NOTES OF INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT

Q: What performance characteristics of an instrument is essential for selecting the most suitable
instrument for specific measuring job?

Q: List the different types of electrical standards, d/f b/w

secondary and working standard?
A: All electrical measurements are based on the
fundamental quantities I, R and V. A systematic
measurement depends upon the definitions of these
quantities. These quantities are related to each other by the
Ohm's law, V = I.R.
The electrical standards are (a) Absolute Ampere (b)
Voltage Standard (c) Resistance Standard
Differentiate
Primary Standards: The principle function of primary
standards is the calibration and verification of secondary
standards. Primary standards are maintained at the National
Standards Laboratories in different countries.
Secondary Standards: Secondary standards are basic
reference standards used by measurement and calibration
laboratories in industries. These secondary standards are
maintained by the particular industry to which they belong.
Each industry has its own secondary standard.
Working standards: Working standards are the principal
tools of a measurement laboratory. Manufacturers of
electronic components such as capacitors, resistors, etc. use
a standard called a working standard for checking the
component values being manufactured, e.g. a standard
resistor for checking of resistance value manufactured.
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Q: (1)Eight students measured the center frequency of a band pass filter using the same method with
the following Results 652 Hz, 650 Hz, 648 Hz, 651 Hz, 654 Hz, 653 Hz, 649 Hz, 647 Hz, and Calculate (i)
the arithmetic mean, (ii) deviation from the mean, (iii) average deviation, and (iv) standard deviation. (2)
The precision of the 5th measurement.

1. The current through a resistor is 3.0 A, but measurement gives a value of 2.9 A. Calculate the
absolute error and % error of the measurement.

2. The current through a resistor is 2.5 A, but measurement yields a value of 2.45 A. Calculate the
absolute error and % error of the measurement.

3. The value of a resistor is 4.7 k-ohms, while measurement yields a value of 4.63 K-ohms. Calculate (a)
the relative accuracy, and (b) % accuracy.

4. The value of a resistor is 5.6 K-ohms, while measurement reads a value of 5.54 K-ohms Calculate (a)
the relative accuracy, and (b) % accuracy.

5. The output voltage of an amplifier was measured at eight different intervals using the same digital
voltmeter with the following results: 20.00, 19.80, 19.85, 20.05, 20.10, 19.90, 20.25, and 19.95.
Which is the most precise measurement?

6. A 270 ohm ± 10% resistance is connected to a power supply source operating at 300 V dc. What
range of current would flow if the resistor varied over the range of ±10% of its expected value?
What is the range of error in the current?

7. A voltmeter is accurate to 98% of its full scale reading. (i) If a voltmeter reads 200 V on 500 V range,
what is the absolute error? (ii) What is the percentage error reading of Part (i)?

8. The expected value of voltage across a resistor is 100 V. However, the voltmeter reads a value of 99
V. Calculate (a) absolute error, (b) % error, (c) relative error, and (d) % accuracy.
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Q: Classify the Analog Instruments on the basis of their principle of operation. Which three types
of forces are necessary for the satisfactory operation of any indicating instrument?
A: The analog instruments can be categorized according to the principle of operation. The following are
the effect uses the analog instrument for their operation.
 PMMC (Permanent magnet Moving coil):
Principle of operation: It is that the interaction between the induced field and the field produced by the
permanent magnet causes a deflecting torque, which results in rotation of the coil.
 Moving Iron:
Principle of operation: The working principle of attraction type moving iron instrument is based on
magnetic attraction, which attracts an iron piece when placed near a magnet field. Here, the magnet field
will be produced by an electromagnet.
Repulsion type moving iron instruments are used both for ac and dc measurements. In these instruments,
when current flows through the coil, the two vanes i.e., fixed vane and movable vane are magnetized and
same polarities are induced in it which results in a force of repulsion between them.
Definition: The instrument in which the moving iron is used for measuring the flow of current or
voltage is known as the moving iron instrument. It works on the principle that the iron place near
the magnet attracts towards it. The force of attraction depends on the strength of the magnet field.
The magnetic field induces by the electromagnet whose strength depends on the magnitude of the current
passes through it.
 Electrodynamometer:
Principle of operation: The Electrodynamometer working principle is very simple and easy. It is based
on the theory of a current-carrying conductor experiences a magnetic force when it is placed in a
magnetic field. Hence there will be a deflection of pointer that took place due to the mechanical force.
 Thermocouple:
Principle of operation: The thermocouple working principle is based on the Seeback Effect. This effect
states that when a closed circuit is formed by jointing two dissimilar metals at two junctions, and
junctions are maintained at different temperatures then an electromotive force (e.m.f.) is induced in this
closed circuit.
 Rectifier:
Principle of operation: Rectifier type instruments generally use a PMMC movement along with a
rectifier arrangement. Rectifier type instrument measures the alternating voltage and current with the
help of rectifying elements and permanent magnet moving coil type of instruments.
 Electrostatic:
Principle of operation: The electrostatic instrument works on the principle of mechanical interaction of
the electrodes that consists the opposite electrical charge. The electrostatic instrument consists the charges
of two opposite polarity and force of attraction occurs between these two plates.
 Hot Wire:
Principle of operation: The hot wire instrument is used for both the AC and DC current. Hot wire
instrument works on the principle of the thermal effect that the length of the wire increases because of
the heating effect of the current flow through it. When the current is passed through the fine platinum-
iridium wire it gets heated up and expands.

