Chapter 1

Fundamentals of Steel Design

Allotted Time: 3 Hours

Presentation / Discussion:

Introduction to Steel Structures

- Steel structures are assembly of structural steel shapes joined together by means of
riveted / welded connections.
- Steel structures are composed of a group of different elements to form a single
structural system.
- These elements such as link members, beams, columns, girders, trusses, plates,
and shells and assembled by means of connection joints, either through the bolt
system or the welding system
- The appropriate steel structural system is chosen according to the design process,
where there can be more than one suitable structural system to solve one problem.
- The main factors in choosing a system from another in solving a problem are that the
design is economical, effective, and safe in terms of loads.

Framework / Skeletal Systems

▪ The main load carrying elements in this type are one-dimensional or line elements
(such as beams, columns, etc.) forming two-dimensional or three-dimensional
frames.
▪ Examples are 1) the frameworks of industrial buildings with their internal members
such as crane girders, platforms, etc., 2) highway and railway large span bridges,
3) multi-storey buildings, large halls, and domes etc., 4) towers, poles, structural
components of hydraulic works, and 5) all other trusses and rigidly connected frame
structures.

Shell Systems
▪ The main load carrying elements in this category of structures are plates and sheets
besides some skeletal members.
▪ Examples are 1) gas tanks for the storage and distribution of gases, 2) tanks and
reservoirs for the storage of liquids, 3) bins and bunkers for the storage of loose
material, 4) special structures such as blast furnaces, air heaters, etc., 5) large
diameter pipes, and 6) all other plate and shell structures.
Basic Structural Steel Elements
▪ The basic structural steel elements and members that are used to resist gravity
loads and lateral loads in steel-framed buildings as shown in Figures. ▪ Beams and
Girders
• The infill beams or joists support the floor or roof deck directly and spans between
the girders.
• The roof or floor deck usually spans in one direction between the roof or floor infill
beams.
• The girders support the infill beams and span between the columns.
• While the beams along the column lines are usually connected to the web of the
columns, girders are typically connected to the column flanges since the girders
support heavier reactions than the typical in-fill beams.
• Thus, the girder reaction eccentricity at the columns is resisted by the bending of
the column about its stronger axis.
▪ Columns
• These are vertical members that support axial compression loads only.
 • They are sometimes referred to as struts when they are used in the horizontal
position or as diagonal struts to resist axial compression loads from discontinued
columns.
• In real-world structures, structural members are rarely subjected to pure
compression loads alone since the members cannot be fabricated perfectly
straight and cannot assure that the line of application of the axial loads will line
up perfectly with the centroidal axis of the column.
▪ Beam–Columns
• Beam-columns are members that support axial tension or axial compression
loads in addition to bending moment.
• In practice, typical building columns usually act as beam-columns due to the
eccentricity of the beam and girder reactions relative to the column centroidal
axis.
▪ Hangers
Hangers are vertical members that support axial tension loads only.

