Farm Irrigations Systems

Design Manual

Authors
Mukesh Kumar Mehla
Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Soil and Water Engineering, College
of Technology and Engineering, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
Yadvendra Pal Singh
Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Soil and Water Engineering, College
of Technology and Engineering, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
Jalgaonkar Bhagyashri Ramesh
Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Soil and Water Engineering, College
of Technology and Engineering, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
Vikas Sharma
Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Soil and Water Engineering, College
of Technology and Engineering, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India

Publication Month and Year: January 2020

Pages: 62
E-BOOK ISBN: 978-81-944644-4-0

Academic Publications
C-11, 169, Sector-3, Rohini, Delhi, India
Website: www.publishbookonline.com
Email: [email protected]
Phone: +91-9999744933
 Preface

“Farm Irrigations Systems Design Manual” is primarily intended for students

of Agricultural Engineering, Agriculture and Horticulture for understanding
the different methods of irrigation used on farm and their design. This manual
will also be valuable for reference to professionals, extension workers and
agrarians working in the field of agriculture. There are number of people who
helped in preparation of this manual, authors are obliged to thank everyone
who in one way or other helped creation of this manual through their support,
help, suggestions and encouragement.
The authors would like to express their gratitude to Dr. Ajay Kumar
Sharma, Dean, College of Technology and Engineering and Dr. Mahesh
Kothari, HOD, Department of Soil and Water Engineering for their
encouragement and providing all necessary support in preparation of this
manual. The authors are also indebted to all colleagues of Department of Soil
and Water Engineering for their support and having useful discussions in
preparation of this manual. We hope that readers would provide the scope for
future alteration and improvement of this manual by their valuable comments
and suggestions.
Mukesh Kumar Mehla
Yadvendra Pal Singh
Jalgaonkar Bhagyashri Ramesh
Vikas Sharma
 Index

S. No Chapter Page No.

1. Introduction 01-07
2. Irrigation Requirement 08-15
3. Design of Basin Irrigation 16-19
4 Design of Furrow Irrigation 20-22
5. Design of Border Irrigation 23-26
6. Design of Sprinkler Irrigation System 27-40
7. Design of Drip Irrigation System 41-49
8. Fertilizer Application in Irrigation System 50-52
9. Modern Advances in Irrigation 53-57
References 58-59
Further Reading 60-60
 List of Figures

S. No Figures Page No.

1. Different Methods of Irrigation 03
2. Phases of Surface Irrigation Event 04
3. Schematic Representation of the Water Balance 09
4. Schematic of a Unit Volume of Soil 10
5. Phase Relations (Vs = 0) 12
Schematic Representations of Field Capacity and
6. 13
Permanent Wilting Point Soil Moisture Content
7. Pressure Profile in a Lateral Laid Uphill 33
Representation of Tensiometer Working (a) and in Onion
8. 54
Field (b)
9. Controller Box of the Automatic Irrigation System 54
10. Different Components of the Automatic Irrigation Systems 55
 List of Tables

S. No Tables Page No.

Irrigation Efficiencies for Different Methods of Irrigation
1. 02
(Percentage)
Basin Areas for Different Soil types and Rates of Water
2. 18
Flow (Booher, 1974)
Maximum Width of Basin or Terrace Based on Land Slope
3. 18
(Booher, 1974)
Maximum Furrow Lengths Based on Slope, Stream Size,
4 21
Soil Type, and Net Irrigation Depth (Booher, 1974)
5. Recommended Furrow Spacing Based on Soil Type 21
6. Maximum Border Lengths and Widths 24
7. Typical Values of C for use in Hazen-Williams Equation 31
General Guidelines for Understanding the Meaning of
8. 54
Tensiometer Reading
 Chapter - 1
Introduction

Concept of Irrigation
We have seen great expansion in use of land and water resources in recent
time with ever increasing population depending upon agriculture for food,
which make sustainable use of the same a big priority. Historically, number
civilizations have been dependent on irrigated agriculture and have flourished
in presence of sustainable system of irrigation to ensure food security for them
consequently due to limitations in understanding the complex soil-water-plant
relationships which were either completely ignored or due lack of planning,
the productivity of irrigated agriculture declined eve leading to fall of
civilisations. The ancient civilization of Mesopotamia flourished in the Tigris-
Euphrates valley 6000 years ago and then stumbled when the soil became
saline due to poor irrigation practices and a lack of proper drainage.
Availability of a reliable and suitable supply of water for agriculture can result
in enormous improvements in agricultural production and productivity. Along
with that effective agronomic practices like as fertilization and crop rotation
should be followed also soil reclamation and management, erosion control,
and drainage practices must applied according to local needs. But better water
management is the key to a success of an irrigation project.
Irrigation water management is done with main objective maximizing the
efficiencies and minimize the labour and other costs while maintaining a
favourable environment for growth of the plant. This depend on type of
irrigation system (sprinkle, drip, or surface irrigation) and the design of the
system, and other factors like the reuse of field tail water, soil type,
topography, frequency of irrigation, depth of water to be applied, and
measures to increase the uniformity of applications such as land levelling or
shaping.
Selecting a suitable irrigation method
Various methods can be employed to supply irrigation water to plants and
each method has its inherent advantages and disadvantages. These should be
taken into account when choosing the appropriate method best suited to given
field conditions and circumstances. There are a large number of considerations

Page | 1
that should be taken into account when selecting an irrigation system. These
considerations vary in importance depending on location and crop to be grown
the factors like topographic limitations, soil properties, land preparation,
economics (expected life, fixed and operational costs), cultivation and
harvesting practices etc. For instance, some sprinkler systems can be operated
on slopes up to 20% or more, but furrow or border irrigation is usually limited
to a maximum slope of around 2 to 6%. Drip irrigation can be used on slopes
up to 60%. Similarly, soil characteristics like soil type, soil moisture-holding
capacity, the intake rate, and effective soil depth are also criteria for selecting
suitable irrigation system for example, sandy soils having a high intake rate
will require high-volume sprinklers but that would be unacceptable for a clay
soil. The moisture-holding capacity will influence the size of the irrigation sets
and frequency of irrigation, as evidenced by in case of sandy soil which has
low moisture-holding capacity and requires light applications of water at
frequent interval. There are numbers of factors that should be considered when
selecting suitable type of irrigation system and selection should be made such
that it will be most advantageous for the particular situation.
Table 1: Irrigation Efficiencies for Different Methods of Irrigation (Percentage)

Methods of Irrigation
Irrigation Efficiencies
Surface Sprinkler Drip
Conveyance efficiency 40-50 (canal)/60-70 (well) 100 100
Application efficiency 60-70 70-80 90
Surface moisture evaporation 30-40 30-40 20-25
Overall efficiency 30-35 50-60 80-90

Types of irrigation methods

Irrigation is the purposeful application of water in suitable amount of
water that promotes normal plant growth and development. It is purposeful in
the sense that it is carefully planned in advance based on the concept of
application of the ‘right amount’ of water at the ’right time’ through the ‘best
and appropriate method’ for given field condition, type of crop, level and type
of technology, required depth of application, required labour, inputs, and
economy etc. Different irrigation methods frequently used are given in Figure
1.

Page | 2
 Fig 1: Different Methods of Irrigation

Surface irrigation
The term "surface irrigation" refers to a broad class of irrigation methods
in which water is distributed over the field by a free-surface, gravity flow. A
flow is introduced at a high point or along a high edge of the field and allowed
to cover the field by overland flow. The rate of coverage is dependent almost
entirely on the quantitative differences between inlet discharge and the
accumulating infiltration. Secondary factors include field slope and length as
well as surface roughness. The practice of surface irrigation is thousands of
years old and together the different methods of surface irrigation represents
are the ones most commonly used today.
They can be broadly classified into:
1) Basin irrigation
2) Border irrigation
3) Furrow irrigation
4) Flood irrigation
As noted previously, there are two features that distinguish a surface
irrigation system:
a) The flow has a free surface responding to the gravitational gradient
b) The on-field means of conveyance and distribution is the field
surface itself
Surface irrigation is the application of water to the surface of the field by
gravity flow. The flow is introduced at one side of the field until the whole
field is gradually watered. This can be done either by flooding the entire field
at once, or by feeding water into small area.
A surface irrigation event is composed of four phases as illustrated vividly
in Figure 2. When water is applied to the field, it 'advances' across the surface

Page | 3
until the water extends over the entire area. It may or may not directly wet the
entire surface, but all of the flow paths have been completed. Then the
irrigation water either runs off the field or begins to pond on its surface. The
interval between the end of the advance and when the inflow is cut off is called
the wetting or ponding phase. The volume of water on the surface begins to
decline after the water is no longer being applied. It either drains from the
surface (runoff) or infiltrates into the soil. For the purposes of describing the
hydraulics of the surface flows, the drainage period is segregated into the
depletion phase (vertical recession) and the recession phase (horizontal
recession). Depletion is the interval between cut off and the appearance of the
first bare soil under the water. Recession begins at that point and continues
until the surface is drained.

Fig 2: Phases of Surface Irrigation Event

Advantages of surface irrigation methods

 Requires minimal understanding for effectively operating and
maintaining the system
 Can be easily developed at the farm level and requires Minimal
capital investment
 Doesn’t require complicated and expensive equipment
 Lower operation and maintenance costs
 The control and regulation structures are simple, durable and easily
constructed
 Better able to utilize water supplies that are available less frequently,
more uncertain, and more variable in rate and duration

Page | 4
Disadvantages of surface irrigation methods
 Loss of water through deep percolation
 Loss of nutrients through leaching beyond root zone
 Ground water pollution through leaching of agrochemicals beyond
root zone
 Surface water pollution through runoff water
 Salinization/alkalization of soil
 Plant suffers from water stress due to both water scarcity and water
logging
 Nutrient uptake may not be ideal due to unfavorable soil water
regime in the root zone
 Plant is more susceptible to soil borne diseases
 More Insect pest attack
 Labor intensive
 Less efficient than pressurized irrigation systems
Flood irrigation
Flood irrigation is a practice in which an entire field is covered with water.
It is the conventional method of irrigation in India and can be highly inefficient
where flow rates are inadequate to complete the irrigation quickly. The
inefficiency is due to deep drainage below the root zone. Flood irrigation also
causes temporary waterlogging, with adverse effects on crops like wheat,
maize, and legumes. Waterlogging is more prolonged and more severe on
heavy textured soils, and on soils used for rice culture because of the well-
developed, shallow, hard pan (low permeability) as a result of puddling.
Basin irrigation
Basins are flat areas of land, surrounded by low bunds. The bunds prevent
the water from flowing to the adjacent fields. Basin irrigation is commonly
used for rice (paddy) grown on flat lands or in terraces on hillsides. Trees (e.g.
citrus, banana) can also be grown in basins, where one tree is usually located
in the middle of a small basin (check basin). This method is suitable for crops
that are unaffected by waterlogging over longer periods.
Furrow irrigation
Furrows are small channels, which carry water down the land slope
between the crop rows. Water infiltrates into the soil as it moves along the

