Control Sytems Engineering

IIT-Jammu

September 12, 2021

Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology,

Jammu, J&K 181221
 2

1. [email protected]

2. [email protected]

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Contents

Introduction to the Control Systems Lab 7

0.1 Introduction to the Lab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
0.2 Introduction to Lab Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
0.2.1 Analog and Digital Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
0.2.2 Oscilloscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
0.2.3 Function Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
0.2.4 Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
0.3 Systems and Sub-systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
0.3.1 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
0.3.2 Characterization of Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
0.4 Questions to test your understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1 Lab 1: First Order Systems 13

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.1.1 Static and Dynamic Characterization - time domain . . . . . . . . 13
1.1.2 Transfer Function Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2 Laplace and Fourier Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.1 Frequency Response Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2.2 RC network - first order system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3 Aims of this Practical: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.2 Experiments to Perform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.6 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2 Lab 2: Temperature Sensor 19

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.1 Temperature sensor system: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.2 LM35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2 Aims: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3 Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.2 Dynamic characterization of the sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

3
Contents 4

3 Lab 3: Second Order Systems 23

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.1.1 Transfer functions, Bode Plots and Frequency Spectra . . . . . . . 23
3.2 Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.3 Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.3.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.4 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.5 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

4 Lab 4: Feedback Control of Voltage and Current 25

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.2 Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.3 Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.3.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.4 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.5 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

5 Lab 5: Building Blocks for Control Systems 27

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.1.1 PID controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.1.2 Pulse sequence to rate proportional voltage converter . . . . . . . . 28
5.2 Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.3 Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.3.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.4 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.5 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

6 Lab 6: Position Control System 31

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.1.1 Plant Model - Geared DC motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.2 Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.3 Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.3.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.4 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.5 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

7 Lab 7: Motor Speed Control 33

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.2 Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.3 Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.3.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.4 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.5 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

5 Contents

8 Lab 8: Temperature controller 35

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
8.1.1 Plant Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
8.1.2 Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8.2 Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8.3 Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8.3.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8.4 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8.5 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

9 Lab 9: Inverted Pendulum 39

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
9.1.1 Plant model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
9.2 Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
9.3 Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
9.3.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
9.4 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
9.5 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

10 Lab 10: Magnetic Levitation Control 43

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
10.1.1 Plant model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
10.2 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
10.3 Experimental Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
10.3.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
10.4 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
10.5 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Appendix 47
10.0.1 Introduction to Lab Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
10.0.2 Oscilloscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
10.0.3 Function Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
10.0.4 Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

 Introduction to the Control Systems Lab
0.1 Introduction to the Lab
• Students will be divided into groups of 2. Both students in each group must
participate fully in doing the lab.

• Please leave your lab table clean and tidy when you finish. Put away all instruments
and components in the correct places.

• Students should read the lab handout for the week before entering the lab.

• All labs have a preliminary report which must be completed before coming for the
lab practical. If you have not completed the preliminary report you will not be
allowed to do the lab.

• After the lab practical is completed the student must complete the final report
which must be submitted by the next week - before the next lab.

0.2 Introduction to Lab Instruments

There are three instruments that are the mainstay of a Test and Measurement laboratory
and you will use them frequently in this course; they are (i) an oscilloscope, (b) a function
generator, and (c) a power supply.
The oscilloscope is used to display time varying signals, the function generator is used
to deliver time-varying signals to a system under test, and the power supply is used to
provide electrical power to electronic circuits, motors, etc.
In addition to these lab instruments you will be given electronic circuits, motors,
sensors, etc., for each lab.
There are two kinds of connections between these instruments: (a) Power Connec-
tions, and (b) Signal Connections. Power connections use banana connectors which are
so-called because of their long cylindrical shape. Positive connections are usually red in
colour, and negative terminals are usually black in colour; when central “ground” con-
nections are used, they are usually green in colour. As far as possible, you must observe
these colour conventions. Signal connections use BNC 1 connectors and coaxial cables.
BNC connectors are bayonet connectors, which means they use a push-twist action for
connecting and disconnecting (push and clockwise twist to connect; counterclockwise
twist and pull to disconnect).
1
BNC is an abbreviation for Bayonet Neill-Concelman named after the two original designers Neill
and Concelman