For satisfactory operation electromechanical indicating instrument, three forces are necessary.
SEE MAAM SLIDES ALSO
They are (a) Deflecting force (b) Controlling force (c) Damping force.
Deflecting force: When there is no input signal to the instrument, the pointer will be at its zero position.
To deflect the pointer from its zero position, a force is necessary which is known as deflecting force. A
 NOTES OF INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT
system which produces the deflecting force is known as a deflecting system. Generally a deflecting
system converts an electrical signal to a mechanical force.
Controlling force: To make the measurement indicated by the pointer definite (constant) a force is
necessary which will be acting in the opposite direction to the deflecting force. This force is known as
controlling force. A system which produces this force is known as a controlled system. When the external
signal to be measured by the instrument is removed, the pointer should return back to the zero position.
This is possibly due to the controlling force and the pointer will be indicating a steady value when the
deflecting torque is equal to controlling torque.
Damping force: When a deflecting force is applied to the moving system, it deflects and is should come
to rest at a position where the deflecting force is balanced by the controlling force.

Q: How do you classify analog ammeters and voltmeters?

A: Analog ammeters and voltmeters are classified together, since there is no basic difference in their
operating principles. The action of all ammeters and voltmeters, except those of the electrostatic variety,
depends upon a deflecting torque produced by an electric current. In an ammeter this torque is produced
by the current to be measured, or by a definite traction of it. In a voltmeter it is produced by a current that
is proportional to the voltage to be measured. Hence both voltmeters and ammeters are essentially current
measuring devices.