Page | 5
slope. The crop is usually grown on the ridges between the furrows. This
method is suitable for all row crops and for crops that cannot stand in water
for long periods (e.g. 12-24 hours).
Border irrigation
Borders are long, sloping strips of land separated by bunds. They are
sometimes called border strips. A sheet of water flows down the slope of the
border, guided by the bunds on either side. When the desired amount of water
has been delivered to the border, the stream is turned off. However, if the flow
is stopped too soon, there may not be enough water in the border to complete
the irrigation at the far end. If it is left running for too long, the water may run
off the end of the border and be lost in the drainage system. Borders can be up
to 800 m or more in length and 3-30 m wide depending on a variety of factors.
Border slopes should be uniform, with a minimum slope of 0.05% to
provide adequate drainage and a maximum slope of 2% to limit problems of
soil erosion. Deep homogenous loam or clay soils with medium infiltration
rates are preferred. On heavy clay soils, border irrigation may cause problems
because of the low infiltration rates (basin irrigation is more suited on these
soil types). Close growing crops such as pasture or alfalfa are preferred.
Sprinkler irrigation
In the sprinkler method of irrigation, water is sprayed into the air and
allowed to fall on the ground surface somewhat resembling rainfall. The spray
is developed by the flow of water under pressure through small orifices or
nozzles. The pressure is usually obtained by pumping. With careful selection
of nozzle sizes, operating pressure and sprinkler spacing the amount of
irrigation water required to refill the crop root zone can be applied nearly
uniform at the rate to suiting the infiltration rate of soil.
Drip irrigation
It is also called trickle irrigation and involves dripping water onto the soil
at very low rates (2-20 litres/hour) from a system of small diameter plastic
pipes fitted with outlets called emitters or drippers. Drip irrigation system
delivers water to the crop using a network of mainlines, sub-mains and lateral
lines with emission points spaced along their lengths. Each dripper/emitter,
orifice supplies a measured, precisely controlled uniform application of water,
nutrients, and other required growth substances directly into the root zone of
the plant. Water is applied close to plants so that only part of the soil in which
the roots grow is wetted, unlike surface and sprinkler irrigation, which
involves wetting the whole soil profile. With drip irrigation water, applications

Page | 6
are more frequent (usually every 1-3 days) than with other methods and this
provides a very favourable high moisture level in the soil in which plants can
flourish.
Assignment
1) What are the advantages and disadvantages of surface irrigation
methods?
2) Define and contrast the three methods of surface irrigation.
3) Give examples when to use or employ each method.
4) Summarize briefly the design criteria of the three surface irrigation
methods.

Page | 7
 Chapter - 2
Irrigation Requirement

The irrigation systems are usually not expected to supply all of the moisture
required for the crop production. Doing so would ignore the valuable
contribution of other water sources such as rain and thereby force the irrigation
systems to be larger and more expensive than required. Definitely we need to
maximize the fraction of water that is supplied to be beneficially used, but this
fraction or irrigation efficiency cannot be 100% without other serious
problems getting developed. For arriving at requirement of water by the plant
that needs to be fulfilled by an irrigation system there are four major factors
required to be considered:
1. The concept of water balance in the region encompassing the plant
environment.
2. The body of soil supplying moisture, nutrient, and anchorage for the
crop and the associated characteristics of this porous medium.
3. The crop water requirements, including drainage for aeration and salt
leaching.
4. The efficiency and uniformity of the irrigation system.
Water balance
The employment of a water balance is a useful concept for characterizing,
evaluating, or monitoring any irrigation system. A graphical representation of
the water balance is shown in Figure 3.

Page | 8
 Fig 1: Schematic Representation of the Water Balance
The term ‘water balance’ refers to the accounting of water going into and
out of an area. The quantity of water added to, subtracted from, and stored
within a set volume of soil during a given period of time is considered. It is
assumed that in a given volume of soil, the difference between the amount of
water added Win to the soil and the amount of water removed Wout from the
soil during a certain period is equal to the change in soil water
content ∆W during the same period of time. All quantities in equation are
expressed in terms of volume of water per unit area of soil (that is equivalent
depth units) during the period considered.
ΔW=Win−Wout
Considering the various individual factors influencing the water balance
of the root zone per unit area of field. Thus, the root zone water balance is
expressed as:
(ΔS+ΔV) = (RF+IR+UP) − (RO+DP+E+T)
Where,
∆S is change in root zone soil moisture storage
∆V is increment of water incorporated in the plants

Page | 9
 RF is rainfall
IR is irrigation water
UP is upward capillary flow into the root zone
RO is runoff
DP is downward drainage out of the root zone
E is direct evaporation from the soil/water surface
T is transpiration by plants
Soil characteristics
Soil characteristics of particular importance to irrigated agriculture
include
1) The capacity of the soil to hold water and still be well drained.
2) The flow characteristics of water in the soils.
3) The physical properties of the soil matrix, including the organic
matter content, soil depth, soil texture, and soil structure.
4) Soil chemical properties, including the translocation and
concentration of soluble salts and nutrients due to the movement, use,
and evaporation of the soil water.
Knowledge of all these relationships and how they influence each other
is critical for improving irrigation practices and obtain the best, most efficient
use of water. A view of basic representation of a unit volume of soil, which
contains solids (soil particles), liquid (water), and gas (air), is shown in Figure
4.

Fig 4: Schematic of a Unit Volume of Soil

Page | 10
 Water content (w) is a measure of the water present in the soil expressed
as percentage. It is defined as:
𝑀𝑊
𝑤= × 100
𝑀𝑆

Void ratio (e) is a measure of the void volume. It is defined as:

𝑉𝑉
𝑒=
𝑉𝑆

Porosity (n) is also a measure of the void volume, expressed as a

percentage. It is defined as:
𝑉𝑉
𝑛= × 100
𝑉𝑇

Degree of saturation (S) is the percentage of the void volume filled by

water which is the portion of the pore space filled with water. It is defined as:
𝑉𝑊
𝑆= × 100
𝑉𝑉

Bulk density (m) is the density of the soil in the current state. It is defined
as:
𝑀𝑇
𝜌𝑚 =
𝑉𝑇

Dry density (d) is the density of the soil in dry state. It is defined as:
𝑀𝑆
𝜌𝑑 =
𝑉𝑇

Saturated density (sat) is the density of the soil when the voids are filled
with water and Submerged density (') is the effective density of the soil when
it is submerged. It is given as:
' = sat - w
Unit weight (γ) of a soil is simply the weight per unit volume.
=xg
Bulk unit weight (γm), which is also known as total, wet or moist unit
weight. It is the total weight divided by the total volume, and is defined as:
𝑀𝑡
𝑚 =
𝑉𝑡

Dry unit weight (γd) is the unit weight of the soil when dry. It is given as:
𝑀𝑠
𝑑 =
𝑉𝑡

Page | 11
 Saturated unit weight (γsat) is the bulk unit weight of a soil when it is
saturated and Submerged unit weight (γ') is the effective unit weight of a
submerged soil, and is given by:
γ' = γ sat - γ w
Where, γw is the unit weight of water, which is 9.81 kN/m3.
Phase relations

Fig 5: Phase Relations (Vs = 0)

𝑀𝑊 𝑆𝑒
𝑤= =
𝑀𝑆 𝐺𝑆

𝑉𝑉 𝑒
𝑛= =
𝑉𝑇 1+𝑒

𝑀𝑇 𝐺𝑆 +𝑆𝑒
𝜌𝑚 = = 𝜌𝑊
𝑉𝑇 1+𝑒

𝑀𝑇 𝐺𝑆 +𝑒
𝜌𝑠𝑎𝑡 = = 𝜌𝑊
𝑉𝑇 1+𝑒

𝑀𝑆 𝐺𝑆
𝜌𝑑 = = 𝜌𝑊
𝑉𝑇 1+𝑒

Example: A cylindrical specimen of moist clay has a diameter of 38 mm,

height of 76 mm and mass of 174.2 grams. After drying in the oven at 105℃
for about 24 hours, the mass is reduced to 148.4 grams. Find the dry density,
bulk density and water content of the clay.
Assuming the specific gravity of the soil grains as 2.71, find the degree
of saturation.
Solution
Volume of the specimen (Vt) = π x (1.9)2 x (7.6) = 86.2 cm3
Mt = 174.2 g

Page | 12
 Ms = 148.4 g
𝑀𝑆
∴ 𝜌𝑑 = = 148.4/86.2 = 1.722 g/cm3
𝑉𝑇
𝑀𝑇
𝜌𝑚 = = 174.2/86.2 = 2.021 g/cm3
𝑉𝑇

𝑀𝑊 174.2−148.4
𝑤= × 100 = × 100 = 17.4%
𝑀𝑆 148.4

Using,
𝐺𝑆
𝜌𝑑 = 𝜌𝑊
1+𝑒
(2.71)×(1)
∴𝑒= − 1.0 = 0.574
1.722

Using,
𝑆𝑒
𝑤=
𝐺𝑆

(0.174)×(2.71)
∴𝑆= = 0.821 𝑜𝑟 82.1%
0.574

Therefore, degree of saturation for the cylindrical specimen is 82.1%.

Soil moisture
Crop growth is retards both in the case of presence of excessive water
(waterlogging) or insufficient water in the root zone. The available soil
moisture for plant use is held in the range of negative apparent pressure of
one-tenth to one-third bar (field capacity) and 15 bar (permanent wilting
point). The soil moisture content within this pressure range will vary from 25
cm per meter of soil depth for some silty loams to as low as 6 cm per meter
for some sandy soils. A graphical representation of field capacity and
permanent wilting point is given in figure 6.

Fig 6: Schematic Representations of Field Capacity and Permanent Wilting Point

Soil Moisture Content

Page | 13
Field capacity (Wfc)
It is defined as the moisture fraction of the soil after being allowed to
freely drain and further drainage occurs at a very slow rate. For a soil that has
been fully irrigated time required to reach filed capacity is approximately 1
day for a "light" sandy soil and 3 days for a "heavy" soil. This corresponds to
a soil moisture tension of 1/10 to 1/3 atm (bar).
Permanent wilting point (Wwp)
It is defined as the soil moisture fraction at which plants permanently wilts
and application of additional water cannot relieve the wilted condition. This
corresponds to a soil moisture tension of 15 atm bar.
Total available water (TAW)
It is given as the difference of the volumetric moisture contents at field
capacity and permanent wilting point multiplied by the depth of the root zone
(D). It is given as:
TAW = (θfc – θwp) x D
Management allowed deficit (MAD)
It is the degree to which the volume of water in the soil is allowed to be
depleted before the next irrigation is applied. It corresponds to a soil moisture
content between field capacity and permanent wilting point this is primarily
dependent on type of crop and crop growth stage. It is given as:
MAD = f x TAW
Soil moisture deficit (SMD)
It is the depletion of soil moisture below field capacity at the time with
respect to a particular soil moisture content (θ) at that time. It is given as:
SMD = (θfc – θ) x D
Infiltration
It is the most crucial factor affecting surface irrigation. This single
parameter basically controls not only the amount of water entering the soil,
also the advance rate of the overland flow. Infiltration in borders and basins is
determined using the Kostiakov equation:
Z= kτa
Where,
Z is the cumulative infiltration in m3/m/m.