7
Introduction to the Control Systems Lab 8

0.2.1 Analog and Digital Systems

This course is on continuous-time systems or analog systems. In such systems the value
of a variable exists for all possible values of time, and the magnitude of the measurement
itself has, in principle, infinite resolution. In this Control Systems Lab experiments the
systems used are all analog or continuous-time systems. Therefore, the mathematical
analytical tools learned in mathematics and basic engineering courses are fully applicable
for all the systems used in the lab.
Most modern test and measurement systems use digital electronics. This makes them
versatile, easy to maintain and with modern electronics, also cheaper in price. The
analysis of digital systems is quite different from the analysis of analog system, with an
added layer of analytical tools being required. Since the real-world or the physical-world
may said to exist in continuous-time all real systems necessarily have continuous time
analysis as an essential component. The digital component is a modern addition to make
complex analysis and processing easier and cheaper to implement.
For measurement alone we will use digital devices in the Control Systems Lab. Most
of the time the digital nature of the measurement instruments are transparent and you
need not worry about them. But there are several situations where the digital aspect
cannot be ignored. The two aspects where digital or discrete-systems are fundamentally
different from continuous-time systems is in that not all possible values of time and
magnitude are available - they are available only at finite or discrete instants and values.
In digital systems the finite intervals of time where the magnitude is read is determined
by the sampling rate and the finite values of magnitude is determined by the quantization.
Ignorance of these concepts can result in errors.

0.2.2 Oscilloscope
The oscilloscope is an important test instrument that can be used to display, and also
store, time-dependent voltage signals. You should become familiar with the oscilloscope
controls. When using the oscilloscope for accurate measurement we will regard it as the
combination of an ideal voltage measuring instrument and an input impedance across it.
Here is a short list of the main functions of the oscilloscope:

1. The vertical scale, sensitivity or gain

2. The time scale, or “horizontal sweep” or “time-base”

3. The trigger or initiation of the horizontal sweep – there are many accessory controls
for the trigger
a) Auto Trigger Mode is what you will use a lot. In this mode, the horizontal
sweep re-starts automatically, giving a repeated sweep of time from left-to-
right
b) Single Sweep Mode or single-sweep-capture is very important to capture tran-
sient signals. Using this requires good understanding of the trigger functions

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

9 Introduction to the Control Systems Lab

c) Roll Mode is not found in many oscilloscopes. This is convenient for looking
at fairly slow and long-duration phenomena

4. A very big advantage of digital oscilloscope are the data storing and transfer func-
tions; they allow storage of signals in digital form, and then transfer to a computer
for analysis and plotting.

In digital oscilloscopes the sampling rate can be inferred from the samples/screen and
sweep time.
Understand how to make amplitude and time measurements using cursors on the os-
cilloscope.
The signals stored in the oscilloscope can be copied to a USB-pendrive and transferred
to a computer.
Understand the concept of ground in all measurements, and the idea of isolated chan-
nels in the oscilloscopes in our laboratory.
The oscilloscopes in the lab are Tektronix, model number TBS1000 series. The wave-
forms on the screen can be saved and transferred to a USB drive for further analysis.

0.2.3 Function Generator

The function generator in the lab can be used to generate time varying voltage signals.
These signals that mimic the output of transducers and other real-world sources, can be
used to test various sub-systems that comprise the measurement and control system that
we use. The function generator delivers a voltage function, which can be represented as
a Thevenin source, i.e., an ideal voltage source in series with an impedance (resistance).
The value of the series resistance is important in determining whether the signals will
pass undiminished when connected to other circuits.
Understand the selection of waveform shape, waveform amplitude (minimum, maxi-
mum, offset), waveform frequency.
Understand sinusoids, pulses, noise waveforms.
Understand the use of modulation.
Observe how the output amplitude changes when you connect a load resistor across it:
use (i) 1kΩ and (ii) 22Ω. Set the function generator with the following values and see
the waveform on an oscilloscope: Waveshape=sinusoid, frequency=125Hz, peak-to-peak
amplitude=20mV, offset=400mV. Use this example to practice setting the oscilloscope
based on the expected signal frequency and amplitude, rather than randomly flipping
through the knobs.

0.2.4 Power Supply

The laboratory power supply is a versatile source of electrical energy that can be used
for electrical and electronic circuits. It has several independent voltage sources. These
voltage are adjustable. The power supply will also allow you to set a current limit
to prevent damage to devices and circuits. The voltage sources in a power supply are

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Introduction to the Control Systems Lab 10

regulated so that regardless of the load, the voltage is fixed. Poor quality power supplies
will deviate substantially from this ideal.
The power supplies in the lab have both adjustable voltage and controllable current
limit.
Connect an adjustable resistance (or use several fixed resistors) and understand how
voltage adjustment works with different current settings. Can you set the power supply
to deliver a constant current regardless of the load? What are the conditions?