Q: Compare the operating principle D' Arsonval movement, PMMC movement and
Electrodynamometer.
A: D'ARSONVAL GALVANOMETER:
D’Arsonval Principle: An action caused by electromagnetic deflection, using a coil of wire and a
magnetized field. When current passes through the coil, a needle is deflected. Whenever electrons flow
through a conductor, a magnetic field proportional to the current is created. This effect is useful for
measuring current and is employed in many practical meters. Since most of the meters in use have
D’Arsonval movements, which operate because of the magnetic effect, only this type will be discussed in
detail. The basic dc meter movement is known as the D’Arsonval meter movement because it was first
employed by the French scientist, D’Arsonval, in making electrical measurement. This type of meter
movement is a current measuring device which is used in the ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter.
Basically, both the ammeter and the voltmeter are current measuring instruments, the principal difference
being the method in which they are connected in a circuit. While an ohmmeter is also basically a current
measuring instrument, it differs from the ammeter and voltmeter in that it provides its own source of
power and contains other auxiliary circuits.
Permanent magnet Moving coil Type –used for DC measurement only (PMMC):
Working Principle: Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Mechanism (PMMC) In PMMC meter or
(D’Arsonval) meter or galvanometer all are the same instrument, a coil of fine wire is suspended in a
magnetic field produced by permanent magnet. According to the fundamental law of electromagnetic
force, the coil will rotate in the magnetic field when it carries an electric current by electromagnetic (EM)
torque effect. A pointer which attached the movable coil will deflect according to the amount of current to
be measured which applied to the coil. The (EM) torque is counterbalance by the mechanical torque of
control springs attached to the movable coil also. When the torques are balanced the moving coil will
stopped and its angular deflection represent the amount of electrical current to be measured against a
fixed reference, called a scale. If the permanent magnet field is uniform and the spring linear, then the
pointer deflection is also linear.
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Dynamometer Type Instrument:
Principle: Electro-dynamometer type instruments are very similar to PMMC type instrument in which
the operating field is produced, not by a permanent magnet but by another fixed coil (usually two fixed air
cored coils are used). The PMMC instrument cannot be used on A.C currents or voltages. If A.C supply is
given to these instruments, an alternating torque will be developed. Due to moment of inertia of the
moving system, the pointer will not follow the rapidly changing alternating torque and will fail to show
any reading. In order that the instrument should be able to read A.C quantities, the magnetic field in the
air gap must change along with the change in current. This principle is used in the electro-dynamometer
type instrument.
Q# Outline the function and importance of a transducer in electronic instrumentation List five
physical characteristics (parameters) and corresponding transducers used to measure them?
A: Basically Transducer is a device which is used to convert energy or information from one form to
another. It is widely used in measurement work because some measurement quantity is not easily display
so its need to convert it into another form so it can accurately display measurement.
An electrical transducer is the cornerstone of electronics instrumentation because it converts the physical
quantities which are non-electrical in nature into electrical quantities and it can also be described as a
device which is capable to convert physical quantity into a proportional electrical quantity such as current
and voltage. This is because in instrumentation we need to measure the quantities and electrical quantities
can be measured easily.
There are five physical parameter and their corresponding transducer used to measure them:
1. Position (LVDT):
LVDT stands for Linear Variable Differential Transformer. LVDTs are a sensor used to monitor linear
displacement or Position. They convert the linear motion of an object into an electrical signal.
2. Temperature (Thermocouple):
A thermocouple is simply a sensor that is used for measuring temperature. It convert temperature into
electrical output signal which is in form of emf.
3. Pressure (Strain Gauge):
Strain gauges are devices that are commonly used by engineers to measure the effect of external forces
on an object. It convert pressure, torque, stress of an object into an electrical signals.
4. Frequency (Piezoelectric):
A piezoelectric transducer (also known as a piezoelectric sensor) this type of transducer generates an
electric voltage that is proportional to acceleration, due to the pressure applied on a piezoelectric crystal.
A piezoelectric accelerometer can accurately measure signals between 1 Hz and 15,000 Hz.
5. Light (LDR):
LDR stands long-distance relationship An LDR is an input transducer (sensor) which converts
brightness (light) to resistance. Its resistance decreases as the brightness of light increases.

Q# What is transducer? How do you classify them? Why are transducers important in
electronic Instrumentation?
A: Basically Transducer is a device which is used to convert energy or information from one form to
another. It is widely used in measurement work because some measurement quantity is not easily display
so its need to convert it into another form so it can accurately display measurement.
Classification of Transducers:
The transducers may be classified in various ways such as on the basis of electrical principles involved,
methods of application, methods of energy conversion used, nature of output signal etc.
 Primary and Secondary Transducers:
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When the input signal is directly sensed by the transducer and physical phenomenon is converted into the
electrical form directly then such a transducer is called the primary transducer.
When the input signal is sensed first by some detector or sensor and then its output being of some form
other than input signals is given as input to a transducer for conversion into electrical form, then such a
transducer falls in the category of secondary transducers.
 Active and Passive Transducers:
Self-generating type transducers i.e. the transducers, which develop their output the form of
electrical voltage or current without any auxiliary source, are called the active transducers.
Transducers, in which electrical parameters i.e. resistance, inductance or capacitance changes
with the change in input signal, are called the passive transducers. These transducers require
external power source for energy conversion.
 Analog and Digital Transducers:
Analog transducer converts input signal into output signal, which is a continuous function of
time such as thermistor, strain gauge, LVDT, thermo-couple etc.
Digital transducer converts input signal into the output signal of the form of pulse e.g. it gives
discrete output. Sometimes an analog transducer combined with an ADC (analog-digital
convertor) is called a digital transducer.

