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Semester: Autumn, 2020 ASSIGNMENT NO. 2

ROLL NO: BY626671 Reg No: 19BZB00169
Program : B.Ed (1.5 Year) Course Code: (8610)
Course: Human Development and Learning
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Q No1: Describe emotional characteristics of elementary level students.

Ans: EMOTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS AT ELEMENTARY LEVEL

Learners at elementary level may exhibit the following characteristics,
• Difficulty in starting things but will continue to end.
• Worries related to school performance.
• Beginning of empathy sees others view point
• Sense of humor expressed in riddles, practical jokes, and nonsense words.
• Discrimination between good and bad but still immature.
• Is sensitive and gets hurt easily
• Has sense of possession and takes care of possession (makes collections)

Activities to promote emotional health at elementary level

A teacher can promote social-emotional development in classroom if he is sensitive
to children's needs, helps them feel secure and confident, and acts as a model for
effective social behavior.
Following activities can be used to develop emotional skills among learners:

Tone of voice
Learning Objective: To help children recognize that how things are said can be just
as important as what is said

Skill: Emotional communication, self-awareness

Ask the students what they think "tone of voice" means write down all of the ideas
on board. Give examples of different tones of voice.

Explain to the students:

The tone of your voice how you are actually saying something communicates what
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you feel Sometimes, how you say something can change the meaning of what you
are saving. It can even give the message that you don t really mean what you are
saying. Often, your tone of vo1ce can give stronger message than our Words.

Ask the children to sit in a circle. Going around the Circle, ask them to give examples
of voice tone that can change the meaning of what’s being said or communicate
the wrong feeling.

Example I: The first child in the circle says, "I love ice cream in a bored voice. The
next child then says, "T 1love ice cream" as though she really does love it.

Example 2: The next child says, "I have to do so much homework! in a happy voice
The next child says the same sentence in a tone he thinks appropriate, such as
unhappy or angry.

Provide every child a chance to participate in the activity.

Facial expressions
Learning Objective: To teach children the difference between facial expressions; to
identify possible causes for these expressions

Skill: Emotional communication, self-awareness t 2

Ask the children, "When you look at people's faces, what do their expression tell
you? Brainstorm ideas and write them on the board.

Tell them:
People's facial expressions show how they feel. The way their faces look can tell
you more than what they are saying. You can often tell whether a person 1s angry,
sad, or happy, even if you can't hear her words.

When someone is talking to you, it's important for you to use an appropriate 1ac1al
expression. If she iS saying something funny, you would probably smile; sad, you
might look serious; fearful. If you look bored, that person probably will not continue
talking with you.
What to do:
Distribute an activity sheet to students which displays various facial expressions.
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• Happy
• Angry
• Uncertain
• Disappointed
• Surprised
• Confused
• Proud
• Satisfied
• Shocked
Ask children to make their guess about the facial expressions and raise hand
Support the concept that they can tell how each child is feeling even without any a
being said. When asked the reason for each child's feelings, children can invent by
themselves.

Q No 2: Suggest some activities which may promote morel development at

elementary school level.

Ans: At this level teacher can use the following classroom activities to promote
development.

1: Telling and Reading Stories:

All children enjoy listening to and reading folk tales, fairy tales, and stories where
animals are the main characters. Teachers can select such story b0oks in Urdu or in
mother tongue.

2. Learning and Singing Songs:

Most children love learning and singing songs. Adolescents and adults also like
songs and singing, especially if they can identify with the music. Through poems
and songs moral values can be indorsed.

3. Role-playing a Story
Majority of children like to wear particular dress and acting out the roles of
different characters. For teaching the value of hard work, truth, empathy teacher
can use role playing in classroom.
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Characteristics of elementary learners:

In elementary school child can easily put himself in another person's shoes; can
show empathy.

Children are able to take need as an important reason for Kindness.

Children try to reason things out and increase their moral understanding. They
often shout "it's not fair.

It should be noted that elementary children will test boundaries as part of their
moral development. They are exploring where the line falls. This requires the adults
in their world to follow rules which are put in place. Failure to do so results in mora
ambiguity which the elementary child quickly picks up on, learning that we ao
really mean what we say. Not ideal when these children are forming their sense
morality.