Page | 14
 τ is the “intake opportunity time” in minutes.
k and a are empirical coefficients.
Evapotranspiration (ET)
Evapotranspiration depends upon climatic conditions, crop variety and
stage of growth, soil moisture depletion, and various physical and chemical
properties of the soil. Procedure for estimating ET includes two steps first is
determining the seasonal distribution of reference crop "potential
evapotranspiration", ETp, which can be computed with standard formulae and
then ETp is adjusted for crop variety and stage of growth. Other factors like
moisture stress can be ignored for the purposes of design computations.
Drainage requirements
Some irrigation water should be applied in excess of the storage capacity
of the soil to leach salts from the root region, although this does not have to
be achieved during each irrigation event. It can usually be applied on an annual
basis. Normally deep percolation occurs under most surface irrigation systems
which exceeds the leaching fraction necessary for salt balance. But still some
irrigated areas require consideration for drainage to maintain proper salt
balance in the root zone.
Assignment
1. A 75 mm (internal diameter) thin walled sampling tube is pushed into
the wall of an excavation and a 200 mm long undisturbed specimen,
weighing 1740.6 g, was obtained. When dried in the oven, the
specimen weighed 1421.2 g. assuming that the specific gravity of the
soil grains is 2.70, find the void ratio, water content, degree of
saturation, bulk density and dry density.
(Ans. 0.679, 22.5%, 89.5%, 1.970 g/cm3, 1.608 g/cm3)
2. Find the weight of a 1.2 m3 rock mass, having a porosity of 1%.
Assume that the specific gravity of the rock mineral is 2.69.
(Ans. 31.35 kN)

Page | 15
 Chapter - 3
Design of Basin Irrigation

Basins are flat areas of land, surrounded by low bunds. The bunds prevent the
water from flowing to the adjacent fields. Basin irrigation is commonly used
for rice (paddy) grown on flat lands or in terraces on hillsides. Trees (e.g.
citrus, banana) can also be grown in basins, where one tree is usually located
in the middle of a small basin (check basin). This method is suitable for crops
that are unaffected by waterlogging over longer periods.
Design criteria of basin irrigation
Topography
The basin shall be nearly if not completely level to prevent tailwater. A
difference of 6 cm to 9 cm between the highest and lowest elevations may be
allowed such that it is less than one-half of the net depth of application.
Soil type
Clay and loamy soils are preferred for basin irrigation. Sandy soils or fine-
textured soils that crack when dry shall be avoided because the basin ridge or
bund height will be unreasonably high.
Application rate
Irrigation water shall be applied at a rate that will advance over the basin
in a fraction of the infiltration time.
Irrigation volume
The volume of water applied shall be equal to the average gross irrigation
application.
Intake opportunity time
The intake opportunity time at all points in the basin shall be greater than
or equal to the time required for the net irrigation to infiltrate the soil. The
longest intake opportunity time at any point in the basin area shall be
sufficiently short to avoid scalding and excessive percolation losses.

Page | 16
Depth of water
The depth of water flow shall be contained by the basin dikes.
Design application efficiency
The minimum design application efficiency shall be 70 percent. Thus, the
minimum time required to cover the basin shall be 60 percent of the time
required for the net application depth to infiltrate the soil.
Basin dikes
Top width of the basin dike shall be greater than or equal to the height of
the dike. The settled height shall be at least equal to either the gross application
depth or the design maximum depth of flow plus a freeboard of 25 percent,
whichever is greater.
Supply ditches
Supply ditches shall convey the design inflow rate of each basin or
multiples of the design flow rate where more than one basin is irrigated
simultaneously. The water surface in the ditch shall be 15cm to 30 cm above
the ground surface level in the basin depending on the outlet characteristics.
The ditches shall be constructed with a 0.1 percent grade or less to minimize
the number of check structures and labour requirements.
Outlet location
One outlet shall be installed for basin widths of up to 60 m and flow rates
up to 0.4 m3/sec. multiple outlets at various locations may be installed
depending on the rate of flow require and the width of the basin.
Drainage
Surface drainage facilities shall be provided for basins with low or
moderate intake soils and in high rainfall areas.
Erosion
The maximum water flow velocity into the basin shall be less than or
equal to 1 m/sec to avoid scouring and erosion.
Agricultural practice
The width of the agricultural machinery or implement to be used in the
basin shall be considered in finalizing the width.
Layout of basin irrigation
The design procedure is based on the objective to flood the entire area in
a reasonable length of time so that the desired depth of water can be applied

Page | 17
with a degree of uniformity over the entire basin. Table 2 shows the suggested
basin size for different soil types and flow rates. Values are based on practical
experience, and have been adjusted in particular to suit small-scale irrigation
conditions. The shape and size of basins are mainly determined by land slope,
soil type, flow rate, required depth of application, and farming practices. The
main limitation on the width of a basin is the land slope. If the land slope is
steep, the basin should be narrow, otherwise too much earth movement will
be needed to obtain level basins. Table 3 provides guidance on the maximum
width of basins or terraces based on the land slope. The dimensions obtained
from tables are the maximum values. Basin can be made smaller than this if
required and still be irrigated efficiently with the available stream size or flow
rate.
Table 2: Basin Areas for Different Soil types and Rates of Water Flow (Booher,
1974)

Soil type
Flow rate
Sand Sandy loam Clay loam Clay
l/sec m3/sec Basin area (m2)
5 0.005 35 100 200 350
10 0.010 65 200 400 650
15 0.015 100 300 600 1000
30 0.03 200 600 1200 2000
60 0.06 400 1200 2400 4000
90 0.09 600 1800 3600 6000
120 0.12 800 2400 4800 8000
150 0.15 1000 3000 6000 10000
180 0.18 1200 3600 7200 12000
210 0.21 1400 4200 8400 14000
240 0.24 1600 4800 9600 16000
270 0.27 1800 5400 10800 18000
300 0.30 2000 6000 12000 20000

Table 3: Maximum Width of Basin or Terrace Based on Land Slope (Booher, 1974)

Maximum width (m)

Slope (%)
Average Range
0.2 45 35-55
0.3 37 30-45
0.4 32 25-40
0.5 28 20-35
0.6 25 20-30

Page | 18
 0.8 22 15-30
1.0 20 15-25
1.2 17 10-20
1.5 13 10-20
2.0 10 5-15
3.0 7 5-10
4.0 5 3-8

Example: Estimating the basin size Estimate the dimensions of a basin,

when the soil type is a deep clay loam and the land slope is 1 percent. The
available stream size is 30 li/sec.
Solution
From Table 2, the recommended maximum basin area for a clay loam soil
with available flow rate of 30 l/sec is 1200m2.
From Table 3, the maximum basin or terrace width for a slope of 1 percent
is 25 m (range 15 to 25m).
If the total basin area is 1200 m2 and the width is 25 m, the maximum
basin length is 1200/25 = 48m.
The dimensions of the basin shall be 25m x 48m.
Assignment
1. Estimate the most efficient dimensions (length and width) of the rice
paddy (basin irrigation), when the soil type is sandy loam and the
average slope is 0.5 percent. The available flow rate from the
adjacent NIA irrigation canal is 0.15 m3/sec.

Page | 19
 Chapter - 4
Design of Furrow Irrigation

Furrows are small channels, which carry water down the land slope between
the crop rows. Irrigation water flows from the field channel into the furrows
by opening up the bank of the channel or by means of siphons or spiles. Water
infiltrates into the soil as it moves along the slope. The crop is usually grown
on the ridges between the furrows. This method is suitable for all row crops
and for crops that cannot withstand waterlogging for long periods. There are
two types of furrow irrigation systems namely:
a) Corrugation furrow
b) Zigzag furrow
In corrugation furrow the water flows down the slope in small furrows
called corrugations or rills which is used for germinating drill-seeded or
broadcasted crops. The zigzag furrow makes possible to increase the length
that the water must travel to reach the end of irrigation run thus, reducing the
average slope and velocity of the water. Zigzag furrow irrigation is also suited
to the growing of tree crops.
Design criteria of furrow irrigation
Slope
The minimum grade shall be 0.05 percent to facilitate effective drainage
following irrigation and excessive rainfall. If the land slope is steeper than 0.5
percent, furrows shall be set at an angle to the main slope or along the contour
to keep furrow slopes within the recommended limits.
Soil type
Furrows shall be short in sandy soils to avoid excessive percolation
losses; while furrows can be longer in clayey soils.
Stream size
If the furrows are not too long, 0.5 li/sec of stream flow shall be adequate
for irrigation but the maximum stream size shall largely depend on the furrow
slope.

Page | 20
Irrigation depth
Larger irrigation depths shall allow longer furrows.
Cultivation practice
Compromise shall be made between the machinery available to cut
furrows and the ideal plant spacing while ensuring that the spacing provides
adequate lateral wetting on all soil types.
Layout of furrow irrigation
Furrows must be in consonance with the slope, stream size, soil type, and
net irrigation depth. These factors impact furrow length. Table 4 shows the
recommended furrow length based on these parameters.
Table 3: Maximum Furrow Lengths Based on Slope, Stream Size, Soil Type, and
Net Irrigation Depth (Booher, 1974)

Clay Loam Sand

Maximum Net Irrigation Depth (mm)
Furrow
Stream Size
Slope (%) 50 75 50 75 50 75
(l/sec) per furrow
Furrow Length (m)
0.0 3.0 100 150 60 90 30 45
0.1 3.0 120 170 90 125 45 60
0.2 2.5 130 180 110 150 60 95
0.3 2.0 150 200 130 170 75 110
0.5 1.2 150 200 130 170 75 110

However, it may be practical to make the furrow length equal to the length
of the field in order to avoid land wastage. Similarly, the length of field may
be much less than the maximum furrow length. This is not usually a problem
as furrow lengths are made to fit the field boundaries. The spacing of furrows
is influenced by the soil type and the cultivation practice. As a rule of thumb,
for sandy soils the spacing should be between 30 cm for coarse sand, and 60
cm for fine sand. On clay soils, the spacing between two adjacent furrows
should be 75 to 150 cm. As shown in Table 5.
Table 4: Recommended Furrow Spacing Based on Soil Type

Soil type Furrow spacing (cm)

Coarse Sand 30
Fine Sand 60
Clay 75-150

Page | 21
 Example: Determine the length and number of furrows on a relatively flat
fine sandy soil when the net irrigation depth is 75 mm applied at a rate of 3.0 l/sec.
The field is a rectangle with dimensions of 90 m x 200 m planted lengthwise
with tobacco as shown in the figure below.

Solution
From Table 4, the recommended maximum length of furrow is 45 m for
a sandy soil that requires 75 mm net irrigation depth application at a rate of
3.0 l/sec.
Since the planting orientation is lengthwise, the furrows should be set
along the 200 m length. Thus, the number of furrows along this length is
computed as
200 m/45 m = 4.4. Round this off to the next higher whole number, so the
number of furrows along this 200 m length = 5 furrows. Therefore, there will
be 5 furrows, 40 m long along the 200 m field length.
From Table 5, the recommended furrow spacing for fine sand along the
90 m field width is 60 cm or 0.6 m. Thus, the number of furrows along this
width is computed as 90 m/0.6 m = 150 rows of furrows.
If the number of furrows along the 200 m length is 5 and the number of
furrows along the width is 150, the total number of furrows in the said field is
5 x 150 = 750.
The field should be provided with 750 furrows having a length of 40 m
per furrow, wherein there will be a series of 5 furrows along the 200 m length,
and 150 rows of furrows spaced 0.6 m apart along the 90 m width.
Assignment
1. Determine the length and number of furrows on a 10.0 ha clayey corn
field with 0.3 percent slope. The required depth of irrigation water
application is 75 mm to be applied at a rate of 0.002 m3/sec. The field
is a rectangle with dimensions of 200 x 500 m planted crosswise with
corn.