An electrical transducer is the cornerstone of electronics instrumentation because it converts the physical
quantities which are non-electrical in nature into electrical quantities and it can also be described as a
device which is capable to convert physical quantity into a proportional electrical quantity such as current
and voltage. This is because in instrumentation we need to measure the quantities and electrical quantities
can be measured easily.

Q# What Techniques can be used to design an ammeter and voltmeter?

The techniques which is used to design an ammeter and voltmeter are:

 THE ARYTON SHUNT OR UNIVERSAL SHUNT:
The Aryton shunt eliminates the possibility of having the meter in the circuit
without a shunt. Figure 3.3 shows a circuit of an Aryton shunt ammeter. In this
circuit, when the switch is in position "1", resistance Ra is in parallel with the
series combination of Rb, Rc and the meter movement. Hence the current through
the shunt is more than the current through the meter movement, thereby
protecting the meter movement and reducing its sensitivity. If the switch is
connected to position "2", resistance Ra and Rb are together in parallel with the
series combination of Rc and the meter movement. Now the current through the
meter is more than the current through the shunt resistance. If the switch is
connected to position "3" Ra, Rb and Rc are together in parallel with the meter.
Hence maximum current flows through the meter movement and very little
through the shunt. This increases the sensitivity.
 AMMETERS MULTI RANGE:
The circuit has four shunts RI, R2, R3 and R4, which can be placed in parallel
with the movement to give four different current ranges. Switch S is a
multiposition switch, (having low contact resistance and high current carrying
capacity, since its contacts are in series with low resistance shunts). Make
before break type switch is used for range changing. This switch protects the
meter movement from being damaged without a shunt during range changing.
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MULTI RANGE VOLTMETER:

As in the case of an ammeter, to obtain a multirange ammeter, a number of
shunts are connected across the movement with a multi-position switch.
Similarly, a de voltmeter can be converted into a multi range voltmeter by
connecting a number of resistors (multipliers) along with a range switch to
provide a greater number of workable ranges. Figure 4.2 shows a multirange
voltmeter using a three position switch and three multipliers R1, R2, and R3
for voltage values Vl, V2, and V3. Figure 4.2 can be further modified to
Fig.4.3, which is a more practical arrangement of the multiplier resistors
of a multirange voltmeter. In this arrangement, the multipliers are connected
in a series string, and the range selector selects the appropriate amount of
resistance required in series with the movement.

This arrangement is advantageous compared to the previous one,

because all multiplier resistances except the first have the
standard resistance value and are also easily available in
precision tolerances. The first resistor or low range multiplier,
R4, is the only special resistor which has to be specially
manufactured to meet the circuit requirements,
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 Working principle of the Moving Iron Instrument: The moving iron instruments use the
stationary coil of copper or aluminum wire which acts as an electromagnet when an electric current
passes through it. The strength of the magnetic field induces by the electromagnet is directly
proportional to the current passes through it. The plates or vane of the iron pass through the coil
increases the inductance of the stationary coil (the inductance is the property of the conductor which
increases their electromotive force when the varying current passes through it).The electromagnet
attracts the iron vane. The vane passes through the coil tries to occupy the minimum reluctance path
(the reluctance is the property of the magnet which opposes the flow of electric current). The vane
passes through the coil experience a force of repulsion caused by the electromagnet. The repulsion
force increases the strength of the coil inductance. This happens because the inductance and
reluctances are inversely proportional to each other.
 Thermocouples Principle of Operation:
In, 1821 T. J. See beck observed the existence of an electromotive force (EMF) at the junction formed
between two dissimilar metals (See beck effect).See beck effect is actually the combined result of two
other phenomena, Thomson and Peltier effects.
Thomson observed the existence of an EMF due to the contact of two dissimilar metals at the junction
temperature.
Peltier discovered that temperature gradients along conductors in a circuit generate an EMF.
The Thomson effect is normally much smaller than the Peltier effect.
 Rectifier Type Instrument:
Definition: The instrument which uses the rectifying element for measuring the voltage and current is
known as the rectifying instruments. The rectifying element converts the alternating current to the
direct current which indicates by the DC responsive meter. The PMMC uses as an indicating
instrument. The sensitivity of the rectifying instruments is high as compared to the moving coil and the
Electrodynamometer instrument. Thereby, it uses for measuring the current and voltage. The circuit
arrangement of the rectifier instrument shown in the figure below. The device uses the four diodes which
act as a rectifying element.