2.

1 Historical Background

Energy exists in various forms on the earth, its most important forms being
mechanical (or kinetic), chemical, heat (or thermal) and solar. Energy needs to
be in useful form at the right place and time and this is achieved by means of
converters, which change energy from one form to another, making it easier to
store, transport, or use for work.

Before the industrial revolution man’s energy needs were modest. He began to
utilize energy using his own body. The energy is replenished from the food he
eats. For heat, man relied on the sun. He also burned wood, straw, and dried
dung. Energy utilization became more advance when man began to use energy
provided by animals. As big animals like oxen, horses, donkeys etc. were
domesticated; people acquired more muscle power and more mechanical
energy, in more concentrated form. In addition to animal power, slavery became
an efficient means by which the wealthy and powerful became richer and more
powerful. Energy was used to dig ditches, build dams, hunt for animals, or for
fighting wars. These only accounted for only a few hundred thousand watts.

Windmills and watermills added slightly to the energy supply of agrarian societies
especially in Persia, China and Europe. In the 18th century however, coal
burning was used to tap hundreds of millions of years' worth of photosynthesis
through the use of steam engines, to convert chemical into mechanical energy.
Coal was also used for heating buildings and smelting iron into steel. In 1880, the
world's first electric generator was driven by a steam engine powered by coal.
Thomas Edison's plant in New York City provided the first electric light to Wall
Street financiers and the New York Times (History of Energy). 

A new form of fuel was surfaced in the late 1800s. Petroleum became a valuable
commodity for lighting. In the 1900s, engines became 30 times as powerful as
those of 1800s. High-pressure steam became better utilized. Steam engines
 became more useful as they were more portable than watermills and windmills.
They could fit anywhere even on ships and railroad locomotives.
Steam engines made it easier to transport coal on a larger scale and thus more
fuel became available to power more steam engines. Petroleum was processed
into gasoline and internal combustion engines came on stream. Energy utilization
therefore increased fivefold in the 19th century under the impact of steam, coal
and petroleum. In the 20th century, it rose by another 16-fold with oil, and (after
1950) natural gas and, less importantly, nuclear power.

Energy utilization in the twentieth century has accounted for the most energy
usage ever - about 10 times as much energy as in the thousand years before
1900 A.D.

2.2 Current trends in Energy utilization

More than half of all the energy harnessed since the industrial revolution has
been utilized within the last twenty years (Wiki). In 2008, the average rate of
power consumption in the world was about 15 terawatts. Increases in global
standard of living and the increase in world population have been responsible for
the high rise in energy utilization.

In 2009, world energy consumption decreased for the first time in 30 years.
Energy consumption growth however remained vigorous in several developing
countries, specifically in Asia (+4%). In North America, Europe and CIS,
consumptions shrank by 4.5%, 5% and 8.5% respectively due to the slowdown in
economic activity. China became the world's largest energy consumer (18% of
the total) since its consumption surged by 8% during 2009 (from 4% in 2008). Oil
remained the largest energy source (33%) despite the fact that its share has
been decreasing over time. Coal posted a growing role in the world's energy
consumption: in 2009, it accounted for 27% of the total.
2.3 Importance of Energy Study

The importance of energy utilization cannot be overemphasized. Fundamentally,

the utilization of energy is about people using energy to improve their daily lives.

Energy is the lifeblood of modern national economies. For developed nations,

reliable energy fuels the technologies and services that enrich and extend life. It
powers advanced computers, improves transportation, expands communications,
powers cutting-edge medical and much more.

For developing nations, expanding reliable and affordable supplies of energy

supports and even accelerates changes that improve and save lives. Reliable
energy means expanded industry, modern agriculture, increased trade and
improved transportation. These are building blocks of economic growth that
create the jobs that help people escape poverty and create better lives for their
children.

For these reasons and more, energy issues are vitally important and demand our
understanding. However, limited natural resources are growing concerns around
the World. This has created the need for efficiency in the utilization of energy.
Efficiency of energy usage has been regarded as one of the quickest, most cost-
effective ways to reduce the risks of global warming, climate change, acid rain
and smog .(Importance of Energy Study, 2003)

Improving energy efficiency is a key strategy in making the world's energy

system more economically and environmentally sustainable. Potential
improvements in energy efficiency exist in all economies and all sectors – in
homes, offices, schools, hospitals, factories, transportation systems, power
plants, district heating systems, etc.