Page | 22
 Chapter - 5
Design of Border Irrigation

Borders, sometimes called border strips, are usually long, uniformly graded
strips of land, separated by earth bunds. In contrast to flooding or basin
irrigation, these bunds are not to contain the water for ponding but to guide it
as it flows down the field. Irrigation water can be fed to the border in several
ways: opening up the channel bank, using small outlets or gates or by means
of siphons or spiles. A sheet of water (called water front) flows down the slope
of the border, guided by the bunds on either side. Border strip irrigation comes
in two types:
a) Open-end border system
b) Blocked- end border system
The open-end border system is usually applied to large borders where the end
borders are provided with openings to accommodate free flow of water for
drainage. In contrast, the blocked-end border system is usually applied to
small borders where the end borders restrict the further downward flow of
water.
Design criteria of border strip irrigation
Crop
All close-growing, non-cultivated, sown or drilled crops, except rice and
other crops grown in ponded water can be irrigated by border irrigation.
Topography
Areas shall have slopes of less than 0.5 percent. For non-sod crops, slopes
of up to 2 percent may be acceptable and slopes of 4 percent and steeper for
sod crops.
Soil type
The soil shall have a moderately low to moderately high intake rate which
is 7.6 to 50 mm/hr. Coarse sandy soils with extremely high and those with
extremely low intake rate shall be avoided.

Page | 23
Stream size
The stream size shall be large enough to adequately spread water across
the width of border.
Irrigation depth
A larger irrigation depth shall be aimed by making the border strip longer
in order to allow more time for the water to reach the end of the border strip.
Cultivation practices
The width of borders shall be a multiple of the farm machinery used in
the field.
Border strip layout
The dimensions and shape of borders are influenced in much the same
way as basins and furrows by the soil type, stream size, slope, irrigation depth
and other factors such as farming practices and field or farm size. Table 6
provides a guideline to determine maximum border dimensions. It must,
however, be stressed that this table is for general guidance only as the values
are based on field experience and not on any scientific relationships.
Table 6: Maximum Border Lengths and Widths

Border Slope Stream Flow Border Border

Soil Type
(%) (l/sec per m) Width (m) Length (m)
Sand 0.2-0.4 10-15 12-30 60-90
Infiltration rate greater 0.4-0.6 8-10 9-12 60-90
than 25 mm/hr 0.6-1.0 5-8 6-9 75
Loam 0.2-0.4 5-7 12-30 90-250
Infiltration rate of 10 to 0.4-0.6 4-6 6-12 90-180
25 mm/hr 0.6-1.0 2-4 6 90
Clay 0.2-0.4 3-4 12-30 180-300
Infiltration rate of less 0.4-0.6 2-3 6-12 90-180
than 10 mm/hr 0.6-1.0 1-2 6 90

Operation
Borders are irrigated by diverting a stream of water from the channel to
the upper end of the border where the water flows down the slope. When the
desired amount of water has been delivered to the border strip, the stream is
turned off. This may occur before the water has reached the end of the border.
There are no specific rules controlling this decision. However, if the flow is
stopped too soon there may not be enough water in the border strip to complete
the irrigation at the far end. If it is left running for too long, then water may

Page | 24
run off the end of the border and be lost in the drainage system. As a guideline,
the inflow to the border can be stopped as follows:
 On clay soils, the inflow is stopped when the irrigation water covers
60 percent of the border. If, for example, the border is 100 m long a
stick is placed 60 m from the farm channel. When the water front
reaches the stick, the inflow is stopped.
 On loamy soils, it is stopped when 70 to 80 percent of the border is
covered with water.
 On sandy soils, the irrigation water must cover the entire border
before the flow is stopped.
Example: Determining border strip width and length, distance of water
front from the source and total stream flow. Given a grass pasture on clayey
soil with 0.3 percent slope that requires a 3.5 l/sec irrigation water application
rate:
a) What will be the maximum width and length of the open-ended
border strip irrigation system?
b) At what distance in meters the irrigation water would have reached
along the direction of flow from the source to downstream so that the
flow can be stopped to prevent over-irrigation?
c) What is the corresponding total stream flow to satisfy the desired
irrigation depth?
Solution
From Table 5, the maximum width and length of border strips are 30 m
and 300 m, respectively.
From the guidelines in Section D (Operation) above, it is recommended
that on clayey soils, the inflow is stopped when the irrigation water covers 60
percent of the border strip length. Thus, the source should be closed when the
flow has reached 180 m downstream, that is, 300 m x 0.6 = 180 m.
Per notation for column 3 of Table 5, the stream flow is given per meter
width of the border strip. Thus, the total stream flow into a border is equal to
the unit flow (the value given in the table) multiplied by the border width (in
meters). Hence, the total stream flow = 3.5 l/sec/m x 30 m = 105 l/sec.
The pasture area should be provided with 30 x 300 m border strips with
application rate of 105 l/sec, which should be stopped when the water front
has reached 180 m downstream.

Page | 25
Assignment
1. Given a Centrosema forage production area (border irrigation) with
loamy soils and 0.25 percent slope that requires a 0.006 m3/sec
irrigation water application rate:
a) What will be the maximum width and length of the open-ended
border strip irrigation system?
b) At what distance in meters the irrigation water would have reached
along the direction of flow from the source to downstream so that the
flow can be stopped to prevent over-irrigation?
c) What is the corresponding total stream flow to satisfy the desired
irrigation depth?

Page | 26
 Chapter - 6
Design of Sprinkler Irrigation System

In the sprinkler method of irrigation, water is sprayed into the air and allowed
to fall on the ground surface somewhat resembling rainfall. The spray is
developed by the flow of water under pressure through small orifices or
nozzles. The pressure is usually obtained by pumping. With careful selection
of nozzle sizes, operating pressure and sprinkler spacing the amount of
irrigation water required to refill the crop root zone can be applied nearly
uniform at the rate to suiting the infiltration rate of soil.
Advantages of sprinkler irrigation
 Elimination of the channels for conveyance, therefore no conveyance
loss
 Suitable to all types of soil except heavy clay
 Suitable for irrigating crops where the plant population per unit area
is very high. It is most suitable for oil seeds and other cereal and
vegetable crops
 Water saving
 Closer control of water application convenient for giving light and
frequent irrigation and higher water application efficiency
 Increase in yield
 Mobility of system
 May also be used for undulating area
 Saves land as no bunds etc. are required
 Influences greater conducive micro-climate
 Areas located at a higher elevation than the source can be irrigated
 Possibility of using soluble fertilizers and chemicals
 Less problem of clogging of sprinkler nozzles due to sediment laden
water

Page | 27
General classification of different types of sprinkler systems
Sprinkler systems are classified into the following two major types on the
basis of the arrangement for spraying irrigation water.
 Rotating head or revolving sprinkler system.
 Perforated pipe system.
Rotating head
Small size nozzles are placed on riser pipes fixed at uniform intervals
along the length of the lateral pipe and the lateral pipes are usually laid on the
ground surface. They may also be mounted on posts above the crop height and
rotated through 90 0, to irrigate a rectangular strip. In rotating type sprinklers,
the most common device to rotate the sprinkler heads is with a small hammer
activated by the thrust of water striking against a vane connected to it.
Perforated pipe system
This method consists of drilled holes or nozzles along their length through
which water is sprayed under pressure. This system is usually designed for
relatively low pressure (1 kg/cm2). The application rate ranges from 1.25 to 5
cm per hour for various pressure and spacing.
Based on the portability, sprinkler systems are classified into the
following types
 Portable system: A portable system has portable main lines, laterals
and pumping plant
 Semi-portable system: A semi portable system is similar to a
portable system except that the location of water source and pumping
plant is fixed.
 Semi-permanent system: A semi-permanent system has portable
lateral lines, permanent main lines and sub mains and a stationery
water source and pumping plant.
 Solid set system: A solid set system has enough laterals to eliminate
their movement. The laterals are positions in the field early in the
crop season and remain for the season.
 Permanent system: A fully permanent system consists of
permanently laid mains, sub mains and laterals and a stationery water
source and pumping plant.

Page | 28
Components of sprinkler irrigation system
A sprinkler system usually consists of the following components:
 A pump unit
 Tubings-main/submains and laterals
 Couplers
 Sprinkler head
 Other accessories such as valves, bends, plugs and risers
Sprinkler system design parameters
Sprinkler discharge considering area of coverage
The actual selection of different components of the sprinkler system is
based on specifications furnished by the manufacturers of the equipment. The
selection depends on wetting diameter of nozzle, at a given operating pressure
at nozzle, sprinkler discharge, combination of sprinkler spacing and lateral
moves, application rate suiting to soil and wind conditions. The required
discharge of an individual sprinkler is a function of the water application rate
and the two-way spacing of the sprinklers. It may be determined by the
following equation:

Where,
q = required discharge of individual sprinkler (l/s)
S1 = spacing of sprinklers along the laterals (m)
Sm= spacing of laterals along the main (m)
I = optimum application rate (mm)
Height of sprinkler riser pipes
Sprinklers are located just above the crops to be irrigated and, therefore,
the height of the risers depend upon the maximum height of the crop. To avoid
excessive turbulence in the riser pipes the minimum height of riser is 300 mm
for 25 mm diameter and 150 mm for 15 mm to 20 mm diameter.
Sprinkler spacing
The uniformity of water distribution from sprinklers depends on the
operating pressure, wind velocity, rotation of sprinklers, spacing between
sprinklers and laterals. The spacing of sprinklers on laterals and the laterals

Page | 29
spacing are adjusted for obtaining maximum uniformity for given condition.
Greater depth of water accumulate near sprinkler head and depth decreases
gradually with distance from the sprinklers. Therefore, there is a necessity of
overlapping of the spray pattern of the individual sprinkler, to obtain uniform
depth of water application. Sprinklers are arranged along a lateral such that
the diameter of the water spread area of sprinkler is overlapped.
Capacity of sprinkler system
The capacity of a sprinkler system is a important design parameter. This
is estimated after knowing the total area to be irrigated by a sprinkler irrigation
system. The formula to compute system capacity is given by:
𝐴×𝑑
Q = 2780
𝐹×𝐻×𝐸

Where,
Q = Discharge capacity of the pump (l/s)
A = Area to be irrigated (ha)
d = Net depth of water application (cm)
F = Number of days allowed for the completion of one irrigation
H = Number of actual operating (hours/day)
E = Water application efficiency (per cent)
Sprinkler discharge
The discharge of a sprinkler is estimated by knowing the diameter of
nozzle and operating pressure available at the nozzle by following formula:

𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔ℎ
Where,
Q = Discharge (cm3 s-1)
C = Sprinkler discharge coefficient which vary from 0.80 to 0.95
A = Cross-sectional area of nozzle or orifice (cm2)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (cm s-2)
h = Pressure head (cm)
Area covered by sprinkler
The area covered by a rotating head sprinkler can be estimated as:

𝑅 = 1.35√𝑑ℎ

Page | 30
Where,
R = Radius of the wetted area covered by sprinkler (m)
d = Diameter of nozzle (m)
h = Pressure head at nozzle (m)
The maximum coverage is attained when the jet emerges from the
sprinkler nozzle at angle between 300 and 320.
Hydraulic design of pipe network
Pipe network in the sprinkler irrigation system consists of the lateral, sub
main and main pipeline. The sprinkle nozzles are mounted on the laterals;
laterals are connected to the sub main and sub main to the main. Main pipe
line takes water from the source through the pump. It is desired to design the
pipe network appropriately for uniform water application and economical
system cost. As the sprinkler system requires pressure to operate, both
uniformity water application and system economy are affected by the
frictional head loss through the pipes. Large variation in friction head loss in
the lateral or sub main reduces the uniformity in water application on the other
hand too small variation results in high uniformity, which requires larger pipe
size makes system more expensive. Hence it requires optimal combination of
hydraulic and economic consideration. The Hazen-Williams equation is
commonly adopted for that and it is given by:
(𝑄/𝐶)1.852
𝐻𝑓 (100) = 𝐾
𝐷4.87

Where,
Hf (100) = A friction loss per 100 m of pipe (m/100 m)
C = A friction coefficient which is a function of pipe material
characteristics
Q = The flow of water in the line (L s-1)
D = The inside pipe diameter (mm)
K = A constant which is 1.22 × 1012 for metric units
Table 5: Typical values of C for use in Hazen-Williams equation

S No. Pipe material C

1 Plastic 150
2 Epoxy-coated steel 145
3 Cement asbestos 140
4 Galvanized steel 135

Page | 31
 5 Aluminum (with coupler every 9.0 m) 130
6 Steel (new) 130
7 Steel (15 years old) or concrete 100

Allowable head loss in sprinkler pipe

Pressure loss occurs due to friction and joints. This should not exceed
practical value. Normally it should be between 15 and 20 per cent of the total
head. The recommended practice to design the sprinkler lateral is not to exceed
the pressure variation more than 20% of the higher pressure. The difference in
elevation head is considered while determining the variation in pressure. This
may be paying of laterals in upward slope or down slope. While the lateral is
laid on up slope direction, the less pressure is available at the nozzle while
lateral laid on down slope direction, the additional pressure is available at the
sprinkler nozzle due to gain in energy.
Pipe with multi outlet
When there are no outlets along the length of the lateral or sub main
(usually called as closed pipe line or blind pipe), the head loss due to friction
can be computed by Hazen-William formula. However, in sprinkler lateral or
sub main, outlets along the length of the pipe are given as sprinkler heads or
sprinkler laterals as the case may be. Flow of water through the closed or blind
pipe of a given diameter causes more frictional head loss compared to that of
a pipe with number of outlets along the length of the pipe which is due to the
fact that the flow rate decreases with every passing outlet. To accurately
compute friction loss in the lateral with multi outlet, start at the last outlet on
the pipe line and work back to the head of the pipeline, computing the friction
head loss between each outlet for the flow rate between two outlets. In case of
multiple outlets, the frictional head loss through the blind pipe is computed
for the given flow rate and then multiply with reduction factor (F) due to
reducing flow rate. The reduction factor depends on the number of equally
spaced outlets on the lateral. Assuming first sprinkler is at the same as other
sprinklers located on the lateral, The F can be computed using following
expression:

F=
Where,
F = Reduction factor
N = Number of outlets

Page | 32
 M = Exponent used in the head loss equation (In Hazen-William’s
equation the m = 1.852 and for Darcy’s Weisbach equation m=2)
For N>10, the last term in equation can be omitted.
Jensen and Fratini (1957) modified the above expression for F to account
for the first sprinkler being located one-half the sprinkler spacing from the
supply line. They assumed that no water flows past the last sprinkler. The
modified expression indicates that the F factor is more than 5 percent larger
for N<20.

Design of sprinkler laterals

In the design of sprinkler laterals the pressure variation should not exceed
more than 20% of the higher pressure. The design capacity for sprinklers on a
lateral is based on the average operating pressure.

Fig 7: Pressure Profile in a Lateral Laid Uphill

Source: Michael, 2010
Pressure required at the main to operate the system is given by:

Where,
Ha = Average pressure (m)
Hf = Head loss due to friction in lateral pipe (m)
Hn = Pressure required at the main to operate (m)

Page | 33
 He = Maximum difference in elevation between the first and last sprinkler
on a lateral pipe (m)
Hr = The riser height (m)

The term is positive if lateral is laid up slope and negative, if lateral

is laid down slope
Design of main pipe
Sub main pipe supplies the water to sprinkler lateral and main supplies
water to the sub main. If more numbers of sub mains are operated
simultaneously at same time (a case for the large field) the procedure described
for the design of the lateral may be used. However, when a single sub main is
operated, the size of sub main and main pipe line is selected such that the
annual operating cost and initial cost of the sub main line and mainline should
be low. Normally friction loss of 3 m for small sprinkler system and 12m for
large sprinkler systems are used in design of main pipe line.
Pumps and power units
The suitable size of pump is selected considering the maximum total head
against which the pump expected to operate and deliver the required
discharge. This is be determined by:

Where,
Ht = Total design head against which the pump is working (m)
Hn = Maximum head required at the main to operate the sprinklers on the
lateral at the required average pressure, including the riser height
(m)
Hm = Maximum friction loss in the main and in the suction line (m)
HJ = Elevation difference between the pump and the junction of the
lateral and the main (m)
Hs= Elevation difference between the pump and the source of water after
drawdown (m)
The discharge required to be delivered by pump is determined by
multiplying the number of sprinklers that are operated at any given instant of
time by the discharge of each sprinkler. Once the head and discharge of the
pumps are known, the pump may be selected from rating curves or tables
provided by the manufacture.

Page | 34
Power requirement of pump
It is given by
𝑄𝑡 ×𝐻𝑡
ℎ𝑝 =
75×n𝑝

Where,
Qt = total discharge (l s-1)
Ht = total head (m)
np = efficiency of pump
Example: Design a sprinkler irrigation system to irrigate 5 ha Wheat
crop.
Assume the following
Soil type = silt loam, Infiltration rate at field capacity = 1.25 cm h-1, Water
holding capacity = 15 cm m-1, Root zone depth = 1.5 m, Daily consumptive
use rate = 6 mm day-1, Sprinkler type = Rotating head.
Solution
Step I
Given infiltration capacity =1.25 cm h-1
Hence maximum water application rate = 1.25 cm/h
Step II
Total water holding capacity of the soil root zone = 15 x 1.5 = 22.5 cm
Let the water be applied at 50% depletion, hence the depth of water to be
applied = 0.50 x 22.5 = 11.25 cm
Let the water application efficiency be 90 per cent
Depth of water to be supplied = 11.25 / 0.9 = 12.5 cm
Step III
For daily consumptive use rate of 0.60 cm
Irrigation interval = 11.25 / 0.6 = 19 days
In period of 19 days, 12.5 cm of water is to be applied on an area of 5 ha.
Hence assuming 10 hrs. of pumping per day, the sprinkler system capacity
would be

Page | 35
Step IV
Let the spacing of lateral (Sm) = 18 m,
Spacing of Sprinklers in lateral (Sl) = 12 m
This selection is based on using following consideration:
Operating pressure of nozzle = 2.5 kg cm-2
Maximum application rate = 1.25 cm h-1
For nozzle size (5.5563 x 3.175 mm) operating pressure and application
rate is:
Operating pressure: 2.47 kg cm-2 and
Application rate 1.10 cm hr-1 (which is less than the maximum allowable
application rate of 1.25 cm h-1)
Diameter of coverage: 29.99 ≈ 30.0 m
Discharge of the nozzle: 0.637 l s-1 = 0.637 x 10-3 m3s-1
Step V

Total no. of sprinkler required = = 14.12 ≈ 14 sprinklers

Considering two sprinkler laterals, therefore 7 sprinklers on each lateral.
Step VI
Using the sprinklers spaced at 12 m intervals on each lateral. The lateral
lines will be at 18 m spacing.
Step VII
Total length of each lateral = 12 x 7 = 84
Operating pressure = 2.47 kg cm-2
Total allowable pressure variation in the pressure head is 20%, hence
maximum allowable pressure variation in pressure = 0.2 x 2.47 = 0.494 kg/cm2
= 4.94m
Assume pressure variation due to elevation = 2 m
Permissible head loss due to friction = 4.94 – 2 = 2.94 m
Total flow through the lateral = 7 x 0.637 x 10-3 = 4.459 x 10-3 m3s-1

Reduction factor (F) = = 0.333 + 0.071 + 0.0034 = 0.407

Page | 36
 Head loss due to friction using Darcy’s weisbach equation and reduction
factor.

Hf =

Or 2.94 =

Hence diameter of lateral = 63mm

Assume height of riser pipe =1m
The head required to operate the lateral lines (Hm) = 24.7+2.94+2+1 =
30.6m
Frictional head loss in main pipe line (Hf) = 30.6 0.2 = 6.12m
Calculating in the same way as done in case of lateral

Or
D = 69.10 ≈ 75 mm
Total design head (H) = Hm+ Hf +Hj +Hs
Where,
Hj = Difference in highest junction point of the lateral and main from
pump level = 0.5 m (assumed)
Hs = Suction lift (20 m, assumed)
H = 30.6 + 6.12 + 0.5 + 20 = 57.22 m
The pump has to deliver 0.009 m3s-1 of water against a required head of
57.22 m
Hence, the horse power of a pump at 60% efficiency

=
Pump with horse power of 12 Hp would be sufficient for the system.