Types of Structural Systems in Steel Buildings

▪ The common types of structural systems (i.e., a combination of several structural
elements or members) used in steel building structures include trusses, moment or
rigid frames, and braced frames, or a combination of these systems.
▪ Trusses are used predominantly to resist gravity loads, whereas braced frames and
moment resisting frames are used to resist lateral loads.
▪ Reinforced concrete core walls are also used as shear walls to resist lateral loads
in steel buildings.
▪ A new type of shear wall is the concrete filled composite steel plate shear wall, also
known as “Speedcore”.
▪ In this shear wall system, the concrete acts like a sandwich material between
parallel steel plates.
▪ The steel plates are connected with steel tie rods, and composite action between
the steel plates and the concrete infill is ensured using headed steel studs. ▪
Trusses
• The typical truss profiles shown in Figure consist of top and bottom chord
members.
• The vertical and diagonal members are called web members.
• While the top and bottom chords are usually continuous members, the web
members are connected to the top and bottom chords using bolted or welded
connections.
• Trusses may occur as roof framing members over large spans or as transfer
trusses used to support gravity loads from discontinued columns or shear walls.
• These transfer trusses, which could be as deep as one story or even two stories,
support gravity loads and typically span between columns or girders at both ends
of the truss.
• In practice, the top and bottom chords of floor or roof trusses are usually built as
continuous members, and not as pin-jointed members, as is frequently assumed
in a typical structural analysis of trusses.
• Thus, the forces in the top and bottom chords will be a combination of moments
and axial loads.
• When trusses are used in a vertical configuration, they essentially behave like
braced frames since the vertical column members will be fabricated as continuous
members, at least between the column splices.
• Sometimes, horizontal outrigger steel trusses are used to tie the concrete core or
shear walls to the perimeter columns in order to create interaction between the
concrete core walls and the perimeter columns in resisting the lateral loads in
very tall buildings.
• These outriggers, which are usually at least a full story high, may occur as heavy
“hat” or “cap” trusses supported on the central concrete core walls on the top of
the building.
• Full storey high intermediate outrigger trusses may also be used in addition to the
“hat” or “cap” trusses.
• Without the outrigger trusses, the concrete core walls under lateral loads behave
as a vertical cantilever fixed at its base; however, with the outrigger trusses, the
concrete core wall behaves as a vertical flexural member fixed at its base, and
with some moment restraint at the intermediate outrigger locations (i.e., the core
wall rotation is restrained at the outriggers) but the core wall is allowed to move
laterally.
• This rotational restraint of the concrete core walls by the outriggers creates points
of inflection along the height of the core walls, leading to a reduction in the
moment in the core walls and a reduction in the lateral translation and lateral
acceleration of the building.
• The stiffer the flexural rigidity of the outrigger truss, the more effective the
interaction between the core walls and the perimeter columns will be.
• Heavy steel trusses are also used to support tall buildings over existing rail lines
or subway, and these steel trusses may be supported directly on pile caps.
• “Hat” trusses on top of tall buildings have also been used to support hanging
perimeter columns where the building footprint is restricted and narrower at the
lower levels.
• Figure shows a building entrance canopy roof framing with Vierendeel trusses
consisting of top and bottom chords, and only vertical web members with moment
connections between all the HSS members.
▪ Frames
• Frames are structural steel systems used to resist lateral wind or seismic loads
in buildings.
• The two main types of building frames are moment-resisting frames and braced
frames.
• Moment-Resisting Frames
❖ Moment-resisting frames resist lateral loads through the bending of the
beams/girders and the columns.
❖ The connections between the beams/girders and the columns are designed
and detailed as shown in Figure to resist moments due to gravity and lateral
loads.
❖ Note that moment-resisting frames are more laterally flexible than braced
frames or shear walls.

Braced Frames
❖ Braced frames (see Figure) resist lateral loads through axial compression
and/or tension in the diagonal members.
❖ Examples include X-braced frames, diagonal braced frames, Chevron- or
inverted-V braced frames, and knee-braced frames.
❖ These frames are usually more rigid than a typical moment frame and exhibit
smaller lateral deflections.
❖ As shown Figure is the different types of braced frames used in steel buildings.
 ❖ Another type of braced frame used for structures with tall storey heights is the
Multi-Tiered Braced Frames (MTBF) which consists of two or more stacked
levels of braced frames within each story, with each braced frame panel
connected to the ones above and below with horizontal struts.
❖ The braced frame within each vertical panel could be X-braces, Chevron or
inverted V-braces, or single diagonal braces.
❖ The columns in MTBF are oriented in such a way that the weak (y-y) axis
bending of the column occurs in the plane of the braced frame, and any outof-
plane bending of the columns occurs about their strong (x-x) axis.

Applications of Structural Systems

▪ Frame system, having main elements such as beams, columns, trusses, girders or
a combination of different elements.

• Frames of industrial buildings.

• Crane girders.
 Multi-storey building.

• Steel towers.

