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MANAGEMENT SCIENCE
The Management Science Approach to Problem Solving
Management science is applying a scientific approach to solving management problems to help managers make
better decisions. As implied by this definition, management science encompasses several mathematically
oriented techniques that have either been developed within the field of management science or been adapted
from other disciplines, such as the natural sciences, mathematics, statistics, and engineering.
Management science is a recognized and established discipline in business. The applications of management
science techniques are widespread, and they have been frequently credited with increasing the efficiency and
productivity of business firms. In various surveys of businesses, many indicate that they use management
science techniques, and most rate the results to be very good. Management science (also referred to as
operations research, quantitative methods, quantitative analysis, decision sciences, and business analytics) is
part of the fundamental curriculum of most business programs.
Management science also involves the philosophy of approaching a problem in a logical manner (i.e., a scientific
approach). The logical, consistent, and systematic approach to problem-solving can be as useful (and valuable)
as the knowledge of the mechanics of the mathematical techniques themselves. This understanding is
especially important for those readers who do not always see the immediate benefit of studying mathematically
oriented disciplines such as management science.

Figure 1. The Management Science Process

As indicated in the previous section, management science encompasses a logical, systematic approach to
problem-solving, which closely parallels what is known as the scientific method for attacking problems. This
approach, as shown in Figure 1, follows a generally recognized and ordered series of steps: (1) observation,
(2) definition of the problem, (3) model construction, (4) model solution, and (5) implementation of solution
results.
Observation
The first step in the management science process is identifying a problem that exists in the system
(organization). The system must be continuously and closely observed so that problems can be identified as
soon as they occur or are anticipated. Problems are not always the result of a crisis that must be reacted to but,
instead, frequently involve an anticipatory or planning situation. The manager normally identifies a problem
because managers work in places where problems might occur. However, problems can often be identified by
a management scientist, a person skilled in management science techniques and trained to identify problems,
who has been hired specifically to solve problems using management science techniques.

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Definition of the Problem

Once it has been determined that a problem exists, the problem must be clearly and concisely defined.
Improperly defining a problem can easily result in no solution or an inappropriate solution. Therefore, the limits
of the problem and the degree to which it enters other units of the organization must be included in the problem
definition. Because the existence of a problem implies that the firm's objectives are not being met in some way,
the organization's goals (or objectives) must also be clearly defined. A stated objective helps to focus attention
on what the problem is.
Model Construction
A management science model is an abstract representation of an existing problem situation. It can be in the
form of a graph or chart, but a management science model most frequently consists of a set of mathematical
relationships. These mathematical relationships are made up of numbers and symbols.
As an example, consider a business firm that sells a product. The product costs ₱5 to produce and sells for
₱20. A model that computes the total profit that will accrue from the items sold is
𝑍𝑍 = ₱20𝑥𝑥 − 5𝑥𝑥
In this equation, 𝑥𝑥 represents the number of units of the product that are sold, and 𝑍𝑍 represents the total profit
that results from the sale of the product. The symbols 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑍𝑍 are variables. The term variable is used because
no set numeric value has been specified for these items. The number of units sold, 𝑥𝑥, and the profit, 𝑍𝑍, can be
any amount (within limits); they can vary. These two (2) variables can be further distinguished. 𝑍𝑍 is a dependent
variable because its value is dependent on the number of units sold; x is an independent variable because the
number of units sold is not dependent on anything else (in this equation).
The numbers ₱20 and ₱5 in the equation are referred to as parameters. Parameters are constant values that
are generally coefficients of the variables (symbols) in an equation. Parameters usually remain constant during
the process of solving a specific problem. The parameter values are derived from data (i.e., pieces of
information) from the problem environment. Sometimes the data are readily available and quite accurate. For
example, presumably, the selling price of ₱20 and the product cost of ₱5 could be obtained from the firm’s
accounting department and would be very accurate. However, sometimes data are not as readily available to
the manager or firm. The parameters must be either estimated or based on a combination of the available data
and estimates. In such cases, the model is only as accurate as the data used in constructing the model.
The equation as a whole is known as a functional relationship (also called function and relationship). The term
is derived from the fact that profit, 𝑍𝑍, is a function of the number of units sold, 𝑥𝑥, and the equation relates profit
to units sold.
Because only one functional relationship exists in this example, it is also the model. In this case, the relationship
is a model of the determination of profit for the firm. However, this model does not replicate a problem. Therefore,
we will expand our example to create a problem situation.
EXAMPLE: Let us assume that the product is made from steel and that the business firm has 100 pounds of
steel available. If it takes four (4) pounds of steel to produce each unit of the product, we can develop an
additional mathematical relationship to represent steel usage:
4𝑥𝑥 = 100 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
This equation indicates that four (4) of the available 100 pounds of steel will be used for every unit produced.
Now our model consists of two (2) relationships:
𝑍𝑍 = ₱20𝑥𝑥 − 5𝑥𝑥
4𝑥𝑥 = 100
We say that the profit equation in this new model is an objective function, and the resource equation is a
constraint. In other words, the objective of the firm is to achieve as much profit, 𝑍𝑍, as possible, but the firm is
constrained from achieving an infinite profit by the limited amount of steel available. To signify this distinction
between the two (2) relationships in this model, we will add the following notations:

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Maximize 𝑍𝑍 = ₱20𝑥𝑥 − 5𝑥𝑥

Subject to 4𝑥𝑥 = 100

This model now represents the manager’s problem of determining the number of units to produce. You will recall
that we defined the number of units to be produced as 𝑥𝑥. Thus, when we determine the value of 𝑥𝑥, it represents
a potential (or recommended) decision for the manager. Therefore, 𝑥𝑥 is also known as a decision variable. The
next step in the management science process is to solve the model to determine the value of the decision
variable.
Model Solution
Once models have been constructed in management science, they are solved using the management science
techniques presented in this text. A management science solution technique usually applies to a specific type
of model. Thus, the model type and solution method are both part of the management science technique. A
model is solved because the model represents a problem. When we refer to model solution, we also mean
problem solution.
From the previous example,

Maximize 𝑍𝑍 = ₱20𝑥𝑥 − 5𝑥𝑥

Subject to 4𝑥𝑥 = 100

The solution technique is simple algebra:

4𝑥𝑥 = 100
100
𝑥𝑥 =
4
𝑥𝑥 = 25 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢

Substitute the value of 𝑥𝑥 onto the original equation:

𝑍𝑍 = ₱20𝑥𝑥 − 5𝑥𝑥
= ₱20(25) − 5(25)
= ₱500 − 125
𝑍𝑍 = ₱375
Thus, if the manager decides to produce 25 units of the product and all 25 units were sold, the business firm
will receive ₱375 in profit. Note, however, that the value of the decision variable does not constitute an actual
decision; rather, it is information that serves as a recommendation or guideline, helping the manager make a
decision.
Some management science techniques do not generate an answer or a recommended decision. Instead, they
provide descriptive results: results that describe the system being modeled. For example, suppose the business
firm desires to know the average number of units sold each month during a year. The monthly data (i.e., sales)
for the past year are as follows:

Months Sales Months Sales

January 30 July 35
February 40 August 50
March 25 September 60
April 60 October 40
May 30 November 35
June 25 December 50
Total 480 units

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Monthly sales average 40 units (480, 12). This result is not a decision; it is information that describes what is
happening in the system. The results of the management science techniques in this text are examples of the
two types shown in this section: (1) solutions/decisions and (2) descriptive results.
Implementation
The final step in the management science process for problem-solving described in Figure 1 is implementation.
Implementation is the actual use of the model once it has been developed or the solution to the model's problem.
This is a critical but often overlooked step in the process. It is not always a given that it is automatically used
once a model is developed or a solution is found. Frequently the person responsible for putting the model or
solution to use is not the same person who developed the model. Thus, the user may not fully understand how
the model works or exactly what it is supposed to do. Individuals are also sometimes hesitant to change the
normal way they do things or to try new things. In this situation, the model and solution may get pushed to the
side or ignored altogether if they are not carefully explained and their benefit fully demonstrated. If the
management science model and solution are not implemented, the effort and resources used in their
development have been wasted.
Business Analytics
Business analytics is a somewhat general term that seems to have several different definitions. Still, in broad
terms, it is considered a process for using large amounts of data combined with information technology,
statistics, management science techniques, and mathematical modeling to help managers solve problems and
make decisions that will improve their business performance. It uses these technological tools to help
businesses understand their past performance and help them plan and make decisions for the future; thus,
analytics is said to be descriptive, predictive, and prescriptive.
A key component of business analytics is the recent availability of large amounts of data— called “big data”—
that is now accessible to businesses and perceived to be an integral part and starting point of the analytical
process. Data are considered to be the engine that drives the process of analysis and decision-making in
business analytics. For example, a bank might apply analytics by using data to determine different customer
characteristics to match them with the bank services they provide. A retail store might apply analytics by using
data to determine which styles of denim jeans match their customer preferences, determine how many jeans to
order from their foreign suppliers, how much inventory to keep on hand, the best time to sell the jeans, and the
best price.
Break-Even Analysis
The purpose of break-even analysis is to determine the number of units of a product (i.e., the volume) to sell or
produce that will equate total revenue with total cost. The point where total revenue equals total cost is called
the break-even point, and at this point, profit is zero. The break-even point gives a manager a point of reference
in determining how many units will be needed to ensure a profit.
The three (3) components of break-even analysis are volume, cost, and profit. Volume is the level of sales or
production by a company. It can be expressed as the number of units (i.e., quantity) produced and sold, as the
dollar volume of sales, or as a percentage of total capacity available.
Two (2) types of cost are typically incurred in the production of a product: fixed costs and variable costs. Fixed
costs are generally independent of the volume of units produced and sold. That is, fixed costs remain constant,
regardless of how many product units are produced within a given range. Fixed costs can include rent on plant
and equipment, taxes, staff and management salaries, insurance, advertising, depreciation, heat and light, and
plant maintenance. Taken together, these items result in total fixed costs.
Variable costs are determined on a per-unit basis. Thus, total variable costs depend on the number of units
produced. Variable costs include raw materials and resources, direct labor, packaging, material handling, and
freight.
Total variable costs are a function of the volume and the variable cost per unit. This relationship can be
expressed mathematically as