Page | 37
Uniformity coefficients (Cu):
It is a measurable index of the degree of uniformity obtainable for any
size sprinkler operating under given conditions. This uniformity coefficient is
affected by the pressure nozzle size relations, sprinkler spacing and by wind
conditions. The coefficient is computed from field observations of the depths
of water collected in catch cans or collectors placed at regular intervals within
a sprinkled area as per procedure described in preceding sections. It is
expressed by the equation developed by Christiansen (1942):

Where,
M = Average value of all observations i.e., average application rate (mm)
N = Total number of observation points
X = Numerical deviation of individual observation s from the average
application rate (mm)
A uniformity coefficient of 100 per cent (obtained with overlapping
sprinklers) is indicative of absolutely uniform application, whereas the water
application is less uniform with a lower value of coefficient. A uniformity
coefficient of 85 per cent or more is considered to be satisfactory.
Pattern efficiency
The pattern efficiency (also known as distribution efficiency) is
calculated with the total depths of water collected at each of the catch cans
placed at the grid points. The minimum depth is calculated considering
average of the lowest one fourth of the depths collected in catch cans used in
a particular test. The pattern efficiency is useful in calculating the average
depth to be applied for a certain minimum depth. The pattern efficiency is
influenced by the wind conditions. Pattern efficiency is given by:

Application efficiency
The application efficiency is calculated by minimum rate water to the
average rate applied. The application efficiency is influenced by the wind
conditions. It is given by:

Page | 38
 Example: Determine the uniformity coefficient, Pattern and application
efficiencies from the following data found from a field test on a square plot
bounded by four sprinklers:
Sprinkler nozzle dimension (S)-4.76 x 3.2 mm nozzles at 2.8 kg/cm3
Spacing-16m x 12m, Wind-5 km/hr from south-west
Humidity-49%, Time of test-2 hour
S 9.4 8.1 7.1 S
8.6 8.1 10.4 10.7 8.8
9.4 9.6 9.6 9.9 9.4
9.9 8.4 9.6 9.1 9.6
S 8.4 7.1 7.3 S

Solution
Application rate Numerical Frequency x
Observation Frequency
x frequency deviations deviations
10.7 1 10.7 1.6 1.6
10.4 1 10.4 1.3 1.3
9.9 2 19.8 0.8 1.6
9.6 4 38.4 0.5 2
9.4 3 28.2 0.3 0.9
9.1 1 9.1 0 0
8.8 1 8.8 0.3 0.3
8.6 1 8.6 0.5 0.5
8.4 2 16.8 0.7 1.4
8.1 2 16.2 1 2
7.3 1 7.3 1.8 1.8
7.1 2 14.2 2 4
21 188.5 ΣX=17.4

Mean = 188.5/21 = 8.97

Uniformity Coefficients (Cu) =

= 100 (1- 17.4/21*8.97) = 90.76%
Total catch cans at 21 locations = 188.5 mm in 2 hours
Average catch (188.5/21) = 8.97
Average of the lowest one fourth of the cans (5 out of 21)

Page | 39
= (37.7/5) =7.54 mm or 3.77 mm/hr
Pattern efficiency = (7.54/8.97) *100= 84 percent
Average rate applied = 0.45 cm/hr
Application efficiency = (0.377/0.56) x 100= 83.77 percent

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 Chapter - 7
Design of Drip Irrigation System

Micro irrigation is frequent application of water directly on or below the soil

surface near the root zone of plants. It delivers required and measured quantity
of water in relatively small amounts slowly to the individual or groups of
plants. Water is applied as continuous drops, tiny streams, or fine spray
through emitters placed along a low-pressure delivery system. Such system
provides water precisely to plant root zones and maintains ideal moisture
conditions for plant growths.
Advantages of micro irrigation
 Water saving
 Enhanced plant growth and yield
 Uniform and better quality of produce
 Efficient and economic use of fertilizers
 Less weed growth
 Also suitable to waste lands
 Possibility of using saline water
 No soil erosion
 Flexibility in operation
 Easy installation
 Labour saving
 Suitable to all types of land terrain
 Saves land as no bunds etc. are required
 Minimum diseases and pest infestation
Types of micro irrigation system
The basic types of micro irrigation system are as follows:
Surface system
It is the system in which emitters and laterals are laid on the ground
surface along the rows of crops. The emitting devices are located in the root
zone area of trees.

Page | 41
Sub-surface system
It is a system in which water is applied slowly below the land surface
through emitters. Such systems are generally preferred in semi-
permanent/permanent installations.
Bubbler system
In this system the water is applied to the soil surface in a small stream or
fountain. Bubbler systems do not require elaborate filtration systems. These
are suitable in situations where large amount of water need to be applied in a
short period of time and suitable for irrigating trees with wide root zones and
high water requirements.
Micro and mini sprinklers
These are small plastic sprinklers with rotating spinners. The spinners
rotate with water pressure and sprinkle the water. These are available in
different discharges and diameters of coverage and can operate at low pressure
in the range of 1.0 to 2kg/cm2. Water is given only to the root zone area as in
the case of drip irrigation but not to the entire ground surface as done in the
case of sprinkler irrigation method.
Pulse
Pulse system uses high discharge rate emitters and consequently has short
water application time. The primary advantage of this system is a possible
reduction in the clogging problem.
Biwall
It is extruded dual chamber micro-irrigation tubing manufactured from
Linear Low Density Polyethylene (LLDPE). This system is suitable for all
closely spaced row crops like sugarcane, cotton, vegetables, onion, tea etc.
Components of micro irrigation system
The components of Micro irrigation system can be grouped into two
major groups viz.
 Head control unit
 Distribution network
Head control unit
The head control unit of micro irrigation System includes the following
components.

Page | 42
 Pump/overhead tank: It is required to provide sufficient pressure in the
system. Centrifugal pumps are generally used for low pressure trickle systems.
Overhead tanks can be used for small areas or orchard crops with
comparatively lesser water requirements.
Fertilizer applicator: Application of fertilizer into pressurized irrigation
system is done by either a by-pass pressure tank, or by venturi injector or direct
injection system. The detailed description of fertilizer application system is
presented in subsequent section s(1.6.2).
Filters: The hazard of blocking or clogging necessitates the use of filters
for efficient and trouble free operation of the micro irrigation system. The
different types of filters used in micro irrigation system are described below.
a) Gravel or media filter
Media filters consist of fine gravel or coarse quartz sand, of selected sizes
(usually 1.5-4mm in diameter) free of calcium carbonate placed in a
cylindrical tank. These filters are effective in removing light suspended
materials, such as algae and other organic materials, fine sand and silt
particles. This type of filtration is essential for primary filtration of irrigation
water from open water reservoirs, canals or reservoirs in which algae may
develop. Water is introduced at the top, while a layer of coarse gravel is put
near the outlet bottom. Reversing the direction of flow and opening the water
drainage valve cleans the filter. Pressure gauges are placed at the inlet and at
the outlet ends of the filter to measure the head loss across the filter. If the
head loss exceeds more than 30 kPa, filter needs back washing.
b) Screen filters
Screen filters are always installed for final filtration as an additional
safeguard against clogging. While majority of impurities are filtered by sand
filter, minute sand particles and other small impurities pass through it. The
screen filter, containing screen strainer, which filters physical impurities and
allows only clean water to enter into the micro irrigation system. The screens
are usually cylindrical and made of non-corrosive metal or plastic material.
These are available in a wide variety of types and flow rate capacities with
screen sizes ranging from 20 mesh to 200 mesh. The aperture size of the screen
opening should be between one seventh and one tenth of the orifice size of
emission devices used.
c) Centrifugal filters
Centrifugal filters are effective in filtering sand, fine gravel and other
high-density materials from well or river water. Water is introduced

Page | 43
tangentially at the top of a cone and creates a circular motion resulting in a
centrifugal force, which throws the heavy suspended particles against the
walls. The separated particles are collected in the narrow collecting vessel at
the bottom.
d) Disk filters
Disk filer contains stacks of grooved, ring shaped disks that capture debris
and are very effective in the filtration of organic material and algae. During
the filtration mode, the disks are pressed together. There is an angle in the
alignment of two adjacent disks, resulting in cavities of varying size and partly
turbulent flow. The sizes of the groove determine the filtration grade. Disk
filters are available in a wide size range (25-400 microns). Back flushing can
clean disk filters. However, they require back flushing pressure as high as 2 to
3 kg/cm2.
Pressure relief valves, regulators or bye pass arrangement: These
valves may be installed at any point where possibility exists for excessively
high pressures, either static or surge pressures to occur. A bye pass
arrangement is simplest and cost-effective means to avoid problems of high
pressures instead of using costly pressure relief valves.
Check valves or non-return valves: These valves are used to prevent
unwanted flow reversal. They are used to prevent damaging back flow from
the system to avoid return flow of chemicals and fertilizers from the system
into the water source itself to avoid contamination of water source.
Distribution network
It mainly constitutes main line, submains line and laterals with drippers
and other accessories.
Mainline: The mainline transports water within the field and distribute to
submains. Mainline is made of rigid PVC and High-Density Polyethylene
(HDPE). Pipelines of 65 mm diameter and above with a pressure rating 4 to 6
kg/cm2 are used for main pipes.
Submains: Submains distribute water evenly to a number of lateral lines.
For sub main pipes, rigid PVC, HDPE or LDPE (Low Density Polyethylene)
of diameter ranging from 32 mm to 75 mm having pressure rating of 2.5
kg/cm2 are used.
Laterals: Laterals distribute the water uniformly along their length by
means of drippers or emitters. These are normally manufactured from LDPE
and LLDPE. Generally, pipes having 10, 12 and 16 mm internal diameter with
wall thickness varying from 1 to 3 mm are used as laterals.

Page | 44
 Emitters/drippers: They function as energy dissipaters, reducing the
inlet pressure head (0.5 to 1.5 atmospheres) to zero atmospheres at the outlet.
The commonly used drippers are online pressure compensating or online non-
pressure compensating, in-line dripper, adjustable discharge type drippers,
vortex type drippers and micro tubing of 1 to 4 mm diameter. These are
manufactured from Poly- propylene or LLDPE.
Online pressure compensating drippers: A pressure compensating type
dripper supplies water uniformly on long rows and on uneven slopes. These
are manufactured with high quality flexible rubber diaphragm or disc inside
the emitter that it changes shape according to operating pressure and delivers
uniform discharge. These are most suitable on slopes and difficult topographic
terrains.
Online non-pressure compensating drippers: In such type of drippers
discharge tends to vary with operating pressure. They have simple thread type,
labyrinth type, zigzag path, vortex type flow path or have float type
arrangement to dissipate energy. However, they are cheap and available in
affordable price.
In-line drippers or inline tubes: These are fixed along with the line, i.e.,
the pipe is cut and dripper is fixed in between the cut ends, such that it makes
a continuous row after fixing the dripper. They have generally a simple thread
type or labyrinth type flow path. Such types of drippers are suitable for row
crops. Inline tubes are available which include inline tube with cylindrical
dripper, inline tubes with patch drippers, or porous tapes or biwall tubes. They
are provided with independent pressure compensating water discharge
mechanism and extremely wide water passage to prevent clogging.
Other accessories are take-out/starter, rubber grommet, end plug, joints,
tees, manifolds etc.
Planning and design of drip irrigation system
The planning and design of drip irrigation system is essential to supply
the required amount of irrigation water. The water requirement of the plant
per day depends on the water that is taken by the plant from the soil and the
amount of water evaporating from the soil in the immediate vicinity of the root
zone in a day. The plant intake is affected by the leaf area, stage of growth,
climate, soil conditions etc. The water requirement and irrigation schedule can
be determined from the soil or plant indicators-based methods or soil water
budget method, but the simplest and most commonly method is to use pan
evaporimeter data. To apply the required amount of water uniformly to all the
plants in the field, it is essential to design the system to maintain desired

