:Þ
water, and admixtures. 16
5. Cure the concrete core. Curing is a process of maintaining sa- where the thickness of the steel cylinder is 16 gauge (0.0598 in.);
tisfactory moisture content at a certain temperature for a certain the size of prestressing wire is 6 gauge [0.5 cm (0.192 in.)]; and the
period. design spacing between pre-stressing wire is 2.75× wire diameter
6. Wrap the prestressing wire around the concrete core to give it a per AWWA C301. Therefore, the space between wire centers is
high tensile strength. 2.75 × 0.192 ¼ 1.34 mm ð0.528 in:Þ The mortar coating thickness
7. Apply the external mortar coating. After the concrete has been is 19 mm (0.75 in.) per AWWA C301. The materials densities per
wrapped with prestressed wire, an exterior mortar coating should AWWA C301 are as follows:
be applied. The mortar coating minimum thickness is 19 mm • concrete: 0.0839 lb=cu in. (2,322.61 kg=m3 ),
(3/4 in.), and the mortar coating should cover the wire. • prestressing wire: 0.2829 lb=cu in. (7,832.80 kg=m3 ),
8. Cure the mortar coating. • steel cylinder: 0.2829 lb=cu in. (7,832.80 kg=m3 ), and
From the steps of manufacture, one can determine the types • mortar coating: 0.0423 lb=cu in. (1,170 kg=m3 ).
and order of materials used when making the pipe. To determine The total energy consumption for each pipe of PCCP is calcu-
the amount of each material, the pipe design method is used as lated using the following equation:

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 Table 2. Energy consumption and CO2 emissions for PCCP pipe
Serial number Description Unit Quantity Remark/reference
A Outside diameter in. 36 Assumption
B Inside diameter in. 33 Assumption
C Length of pipe section ft 20 Assumption
D Core thickness in. 2.25 AWWA C301
E Steel cylinder thickness in. 0.0598 AWWA C301
F Concrete core thickness in. 2.19 F ¼D−E
G Diameter of prestressing wire in. 0.192 AWWA C301
H Mortar coating thickness in. 0.75 AWWA C301
I Total length of segment ft 100 Assumption
J Weight of steel cylinder Ib 459.2 Weight = volume × density
K Weight of concrete core Ib 4,987.35 Weight = volume × density
L Weight of mortar coating lb 861.12 Weight = volume × density
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M Weight of pre-stressing wire Ib 421.5 Weight = volume × density

N Pipe weight Ib 6,729.17 N ¼JþKþLþM
O Embodied energy of concrete core MJ=kg 0.95 ICE version 2.0
kWh=Ib 0.12 1 MJ=kg ¼ 0.126 kWh=Ib
P Embodied energy of steel cylinder MJ=kg 34.7 ICE version 2.0
kWh=Ib 4.37 1 MJ=kg ¼ 0.126 kWh=Ib
Q Embodied energy of prestressing wire MJ=kg 36 ICE version 2.0
kWh=Ib 4.54 1 MJ=kg ¼ 0.126 kWh=Ib
R Embodied energy of mortar coating MJ=kg 1.33 ICE version 2.0
kWh=Ib 0.17 1 MJ=kg ¼ 0.126 kWh=Ib
S Energy consumption of each pipe kWh=pipe 4,665.19 S¼J×PþK×OþL×RþM×Q
T Total energy consumption kWh 23,326 T ¼ S × 5 pipes
V CO2 emission rate Ib=kWh 1.2038 eGRID2014
W Total CO2 emissions Ib 28,080 W ¼T ×V