2.4 Energy conservation

 Wikipedia (Energy Conservation) describes Energy conservation as efforts made
to reduce energy consumption. Donald R. Wulfinghoff (Wulfinghoff) however
provides a number of definitions to include:
 using less energy in a particular application
 Finding ways to purchase particular forms of energy at lower cost. This is
usually accomplished by negotiating with energy providers or by using energy
under less costly conditions. (Paradoxically, the latter method may increase
energy consumption considerably.)
 shifting to different energy sources of lower price
 Using “free” or “renewable” energy sources (Paradoxically, this is often
expensive.)
 Shifting to energy sources that are considered to be more desirable, or
less undesirable, with regard to non-efficiency concerns such as availability and
pollution. Such shifts typically
 Involve serious compromises.
 Conserving water and materials, as well as energy sources.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 1997) discusses the
sources of energy in terms of renewable and non renewable sources. The
agency affirms the importance of conserving current supply of energy. It
recommends that focus should be more on the use of renewable sources so that
natural resources will be available for future generations.

The renewable sources of energy are those sources that are constantly renewed
or restored naturally. They include wind, water, sun, vegetation, and the internal
heat of the earth. Non-renewable sources of energy are those natural resources
that cannot be replenished e.g. fossil fuels such as oil, gas, and coal. The major
sources of utilized energy in the world today are non-renewable. In the United
States about 71.5% of the energy used to generate electricity is from non
renewable sources while 9% are from renewable sources.

2.4.1 Renewable Energy sources

Nigeria currently relies heavily on oil, coal, and gas for its energy needs. Fossil fuels are
non-renewable. Their sources will eventually dwindle. They will become too expensive or
too environmentally damaging to retrieve. Renewable energy resources-such as wind
and solar energy-are constantly replenished and will never run out.
Larry West (West, 2010) provides a list of the top seven renewable
energy sources to include solar energy, wind energy, hydropower, biomass
energy, hydrogen, geothermal and ocean energy.

1. Solar Energy

The sun is regarded as the most powerful source of energy. Solar energy, can be
used for heating, lighting and cooling (in temperate regions) homes and other
buildings, generating electricity, water heating, and a variety of industrial
processes. Most forms of renewable energy come either directly or indirectly
from the sun. For example, heat from the sun causes the wind to blow,
contributes to the growth of trees and other plants that are used for biomass
energy, and plays an essential role in the cycle of evaporation and precipitation
that makes hydropower possible.

2. Wind Energy

Wind is the movement of air that occurs when warm air rises and cooler air
rushes in to replace it. The energy of the wind has been used for centuries to sail
ships and drive windmills that grind grain. Today, wind energy is captured by
wind turbines and used to generate electricity.

3. Hydropower

Water is a renewable resource, constantly recharged by the global cycle of

evaporation and precipitation. The heat of the sun causes water in lakes and
oceans to evaporate and form clouds. The water then falls back to Earth as rain.
It drains into rivers and streams that flow back to the ocean. Flowing water is
used to power water wheels that drive mechanical processes. When used to
rotate turbines and generators, the energy of flowing water can be used to
generate electricity. Hydropower is one of the major sources of energy for
electricity in Nigeria. The gross exploitable hydro potential in Nigeria is put at
approximately 14,750 MW. However, only 1,930 MW representing 14% of the
gross is currently being generated at Kainji, Jebba and Shiroro constituting about
30% of total installed grid connected electricity generation capacity of the
country. However, hydropower capacity in Nigeria still remains underexploited
(Ohunakin, 2010)

4. Biomass Energy

Biomass has been an important source of energy ever since people first began
burning wood to cook food and warm themselves against the winter chill. Wood
is still the most common source of biomass energy, but other sources of biomass
energy include food crops, grasses and other plants, agricultural and forestry
waste and residue, organic components from municipal and industrial wastes,
even methane gas harvested from community landfills. In Nigeria, the major
sources are wood biomass, forage grasses and shrubs, residues and wastes
(forestry, agricultural, municipal and industrial) and aquatic biomass. Biomass
can be used to produce electricity and as fuel for transportation, or to
manufacture products that would otherwise require the use of non-renewable
fossil fuels (West, 2010).

5. Hydrogen
Hydrogen as fuel and source of energy is not very popular. The technology
needed to realize its potential is still in the early stages. Hydrogen is the most
common element on Earth. When hydrogen is separated from other elements, it
can be used to power vehicles, replace natural gas for heating and cooking, and
to generate electricity.

6. Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is in the form of Steam and hot water produced from heat
within the earth. The steam or hot water can be used to power generators and
produce electricity, or for other applications such as power generation for
industry. Geothermal energy can be drawn from deep underground reservoirs by
drilling or from other geothermal reservoirs closer to the surface.

7. Ocean Energy

Energy from ocean waves and tides can be drawn to generate electricity. Heat
stored in sea water can also be converted to electricity. Using current
technologies, most ocean energy is not cost-effective compared to other
renewable energy sources, but the ocean remains an important potential energy
source for the future.

Energy conservation can be achieved through increased efficient energy use, in

conjunction with decreased energy consumption and/or reduced consumption
from conventional energy sources (EPA, 1997)

Energy conservation is also important because the consumption of

nonrenewable sources such as burning fossil fuels impacts the environment
negatively. Carbon dioxide is produced when oil, coal, and gas combust in power
stations, heating systems, and car engines. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
acts as a transparent blanket that contributes to the global warming of the earth,
or "greenhouse effect" which has environmental impacts such as rising sea
levels that can damage coastal areas, and major changes in vegetation growth
patterns that could cause some plant and animal species to become extinct. This
warming trend could significantly alter our weather and pose a threat to human
survival. Other effects include “Acid rain” a precipitation which is formed when
sulfur dioxide reacts with water and oxygen in the clouds. It is important to state
that every unit (or kilowatt) of electricity conserved reduces the environmental
impact of energy use.
Energy conservation started as a result of the "energy crisis" that erupted in 1973
due to the embargo of oil that was directed primarily against the United States by
Arab oil producing countries, in reaction to U.S. policy in the Middle East. Energy
prices in rose radically, especially for petroleum there were shortages of
petroleum supply. There were long queues at gasoline stations with threats of
insufficient heating oil.
It was then that the realization that energy sources may not be enough to cope
with mankind's use of energy became apparent.
Wulfinghoff (Wulfinghoff) explains that the concept of energy conservation was
not new at the time of the energy crisis but the energy crises brought a new
dimension to energy conservation. He summarizes the differences between the
pre-energy crises philosophy on energy conservation and that of the post energy
crises in a table as shown below.
 Old Energy Conservation New Energy Conservation
Energy sources are discovered Energy sources are being depleted,
ahead of demand. without replacement.
An issue for individual parties. A societal issue.
A technical aspect of individual A freestanding issue, struggling to
machines and processes. become technically integrated.
Perceived mainly as a resource
Perceived by everyone as an conservation and/or environmental
issue of labor requirements and issue. Distinct interest groups
fuel costs, to be addressed by variously seek to address it by
technical and economic means. economic, technical, political, social,
and/or metaphysical means.

