DIVINE WORD COLLEGE OF LEGAZPI

Rizal Avenue, Old Albay District, Legazpi City

SY: 2020-2021, 1st semester

PREFINALS
LOGIC (INDUCTVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING)
I-Topic/s: Propositional Logic and Induction to Proofs
II-Learning Competencies:
At the end of this module, students should be able to:
 Translate mathematical statements from common English to formal logic and vice versa.
 Verify the validity of an argument using rules of inference.
III-Discussion
What is Logic?
The term “logic” is often used, but not always in its technical sense. Logic is technically defined
as the “science study of how to evaluate arguments and reasonings.” Logic helps us differentiate correct
reasoning. It is important in the sense that it helps us to reason correctly. Others defined logic as
discipline that deals with the methods of reasoning. Logical reasoning is used on mathematics to prove
theorems, in a computer science- to verify correctness of the programs and to prove theorems.

What is Mathematical Logic?

Mathematical Logic (or symbolic logic) is a branch of mathematics with close connections to
computer science. It includes both the mathematical study of logic and applications of formal logic to the
other areas of mathematics. Mathematical logic includes the study of the deductive formal proofs system
and expressive formal systems.

We will start by defining the meaning of statement. A proposition (or statement) is a declarative
sentence which is either true or false, but not both. The truth value of propositions is truth and falsity of
the proposition. Let us check the examples below.

Examples Answer

Manila is the capital of the Philippines. “Manila is the capital of the Philippines” is
true, therefore is a proposition.

What day is it? “What day is it?” is considered as question

and it cannot be true or false. Thus, it
cannot be a proposition.

Help me please. “Help me please.” The sentence cannot be

categorized as true or false and therefore, it
is not a proposition.
He is handsome. “He is handsome.” The sentence is neither
true or false because “he” is not specified
and thus, it is not a proposition.

To represent a proposition, a variable is used known as propositional variable. A formal

propositional variable written using propositional logic notation p, q, and r are used to represent
propositions. Logical connectives are used to combine simple propositions which are referred as
compound propositions. A compound proposition is a proposition composed of two or more simple
propositions connected by logical connectives “and”, “or” “if then,” “not,” “if and only if” and
“exclusive-or”. A proposition which is not compound is said to be simple (also called atomic).

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 Simple Statement Compound Statement
The highest mountain in the Philippines is Mt. The highest mountain in the Philippines is Mt,
Apo. Apo, and the second highest mountain us Mt.
Pulag.
Cebu is the oldest city in the Philippines We will go to Camiguin island or we will go to
Mactan island.

*Operations on Proposition*

There are three main logical connectives such as conjunction, disjunction, and negation. The
following are briefly discussed in this module. Note that “T” refers to true proposition and “F” to false
proposition.

1. CONJUNCTION
The conjunction of the proposition p and q is the compound proposition “p and q”.
Symbolically, p ⋀ q ,where ⋀ is the symbol for “and”.

Remember: If p is true
and q is true, then p ⋀ q
is true; otherwise p ⋀ q is
false. Meaning, the
conjunction of two
propositions is true only
if each proposition is
true.

Truth Table

Examples:
1. 2 + 6 = 9 and man is a mammal.
2. Manny Pacquiao is a boxing champion and Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is the first female
Philippine President.
3. Abraham Lincoln is former US President and the Philippine Senate is composed of 24
senators

Explanation/Solution:
1. Since” 2 + 6 = 9” is a false proposition (note that 2 +6 ≠ 9) and the proposition “man is a
mammal” is true, the conjunction of the compound proposition is false.
2. In the proposition “Manny Pacquiao is a boxing champion” is true while the proposition
“Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is the first female Philippine President” is false (note that Corazon Aquino is
the first female President), therefore the compound proposition is false.

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 3. Since both propositions “Abraham Lincoln is former US President” and “Philippine Senate is
composed of 24 senators” are both true, thus the conjunction of the compound proposition is true.

2. DISJUNCTION
The proposition having disjunction p, q is a compound proposition “p or q”. In p ∨q ,
the symbol.

Remember: If p is true
or q is true, or if both p
and q are true, then
p ∨q is true; otherwise
p ∨q is false. Meaning,
the disjunction of two
propositions is false
only if each propositions
is false.
Example:
1. 2 + 6 = 9 or Manny Pacquiao is a boxing champion.
2. Philippine Senate is composed of 24 senators or Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is the first female
Philippine President.
3. Abraham Lincoln is former US President or man is a mammal.