Classroom activities for elementary level:

Teacher can help in moral development of students by inculcating moral values
through classroom activities. Some of the ideas are presented here; you can
innovate your own ways.

Thinking about rules

Objective: To teach children that some rules are inflexible, while other rules can be
changed.
Skill: Respect, creating agreement
Ack the group, "What does it mean to follow rules? What would happen if people
didn’t fallow them?" Write down their answers on the board or a large sheet of
paper.

Tell them:
Rules tell us how to behave. Some rules should always be followed so that people
don't get unhappy or have something bad happen. "Don’t steal," "Don't cheat," and
Tell the truth'" are all rules that should always be followed. In a group like this one,
there are certain rules that we follow so that everyone can participate. Some of the
rules are: don't disturb others, don't use bad language, and don't say things that
will be unkind to others. If we didn't have these rules, it would be very difficult for
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us to live together in a society. Other rules are more flexible. If your sleep time is
fixed, your mother might change the rule and allow you to stay awake later
sometimes. Rules can only be changed only if no one gets hurt.

Ask the children which of the following rules must always be kept and which can
be changed sometimes. Also ask them the reasons for their answer.
• Don't hit anyone in anger.
• Eat a balanced meal
• Keep your room neat.
• Don't talk behind people's backs.
• Listen to the teacher.

Children can offer other rules from home and school, and tell why these rules
should always be kept or can sometimes be bent.
Role model
Learning Objective: To identify positive qualities of role models.

Skill: Self-awareness
Ask, "What is a 'role model'?" Brainstorm ideas and write them on the board or a
large sheet of paper.

Tell the group:

models are people you admire. You may Ike their values, the way they live their
and the things that are important to them. You may want to copy their style.

Most people's role models are famous people celebrities, sports stars, politicians,
and so on. In this activity, try to think of someone you know personally who is really
great. It could be a parent, teacher, or friend.

Q No 3: What is language development? Explain the transitions and signs of

language development.

Ans: Language development is the process by which children come to understand

and communicate language. From birth up to the age of five, children develop
language at a quick pace. The phases of language development are wide-ranging
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among people. On the other hand, the age and the pace of language development
vary from child to child at which they achieve every landmark. As far as the
language development in children is concerned, it should be compared to the
standards and not with their fellow children. Usually the rate of language in girls is
speedier as compared to the boys. As compared to some other aspects of
development, it mirrors the growth and development of mind. After the age of five
it generally turns out to be much difficult for the children to learn it. Receptive
language develops quickly than expressive language development. Two unique
styles of language development are as under.

Referential language development:

Children at first express only afterward join them together, at first into sentences
comprising of two-word and later into sentences comprising of three-word. It is a
style of right time learning of language in which children use language for the most
part to label objects. This style is useful to young children because this way extends
their understanding of vocabulary.

Expressive language development:

Kids first utter sounds like babbles that copy the rhythm and beat speech. Most
kids utilize a blend of these styles, Another commonly known style involved in
language learning 1s expressive style. In this style little children apply language to
discuss their specific emotions and requirements.

Transitions in language development

There are several transitions that help to explain kid's acquisition regarding
language development.

First transition occurs when first year ends and it proceeds in the school year with
the emergence of words into essential vocabulary.

Second transition happens when children change from saying one word at once to
joining words into expressions and basic sentence about the end of school year.
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Third transition happens when kids move afar utilizing simple sentences to express
one thought to complex sentences communicating different thoughts and the
relationship between them.

Key signs of language development

Children everywhere throughout the world pursue alike model of language
development. Several milestones of which are as follows,

Babbling and gestures: Children dynamically make sounds from birth to onward
years to attract attention. These continue till the mid of the first year.
• Crying: Infants even cry during childbirth which can indicates trouble but
these sounds indicate many other things also.
• Cooing: Children first utter murmuring sounds which are pronounced from
backside of the throat and generally convey delight on interaction with the
care giving persons.
• Babbling: Amid center of the first year children babble, that is they deliver
series of consonants.
• Gestures: Newborn children begin utilizing motions. They may wave bye-bye,
node their head to signify "yes".