2.4.2 Energy Conservation in Commercial buildings

The following are energy conservation measures that are commonly

recommended for commercial buildings (Common Energy Conservation
measures)
1. Building Envelope
For some buildings, the characteristics of the envelope (i.e., walls, roofs, floors,
windows, and doors) can have an important impact on the energy used to
condition the facility. Some of the commonly recommended energy conservation
measures to improve the thermal performance of building envelope are:
 Addition/Reduction of Thermal Insulation.
For building surfaces without any thermal insulation, this measure can be cost
effective.
 Replacement of Windows.
When windows represent a significant portion of the exposed building surfaces,
using more energy-efficient windows (high R-value, low-emissivity glazing,
airtight, etc.) can be beneficial in both reducing the energy use and improving the
indoor comfort level.
 Reduction of Air Leakage.
When the infiltration load is significant, leakage areas of the building envelope
can be reduced by simple and inexpensive weather-stripping techniques. The
energy audit of the envelope is especially important for residential buildings.
Indeed, the energy use from residential buildings is dominated by weather since
heat gain and/or loss from direct conduction of heat or from air
infiltration/exfiltration through building surfaces accounts for a major portion (50
to 80%) of the energy consumption. For commercial buildings, improvements to
the building envelope are often not cost-effective due to the fact that
modifications to the building envelope (replacing windows, adding thermal
insulation in walls) typically are very expensive. However, it is recommended to
systematically audit the envelope components not only to determine the potential
for energy savings but also to ensure the integrity of its overall condition. For
instance, thermal bridges, if present, can lead to heat transfer increase and to
moisture condensation. The moisture condensation is often more damaging and
costly than the increase in heat transfer since it can affect the structural integrity
of the building envelope.
2. Electrical Systems
For most commercial buildings and a large number of industrial facilities,
electrical energy cost constitutes the dominant part of the utility bill. Lighting,
office equipment, and motors are the electrical systems that consume the major
part of energy usage in commercial and industrial buildings.
 Lighting.
Lighting for a typical office building represents, on average, 40% of the total
electrical energy use. There are a variety of simple and inexpensive measures to
improve the efficiency of lighting systems. These measures include the use of
energy-efficient lighting lamps and ballasts, the addition of reflective devices, de-
lamping (when the luminance levels are above the recommended levels by the
standards), and the use of day lighting controls. Most lighting measures are
especially cost-effective for office buildings for which payback periods are less
than 1 year.
 Office Equipment.
Office equipment constitutes the fastest growing part of the electrical loads,
especially in commercial buildings. Office equipment includes computers, fax
machines, printers, and copiers. For instance, energy efficient computers
automatically switch to a low-power “sleep” mode or off mode when not in use.
 Motors.
The energy cost to operate electric motors is a significant part of the operating
budget of any commercial and industrial building. Measures to reduce the energy
cost of using motors include reducing operating time (turning off unnecessary
equipment), optimizing motor systems using controls to match motor output with
demand, using variable speed drives for air and water distribution, and installing
energy-efficient motors.
In addition to the reduction in the total facility electrical energy use, retrofits of the
electrical systems decrease the cooling loads and, therefore, further reduce the
electrical energy use in the building. These cooling energy reductions, as well as
possible increases in thermal energy use (for space heating), should be
accounted for when evaluating the cost-effectiveness of improvements in lighting
and office equipment.
3. HVAC Systems
The energy use due to HVAC systems can represent 40% of the total energy
consumed by a typical commercial building. The characteristics of major HVAC
equipment should be observed to determine the condition of the equipment, its
operating schedule, its quality of maintenance, and its control procedures. A
large number of measures can be considered to improve the energy performance
of both primary and secondary HVAC systems. Some of these measures are
listed below:
 Setting up/back thermostat temperatures.
When appropriate, set-back of heating temperatures can be recommended
during unoccupied periods. Similarly, set-up of cooling temperatures can be
considered.
 Retrofit of constant air volume systems.
For commercial buildings, variable air volume (VAV) systems should be
considered when the existing HVAC systems rely on constant-volume fans to
condition part or the entire building.
 Installation of heat recovery systems.
Heat can be recovered from some HVAC equipment. For instance, heat
exchangers can be installed to recover heat from air handling unit (AHU) exhaust
air streams and from boiler stacks.
 Retrofit of central heating plants.
The efficiency of a boiler can be drastically improved by adjusting the fuel-air
ratio for proper combustion. In addition, installation of new energy-efficient boilers
can be economically justified when old boilers are to be replaced.
 Retrofit of central cooling plants:
Currently, there are several chillers that are energy efficient and easy to control
and operate and are suitable for retrofit projects.
It should be noted that there is a strong interaction between various components
of a heating and cooling system. Therefore, a whole-system analysis approach
should be followed when retrofitting a building HVAC system. Optimizing the
energy use of a central cooling plant (which may include chillers, pumps, and
cooling towers) is one example of using a whole-system approach to reduce the
energy use for heating and cooling buildings.
4. Compressed Air Systems
Compressed air has become an indispensable tool for most manufacturing
facilities. Its uses range from air-powered hand tools and actuators to
sophisticated pneumatic robotics. Unfortunately, staggering amounts of
compressed air are wasted in a large number of facilities. It is estimated that only
about 20 to 25% of input electrical energy is delivered as useful compressed air
energy. Leaks are reported to account for 10 to 50% of the waste while
misapplication accounts for 5 to 40% of the loss of compressed air. To improve
the efficiency of compressed air systems, the auditor can consider several issues
including whether compressed air is the right tool for the job (for instance, electric
motors are more energy efficient than air-driven rotary devices), how the
compressed air is applied (for instance, lower pressures can be used to supply
pneumatic tools), how it is delivered and controlled (for instance, the compressed
air needs to be turned off when the process is not running), and how the
compressed air system is managed (for each machine or process, the cost of
compressed air needs to be known to identify energy and cost savings
opportunities).
5. Energy Management Controls
Because of the steady decrease in the cost of computer technology, automated
control of a wide range of energy systems within commercial and industrial
buildings is becoming increasingly popular and cost effective. An energy
management and control system (EMCS) can be designed to control and reduce
the building energy consumption within a facility by continuously monitoring the
energy use of various equipment and making appropriate adjustments. For
instance, an EMCS can automatically monitor and adjust indoor ambient
temperatures, set fan speeds, open and close air handling unit dampers, and
control lighting systems. If an EMCS is already installed in the building, it is
important to recommend a system tune-up to ensure that the controls are
operating properly. For instance, the sensors should be calibrated regularly in
accordance with manufacturers’ specifications. Poorly calibrated sensors may
cause an increase in heating and cooling loads and may reduce occupant
comfort.
6. Indoor Water Management
Water and energy savings can be achieved in buildings by using water-saving
equipment instead of the conventional fixtures for toilets, faucets, shower heads,
dishwashers, and clothes washers. Savings can also be achieved by eliminating
leaks in pipes and fixtures. Table 4.6.4 provides the typical water usage of
conventional and water-efficient fixtures. In addition, Table 4.6.4 indicates the hot
 water consumption by each fixture as a fraction of the total water usage. With
water-efficient fixtures, a savings of 50% of water use can be achieved.