• Roadway and railway bridges.

 Space structures.

▪ Shell system, which is made from plates or sheets.

• Tanks.
• Special structures systems: steel heaters and boilers.

Pipes.
 • Hydraulic gates.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Steel as a Structural Material ▪

The steel structures have many advantages such as:
• Reliability
❖ Steel structures are very reliable. The reasons for this reliability include
consistency and uniformity in properties, better quality control because of
factory manufacture, large elasticity, and ductility.
❖ If different specimens of same type of steel are tested in the laboratory for yield
stresses, ultimate strengths and elongations, the variation is much lesser than
other materials like concrete and wood.
❖ Further, because of truly homogeneous and elastic material, steel satisfies
most of the assumptions involved in the derivation of the analysis and design
formulas and the results obtained are reliable.
Industrial behavior
❖ Rolled steel sections are manufactured in factories. The members may be cut
and prepared for assembly in factories while only joining of these components
is carried out at the site by installing rivets or bolts and by welding different
components.
❖ Sometimes parts of the structure are also assembled in the factories, that is a
great adaption to prefabrication.
❖ Manual errors reduce greatly in such cases, the speed of construction
increases and the total cost reduces.
Lesser construction time / greater erection speed
❖ Because of the industrial nature of steel construction, progress of the work is
very fast making the structures economical. The reason is that these structures
can be put to use earlier.
❖ The reduction in labor cost and overhead charges and the benefits obtained
from the early use of the building contribute to the economy.
High strength and light weight nature
❖ The high strength of steel per unit weight means that the deadload will be
smaller. It is to be noted that dead loads are a bigger part of the total loads on
a structure.
❖ When dead load reduces, the underneath members become still smaller due
to less weight acting on them.
❖ This fact is of great importance for long-span bridges, tall buildings, and for
structures having poor foundation conditions.
❖ A factor defined as the ratio of the density of a material to the stress it can
carry is one of the least for steel; the average values are given in Table 1.