Recognizing language sounds: From birth up to six months of age newborn children
perceive sounds when they change, despite what language they originate. All
through the following six months, newborn children show signs of language
development at seeing the conformities in sounds from their language, the one
their elders speak and bit by bit lose the ability to differentiate that are not
noteworthy in their own particular language.

First words: Between 8-12 months of age, babies frequently show their first
conception of words. Children say their first words when they have been gesturing
to correspond with their parents regularly and utilizing their own particular sounds.
The presence of first word is continuation of this communication process.

A Child first word may be the name of individuals, well known animals, toys, body
parts, garments and family things. Kids regularly express different goals with their
one single word. The baby's spoken vocabulary quickly increases after the first
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word is pronounced. One and a half year old baby can talk around fifty words. On
the other hand near the age of almost two years they can have words around 200.

Two words utterances: Children during the age of 18-24 months speak two word
expressions. To go on expression with just two words, the kids depend very much
on motion, manner and the background.

As discussed above, we can summarize transitions and the key signs of language
development as,
• Children go through the different transitions in language development,
• These transitions help him in acquisition of language.
• Children follow different patterns in language development like babbling.
recognizing sounds, uttering one then two and then many words.

Q No 4: Explain the associative theories of learning.

Ans: ASSOCIATIVE THEORIES OF LEARNING

Psychologists have developed two principle types of learning theories to explain
how individual learn: behavioral or associative and cognitive.

Behavior learning theories tend to emphasize observable behavior, such as

classroom behavior or new skills or knowledge that can be demonstrated.
Behavioral learning theorist is particularly interested in the way pleasurable or
painful consequences of behavior change the individual's behavior over time.

A major goal of the behaviorist is to determine the laws governing learning. The
concern about the nature of learning has dominated academic psychology for most
of this century. A number of ideas contributed to the behavioral view. The Greek
philosopher Aristotle's concept of the association of ideas is one important origin
of behaviorism.
Associationism
Suppose when Bomb-Blasts you remember the event of Ojri-Camp. The whole
thought process reflects the concepts of association of ideas. Two events can
become associated with each other; thus when you think of one event, you
automatically recall the other.
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Aristotle proposed that in order for an association to develop, the two events must
be contiguous (Temporally Paired) and either similar to or opposite to each other.
As Aristotle said that learning 1s the result of association of two components, u
"Conditioning" become synonymous with association

Conditioning
Conditioning is considered by many psychologists to be the fundamental form of
learning underlying the development of some of the earliest response patterns in
newborn infants. Conditioning has been demonstrated to occur even before birth.
Through conditioning the organism's responses to a great variety of stimulus
situations are changed.
Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning may be defined as the formation (or strengthening) of an
association between a conditional stimulus and a response through the repeated
presentation of the conditional stimulus in a controlled relationship with an
unconditioned stimulus that originally elicits that response.
The best known experiment in classical, conditioning was performed by a Russian
physiologist and Nobel prize winner, Ivan Pavlov, who accidentally discovered the
conditioned response while performing a series of routine physiological
experiments (Pavlov, 1927) Pavlov was studying digestion and salivation in dogs,
using an apparatus which collected and measured the secretions of live animals by
means of tubes implanted in the stomach or cheek. In these experiments, meat
powder was placed in a dog's mouth and his salivary response to the food was
observed. Pavlov's assistants reported that after a number of trials with any
particular dog, the animal would begin to salivate when he saw the food, before it
was actually placed in his mouth. Soon he would salivate at the sight of the food
dish, and finally even at the sound of the assistant's approaching footsteps. Pavlov,
realizing that his phenomenon was of great significance, changed the course of his
investigations.
In this series of experiments which followed his chance discovery, Pavlov
established the terminology that is still used to describe this type of learning. He
applied the term unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to the food in the mouth, which
elicited the inborn unconditioned response (UCR), salivation. He demonstrated
that after repeated occasions
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on which a bell was sounded immediately before the food was placed in the dog's
mouth. The bell alone came to produce the increased flow of saliva. Pavlov called
this change in the animal's behavior a conditioned reflex or conditioned response
(CR); the previously "neutral" stimulus, the bell, had become a conditioned
stimulus (CS) by virtue, of having been presented with the food. A neutral stimulus
is one that before conditioning does not produce the response that the investigator
1s seeking. It may, of course, produce other presences, such as pricking up the ears
or turning the head.
Any stimulus that elicits an inborn response may be used as an unconditioned
stimulus in a classical conditioning procedure. In the case of the meat powder, the
stimulus is a pleasant one, but an aversive stimulus is a pleasant one, an aversive
stimulus may be used instead. For example, if the bell is followed by an electric
shock to the paw, the unconditioned response to the stimulus a flexion of the paw
soon comes to be elicited by the bell alone.