2.5 Energy Perspective of Nigeria

Nigeria’s population drives its energy demand due to the high level of economic
activity. Its structure is measured by the total Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
alongside with its shares by the various sectors and sub-sectors of the economy.
According to Ohunakin (Ohunakin, 2010), the energy demand of Nigeria has
been forecasted to be approximately 2.5, 3, 3.5 and 4.5 folds between the years
2000 and 2015 and approximately 8, 13, 17 and 22.5 folds between the years
2000 and 2030 based on 7% (reference), 10% (high growth), 11.5% (optimistic)
and 13% (optimistic) GDP growth rate per annum, respectively. This increase in
demand for energy is due to the high level of economic activities expected in
Nigeria as measured by the total GDP.
In 2007, the total primary energy consumed was 11.4 million tonnes of oil
equivalent (mtoe) with petroleum products having the largest share of 67.3% of
the total consumption amounting to a total average consumption of 78.7%
between 2002 and 2007. This level of consumption was followed by that of
hydropower at 23.9%, natural gas at 8.7% and coal at 0.05% with their
respective total average consumption standing at 16.08, 5.17 and 0.04% for the
2002-2007 periods. Coal which generates 40% of the world’s electricity has
however been neglected for a long time in Nigeria because the existing coal
power production facilities degrade the environment through pollution.
Ohunakin also stated that PHCN records showed that as at 2007, electricity
generation was put at a total installed capacity of 7876 MW (75.9% thermal and
24.1% hydro), available capacity of 4914 MW (67.8% thermal and 32.2% hydro)
and an operational capacity of 3149 MW (68.2% thermal and 31.8% hydro).

2.6 Measurement of Energy Performance

Efficient use of energy is one aspect of energy conservation. For energy to be

efficiently used, it should be measureable. The key metric of interest is energy
savings. This quantity cannot be directly measured. Instead, the measurements
are estimated by taking the difference between:
(a) Actual energy consumption after efficiency measures are installed, and
(b) What energy consumption would have occurred during the same period had
the efficiency measures not been installed (i.e., the baseline).
The following are standard performance metrics that are usually determined in
the measurement of Energy performance (Barley et al., 2005)

1. Building Energy Use

Energy consumed in a building for heating, ventilating, and air conditioning

(HVAC), indoor lighting, facade lighting, domestic hot water (DHW), plug loads,
people movers, and other building energy use, excluding Process Energy Use
and Cogeneration Losses. When a building has multiple functions e.g., office,
retail, laboratory, parking, the energy use may be itemized for each Functional
Area for comparison to other buildings of the same types. Alternatively, the
building may be analyzed as a whole and reported as a mixed-use building.
Units: kWh, Btu, or Joules
Reported as: Monthly totals (tabular), monthly daily averages (graphical), annual
total, graph of peak day in each billing period.

2. Building Energy Use Intensity (BEUI)

= Building Energy Use ÷ Functional Area
Units: kWh/ft2, kWh/m2, Btu/ft2, or Joules/m2
Reported as: annual value

3. Building Lighting Energy Use

= Installed Lighting Energy Use + Plug-in Lighting Energy Use + Facade Lighting
Energy Use
Units: kWh, Btu, or Joules
Reported as: Monthly totals (tabular), monthly daily averages (graphical), annual
total, graph of peak day in each billing period.

4. Building Purchased Energy Cost

Portion of the Net Facility Purchased Energy Cost that corresponds to the
Building Energy Use
Units: CurrencyYear
Reported as: Monthly and annual values.