Page | 45
hydraulic pressure in the pipe network. The design of Micro irrigation system
is essentially a decision regarding selection of emitters, laterals and manifolds,
sub main, main pipeline and required pumping unit. The steps needed to be
followed for designing the Micro irrigation system are given below:
 Collection of general information
 Layout of the field
 Crop water requirement
 Hydraulic design of the system
 Pump horse power requirement
Design of drip irrigation system
The steps necessary for the design of a micro irrigation system include:
Step 1: Determine net depth of application
Step 2: Emitter design
Step 3: Determine flow per lateral, submain, and mainlines.
Step 4: Determine total system capacity to meet design plant
evapotranspiration.
Step 5: Size laterals, submains, and mainlines.
Step 6: Determine pump size needed.
Detailed design steps are explained with the help of example.
Example: Design a drip irrigation system for a citrus orchard of 1 ha area
with length and breadth of 100 m each with a well located at one corner of the
field. Citrus has been planted at a spacing of 5 m x 5.5 m. The maximum pan
evaporation during summer is 8 mm/day. The other relevant data are given
below:
Land slope = 0.40% upward slope from S-N direction
Water source = A well located at the S-W corner of the field
Soil texture = Sandy loam
Clay content = 18.4%
Silt = 22.6%
Sand = 59.0%
Field capacity = 14.9%
Wilting point = 8%

Page | 46
 Bulk density = 1.44 g/cc
Effective root zone depth = 120 cm
Wetting Percentage = 40%
Pan coefficient = 0.7
Crop coefficient = 0.8
Solution:
Step 1: Estimation of water requirement, Evapotranspiration of the crop
(ET) = Open pan evaporation x Pan Coefficient x Crop coefficient
= 8 x 0.7 x 0.8
= 4.48 mm/day
Volume of water to be applied = Area covered by each plant x Wetting
fraction x ET
= (5 x 5.5) x 0.40 x 4.48
= 49.28 l/day or 50 l/day
Step 2: Emitter selection and irrigation time emitters are selected based
on the soil texture and crop root zone system. Assuming three emitters of 4
lph, placed on each plant in a triangular pattern are sufficient so as to wet the
effective root zone of the crop.
Total discharge delivered in one hour = 4 x 3 = 12 lph
Irrigation time = 50/12 = 4 h 10 minutes
Step 3: Discharge through each lateral
A well is located at one corner of the field. Submains will be laid from
the centre of field. Therefore, the length of main, submains, and lateral will be
50 m, 97.25 m, 47.5 m each respectively. The laterals will extend on both sides
of the submains. Each lateral will supply water to 10 citrus plants.
Total number of laterals = (100/5.5) x 2 = 36.36 (Considering only 36)
Discharge carried by each lateral, Qlateral = 10 x 3 x 4 = 120 lph
Total discharge carried by 36 laterals = 120 x 36 = 4320 lph
Each plant is provided with three emitters,
Therefore, total number of emitters will be 36 x 10 x 3 =1080
Step 4: Determination of number of manifolds
Assuming the pump discharge = 2.5 lps = 9000 lph

Page | 47
 Number of laterals that can be operated by each manifold = 9000/120 =
75.
So, only one manifold or submains can supply water to all the laterals at
a time.
Step 5: Size of lateral
Once the discharge carried by each lateral is known, then size of the
lateral can be determined by using the Hazen- Williams equation. The
reduction factor (F) can be estimated as

F=
= 0.54m
𝑄 1.852
(𝐶)
𝐻𝑓 = 𝐾 𝐿 𝐹 = 0.26m
𝐷4.87

For D = 16 mm, = 0.063m

The permissible head loss due to friction is 10% of head of 10 m (head
required to operate 4 lph emitters) is 1 m, therefore 12 mm dia lateral size is
selected.
Step 6: Size of submain
Total discharge through the submain
= Qlateral x Number of laterals
= 120 x 36
= 4320 lph = 1.2 lps
Assuming the diameter of the submain as 35 mm. Head loss for 97.25 m
of pipe length by using the Hazen- Williams equation,
𝑄 1.852
(𝐶)
𝐻𝑓 = 𝐾 𝐿 𝐹 = 1.70
𝐷4.87

Therefore, frictional head loss in the submain = 0.30m

Head at the inlet of the submain = H emitter + H lateral + H submain + H slope
= 10 + 0.26 + 1.70 + 0.40 = 12.36m
Pressure head variation = 17%
Design pressure head variation is 17% which is within the recommended
20% variation, Hence, size of the sub main line is adequate.

Page | 48
 Step 7: Size of the main line
Assuming the diameter of main as 50 mm
Discharge of main, Qmain = Discharge of submain (Qsubmain) x no. of
submians =1.2 lps
Using Hazen- Williams equation,
𝑄 1.852
(𝐶)
𝐻𝑓 = 𝐾 𝐿 𝐹 = 0.42m
𝐷4.87

Step 8: Determining the horse power of pump

Assuming that the head variation due to uneven field variations and the
losses due to pump fittings, etc. as 10% of all other losses.
Hlocal = 10% of all other loss
Total dynamic head = (Hemitter + H lateral + H submain + H main+ Hslope) + Hstatic
+ Hlocal
= 12.36 + 0.42 +10 +1.28
= 24.06 m
Pump Horse power,
𝑄𝑡 ×𝐻𝑡
ℎ𝑝 =
75×n𝑝

= 0.64 = 1.0
Hence, 1 hp pump will be adequate for operating the drip irrigation system
for irrigating 1 ha area of citrus crop.

Page | 49
 Chapter - 8
Fertilizer Application in Irrigation System

Fertigation is the method of application of soluble fertilizer with irrigation

water. Fertigation is a prerequisite for drip irrigation. Since the wetted soil
volume is limited, the root system is confined and concentrated. The nutrients
from the root zone are depleted quickly and a continuous application of
nutrients along with the irrigation water is necessary for adequate plant
growth. Fertigation offers precise control on fertilizer application and can be
adjusted to the rate of plant nutrient uptake.
Advantages of fertigation
Several distinct advantages of fertigation in comparison with
conventional application methods are as follows:
 The supply of nutrients can be more carefully regulated and
monitored.
 The nutrients can be distributed more evenly throughout the entire
root zone or soil profile.
 The nutrients can be supplied incrementally throughout the season to
meet the actual nutritional requirements of the crop.
 Nutrients can be applied to the soil when crop or soil conditions
would otherwise prohibit entry into the field with conventional
equipment.
 Soil compaction is avoided, as heavy equipment never enters the
field.
 Crop damage by root pruning, breakage of leaves, or bending over is
avoided, as it occurs with conventional chemical field application
techniques.
 Less equipment may be required to apply the chemicals and
fertilizers.
 Less energy is required in applying the chemical. Usually less labor
is needed to supervise the application.

Page | 50
 Criteria for chemicals application through irrigation systems:
 Avoid corrosion, softening of plastic pipe and tubing, or clogging of
any component of the system.
 Safe for field use.
 Soluble or emulsifiable in water.
 Should not react adversely to salts or other chemicals in the irrigation
water.
Equipment and methods for fertilizer injection
Injection of fertilizer and other agrochemicals such as herbicides and
pesticides into the drip irrigation system is done by:
i) By-pass pressure tank
ii) Venturi system
iii) Direct injection system
By-pass pressure tank: This method employs a tank into which the dry
or liquid fertilizers kept. The tank is connected to the main irrigation line by
means of a by-pass so that some of the irrigation water flows through the tank
and dilutes the fertilizer solution. This by-pass flow is brought about by a
pressure gradient between the entrance and exit of the tank, created by a
permanent constriction in the line or by a control valve.
Venturi injector: A constriction in the main water flow pipe increases
the water flow velocity thereby causing a pressure differential (vacuum) which
is sufficient to suck fertilizer solution from an open reservoir into the water
stream. The rate of injection can be regulated by means of valves. This is a
simple and relatively inexpensive method of fertilizer application.
Direct injection system: With this method a pump is used to inject
fertilizer solution into the irrigation line. The type of pump used is dependent
on the power source. The pump may be driven by an internal combustion
engine, an electric motor or hydraulic pressure. The electric pump can be
automatically controlled and is thus the most convenient to use. However its
use is limited by the availability of electrical power. The use of a hydraulic
pump, driven by the water pressure of the irrigation system, avoids this
limitation. The injection rate of fertilizer solution is proportional to the flow
of water in the system. A high degree of control over the injection rate is
possible, no serious head loss occurs and operating cost is low. Another
advantage of using hydraulic pump for fertigation is that if the flow of water
stops in the irrigation system, fertilizer injection also automatically stops. This
is the most perfect equipment for accurate fertigation.

Page | 51
 Two injection points should be provided, one before and one after the
filter for fertigation. This arrangement helps in by-passing the filter if filtering
is not required and thus avoids corrosion damage to the valves, filters and
filter-screens or to the sand media of sand filters.
The capacity of the injection system depends on the concentration, rate
and frequency of application of fertilizer solution.

Page | 52
 Chapter - 9
Modern Advances in Irrigation

Use of tensiometer for irrigation scheduling

A tensiometer is a simple and relatively low-cost tool that can be used to
schedule irrigation in crops. Tensiometers continuously measure soil water
potential or tension, which is a measure of soil moisture or soil water content.
This is generally expressed in centibars (CBAR) on a tensiometer vacuum
gauge. If the tension in the soil is high, plants have to use more energy to
extract soil water. If tension in the soil is low, then plants have lower energy
requirements to extract soil water. A typical tensiometer is a water-filled tube
with a porous ceramic cup at the lower end. After it is installed in the soil,
water moves from the tensiometer through the cup into the unsaturated soil.
This process continues until the negative pressure inside the tensiometer
equals the negative pressure in the surrounding soil. The pressure inside the
tensiometer is then in equilibrium with the pressure in the soil and can be
measured by reading a vacuum gauge on the tensiometer. A pictorial
representation of tensiometer in field is given in Figure 7.

Page | 53
 Fig 8: Representation of Tensiometer Working (a) and in Onion Field (b)
Table 8: General Guidelines for Understanding the Meaning of Tensiometer Reading

Reading Remarks
Soils are saturated or nearly saturated as a result of irrigation or rain.
0-5 CBAR Discontinue irrigation to prevent wasting water and leaching nutrients
from the root zone.
Crops should be irrigated as soon as possible. Irrigation should be
10-15
initiated at 10 CBAR during the flowering and fruit set, and at 15 CBAR
CBAR
for the rest of the growing season.
25 CBAR Plants show symptoms of water stress. The tensiometers may soon lose
and higher vacuum and require servicing to restore accurate performance.

Automatic irrigation system

An automatic irrigation system can be used to control time of irrigation
with the help of controllers and valves which operate the system, run
according to feeded time. A picture of the automatic irrigation system and its
different component is shown in Figure 9 and 10.