Pavlov's studies have had a widespread influence on the development of

psychological thought. The process of conditioning has since been demonstrated
experimentally in countless experiments with both animal and human Subjects,
and the Conditioned response has become a fundamental concept in modern
psychology.

Extinction and Recovery

Two other important phenomena discovered in Pavlov's investigations were
experimental extinction and spontaneous recovery, As long as the dog was given
food after the sound of the bell, his salivary response to the bell continued. But
repeated soundings of the bell without reinforcement (the presentation of food)
resulted in the gradual disappearance of the contained response, a phenomenon
known as experimental extinction. when the dog was allowed to rest for a day after
intense extinction training, however, Salivation again occurred at the sounding of
the bell. The conditioned response was recovered spontaneously". But on this
second day, with continued lack of reinforcement, the point of zero salivation was
reached in fewer frails; and within a few more days. The unrewarded trails resulted
in permanent extinction of the conditioned response. Without such extinction
training, a dog might retain the conditioned response for three or four months with
little decrease in its strength.
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Conditioning Paradigms
Five different paradigms have been used in conditioning studies. These procedures,
representing the varied ways in which a CS can be paired with the UCS, are not
equally effective. The delayed conditioning paradigm usually is the most effective;
the backward conditioning, the least effective.
(a) Delayed Conditioning
In delayed conditioning, CS on-set precedes UCS on-set. The termination of the CS
occurs either with UCS onset or during UCS presentation. If, for instance, a
darkening sky precedes a severe storm, this situation is an example of delayed
conditioning. The darkening sky is the CS; its occurrence precedes the storm and it
remains present until the storm occurs. Having experienced this type of
conditioning, a person will be quite frightened whenever he or she sees a darkened
sky.
(b) Trace Conditioning
With this conditioning paradigm, the CS is presented and terminated prior to U
onset. A parent, who calls a child to dinner is using a trace conditioning procedure.
In this example the announcement of dinner (CS) terminates prior to the
presentation of food (UCS). As we will discover in the next section, hunger
developed with this paradigm can be quite weak unless the interval between CS
termination and onset is very short.
(c) Simultaneous Conditioning
The CS and UCS are presented together when the simultaneous conditions
paradigm is used. The example may be when you enter and walk into the fast 1o
restaurant, in this setting, the restaurant (CS) and the food (CS) occur at the same
time. And probably it would lead to weak hunger conditioned to the restaurant.

(d) Backward Conditioning

In Backward Conditioning paradigm, the UCS is presented and terminated prior to
the CS.
(e) Temporal Conditioning
There is no distinctive CS in temporal conditioning. Instead the UCS is presented
in regular intervals, and over time the CR will be exhibited just prior to the onset of
the UCS. To show the conditioning has occurred, the UCS is omitted and the
strength of CR Assessed. What mechanism allow for temporal conditioning? In
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temporal conditioning, a biological state provides the CS. When the same internal
state precedes each UCS exposure, that state will be conditioned to elicit the CR.

Consider the following example for temporal conditioning procedure. You set your
alarm to awaken you at 7.00 am for an 8.00 am class. After several months you will
find that you awaken prior to the sound of alarm. Your internal state present every
day just before the alarm rings (CS) become condition to produce arousal; this
arousal (CR) awakens you prior to the alarm's sounding.
Connectionism Theory by E.L. Thorndike
Thorndike viewed learning as a series of stimulus-response (S-R) connection, or
bonds. His theories of learning describe the ways in which these (S-R) connections
could be strengthened or weakened. He felt that learning was basically a trial-and-
error enterprise, and he paid little attention to the possibility of concept formation
or thinking.