Uniformity, durability and performance

❖ Steel is a very homogeneous and uniform material. Hence, it satisfies the basic
assumptions of most of the analysis and design formulas.
❖ If properly maintained by painting, etc., the properties of steel do not change
appreciably with time; whereas the properties of concrete in a reinforced
 concrete structure are considerably modified with time. Hence, steel structure
is more durable. Elasticity
❖ Steel behaves closer to the design assumptions than most of the other
materials because it follows Hooke’s law up to fairly high stress.
❖ The stress produced remains proportional to the strain applied or the stress-
strain diagram remains a straight line.
❖ The steel sections do not crack or tear before ultimate load and hence the
moments of inertia of a steel structure can be definitely calculated.
Ductility and warning before failure
❖ The property of a material by which it can withstand extensive deformation
without failure under high tensile stresses is said to be its ductility, mild steel
is a very ductile material.
 ❖ The percentage elongation of a standard tension test specimen after fracture
can be as high as 25 to 30%.
❖ This gives visible deflections or evidence of impending failure in case of
overloads.
❖ The extra loads may be removed from the structure to prevent collapse.
❖ Even if collapse does occur, time is available for occupants to vacate the
building.
❖ In structural members under normal loads, high stress concentrations develop
at various points.
❖ The ductile nature of the usual structural steels enables them to yield locally
at those points, thus redistributing the stresses and preventing premature
failures.
Additions to existing structures
❖ Additions to existing steel structures are very easy to be made. Connections
between new and existing structures can be employed very effectively.
❖ New bays or even entire new wings can be added to existing steel frame
buildings, and steel bridges may often be widened.
Possible reuse
❖ Steel sections can be reused after a structure is disassembled.
Scrap value
❖ Steel has a scrap value even though it is not reusable in its existing form.
Water-tight and air-tight constructions
❖ Steel structures provide completely impervious construction and structures like
reservoirs, oil pipes, gas pipes, etc., are preferably made from structural steel.
Long span construction
❖ High-rise buildings, long span bridges and tall transmission towers are made
up of structural steel.
❖ Industrial buildings up to a span of 90 m can be designed by plate girders or
trusses.
❖ Bridge spans up to 260 m are made with plate girders. For through truss
bridges, spans of 300 m have been used.
Temporary construction
❖ For temporary structures, steel construction is always preferred.
❖ The structures may be disassembled by opening few bolts, component parts
are carried to new places and the structure is easily reassembled.
Toughness
❖ Structural steels are tough-that is, they have both strength and ductility.
❖ A steel member loaded until it has large deformations will still be able to
withstand large forces.
❖ This is a very important characteristic, because it means that steel members
can be subjected to large deformations during fabrication and erection without
fracture-thus allowing them to be bent, hammered, and sheared, and to have
holes punched in them without visible damage.
❖ The ability of a material to absorb energy in large amounts is called toughness.
▪ The steel structures have principal disadvantages such as:
High maintenance costs and more corrosion
❖ Most steels are susceptible to corrosion when freely exposed to air and water
and must therefore be periodically painted. This requires extra cost and special
care.
❖ The use of weathering steels, in suitable design applications, tends to
eliminate this cost. If not properly maintained, steel members can lose 1 to 1.5
mm of their thickness each year.
❖ Accordingly, such constructions can lose weight up to 35% during their
specified life and can fail under the external loads.
Fireproofing costs
 ❖ Although steel members are incombustible, their strength is tremendously
reduced at temperatures prevailing in fires.
❖ At about 400°C, creep becomes much more pronounced. Creep is defined as
plastic deformation under a constant load for a long period of time.
❖ This produces excessively large deflections/deformations of main members
forcing the other members to higher stresses or even to collapse.
❖ Steel is an excellent conductor of heat and may transmit enough heat from a
burning compartment of a building to start fire in other parts of the building.
Extra cost is required to properly fire proof the building.
Susceptibility to buckling
❖ The steel sections usually consist of a combination of thin plates. Further, the
overall steel member dimensions are also smaller than reinforced concrete
members.
❖ If these slender members are subjected to compression, there are greater
chances of buckling. Buckling is a type of collapse of the members due to
sudden large bending caused by a critical compressive load.
❖ Steel when used for columns is sometimes not very economical because
considerable material has to be used merely to stiffen the columns against
buckling. Fatigue
❖ Another undesirable property of steel is that its strength may be reduced if it is
subjected to a large number of stress reversals or even to a large number of
variations of tensile stress (fatigue problems occur only when tension is
involved.)
❖ The present practice is to reduce the estimations of strength of such members
if it is anticipated that they will have more than a prescribed number of cycles
of stress variation.
Brittle fracture
❖ Under certain conditions steel may lose its ductility, and brittle fracture may
occur at places of stress concentration.
❖ Fatigue-type loadings and very low temperatures aggravate the situation. ❖
Triaxial stress conditions can also lead to brittle fracture.

Structural Steel Shapes and ASTM Specification

- The general requirements for the mechanical properties, cross-sectional
dimensions, chemical composition, and standard mill practice for rolled
structural steel shapes, bars, and plates are specified in the ASTM A6
Specification.
- Part 1 of the AISC Manual (AISCM) summarizes the information from ASTM
A6.
- For hollow structural sections (HSS) or tube steel and structural steel pipes, the
ASTM A500 and ASTM A53 specifications, respectively, apply.
- Table 2 shows standard structural steel shapes and the corresponding ASTM
specifications or structural steel grades.
- The ASTM A6 specification prescribes the permissible maximum percentages
of alloy elements such as carbon, manganese, chromium, nickel, copper,
molybdenum, vanadium in structural steel to ensure adequate weldability and
resistance to corrosion and brittle fracture.
- In the specification, the percentage by weight of each of these chemical
elements is combined to produce an equivalent percentage carbon content that
is called the carbon equivalent (CE).
- The equivalent carbon content or carbon equivalent is given as:

= Percentage carbon content by weight

= Percentage chromium content by weight
 = Percentage copper content by weight
= Percentage manganese content by weight
= Percentage molybdenum content by weight
= Percentage nickel content by weight
= Percentage vanadium content by weight
= Percentage silicon content by weight

- Table 3 shows the major chemical elements in structural steel and their effects
on the steel properties presented in terms of advantages and disadvantages.
- The carbon equivalent is useful in determining the weldability of older steels in
the repair or retrofitting of existing or historical structures where the structural
drawings and specifications may not be available, and determining what, if any,
special precautions are necessary for welding to these steels to prevent brittle
fractures and cracking of the welds. The higher the CE value, the lower the
allowable cooling rate and therefore, the lower the weldability of the steel.
- To ensure good weldability, the carbon equivalent, as calculated from equation,
should be no greater than 0.5%.
- Precautionary measures for steels with higher carbon equivalents include
preheating the steel and using low-hydrogen welding electrodes.
- Alternatively, bolted connections could be used in lieu of welding.
- Steels are divided into four categories depending on the carbon percentages
(C) as follows:
 ▪ Low carbon steel C<0.15%
▪ Mild carbon steel C=0.15 - 0.29% ▪ Medium
carbon steel C=0.30 - 0.59% ▪ High carbon steel
C=0.60 - 1.70% - Modulus of elasticity of steel
▪ 185 GPa to 230 GPa (Average 200 GPa) - Unit weight of
steel
▪ 7.85 g/c.c. = 7850 = 77.00
- Weld electrode and filler material
▪ Electrodes are classified as E60, E70, E80, E100 and E110. The letter E denotes
electrode. The two digits indicate the ultimate tensile strength in ksi.
▪ The corresponding SI equivalents are E425, E495, E550, E690, E690 and E760.

TABLE 3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Alloy Chemical Elements Used in

Structural Steel
- Steel sections
▪ Hot rolled structural shapes
W-Shapes
❖ The letter “W” stands for an I-shape with wide flange.
❖ The cross-section is doubly symmetric in the form of the letter "I".
❖ The width / depth ratio varies from about 0.3 to 1.0.
❖ The US Customary designation W16 x 40 means that the nominal depth of the
section is 16 in. and the weight per unit length of the section is 40 lbs/ft.
❖ Nominal height is the rounded off height to be used for common use.
❖ Actual depth of the section may be in decimals and somewhat different from
this depth.
❖ The equivalent SI designation W410 x 60 means that the W-section has a
nominal depth of 410 mm and a weight of 60 kgf/m. This kilogram-force weight
per unit length may be converted in kN/m by multiplying it with the factor
9.81/1000.

• S-Shapes
❖ Doubly symmetric I-shapes.
❖ Previously called standard I-beams or American Standard Beams.
❖ The inner edge of the flange has a slope of approximately 16.7°.
❖ An S510x112 section means that the section is S-shape having nominal depth
of 510 mm and weight of 112 kgf/m.
❖ The width/depth ratio varies from about 0.25 to 0.85.

• M-Shapes
❖ Miscellaneous I-shapes.
❖ Doubly symmetric -shapes not classified as W or S shapes.
 ❖ Relatively lightweight used for smaller spans and lesser loads.
❖ An M310x17.6 means that it is M-shape section having nominal depth of 310
mm and weight of 17.6 kgf/m.

• C-Shapes
❖ Channel shapes with standard proportions.
❖ Inner flange slope is the same as that for the S shapes 16.7 .
❖ Previously called Standard or American Standard Channels.
❖ A C150x19.3 is a standard channel shape with a nominal depth of 150 mm
and a weight of 19.3 kgf/m.