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𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣

Where 𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 is the variable cost per unit, and 𝑣𝑣 is the volume (number of units) sold.
The total cost of an operation is computed by summing total fixed costs and total variable costs, as follows:
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐; 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑐𝑐𝑓𝑓 + 𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣

EXAMPLE: Consider Western Clothing Company, which produces denim jeans. The company incurs the
following monthly costs to produce denim jeans:
𝑐𝑐𝑓𝑓 = ₱10,000

𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 = ₱8 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

If we arbitrarily let the monthly sales volume, 𝑣𝑣, equal 400 pairs of denim jeans, the total cost is
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑐𝑐𝑓𝑓 + 𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 = ₱10,000 + (400 × 8) = 13,200

The third component in our break-even model is profit. Profit is the difference between total revenue and total
cost. Total revenue is the volume multiplied by the price per unit.
𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
From the previous example, if denim jeans sell for ₱23 per pair and sell 400 pairs per month, then the total
monthly revenue is
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 400 × 23 = ₱9,200
Then, 𝑍𝑍 (profit) can be computed as follows:
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑍𝑍 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 − 𝑐𝑐𝑓𝑓 − 𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣

In the denim case,

𝑍𝑍 = ₱(400 × 23) − 10,000 − (400 × 8) = −₱4,000
The clothing company does not want to operate with a monthly loss of ₱4,000 because doing so might eventually
result in bankruptcy. If we assume that price is static because of market conditions and that fixed costs and the
variable cost per unit are not subject to change, then the volume is only part of our model that can be varied.
Using the modeling terms we developed earlier in this chapter, price, fixed costs, and variable costs are
parameters, whereas volume, v, is a decision variable. In break-even analysis, we want to compute the value
of v that will result in zero profit.
At the break-even point, where total revenue equals total cost, the profit, 𝑍𝑍, equals zero. Thus, if profit equals
zero in the total profit equation and solve for 𝑣𝑣, the break-even volume can be determined:
𝑍𝑍 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 − 𝑐𝑐𝑓𝑓 − 𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣

0 = 𝑣𝑣(23) − 10,000 − 𝑣𝑣(8)

0 = 23𝑣𝑣 − 10,000 − 8𝑣𝑣
15𝑣𝑣 = 10,000
𝑣𝑣 = 666.7 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
In other words, if the company produces and sells 666.7 pairs of jeans, the profit (and loss) will be zero, and the
company will break even. This gives the company a point of reference to determine how many pairs of jeans it

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needs to produce and sell to gain a profit (subject to any capacity limitations). For example, a sales volume of
800 pairs of denim jeans will result in the following monthly profit:
𝑍𝑍 = ₱(800 × 23) − 10,000 − (800 × 8) = ₱2,000
In general, the break-even volume can be determined using the following formula:
𝑍𝑍 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 − 𝑐𝑐𝑓𝑓 − 𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣

0 = 𝑣𝑣(𝑝𝑝 − 𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 ) − 𝑐𝑐𝑓𝑓

𝑣𝑣(𝑝𝑝 − 𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 ) = 𝑐𝑐𝑓𝑓

𝑐𝑐𝑓𝑓
𝑣𝑣 =
𝑝𝑝 − 𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣
From the example,
𝑐𝑐𝑓𝑓 10,000
𝑣𝑣 = = = 666.7 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑝𝑝 − 𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 23 − 8

Business Usage of Management Science Techniques

Not all management science techniques are equally useful or equally used by business firms and other
organizations. Some techniques are used quite frequently by business practitioners and managers; others are
used less often. The most commonly used techniques are linear and integer programming, simulation, network
analysis (including critical path method/project evaluation and review technique [CPM/PERT]), inventory control,
decision analysis, queuing theory, and probability and statistics.
The variety and breadth of management science applications and the potential for applying management
science, not only in business and industry but also in government, health care, and service organizations, are
extensive. Areas of application include project planning, capital budgeting, production planning, inventory
analysis, scheduling, marketing planning, quality control, plant location, maintenance policy, personnel
management, and product demand forecasting.

References
Taylor III, B. W. (2016). Introduction to Management Science (12th ed.). New York: Pearson Education Limited.

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