Thorndike's Puzzle-Box Studies: Around 1900, Edward L. Thorndike conducted a

series of studies on animal intelligence, a number of them involving cats in puzzle
boxes. The general features of the research situation were as follows.

A hungry cat was placed in a cage with food placed outside the cage, which was s0
constructed that the door to the cage could be opened by pulling a string
somewhere in the cage. Typically, the cat would make a direct and futile attempt
to get the food by typing to squeeze through the bars, clawing at the string, and
generally engaging in a fair amount of clawing and striking all over the cage. Given
enough of such activity, the cat Would eventually claw the string, thus opening the
door and enabling the cat to get the food. When placed in the cage again after a
time, the cat would behave quite similarly to its behavior on the first occasion,
clawing and striking about and eventually getting the door open. Over repeated
trials in the puzzle box, the cat would gradually restrict its activity to the area
containing the string and, only after a considerable number of trails, Would
eventually go directly to the string when placed in the cage observations and open
the door. These observations led Thorndike to propose that problem solving is a
matter of rial and error, with successful response gradually "Stamped-in" and
unsuccessful responses "stamped-out". There seemed to be no reason to attribute
to the animal any insight, reasoning, or understanding of the situation, rather it
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appeared that the psychologist's task was to identify the principles underlying the
strengthening and weakening of various responses to a stimulus situation.

Edwin Guthrie: Behaviourist Associationist

The last of the early associationists was Edwin Guthrie. Guthrie was the
behaviourist-associationist par excellence. Following directly in Waston's
footsteps, he rejected any psychological concept that might have "mentalistic"
overtones. He postulated one law of learning: learning by association or, as he
called it, contiguity. According to Guthrie, if a certain stimulus (or pattern of stimuli)
is followed by a response, then the next time that stimulus appears, the same
response will follow. That's all there is to it stimuli and responses in sequence.
There is no need to call on reward, reinforcement, or "effect" in order to explain
how learning occurs. He also believed that learning occurs the first time the
stimulus and response become associated.

To create conditions that will promote learning, Guthrie believed that the teacher
should provide the stimulus and the student should respond. For example, the
teacher might point

to a map and the students would then reply with the name of the city. The
important thing was for the appropriate stimulus to be presented before the
desired response occurred.

A frenzied mother once brought her child to Guithrie. The child had been in the
habit, on coming home from school, opening the door of his home, taking off his
coat, and throwing it on the floor. The mother told Guthrie that no matter how
many times she told her child to pick up coat and hang it in the closet, the child
continued this behaviour. Guthrie did not reach for any deep psychological
explanation, like finding out what throwing the coat on the floor symbolized, what
it "meant"" to the child. He simply told the mother to rearrange the stimulus
response sequence. When the child throws his coat on the floor, he should not be
told to hang it up. He should instead be told to put the coat on, go back outside,
come through the door and, only then, hang up the coat. Thus hanging up the coat
could become a response to the stimulus of entering the house, rather than to the
stimulus of the mother's command. "Take your coat off the floor and hang it up".
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The advice apparently worked, for then on the child hung up his coat correctly.
Fortunately for Guthrie, and especially for the child, longer sequence of S-R
associations did not form that is according to Guthrie's system, the child might have
forever learned to Come home, open the door, throw the coat on the floor, pick it
up, put it on, go back outside, come back in, their hang up the coat!

Q No 5: What do you mean by individual differences?

Ans: Experimental psychology has thrown adequate light on the nature and extent
of individual differences, the findings of modern psychological tests and
measurement have amply demonstrated that individual cannot fall into distinct
categories in respect of any physical or mental trait. On the other hand all measures
of individual, whether they be physical, mental, emotional or some other show that
they tend to distribute themselves according to the law of the normal probability
curve.

The normal curve is bell shaped and bilaterally symmetrical on each side od its
central tendency the mean. Just as persons are above the average as are below it,
starting with the lowest score gradually decrease until the highest score is reached.
For example, the following table indicates the distribution of intelligence according
to the normal probability curve.