• MC-Shapes
❖ Channels not classified as C-shapes.
❖ Previously called Shipbuilding or Miscellaneous Channels.
• HP-Shapes
❖ HP-shapes are similar to W-shapes and are commonly used as H-piles in
bearing pile foundations.
❖ These H-piles, which can be as long as 30 m. or more, support the
superstructure loads, and they are typically socketed and grouted into the
bedrock to resist the uplift loads on the structure.
❖ HP-shapes have thicker flanges and webs compared to W-sections, and the
nominal depth of these sections is usually approximately equal to the flange
width, with the flange and web thicknesses approximately equal.
❖ The thick webs help to resist the high impact loads that these sections are
subjected to during pile driving operations.

• L-Shapes or Angle Sections

❖ The single angle sections are in the form of letter “L”.
❖ If a=b, these are called equal angle sections.
❖ lf a≠b, these are called unequal angle sections.
❖ Sides of the angle are called “legs” or “arms”.
❖ L89 x 76 x 12.7 is an unequal leg angle with longer leg dimension of 89mm
shorter leg dimension of 76mm with a leg thickness of 12.7mm.
❖ Double angle sections are combination of two angles with longer or shorter
sides close to each other.
❖ Double angle sections are denoted by 2Ls.
❖ 2L89 x 76 x 12.7 means two angles 2L 89 x 76 x 12.7 placed side by side in
one of the following ways:
• T-Shapes
❖ These are called structural tees.
❖ These are obtained by splitting W, S or M shapes and are called WT, ST or
MT shapes, respectively.
❖ A WT200x30 is a structural tee with a nominal depth of 200 mm and a weight
of 30 kgf/m and is obtained by splitting the W400x60 section.

• Plates and Bars

❖ Plates and bars are flat stock members that are used as stiffeners, gusset
plates, and X-braced members.
❖ They are also used to strengthen existing steel beams and as supporting
members in built-up steel lintels.
❖ Plates are also used in plane cruciform columns.
❖ There is very little structural difference between bars and plates, and although
historically, flat stock with widths not exceeding 203 mm were generally
referred to as bars, while flat stock with widths greater than 203 mm were
referred to as plates, it is now common practice to refer to flat stock universally
as plates.
❖ As an example, a PL152×12.7 implies a 152-mm-wide by 12.7-mm-thick plate.
❖ In practice, plate widths are usually specified in 12.7-mm increments, while
thicknesses are specified in 3.2 mm increments.
❖ The practical minimum thickness for plates is 6.4 mm, with a practical minimum
width of 76 mm to accommodate the required minimum bolt edge distances.
• Hollow Structural Sections (HSS)
❖ All the shapes discussed above are made from hot-rolled steel sections,
whereas hollow structural section (HSS) members are welded cold-formed
carbon steel made by cold bending a flat piece of carbon steel into rectangular,
square or round tubular shapes and then welding the ends together; they are
commonly used as columns, lintel beams, struts, girts, hangers, lateral
bracings, and braced-frame members in building structures; they are also used
in bridge structures.
❖ HSS members – because of their closed shape – are not as susceptible to
lateral-torsional buckling and torsion as open sections such as wide flange
sections (I-shapes) or channels.
❖ Therefore, HSS members are frequently used as lintel beams spanning large
openings, especially where the eccentricity of the supported gravity loads may
result in large torsional moments in the HSS lintel beam.
❖ HSS152×102×6.4 (long side vertical – LSV) implies a rectangular hollow
structural steel with outside wall dimensions of 152 mm in the vertical direction
and 102 mm in the horizontal direction, and a wall thickness of 6.4 mm, except
at the rounded corners. Note that rectangular HSS whose vertical and
horizontal dimensions are even numbers are more generally readily available.
❖ HSS 168 × 7.1 implies a round hollow structural steel with an outside wall
diameter of 168 mm and a uniform wall thickness of 7.1 mm. It is
recommended to specify round HSS sections that have similar cross-sectional
dimensions as standard steel pipe sections because such round HSS are
generally more readily available in stock and do not require a special order.