Total energyPCCP PVC resin with heat stabilizers, lubrication materials, and fillers.
The purpose of adding heat stabilizers to the PVC resin mix is to
¼ Embodied energyConcrete × WeightConcrete delay heat degradation so the mix can be formed into a product
þ Embodied energySteel Cylider × WeightSteel cylinder before it degrades. Lubrication materials control the melting point
in the extruder to achieve the best processing and physical proper-
þ Embodied energyMortar coating × WeightMortar coating
ties. The filler is added to the PVC resin mix to lower material cost
þ Embodied energyPrestressing wire × WeightPrestressing wire and provide coloring (AWWA M23). Fig. 3 details the flow of PVC
pipe production.
Total CO2 emissions equal total energy consumption multiplied Assumptions for the design of the PVC in this study remain
by the CO2 emission rate. The inputs for the PCCP calculation are the same as they were for the other materials, i.e., diameter of
given in Table 2. 90-cm (36 in.), internal pressure of 689 kPa (100 psi), and length
of 30 m (100 ft). The pipe wall thickness is 2.4 cm (0.934 in.)
per AWWA C900 (AWWA 2016). The schematic cross section for
PVC Pipe CIPP shown in Fig. 4, and the standard pipe length is 51 cm (20 ft)
per ASTM D2665 (ASTM 2012). The PVC pipe embodied
PVC was found in the late nineteenth century, and in the 1920s, energy is 67.5 Mj=kg per ICE version 2.0. The total energy con-
scientists brought PVC to public attention again. In the 1930s, sumption for each pipe of PVC is calculated using the following
scientists in Germany developed and produced limited quantities equation:
of PVC pipe. PVC pipe has been installed regularly in Europe
since the early 1970s, and since the early 1990s in North America Total energyPVC ¼ Embodied energyPVC × WeightPVC
[AWWA M23 (AWWA 2002)]. The fundamental raw materials
of PVC pipe resin are derived from ethylene (mostly natural Total CO2 emissions are equal to the total energy consumption
gas–based or petroleum-based), and chlorine (mostly salt-based) multiplied by the CO2 emission rate. The inputs for the PVC cal-
(Krock and Middleton 2013). PVC pipe is manufactured by mixing culation are given in Table 3.

Fig. 3. Cradle to resin flow diagram of PVC production. (Adapted from Krock and Middleton 2013.)

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 ASTM F1216 (ASTM 2009) per the subsequent equation for the
governing design parameter, which is internal pressure in this case.

ASTM Equation

The ASTM F1216 equation for determining the design thickness of

CIPP is
2QTL
p¼
ðDR − 2ÞN
where p = internal pressure (100 psi); QTL = long-term tensile
strength for CIPP (6,000 psi); and N = factor of safety (typically 2)
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D 36
t¼ ¼ ¼ 14.7 mm ð0.58 in.Þ
DR 62
t ¼ 14.7 mm ð0.58 in.Þ

The CIPP tube thickness calculated from the ASTM F1216 is

0.58 in. (14.7 mm). Two layers of felt would be 6.125 mm thickness
per layer. The three layers of fiberglass reinforcement would have a
total thickness of 0.75 mm per layer. The thickness of the inner and
outer PE tube liner is 0.10 mm per layer [ASTM D3567 (ASTM
Fig. 4. Schematic cross section for PVC pipe. 2002)]. The amount of resin should be sufficient to fill out all voids
in the tube material with adding 5%–10% extra amount of resin to
ensure complete saturation. It was assumed that the felt is 100% sa-
turated by the resin, so the thickness of resin equals the thickness of
Cured-in-Place Pipe the felt.
The total energy consumptions for CIPP is calculated using the
CIPP is the most widely used trenchless pipe rehabilitation tech- follow equation:
nology for sewer pipelines and has been in use since the 1970s
Total energyCIPP
(Teimouri et al. 2017). A CIPP liner typically consists of a felt tube
and resin with some form of fiber reinforcement such as glass ¼ Embodied energyFelt × WeightFelt
fiber when repairing pressure pipes. The tube contains one or more
þ Embodied energyResin × WeightResin
layers of flexible felt, one or more layers of fiberglass reinforce-
ment, and the outside PE to keep the resin inside the tube. Also, þ Embodied energyFiberglass reinforced × WeightFiberglass reinforced
the tube should be fabricated to fit and take the shape of the host þ Embodied energyTube liner × WeightTube liner
pipe (Matthews et al. 2014). The general purpose of the resin is to
fill out all the voids in the tube and saturate it to get the shape of the Total CO2 emissions are equal to total energy consumption
host pipe. There are three main types of resin: vinyl ester, polyester, multiplied by the CO2 emission rate. The inputs for the CIPP
and epoxy. CIPP can be installed by an inversion process or pulled calculation are listed in Table 4.
in and can be cured with hot water, steam, or ultraviolet light (UV) Epoxy resin was chosen due to the following advantages cited for
(Matthews et al. 2014). A typical pressure CIPP tube is shown pressure pipes (Moore and Dig 2011). Epoxy resin typically has
in Fig. 5. shorter catalyzed stability (7 h or fewer) than polyester and vinyl
Assumptions for the design of the CIPP in this study remain ester resins. Epoxy resin has lower polymerization shrinkage than
the same as they were for the other materials, i.e., diameter of polyester and vinyl ester resin during curing. Epoxy resin has very
90-cm (36-in.), internal pressure of 689 kPa (100 psi), and length low odor levels and does not cause any odor issues in CIPP
of 30 m (100 ft). The design thickness for CIPP is determined by application.