Explanation/Solution:
1. “2 + 6” is a false proposition whilst “Manny Pacquiao is a boxing champion” is true making the
entire disjunction a true compound proposition.
2. Note that “Philippine Senate is composed of 24 senators” is true while “Gloria Macapagal Arroyo
is the first female Philippine President” is a false proposition. We conclude that this kind of disjunction of
compound proposition is true.
3. Given that both propositions “Abraham Lincoln is former US President” and “man is a mammal”
are both true. Based on the property, this disjunction of compound proposition is considerably to be true.

3.NEGATION
The negation of the proposition p is denoted by is denoted by ~p, where the symbol “~”
represents the word “not”.

Remember: If p is true, ~p is
false. Which means that the
truth value once negating a
proposition is always the
opposite of the truth value of
the original proposition.

Example:

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 OTHER PROPOSITIONAL OPERATIONS

4. CONDITIONAL
The conditional (or implication) of the proposition p and q is compound proposition “if
then q”. In symbol, p ⟶ q, where ⟶ is a symbol for “if , then” statement. The hypothesis
(antecedent/premise) is p and q is the conclusion (or consequent/consequence.

Remember: The conditional proposition p ⟶ q

is false only when p is true and q is false.
Meaning, p ⟶ q states that a true proposition
cannot imply a false proposition. The
hypothesis (first variable) should be T and
the conclusion (second variable) should be F
making it a False statement. This is known
as the broken promise.

Example:
1. If vinegar is sweet, then sugar is sour.
2. 2 + 5 = 7 is a sufficient condition for 5 + 6 = 1.
3. 14 – 8 = 4 is a necessary condition that 6 ÷ 3 = 2.

Explanation/Solution:

1. The propositions “vinegar is sweet” and “sugar is sour” are both false, which means that the
conditional of the compound proposition is true.
2. Note that “2+5 = 7” is true and “5 + 6 = 1” is false making a false conditional of the compound
proposition.
3. “14 – 8 = 4” is a false proposition while 6 ÷ 3 = 2 is true, thus the truth value for this is true.

5. BICONDITIONAL

The biconditional of the proposition p and q is the compound proposition “p if and only if
q.” In symbols, p ⟷ q , where ⟷ symbolizes “if and only if”

Remember: If p and
q are true or both
false, then p ⟷ q is
true; if p and q have
opposite truth
values, then p ⟷ q is
false.

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Examples:
1. 2 + 8 = 10 if and only if 6 – 3 = 3.
2. Manila is the capital of the Philippines is equivalent to fish live in the moon.
3. 8 – 2 = 5 is a necessary and sufficient for 4 + 2 = 7.

Explanation/Solution:

1. Since the statements “2+8=10” and the “6-3=3” are both true, thus the conditional of this compound
proposition is true.
2. “Manila is the capital of the Philippines” is a true statement while “fish live in the moon” is having a
false truth value. It is said that once the statements have opposite truth value will have false biconditional
of the compound proposition.
3. “8 – 2 = 5” and “4 + 2 = 7” are both false statement making the biconditional of the compound
proposition of true value.

6. EXCLUSIVE OR
The exclusive or of the proposition p and q is the compound proposition “exclusive –
or.” Symbolically, p ⊕q, where ⊕ is the symbol for “exclusive-or”.

Remember: If p and q are

true or both false, then
p ⊕q is false; if p and q
have opposite truth values,
then p ⊕q is true.

Note: The truth value of p ⊕q is the negation of the truth values of p⟷ q .

This table indicates words and terms that are used commonly in the six logical connectives.

Logical Connectives Logical Expression Word

Conjunction p⋀q p and q
p but q
p also q
p in addition q
p more over q
Disjunction p ∨q p or q
Negation ~p or p or p’ not p
It is false that p…
It is not the case that p…
Conditional p⟶q If p, then q.
p implies q.
p only if q.
p therefor q.
p is stronger than q.

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 q if p.
q whenever p.
q is weaker than p.
q is necessary condition for p.
Biconditional p⟷q p if an only if q.
p is equivalent to q.
p is necessary and sufficient for
q.
Exclusive-or p ⊕q p exclusive-or q.