Individuals not only differ among themselves with respect to a specific trait but
differences may also be noticed within the same individual when he is studied in
respect of various traits. Difference may also be noticed in the same individual with
respect to this performance of a particular task at different time. Runners differ in
the same distance say 2km. The same runner may cover the same distance taking
different times on different occasions. Thus there are inter-individual differences
and the intra-individual differences, and both must be considered in studying
individual differences.

Areas of lndividual Differences

Individuals differ almost in every respect. They differ in physical as well as
psychological characteristics. Some of the major areas in which they differ and
which affect their personality growth to a large extent are age, height weight,
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sensory and motor powers, intelligence aptitudes or specific abilities, interest

attitudes, appreciations and educational attainments. They also differ in their
hereditary, family background and environmental influences.

i. Chronological Age
One of the general factor of difference that influences school grading is
chronological age. A child enters school at a certain age, 6 years, and is supposed
to progress regularly in his schooling in terms of age factor. It is assumed moreover,
that all children should be able to profit similarly from instructions that is the same
or nearly the same in content and method of presentation for all learners on the
respective grade levels. Apparent in ability on the part of a learner to master study
material is explained in terms of factors such as laziness or stubbornness, that fail
to take into consideration the factor that learners differ in their ability to perform
in any one or more areas of learning material and at any one stage of development.

Chronological age as it represents the learners level of maturity and hence his
possible education, is and should be a factor of difference. No matter how superior
mentally or physically a child of three may be, he cannot be expected, because of
difference in degree of maturity to engage in learning activities that are suitable for
the nine year old. Further, readiness to engage in a particular learning situation
may differ from individual to individual on any age level.
ii. Intellectual Abilities
Views about the nature of intellectual abilities continue to change. For many
decades the idea of a general intellectual ability was very popular. Then, the idea
of a few primary mental abilities was added. Next, a structure of some specific
abilities was proposed. At present, a major attempt is being made to identify the
basic mental processes and learning strategies that underlie intellectual
performances. The testing of intelligence began on a widespread basis in 1916 in
the United States when Terman (1916) adopted the earlier version of an
intelligence test by "Binet" and Siman. Terman thought of intelligence as the ability
to carry on abstract thinking Thorndike (1926) defined intelligence as the ability to
make good responses from the point of view of truth or fact.

Wechsler (1958) developed on intelligence test to measure the aggregate or global

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Capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal

effectively with the environment. The Wechsler Scale included performance test as
well as typical verbal and mathematical test. Jone Miller and Moodie (1934)
conceived of Intelligence Dorn whereas Hunt (1961) viewed it as almost totally
determined by environmental on. "Terman" regarded Intelligence is determined
almost solely by heredity. Accordingly, he believed that the rate of intellectual
development was fixed by heredity and therefore did not change from birth
onwards. Cattel (1971) proposed two kind of general intelligence, fluid and
crystallized. Fluid Intelligence is genetically determined and sets the upper limit of
the individual's ability. How well the inherited ability is used and what forms it takes
depend on cultural factors including learning.

Crystallized Intelligence is based on environmental factors, and its observable

expression is based on learning. Accordingly, Fluid ability is necessary, but it is not
sufficient for the development of Crystallized intelligence. Moreover, Fluid
intelligence peaks at about age 25, but Crystallized intelligence continues to rise as
long as person continue to learn.

Primary Mental Abilities

Thurstone (1938) identified seven primary mental abilities, and devised tests to
measure them.
Thurstone's identification of primary mental abilities refutes the idea underlying
general intellectual ability that persons are equally able in all academic areas.
Instead, most individuals vary markedly in verbal, numerical, spatial and other
abilities. For example it is possible for a student to be in the top one-fourth of the
students of the same grade in one ability, such as spatial, or. mathematical, and to
be in the bottom one-fourth of the same students in another ability such as word
fluency or perceptual speed. The primary abilities emerge and reach full functional
maturity at different rates. For example, perceptual seed approaches full functional
maturity corresponding to that of adult status by age 20, Whereas word fluency
and verbal comprehension only reach such a level, respectively, of about 60%% and
80% of adult status and by 20% our verbal growth continues after we have peaked
in perception; speed.