Table 3. Energy consumption and CO2 emissions for PVC pipe

Sl. No. Description Unit Quantity Remark/reference
A Outside diameter 900 mm (36 in.) 36 Assumption
B Length of pipe section 6 m (20 in.) 20 Assumption
C Wall thickness 23.7 mm (0.934 in) 0.934 AWWA C900
D Density of rigid PVC Ib=cu in 0.0524 Martins et al. (2009)
kg=m3 1,380
E Weight of each pipe lb 1,328.44 Weight = volume × density
F Embodied energy for PVC pipe MJ=kg 67.50 ICV version 2.0
kWh=Ib 8.505 1 MJ=kg ¼ 0.126 kWh=Ib
G Energy consumption for each pipe kWh 11,298.4 G¼ E×F
H Total energy consumption kWh 56,492 5 pipes
I CO2 emission rate Ib=kWh 1.2038 eGRID2014
J Total CO2 emissions Ib 68,005 J ¼H×I

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 emission was almost three times more than the amount of carbon
as compared with PCCP, and PVC pipe CO2 emissions were almost
double the amount of carbon emissions as compared with PCCP
during the fabrication phase.
For the 30-m (100-ft) section, the PCCP has a massive weight
compared with PVC and CIPP, and at the same time has lower en-
ergy consumption compared with the same pipes. The primary ma-
terials in PCCP are concrete, steel cylinder, prestressing wire, and
mortar coat. In this study, PCCP was 74% concrete and, due to the
small concrete embodied energy (i.e., 0.12 kWh=lb), PCCP has
lower carbon emissions in fabrication stage. In this study, CIPP
liner consists of a fiber-reinforced felt tube impregnated with resin.
The tube contains two layers of felt saturated with the epoxy resin,
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and three layers of reinforced fiberglass. The amount of epoxy

resin is 63% of the total CIPP weight and, due to the high embodied
energy for epoxy resin (i.e., 17.26 kWh=lb), CIPP has higher
Fig. 5. Schematic cross section for CIPP. energy consumption. For PVC pipe, the pipe is 100% PVC resin.
The primary raw materials for PVC resin are crude oil and salt. PVC
pipe embodied energy is 8.505 kWh=lb, so it has lower embodied
Results and Discussion energy compared with CIPP resin but higher embodied energy than
concrete. The study shows that small savings in the quantity of
This study focused on CO2 emissions during the fabrication phase material make a big change in the total carbon emissions, for exam-
for three commonly used pressure pipe materials: PCCP, PVC, ple, pipe thickness, pipe diameter, and amount of resin in CIPP.
and CIPP. The three types of pipe have a 90-cm (36-in.) diameter Understanding the carbon footprint of the pipeline and choosing
and are assumed to be 30-m (100-ft) long for this comparison. the right pipe materials will result in significant carbon savings,
CO2 emissions for the fabrication phase for the three pipe types which will help to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and meet
are provided in Fig. 6. For the material production and pipe fab- international emission targets. The procedure used in this study,
rication phase, the result shows PCCP has lower energy con- which is the first known attempt to compare carbon emissions from
sumption compared with PVC and CIPP pipes, which should be the fabrication stage of CIPP materials with those of other pipe
expected based on the raw materials (i.e., steel and concrete versus materials, could be applied to any pipeline project to analyze
petroleum-based resins). CIPP has the highest energy consumption the environmental impact of product selection. This study had been
during material production and fabrication phases. CIPP CO2 done for 30 m (100-ft)-long pipe but can be used for any length,