*Truth Tables, Equivalent Statements and Tautologies*

Truth Tables
This part of the module shows the construction of compound propositions though truth tables based on
the standard form which was discussed previously. Consider the following proposition.

a. p∨ q c.( p ⋀ q)∨( p ⋀ q)

b. p ⟶( p ⟷ q) d. ( p ⟶ q)∨(q ∨ r)

Solution:
a. ~p ∨ q

P q p q p∨ q
T T F F F
T F F T T
F T T F T
F F T T T

b. p ⟶( p ⟷ q)

P Q q p⟷ q p⟶( p ⟷ q ¿

T T F F F
T F T T T
F T F T T
F F T F T

c. ( p ⋀ q)∨( p ⋀ q)

p Q p p⋀q q p⋀ q ( p ⋀ q)∨( p ⋀ q)

T T F F F F F
T F F F T T T
F T T T F F T
F F T F T F F

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d .( p ⟶ q)∨(q ⋀ r )
This case has 3 propositions (p, q and r). Note that we need to make 8 rows for each proposition to make
a unique arrangement which means no row will repeat from p, q and r order.
*Notice the row table with red box. It shows that the arrangement of the values (T, T, T) do not appear on
other rows. You may follow this format so that we are aligned with the process.
P Q r p⟶q r (q ⋀ r ) ( p ⟶ q)∨ ¿)
T T T T F F T
T T F T T T T
T F T F F F F
T F F F T F F
F T T T F F T
F T F T T T T
F F T T F F T
F F F T T F T

Equivalent Statements
This part of the module covers the definition of logically equivalent propositions and that laws of logical
equivalent which were supported with few examples.

When do we say that two propositions are logically equivalent?

Two propositions are considered to be logically equivalent (equivalent) if and only if they have
the same truth value for every row of the truth table, that is if x ⟷ y is a tautology. In symbolic form,
we have x  y. Consider the following propositions and show that the following are equivalent.
a. p ⋀ (q ∨r ) and ( p ⋀ q)∨( p ⋀ r )
b. p ⟶ q and q ⟶ p c. p ⟷ q and ( p ⟶ q) ⋀ ¿ ⟶ p )

Solution:

a. p ⋀ (q ∨r ) and ( p ⋀ q)∨( p ⋀ r )
p Q R q∨r p ⋀ (q ∨r ) p⋀q p⋀r ( p ⋀ q)∨( p ⋀ r )
T T T T T T T T
T T F T T T F T
T F T T T F T T
T F F F F F F F
F T T T F F F F
F T F T F F F F
F F T T F F F F
F F F F F F F F

Notice that the truth values of the compound statement p ⋀ (q ∨r ) and ( p ⋀ q)∨( p ⋀ r ) are the same,
therefore these two propositions are logically equivalent.

b. p ⟶ q and q ⟶ p
P q p⟶q q p q⟶ p

T T T F F T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T

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Observe that the truth values of compound statements p ⟶ q and q ⟶ p
are equivalent. This justifies that they are logically equivalent.

c. p ⟷ q and ( p ⟶ q) ⋀ ¿ ⟶ p )
P q p⟷q p⟶q q ⟶p ( p ⟶ q) ⋀ ¿ ⟶ p ¿
T T T T T T
T F F F T F
F T F T F F
F F T T T T

Thus, we can say that the propositions p ⟷ q and ( p ⟶ q) ⋀ ¿ ⟶ p ) are logically equivalent.

***
Classes of Compound Statements
1. Tautology
It is a compound statement that is true for all possible combinations of the truth values of the
propositional variables also called logically true.
Example:
( p ⋀ q)⟶ q

P q p p⋀q ( p ⋀ q)⟶ q

T T F F T
T F F F T
F T T T T
F F T F T

Therefore, this is a tautology since the truth values of the statement ( p ⋀ q)⟶ q are all true.

2.Contradiction
It is a compound statement that is false for all possible combinations of the truth values of the
propositional variables also called logically false or absurdity.
Example: ¿ )⊕( p ⟶ q)
P q p ( p ∨q) p⟶q ( p ∨q) ⊕( p ⟶ q)
T T F T T F
T F F F F F
F T T T T F
F F T T T F

Since all the truth values of the compound statement ( p ⟶ q) ⋀( p ⟶ q) are combinations of
3. Contingency
It is a compound statement that can either be true or false, depending on the truth values of
propositional variables are neither a tautology nor a contradiction.
Example: ( p ⟶ q) ⋀( p ⟶ q)
p q p⟶q q p⟶ q ( p ⟶ q) ⋀( p ⟶ q)
T T T F F F
T F F T T F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T
Since the truth values of the compound statement ( p ⟶ q) ⋀( p ⟶ q) are combinations of true and
false, this kind of compound statement is an example of contingency.