• Structural Pipes
❖ Structural pipes are round structural tubes similar to HSS members that are
sometimes used as columns and as struts for bracing basement excavations.
❖ They are also used as posts or columns for lightly loaded structures such as
mezzanines, and in residential buildings to support the ground floor girder.
❖ They are available in three strength categories: standard (Std), extra strong
(X-strong), and double-extra strong (XX-strong).
❖ Steel pipes are designated with the letter P, followed by the nominal diameter,
and then the letter X for extra strong or XX for double-extra strong, and the
outside diameter can be as large as 660 millimeters with nominal wall
thickness of up to 9.5 mm.
❖ For example, the designation P660 represents a nominal 660-mm. standard
pipe, P660X represents a 660-mm. extra-strong pipe, and P660XX represents
a 660-mm. double-extra-strong pipe.
▪ Cold-Formed Shapes
• Another category of steel products for structural applications is cold-formed steel.
• Structural shapes of this type are created by bending thin material such as sheet
steel or plate into the desired shape without heating.
• Typical cross sections are shown in figure.
• Only relative thin material can be used, and the resulting shapes are suitable
only for light applications.
• An advantage of this product is its versatility, since almost any conceivable cross-
sectional shape can easily be formed.
• In addition, cold-working will increase the yield point of the steel, and under
certain conditions it may be accounted for in design.
• This increase comes at the expense of a reduction in ductility, however, because
of the thinness of the cross-sectional elements, the problem of instability is a
particularly important factor in the design of cold-formed steel structures.

▪ Built-Up Sections
• Built-up sections include welded plate girders and other sections built up from
plates and standard rolled sections (e.g., W-section with plate welded to the
bottom flange; plane and flanged cruciform sections).
• Plate girders are used to support heavy loads where the listed standard rolled
steel sections are inadequate to support the loads.
• Built-up sections can also be used as lintels and as reinforcement for existing
beams and columns.
• Other built-up shapes include double angles (e.g., 2L 127 × 127 × 12.7) and
double channels (e.g., 2C 305 × 635) placed back-to-back in contact with each
other or separated by spacers, and W- and M-shapes with cap channels that are
used to increase the bending capacity of W- and S-shapes about their weaker
(y–y) axis.
Assignment:

Midterm Assignment No. 1 (MA-01)

1. List three advantages and disadvantages of steel as a building material, and

research in the Internet for the three tallest steel building structures in the world,
indicating the types of gravity and lateral load resisting systems used in these
buildings.
2. List the various types of standard shapes available in the AISCM.
3. What are the smallest and the largest wide flanges or W-shapes listed in the
AISCM?
4. Determine the self-weight, moment of inertia (Ix), and cross-sectional areas for
the following hot-rolled standard sections:
a. W14 × 22
b. W21 × 44
c. HSS 6 × 6 × 0.5
 d. L6 × 4 × ½
e. C12 × 30
f. WT18 × 12.8
5. Determine the weight, area, and moment of inertia (Ix) of the built-up sections in
Figure 1-26:

6. List the basic structural elements used in a steel building.

7. A steel floor girder in an existing building needs to be strengthened by welding a
structural member to its bottom flange. The steel grade is unknown, but material
testing has revealed the following percentages by weight of the following alloy
chemical elements in the girder:

Calculate the CE and determine the weldability of the structural steel.

8. For the steel framing plans shown in Figure, select the one that is the most ideal
and provide two reasons to support your answer.
 9. Determine the moment of inertia about the x–x axis and the weight per meter of
the composite shapes in Figure.

References:

1. Steel Design, 6th Edition, by William T. Segui, 2018

2. Structural Steel Design, 3rd Edition, by Abi Aghayere, Jason Vigil, 2020

3. Steel Structures Design and Behavior, 5th Edition, Charles G. Salmon, John E.
Johnson, Faris A. Malhas, 2009

4. Unified Design Steel Structures, 3rd Editon, by Louis F. Geeschwindner, Judy Liu
Charles J. Carter, 2017

5. Structural Steel Design, 5th Edition by Jack C. McCormac, Stephen F. Csernak,

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