Table 4. Energy consumption and CO2 emissions for CIPP pipe

Sl. No. Description Unit Quantity Remark/reference
A Outside diameter 900 mm (36 in.) 36 Assumption
B Length of the section 30 m (100 ft) 100 Assumption
C Tube thickness 14.7 mm (0.58 in.) 0.58 ASTM F1216

D Thickness of fiberglass reinforced 2.25 mm (0.088 in.) 0.088 Three layers of fiberglass with
thickness 0.75 mm per layer
E Liner and exterior layer thickness 0.20 m (0.010 in.) 0.010 Each layer 0.005 in. (0.10 mm)
ASTM D3567 standard
F Thickness of felt 12.25 mm (0.502 in.) 0.502 F ¼ C–ðD þ E)
Two layers of felt each with
6.125 mm per layer
G Weight of fiberglass reinforced lb 1,096.13 Weight = volume × density
Density 158.6 lb=cu ft
H Weight of felt lb 1,080.24 Weight = volume × density
Density 27.4 lb=cu ft
I Weight of resin lb 3,706.13 Weight = volume × density
Density of epoxy 94 lb=cu ft
J Weight of tube liner and exterior layer lb 4.71 Weight = volume × density
Density of polyurethane 6 lb=cu ft
K Embodied energy for felt MJ=kg 36 ICE version 2.0
kWh=lb 4.54 1 MJ=kg ¼ 0.126 kWh=lb
L Embodied energy for resin MJ=kg 137 ICE version 2.0
kWh=lb 17.26 1 MJ=kg ¼ 0.126 kWh=lb
M Embodied energy for fiberglass reinforcement MJ=kg 100 ICE version 2.0
kWh=lb 12.6 1 MJ=kg ¼ 0.126 kWh=lb
N Embodied energy for tube liner MJ=kg 80.10 ICE version 2.0
kWh=lb 10.1 1 MJ=kg ¼ 0.126kWh=lb
O Total energy consumption kWh 82,730.9 O¼G×MþH×KþI×LþJ×N
P CO2 emission rate lb=kWh 1.2038 eGRID2014
Q Total CO2 emissions lb 99,592 Q¼O×P

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 CO Emission During Fabrication Phase ASTM. 2009. Standard practice for rehabilitation of existing pipelines
and conduits by the inversion and curing of a resin-impregnated tube.
99592 ASTM 1216. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
CO Emission (Pounds)

ASTM. 2012. Standard specification for poly (Vinyl Chloride)(PVC)

plastic drain. waste, and vent pipe and fittings. ASTM D2665. West
68005
Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
AWWA (American Water Works Association). 2002. Design and installa-
tion of polyvinyl chloride pipe. 2nd ed. AWWA M23. Denver: AWWA.
28080 AWWA (American Water Works Association). 2008. Concrete pressure
pipe. 3rd ed. AWWA M9. Denver: AWWA.
AWWA (American Water Works Association). 2014a. Design prestressed
concrete cylinder pipe. ANSI/AWWA C304-14. Denver: AWWA.
PCCP PVC CIPP AWWA (American Water Works Association). 2014b. Design prestressed
Pipe Materials concrete pressure pipe, steel cylinder type. ANSI/AWWA C301. Denver:
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Universidad de los Andes on 03/10/20. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