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 *Statements Related to Conditional Proposition*
There are other ways to express conditional proposition p ⟶ qas it can be expressed with logical
connectives and ⟶.

Name Statement
Conditional p⟶q
Converse of p ⟶ q . q⟶ p
Inverse of p ⟶ q . p⟶ q
Contrapositive of p ⟶ q . q⟶ p

The table below shows relationships between the propositions.

P Q p⟶q q⟶ p p q p⟶ q q⟶ p

T T T T F F T T
T F F T F T T F
F T T F T F F T
F F T T T T T T

Notice that p ⟶ q = q ⟶ p, while q ⟶ p = p ⟶ q . Also, the negation of converse is

contrapositive, and contrapositive is the converse of inverse. Given the example:
p : My sister will go ¿ church .
p :Today is Sunday .
Conditional: If my sister will go to church, then today is Sunday.
Converse: If today is Sunday, then my sister will go to church.
Inverse: If my sister won’t go to church, then today is not Sunday.
Contrapositive: If today is not Sunday, then my sister won’t go to church.

*Symbolic Arguments*
A proof is an argument from hypotheses (assumptions) to a conclusion. Each step of the
argument follows laws of logic and rule of inference. In mathematics, a statement is considered valid if it
is accompanied by proof. Proof is one of the important things that make mathematics different from other
discipline. It is not easy to establish proofs, there is no single guideline for proof, and it is not just
following rules, memorizing formulas, or even looking at some examples in text.
Most rules are from tautologies. Since a tautology is a statement which is always true, it is used in
drawing conclusions. Logic proofs usually begin with premises-statements that are allowed to be
assumed, while conclusion is the statement that needs proven. The idea is to make use of the premises
using rules of inference until we arrive at a conclusion. The arguments can be written in symbolic form
which will be discussed in the following examples.
Let us examine one of the rules of inference to prove validity arguments. One of the rules of
inference is the rule of detachment. Rule of Detachment (or Modus Ponens) means the method of
affirming. The truth table below shows that [ p ⋀( p ⟶ q)]⟶ q is a tautology.
P Q ( p ⟶ q) p ⋀ ¿) [ p ⋀( p ⟶ q)]⟶ q
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T
Four Standard forms of Valid Arguments
1. Rule of Detachment
a. Boknoy wins the Tiktok Challenge worth €20, 000.

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b. If Boknoy wins the Tiktok Challenge 2020, then Jingjing will put up a business.
c. Therefore, Theresa will put up a business.

2. Law of Syllogism
a. If 24 is divisible by 6, then 6 is divisible by 2.
b. If 6 is divisible by 2, then 18 is divisible by 2.
c. Therefore, if 24 is divisible by 6, then 24 is divisible by 2.

3. Modus Tollens
a. If Bam Bini is elected as the class monitor, then he will check the
attendance daily.
b. He will not check the attendance daily.
c. Therefore, Bam Bini is not elected as the class monitor.

4. Rule of Disjunctive Syllogism

a. Jacob’s cellphone is in his room or in the kitchen.
b. Jacob’s cellphone is not in his room.
c. Therefore, Jacob’s cellphone in the kitchen.

*Arguments and Euler Diagram*

A lot of arguments involving sets used quantifiers all, some, and none. A symbolic argument
consists of a set of premises and a conclusion, and we generally denoted by symbolic form to determine
its validity. We say that an argument is valid when its conclusion necessarily follows from a given set of
premises, otherwise it’s invalid or fallacy. An argument is composed of premises and conclusion, in
which the premises are intended to prove or at least provide some evidence for the conclusion.

Syllogistic argument (or syllogism) is a form of argument with validity is determined by

diagrams. An Euler diagram is a method to determine whether argument is valid, or is a fallacy which
uses circles to represent sets in syllogistic arguments. This method is similar to Venn diagram, where
circles are used to denote set, with overlap indicating shared elements, disjoint circles indicating no
shared elements, and a circle contained with another circle indicating a subset.

Let try to have some examples for us to further expound its use. Use Euler diagram to indicate whether
the following argument is valid or not.
Example 1:
All cellphones are electronic device.
All electronic device are expensive.
.: My new cellphone is expensive.

Solution:
The first argument states that cellphones are inside the region “electronic devices.” The second argument
states that “electronic devices “are inside the region of “expensive items”. The last statement “my new
cellphone is expensive,” thus it must be located inside the region. Thus, my new cellphone is expensive is
obvious.