5. Building Purchased Energy Cost Intensity

= Building Purchased Energy Cost ÷ Functional Area
Units: CurrencyYear/ft2 or CurrencyYear/m2
Reported as: annual value
Cogeneration Electrical Energy Output
Electrical energy produced by cogeneration equipment that is either (a) used at
the facility in a way that offsets the consumption of purchased energy or other
energy generated at the facility, or (b) exported from the facility and used
elsewhere (e.g., electrical energy fed to the utility grid).
Units: kWh, Btu, or Joules
Reported as: Monthly totals (tabular), monthly daily averages (graphical), annual
total, graph of peak day in each billing period.

6. Cogeneration Fuel Use

Fuel consumed by cogeneration equipment.
Units: kWh, Btu, or Joules
Reported as: Monthly totals (tabular), monthly daily averages (graphical), annual
total, graph of peak day in each billing period.

7. Cogeneration Losses
= Cogeneration Fuel Use – Cogeneration Electrical Energy Output –
Cogeneration Thermal
Energy Output
Units: kWh, Btu, or Joules
Reported as: Monthly totals (tabular), monthly daily averages (graphical), annual
total, graph of peak day in each billing period.

8. Cogeneration Thermal Energy Output

Thermal energy produced by cogeneration equipment that is either (a) used at
the facility in a way that offsets the consumption of purchased energy or other
energy generated at the facility, or (b) exported from the facility and used
elsewhere (e.g., heat used at another facility).
Units: kWh, Btu, or Joules
Reported as: Monthly totals (tabular), monthly daily averages (graphical), annual
total, graph of peak day in each billing period.

9. Cold Storage Transfer

When positive, thermal energy transferred between an HVAC component (such
as a chiller) and a thermal storage medium (such as ice) for use in a cooling
function at a later time. When negative, thermal energy transferred between the
storage medium and an end-use load (such as Cooling Energy Use). That is,
Cold Storage Transfer is positive when the storage medium is being charged
(such as making ice) and negative during discharge (such as melting ice to cool
a building).
Units: kWh, Btu, or Joules
Reported as: Monthly totals (tabular), monthly daily averages (graphical), annual
total, graph of peak day in each billing period.

10. Cooling Energy Use

Energy used by air conditioners, chillers, heat pumps (when in the cooling
mode5), or other devices such as absorption or evaporative coolers that are used
to cool buildings. This metric includes compressors, water pumps, condenser
fans, cooling tower fans, pneumatic components, and controls. This metric also
includes dehumidification, whether it occurs in combination with cooling or in a
separate component.
Fan energy used to move air through a building, whether or not the air is heated
or cooled, is classified as Air Distribution Energy Use, and not as heating or
cooling energy use. (See also HVAC Energy Use in this section.)
Units: kWh, Btu, or Joules
 Reported as: Monthly totals (tabular), monthly daily averages (graphical), annual
total, graph of peak day in each billing period

References

Barley, D., Deru, M., Pless, A., & P., Torcellini. (2005). Procedure for Measuring
and Reporting Commercial Building Energy Performance. Battelle: National
Renewable Energy Laboratory.

Common Energy Conservation measures. (n.d.). Retrieved February 21, 2011,

from The Constructor: http://theconstructor.org/building/buildings/common-
energy-conservation-measures/1254/

Energy Conservation. (n.d.). Retrieved January 25, 2011, from Wikipedia, The
free Encyclopedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_conservation

EPA. (1997, August). Energy Conservation. Pollution Prevention (P2)Education

Tools . United States Environmental Protection Agency.

History of Energy. (n.d.). Elementary Energy InfoBook . Manassas: The NEED

Project.

Importance of Energy Study. (2003, April 15). Retrieved January 21, 2011, from
Building Energy and Reasearch Information Center, University of Singapore:
http://www.bdg.nus.edu.sg/BuildingEnergy/publication/index.html

Ohunakin. O. S., (2010). Energy Utilization and Renewable Energy Sources in

Nigeria. Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences , 5 (2), 171-177.

West, L. (2010, September 24). Top 7 Renewable Energy Sources. Retrieved

January 21, 2011, from About.com:
http://environment.about.com/od/renewableenergy/tp/renew_energy.htm

Wulfinghoff, D. R. (n.d.). Modern History of Energy Conservation, An overview for

Information Professionals. Retrieved January 21, 2011, from
www.ENERGYBOOKS.com:
www.energybooks.com/resources/modern_history_of_energy.pdf