AWWA.
Fig. 6. CO2 emissions during fabrication phase.
AWWA (American Water Works Association). 2016. Polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) pressure pipe and fabricated fittings, 14 in. through 48 in.
ANSI/AWWA C900. Denver: AWWA.
diameter, and material by scaling up the material qualities using Chilana, L. 2011. “Carbon footprint analysis of a large diameter water
proper design procedures. transmission pipeline installation.” M.S. thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineer-
The limitations of this study include the embodied energy data- ing, Univ. of Texas at Arlington.
base used, which represents the UK average and may vary from Chilana, L., A. Bhatt, M. Najafi, and M. Sattler. 2016. “Comparison of
location to location. Also, the boundary conditions for fabrication carbon footprints of steel versus concrete pipelines for water transmis-
phase are assumed to be from cradle to the factory gate. The waste sion.” J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 66 (5): 518–527. https://doi.org/10
materials during fabrication were assumed to be negligible and .1080/10962247.2016.1154487.
are not accounted for. Also, the PCCP joint used in this study is Du, F., G. J. Woods, D. Kang, K. E. Lansey, and R. G. Arnold. 2013. “Life
assumed to be a rubber O-ring bell and spigot joint. cycle analysis for water and wastewater pipe materials.” J. Environ.
Eng. 139 (5): 703–711. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870
.0000638.
Conclusion EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 2014. Emissions & Generation
Resource Integrated Database (eGRID2014). Washington, DC: EPA.
In the first phase of the pipeline life cycle (fabrication phase), this Filion, Y. R., H. L. MacLean, and B. W. Karney. 2004. “Life-cycle energy
study has shown that PCCP generated a lower amount of carbon analysis of a water distribution system.” J. Infrastruct. Syst. 10 (3):
compared with PVC and CIPP for a 90-cm (36-in.), 30-m (100-ft)- 120–130. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1076-0342(2004)10:3(119).
long pressure pipe project. PVC has higher energy consumption Hammond, G., and C. Jones. 2011. Inventory of carbon and energy (ICE),
than PCCP but lower energy consumption than CIPP. Finally, CIPP version 2.0. Bath, UK: Sustainable Energy Research Team, Dept. of
has the highest energy consumption compared with both PCCP and Mechanical Engineering, Univ. of Bath.
Khan, L. R., and K. F. Tee. 2015. “Quantification and comparison of carbon
PVC. Small savings in the quantity of material makes a big change
emissions for flexible underground pipelines.” Can. J. Civ. Eng.
in the total carbon emissions. Pipes with smaller diameters emitted
42 (10): 728–736.
less carbon than large pipes made with the same pipe material. The
Krock, R., and G. Middleton. 2013. The role of PVC resins in sustainable
second phase of this study is underway and is focused on the in- design. Washington, DC: Vinyl Institute.
stallation stage. The overall goal is to look at the entire life cycle Kyung, D., D. Kim, S. Yi, W. Choi, and W. Lee. 2017. “Estimation of
of each material, including installation, use, and disposal stages, to greenhouse gas emissions from sewer pipeline system.” Int. J. Life
determine which material is most environmentally friendly. Cycle Assess. 22 (12): 1901–1911. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367
Of the three cost/impact factors that should be considered when -017-1288-9.
choosing pipeline material (direct cost, social cost, and environ- Manda, R. 2014. “Performance of Prestressed Concrete Cylinder Pipe
mental impact), this study is only focused on environmental impact. (PCCP) in water applications.” M.S. thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering,
There are some studies on the direct cost, but few have been done Univ. of Texas at Arlington.
on social cost [Matthews et al. (2015) did a study on the social cost Martins, J., E. Freire, and H. Hemadipour. 2009. “Applications and market
impact evaluations for pipelines], but no study has been done re- of PVC for piping industry.” Polímeros 19 (1): 58–62. https://doi.org/10
garding the environmental impact for trenchless options over the .1590/S0104-14282009000100014.
entire life cycle. It is recommended to include all three cost/impact Matthews, J. C., E. N. Allouche, and R. L. Sterling. 2015. “Social cost
factors together, which will help the decision maker to obtain the impact assessment of pipeline infrastructure projects.” Environ. Impact
best results for selecting a pipe material and method. This study Assess. Rev. 50 (Jan): 196–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2014.10
benefits pipeline industry and decision makers to monitor their car- .001.
bon footprint and to set their carbon emissions target. For future Matthews, J. C., A. Selvakumar, R. L. Sterling, and W. Condit. 2014.
research, it is recommended that field studies should be conducted “Innovative rehabilitation technology demonstration and evaluation
to obtain necessary data to overcome dependence on the assump- programs.” Tunnelling Underground Space Technol. 39: 73–81.
Moore, W., and N. N. Dig. 2011. Non-styrene options for cured in place
tions made in this study.
pipe. Cleveland: North American Society for Trenchless Technology.
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