Fig 9: Controller Box of the Automatic Irrigation System

Page | 54
 Fig 10: Different Components of the Automatic Irrigation Systems
In the automatic controller system, several functions have a significant
role to apply the irrigation automatically through the drip system in the micro
plots.
Functionality of automatic irrigation system
a) Set time and date
b) Set programme start times
c) Set watering days
d) Set station run times
e) Special features (seasonal adjustments, remote access etc.)
f) Program display
g) Manual program operation
h) Water Level Sensor
i) Programmable fertigation
Use of modelling in irrigation water management
There are various computer programs available which are based on
analytical or numerical solutions that can simulate water uptake, water
dynamics in the soil and wetting patterns in root zones in surface and
subsurface irrigation systems e.g.: Wet Up (Cook et al., 2003) based on
analytical solutions and HYDRUS 2D/3D (Simunek et al., 2008), So-WaM
(Wesseling et al., 2009), Neuro-Drip (Hinnell et al., 2010), Coup Model
(Jansson, 2012) and Drip-Irrigation (Arbat et al., 2013) which are based on
numerical solutions. Models use the information about the soil and the root
system properties, the climate, and the plant/emitter configuration of the
irrigation system and simulate soil water status in the active root zone. DIDAS

Page | 55
(Friedman, 2016) is similar computer software based on analytical solutions
of the Richards equation for steady and unsteady water flow in point and line
source emitters/sources from surface and subsurface in semi-infinite soil
domain. (Mehla and Singh, 2019) used DIDAS software for optimizing
emitter spacing for Onion crop by running simulation for different lateral
spacing and compare results by comparing relative water-uptake rate (RWUR,
ratio between water uptake rate and irrigation rate for different spacing at
different depth to determine optimal lateral spacing for Onion crop. Modelling
can be used for evaluating existing system designs and irrigation schedules.
These softwares are especially useful as they decrease the need of costly and
time consuming field trails and experiments.
Experimental research on automation in irrigation
The various research experiments were conducted on response of crop
under drip irrigation as well as effective water management. (Sharma et al.,
2019) conducted a field experiment to investigate the response of different
level of irrigation on crop growth, yield and water use of summer rice crop as
well as estimation of crop water requirement for summer rice under drip
irrigation system. The results were compared with the surface irrigation
treatments. The result revealed that more water saving occurs in drip
irrigation. The growth parameters such as plant height, number shoot per m2
were found maximum in the surface irrigation treatments followed by drip
irrigation treatment. The maximum yield and water use efficiency was found
under drip irrigation treatment. The result shows effective use of water
through drip irrigation. (Sharma et al, 2019b) the average values of all
performance evaluation parameters except DC, were found to be highest for
automated drip system. The values of EU were more than to design criteria of
90% in each condition (Keller and Karmeli, 1974) for installed drip irrigation
systems, which indicate that both drip systems operated excellently. (Mehla
and Kumar, 2019) conducted a research on drip irrigation system in Kinnow
Orchard and found that the performance evaluation parameters DC and EU
varied as distance on submain increased and also along the laterals. (Sharma
et al, 2019c) conducted a field experiment for automated drip irrigation with
soil moisture sensor for growing okra. The result shows good correlation
between values of soil moisture content obtained by gravimetric method and
sensor output voltage as well as good correlation between soil moisture by
measured by sensor and soil moisture content by gravimetric method. The
system found very convenient to switch on and switch off the pump when the
water is applied, especially when farmer are busy in other agricultural
operation. This technique saves large amount wastage of water as well as

Page | 56
wastage of power and increases yield of okra crop by maintaining optimum
moisture content in root zone during whole crop period. (Sharma et al, 2019d)
conducted a experiment to study the effect of different level of irrigation
growth, yield and yield attributes and water use efficiency under surface and
subsurface drip irrigation. The results show that the plant height, number of
tillers per plant, plant dry matter and LAI for rice crop were found maximum
in the subsurface drip. Whereas, the water use efficiency for treatments under
drip irrigation was significantly superior to the treatments under conventional
irrigation. (Sharma et al, 2019d) conducted a field experiment at to investigate
the effect of chemical fertilizer scheduling on growth and yield performance
of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) under Sensor Based Automated Drip and
Conventional Drip System Plasticulture Farm, CTAE, MPUAT Udaipur in
year 2019. The fertilizer use efficiency was also found higher in sensor based
drip irrigation treatments, it was probably due to less leaching of irrigation
water with chemical fertilizer because of frequent irrigation as per plant need.

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 References

1. Arbat, G., Puig-Bargués, J., Duran-Ros, M., Barragan, J., Ramirez de

Cartagena, F. (2013). Drip-Irriwater: computer software to simulate soil
wetting patterns under surface drip irrigation. Comput. Elect. Agric. 98,
183–192.
2. Booher. (1974). Surface irrigation. FAO Agricultural Development
Paper 95. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization.
3. Cook, F.J., Thorburn, P.J., Fitch, P., Bristow, K.L., (2003). WetUp: a
software tool to display approximate wetting patterns from drippers. Irrig.
Sci. 22, 129–134.
4. Friedman, S.P., Communar, G., and Gamliel, A. (2016). DIDAS - User-
friendly software package for assisting drip irrigation design and
scheduling. Comput. Elect. Agric., 120:36-52.
5. Hinnell, A.C., Lazarovitch, N., Furman, A., Poulton, M., Warrick, A.W.,
(2010). Neuro Drip: estimation of subsurface wetting patterns for drip
irrigation using neural networks. Irrig. Sci. 28, 535–544.
6. Jansson, P.E., (2012). Coup Model: model use, calibration, and
validation. Trans. ASABE 55, 1337–1346.
7. Mehla M. K. and Kumar A. (2019). Drip Irrigation System Evaluation in
Kinnow Orchard. International seminar on “Sustainable Environment &
Agriculture under Global Climate Change-2019” at MDU, Rohtak,
Haryana, India, 94-95.
8. Mehla M. K., Singh K., 2019. Optimizing Drip Irrigation System Design
for Onion Crop Using DIDAS Software. Bulletin of Environment,
Pharmacology and Life Sciences, 8(2),64-69.
9. Sharma, V., Singh, Y.P., Gunjan P. and Singh, P.K, (2017). Effect of
Different Level of Irrigation on Biometric Parameters and Estimation of
Crop Water Requirement for Summer Rice Crop under Drip Irrigation in
Tarai Region of Uttarakhand, Int. J. Pure App. Biosci. 5(6):730-739. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.18782/2320-7051.6050
10. Sharma V., Singh Y.P, Kaur M. and Paradkar, V.D. (2019). Estimation
of Different Uniformities and Distribution Characteristic of Automated
and Conventional Drip Irrigation Systems for Okra Crop under Field

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 Condition. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci. 8(07): 2330-2333. doi:
https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2019.807.285
11. Sharma, V., Singh, P.K., Bhakar, S.R., Yadav, K.K. and Lakhawat, S.S.,
(2019). Integration of Soil Moisture Sensor Based Automated Drip
Irrigation System for Okra Crop, Ind. J. Pure App. Biosci. 7(4), 277-282.
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18782/2320-7051.7642
12. Sharma, V., Gunjan, P., Singh Y. P. and Singh, P.K. (2019). Growth,
Yield and Yield Contributing Factors of Rice Crop as Influenced by
Different Level and Methods of Irrigation in Tarai Region of
Uttarakhand, India. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci. 8(04): 1088-1098.
doi: https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2019.804.126
13. Sharma, V, Singh, P.K, Yadav, K.K, Lakhawat, S.S. and Bhakar, S.R.
(2019). Effects of chemical fertilizer scheduling on performance of okra
(Abelmoschus esculentus L.) crop under soil moisture sensor based
automated drip and conventional drip irrigation system. International
Journal of Chemical Studies 2019; 7(4): 3189-3191.
14. Sharma, V., Ramesh J.B., Singh, Y.P. and Mehla M.K. (2019. Technical
Manual on Conventional and Automated Drip Irrigation (Installation,
Operation and Maintenance). Academic Publications, November, 2019.
15. Simunek, J., van Genuchten, M.T., Sejnac, M., (2008). Development and
applications of the HYDRUS and STANMOD software packages and
related codes. Vadose Zone J. 7, 587–600.
16. Wesseling, J.G., Ritsema, C.J., Oostindie, K., Stoof, C.R., Dekker, L.W.,
(2009). A new, flexible and widely applicable software package for the
simulation of one dimensional moisture flow: SoWaM. Environ. Model.
Software 24, 1127–1132

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 Further Reading

1. ASABE, Design & operation of farm irrigation system, 2nd edition.

Finkel HJ 1983. Handbook of Irrigation Technology. Vols. I-II. CRC
Press.
2. Michael, A.M., 2008, Irrigation Theory & Practices, Vikas Publishing
House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
3. Mane & B. L. Ayare, Design Operation of Drip Irrigation, Jain
Publications.
4. Mane & B. L. Ayare, Design Operation of Sprinkler Irrigation, Jain
Publications.
5. Schwab, G.O., D.D. Fangmeier, W.J., Elliot & R.K. Frevert, 1993. Soil
& Water Conservation Engineering. Fourth Edition, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. New York.

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 About the Authors

Mukesh Kumar Mehla is Ph.D. Scholar in the

Department of Soil and Water Engineering, College of
Technology and Engineering, Maharana Pratap
University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur. He
did his B.Tech. (Agricultural Engineering) and M. Tech
Agril. Engg. (Soil and Water Engineering) from College
of Agricultural Engineering and Technology,
Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana,
India. He has been Awarded ICAR-JRF/SRF (PGS) fellowship during Ph.D.
He has qualified GATE 2017, AIEEA-PG 2017 and AICE-JRF/SRF (PGS)
2019. He has published 3 papers in various journals and 8 abstracts in
conference proceedings. He is Member of Indian Society of Agricultural
Engineers, New Delhi.
Yadvendra Pal Singh is Ph.D. Research Scholar of the
Department of Soil and Water Engineering, College of
Technology and Engineering, Maharana Pratap
University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur. Mr.
Yadvendra Pal Singh obtained his B. Tech (Agricultural
Engineering) from Uttar Pradesh Technical University,
Lucknow and M. Tech. (Irrigation and Drainage
Engineering) from College of Technology and Engineering, G. B. Pant
Agriculture University, Pantnagar (Uttarakhand). He has published 12 papers
and 8 abstracts in various journals and proceedings. He has also Co-author and
author of three book Chapters related subjective. He is Life Member of Indian
Society of Agro meteorologist, Anand
Jalgaonkar Bhagyashri Ramesh is Ph.D. Scholar of the
Department of Soil and Water Engineering, College of
Technology and Engineering, Maharana Pratap
University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur.
Jalgaonkar Bhagyashri Ramesh did her B.Tech.
(Agriculture Engineering) from College of Agricultural
and Engineering, Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi
Vidyapeeth, Dapoli (MS) and M. Tech. (Irrigation and Water Management
Engineering) CTAE, MPUAT, Udaipur. Jalgaonkar Bhagyashri Ramesh was
awarded with Jain Irrigation Medal for standing second in order of merit in M.

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Tech. (Irrigation and Water Management Engineering) in year 2017. She has
published 3 papers, 5 abstracts and 3 articles (Marathi language) in various
journals and proceedings. She is Life Member of Indian Society of
Agrometeorologist, Anand and Indian Society of Agricultural Engineers, New
Delhi.
Vikas Sharma is Ph.D. Scholar of the Department of
Soil and Water Engineering, College of Technology and
Engineering, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture
and Technology, Udaipur. He did his B. Tech.
(Agriculture Engineering) from Uttar Pradesh Technical
University (UP) and M. Tech. (Irrigation and Drainage
Engineering) from College of Technology, G.B Pant
University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar. He has qualified GATE
2014, AIEEA-PG 2014 and ASRB-NET in year 2018. Vikas Sharma was
awarded with Bronze Medal for standing third in order of merit in B.Tech
(Agricultural Engineering) in year 2014. He has published 11 papers, 10
abstracts and 4 articles in various journals and proceedings. He is a Member
of Indian Society of Agrometeorologist, Anand.

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