0.3 Systems and Sub-systems

In control systems or systems analysis terminology a “System” has one or more inputs
and one or more outputs. An input or output is a time-varying physical quantity. In its
simplest and most common form a system will have one input and one output as shown
in Fig.0.3.1.

Figure 0.3.1: Representation of a system with one input and one output

An example of such a system is a public address system, where the input is the time-
varying sound given to a microphone, and the output is the time-varying amplified pres-
sure waves generated by the loudspeakers. This system consists of many sub-systems,
namely, the microphone, the amplifier and the loudspeaker.
It is mathematically convenient to analyze systems in the Laplace or Fourier transform
domain, as the output then becomes the product of the input and the system transfer
function, Y (s) = X(s) · H(s) as represented in Fig.0.3.2

Figure 0.3.2: The system Transfer Function is the ratio of the output to the input in the
Laplace Transform (or Fourier transform) domain

The Fourier transform is obtained by substituting s = jω in the Laplace transform.

The Fourier transform of the system transfer function is also called the Frequency Re-
sponse of the system, and when plotted against the frequency in Hertz gives a graphically
useful representation of the system behaviour.

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

11 Introduction to the Control Systems Lab

Bode Plots
The magnitude of the system transfer function plotted against the frequency on a log-log
plot, and the phase plotted against the frequency in a linear-log plot are the Bode plots
of the system. The logarithm of the magnitude is expressed in Bel, and the commonly
used unit is a tenth of a Bel, or deciBel, written dB.
 The value of the output-input ratio
magnitude in dB is calculated as: Gain = 20log10 outputinput
2

0.3.1 Properties
General properties of systems
1. Cascade of systems - Transfer functions can be multiplied

2. Commutative and Distributive

3. Inverse Laplace transform of the transfer function is called the impulse response

Constraints in Real World Physical Systems

1. Physical systems can saturate due to limitations of power supply or dimension.
Therefore, the permissible operating range is important.

2. Cascading and commutation of systems must take into account saturation effects
and offset effects in real systems

0.3.2 Characterization of Systems

In control system design, it is important to know the characteristics of the system to
be controlled. Both theoretical models of the system, and experimentally determined
models of the system can be used. In all the practicals in this lab you will learn to
characterize the system experimentally and as far as possible model it theoretically using
known physical characteristics. Good correspondence between theoretically calculated
models and experimentally determined models provides good validation of the models.

Methods of Dynamic Characterization

There are two main methods of system characterization that are used widely and will
also be used in this lab.

Frequency Response In this method, the response of the system to sinusoidal inputs
of different frequencies is determined. The input-output amplitude gain and phase shift
are measured. This gives us the Fourier transform values, and therefore, the Transfer
Function of the system under test.
2
The gain is the ratio of output power to input power, and since Power ∝ Amplitude2 , the additional
factor of 2 is introduced

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Introduction to the Control Systems Lab 12

Step Response It is not possible to apply sinusoidally varying input signals in many
cases. In such situations it is usually possible to apply a sudden abrupt change in input,
called a step-change of input, or simply step-input. Using the step response, we can
determine the characterstics of the system, by estimating or assuming the order of the
system. The order of the system corresponds to the order of the differential equations
required to describe it.

0.4 Questions to test your understanding

1. What are the common trigger methods in an oscilloscope?

2. Mention 3 advantages of a digital storage oscilloscope over an analog oscilloscope.

What advantage does an analog oscilloscope have over a digital one?

3. If an oscilloscope has a sweep setting of 10ms/div, and 2500 points/sweep, what is

the sampling rate?

4. Using a 25 kHz sinusoidal signal from the function generator, observe it with oscil-
loscope time settings of 100ms/div, 10ms/div, 1ms/div. Determine the apparent
frequency of the signal in each case.

5. If the power supply voltage is set to 30 volts, and the current limit set to 10mA,
then what will be voltage across a resistor that varies from 0 Ohms to 220 Ohms?
What is the current?

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

1 Lab 1: First Order Systems

1.1 Introduction
All the systems we will discuss in this course are linear systems. In simple terms, a linear
system has the same response to a very small signal and to a very large signal.
First order systems are described by a first-order differential equation.