Expensive Devices

Electronic Devices

Cellphone

Therefore, this is a valid argument.

Example 2:

No monkeys are reptiles.

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All lizards are reptiles.
.: No monkeys are lizard.

Solution: The first argument states that reptiles are disjoint sets. The second argument states that set of
lizards is a subset of reptiles.

Reptiles
Monkeys

Therefore, this is a valid argument. Lizards

Example 3:
All X’s are Y’s.
Some Y’s are Z’s.
.:Some X’s are Z’s.

Solution:
The first premise is illustrated as X Y

The second premise “Some Y’s are Z’s,” meaning there is at least one Y that is a Z can be drawn in a
Euler in four different ways.

Z Y
X
X Z

Y Z

X Y
Z
X

Notice that you can paraphrase the term by using “Some Y’s is inside of Z’s. Likewise, with “Some X’s
are inside Z’s”. It does not follow the rules, so this is an invalid argument. See the notes below for each
diagram.

Some X’s are Z’s. NOT VALID

Some X’s are Z’s. It’s valid because it’s self-explanatory based on
the diagram.

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 Some X’s are Z’s. It’s invalid because it shows that all X’s are Z’s.

Indeed, not a valid argument.

First premise illustration:

Example 4:
All gymnasts are athletic.
Juan Dela Cruz is athletic. Gymnast
.: Juan Dela Cruz is a gymnast. Athletic

Second premise illustrations:

Athletic
 Juan Athletic

 Juan
Gymnast Gymnast

Juan Dela Cruz athletic does not necessary need for him to be a gymnast. Therefore, this is an invalid
argument.

IV-ASSESSMENT(OUTPUT)
A. Determine which of the following sentences is a proposition. Write P if the statement is a proposition
and NP if not a proposition.
1. Gregorio Del Pilar is a Philippine President.
2. There are 5 typhoons in the month of May.
3. Give me back my phone.
4. No facemask, no entry.
5. McDonalds is an American fast food chain.
6. The boiling point of water is 100 ℃.
7. Philippines is the “Pearl of the Orient.”
8. How old are you?
9. Today is raining.
10. Do not open the computer.
11. x2=x for some x ∈ Real numbers.
12. a + b = b + c if c = a.
13. The melting point of gold is 962 ℃.
14. 5+7 = 13
15. y + z = z + y for every pair of real numbers y and z.
16. Turn on the television.
17. x + 5 = 7 if x = 2.
18. Mayon Volcano is located in Bicol Region.
19. Write this neatly.
20. Where are you now?

B. Express the negation of the following proposition.

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 1. Jose Rizal is not a hero.
2. Manila is the capital of the Philippines.
3. Jose Rizal is not a doctor.
4. Frogs do not jump.
5. You are in a relationship.
C. Classify the antecedent and consequent of the following proposition.
Compound Statement Antecedent Consequent
1. Lizards eat insects, whenever
ants are small.

2. If Microsoft is partly owned

by Bill Gates, then dogs are
amphibians.
3. Africa is a continent if cheese
is tasty

4.Jose Rizal is a national hero,

therefore cats are mammals.

5. If Philippines consists more

than 7 thousand islands,
therefore Marikina is the shoe
capital of the Philipines.

D. Construct the truth table for the following compound proposition.

1. ( p ↔ q)∨ p
2. ( p ⋀ q )⟶(r ⋀ q)
3. [ ( p ⊕q)⋀ ( p ⟶ q) ] ∨(p ↔ r )

E. Write the truth table for each of the following compound propositions and determine whether the
compound proposition is a tautology, contradiction or contingency.

1. ( p ⊕ q)⟶ p

p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

2. [ p ↔( p ∨ q) ] ⋀ p

p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

3. ( p ⋀ q) ⋀( p ⟶ q)

p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

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4. ( p ∨ q)↔( p ⋀ q)

p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

F. Given the following conditional statements, write the converse, inverse and contrapositive.
1. If number is multiple of 4, then it is divisible by 2.
2. If you are happy, then you are contented.
3. If the battery of the car is dead, then it won’t start.
4. If earth has a satellite moon, then sun is the center of the solar system.
5. If the sky is blue, then desserts are dry.

Kenneth H. Hossen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications,4th edition: McGraw Hill
Mathematics in the Modern World, Winston S. Sirug, Ph. D.
Internet
Prepared by:
Lorenzo B. Folloso
Instructor
*Nothing Follows *

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