1.1.1 Static and Dynamic Characterization - time domain

Static Calibration
Static calibration determines the input-output relationship without considering time de-
pendence. This is also called steady-state calibration. If the static input-output rela-
tionship is a straight line it is said to be a linear input-output relationship, and can be
algebraically expressed using the equation of a straight line. If the input is a variable x,
and the output is a variable y:
y = c + ax (1.1.1)
The constant a is the sensitivity of the transducer and c is a constant offset. The
sensitivity of a transducer or system is its most important property. It is usually desirable
to have no offset, and we try to make c = 0.
Static calibration is performed by applying different values of input and measuring the
corresponding output.

Non-Linearity
If the input-output relationship is non-linear then it is desirable to linearize it. The
linearization can be done using analog devices or after digitization.
Linearization in a modern digital system can be done either by using transformation
equations or by using look-up tables.

Dynamic Calibration
Dynamic calibration determines the input-output relationship that may be a function of
time. If the input-output relationship does not depend on the rate of change of any of the
quantities, then it is a zero order system, and such a system is completely characterized
by its static calibration. A zero order system has a perfect or ideal time response as the
output function is a purely scaled (and possibly amplitude shifted, or offset) version of
the input.

13
Lab 1: First Order Systems 14

Zero Order System

A zero-order system has no time dependence and contains no time-derivatives. The input-
output relation is given by a linear algebraic equation, for a linear zero-order system. In
the following equation we explicitly indicate that the input variable, x(t), and the output
variable, y(t), are both functions of the independent variable time, t.

y(t) = c + ax(t) (1.1.2)

The values a and c are constants that represent the properties of the system.

First Order System

A system whose input output relationship contains first derivatives is called a first order
system. The input-output relationship can be described by a first order differential
equation. For example, if x(t) is the input and y(t) is the output:

dy(t)
y(t) + b = ax(t) (1.1.3)
dt
Here, a and b, are constants representing properties of the system.

1.1.2 Transfer Function Estimation

Direct Estimation of the Frequency Response
Using a sinusoidal input of known frequency and amplitude we can measure the output
and calculate the magnitude of the gain and the phase shift as shown in Fig.1.1.1.

Figure 1.1.1: Response to a sinusoidal input

Step Response
For this system, if a step change in input is given at time zero,

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

15 Lab 1: First Order Systems

(
0 t<0
x(t) = (1.1.4)
1 t≥0
then the output is given by the function:
(
0 t<0
ys (t) =   (1.1.5)
a 1−e −t/b t≥0
This describes many commonly used systems like mercury in glass thermometers.
From eq.1.1.5 we can get:

ys (t) = a t→∞
We can next determine the value of b from eq.1.1.5.

Figure 1.1.2: Response of a first-order system to a step input. Time scale=100ms/div

1.2 Laplace and Fourier Transforms

The Laplace transform can be used to solve differential equations and therefore is valuable
in analyzing the dynamic response of first and second order systems. In the Laplace
domain the ratio of the Output to the Input is called the transfer function. The transfer
function is general form of the sensitivity of a system.
In the case of the first order system above, we can take the Laplace transform of
eq.1.1.3 and write the input-output transfer ratio as:

Y (s) a
= (1.2.1)
X(s) 1 + bs
The Laplace transform is a purely mathematical tool and does not have any physical
meaning. A special case of the Laplace transform is the Fourier transform which can
be obtained
√ by replacing the Laplace variable s by the complex frequency jω. Here
j = −1 and ω is the angular frequency in radians/second (ω = 2πf , where f is the

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Lab 1: First Order Systems 16

frequency in cycles/second or Hertz). The Fourier transform obtained by substituting

s = jω yields the frequency domain representation of the system. The Laplace transform
(and implicitly the Fourier transform) of the input-output relation is referred to as the
transfer function of the system.
Applying the Fourier transform to a time function or signal, describes the time function
in terms of a set of sinusoids (with a specific set of amplitude and phase values) - this is
the frequency spectrum of the signal.
Applying the Fourier transform to a transfer function describes the frequency re-
sponse of the system (with a frequency dependent gain, and a frequency dependent
phase shift). Taking the Fourier transform of eq.1.2.1 and separating the real and imag-
inary parts using complex algebra, we have:

Y (jω) a abω
= 2 2
−j
X(jω) (1 + b ω ) (1 + b2 ω 2 )
we can now get the magnitude and phase:
   
 Y (jω) 
 = √ a , ∠
Y (jω)
= tan−1 (−bω) (1.2.2)
 X(jω)  2
1+b ω 2 X(jω)

1.2.1 Frequency Response Plots

The transfer function of a system can be represented graphically by plotting (a) the gain
magnitude and (b) the phase against the frequency. These frequency plots are convenient
ways of describing the system.
The gain magnitude and phase in eq.1.2.2 are usually plotted against frequency in
a log-log scale (gain) and linear-log plot (phase) as shown in Fig.1.2.1. Such  Y plots are
called Bode plots. The unit used for gain is deciBels (dB), which is 20log10  X .
In the above discussion we used a step function as the test signal. Sometimes it is
possible to use sinusoidal signals to test the system, in which case the input-output gain
and input-output phase difference can be directly measured for each sine frequency and
plotted as in Fig.1.2.1. A set of frequencies in the range of interest must be used for such
a test. An advantage of using sinusoidal test signals is that prior assumption about the
order of the system is not required.

1.2.2 RC network - first order system

We will use a resistor-capacitor network shown in Fig. to study the behaviour of first
order systems.

1.3 Aims of this Practical:

1. To experimentally determine the frequency response of a first-order system using
a sample electrical RC circuit

2. To experimentally determine the step response of a first-order system.

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

17 Lab 1: First Order Systems

Figure 1.2.1: Magnitude and Phase of the transfer function plotted against frequency on
log-log scales

Figure 1.2.2: RC circuit network as first-order system

1.4 Experiments
1.4.1 Material Required
1. Oscilloscope

2. Function Generator

3. Power Supply

4. Breadboard, Resistor, Capacitor, wires

1.4.2 Experiments to Perform

1. Using the frequencies, in the range 1Hz to 1000 Hz, determine the voltage gain and
the phase shift of the input-output of the given RC circuit.

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Lab 1: First Order Systems 18

2. Using rectangular pulses of duration 500ms and amplitude 1V, obtain the step
response of the system.

1.5 Preliminary Report

1
1. Given the transfer function: G(s) = 1+0.03s draw the Bode plots in the range
0.01 < f < 1000.

2. For the circuit of Fig.1.2.2 write the equation relating the output voltage to the
input voltage in the form of eq.1.1.3

3. For a massless mechanical system comprising a dashpot and spring in parallel, what
is the relation between the force and displacement. Write the differential equation
and the transfer function. Add a mass to the system and write the equation for
force-displacement transfer function.

1.6 Final Report

1. Draw the frequency response of the given system as Bode plots of magnitude and
phase

2. Determine the corner frequency (the frequency where the gain is 3dB less than that
at very low frequencies).

3. From the step response calculate the time constant.

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

2 Lab 2: Temperature Sensor

2.1 Introduction

Any sub-system which may be a sensor, actuator or even a mathematical operation can
be characterized in terms of their input-output relation. In this lab practical we will use
an electronic temperature sensor and determine its system characteristics.
LM35 is a single chip integrated circuit temperature sensor. The temperature sen-
sor is a silicon bandgap temperature sensor, in which the forward junction voltage of
a PN junction varies as a function of temperature and current through the junction.
The IC LM35 has additional electronic circuitry to convert the temperature sensitive
semiconductor junction voltage into an output proportional to the temperature in o C.

2.1.1 Temperature sensor system:

The semiconductor temperature sensor is encased in a plastic package for field use. This
casing conducts the temperature on the outside of the casing and the sensor and this
involves a time dependence of the temperature change of the semiconductor sensor.
Fig.2.1.1 shows a representation of the semiconductor sensor inside the plastic casing. In
LM35 used in this lab, 3 electrical leads are provided for connection. Two leads are for
the power supply to bias the electronics. A supply voltage of 5V may be given - be very
careful to observe the polarity of the supply voltage. The centre lead is the output volt-
age, and the output is given by the equation: Vo = 0.01 · T where T is the temperature
in o C.

Figure 2.1.1: Semiconductor temperature sensor embedded in a plastic casing

19
Lab 2: Temperature Sensor 20

Thermal conduction

If the temperature at the surface of the casing is T1 , the temperature of the sensor, T2 ,
depends on the properties and dimensions of the intervening material and is given by the
equation:

dT2 (t) kA
= [T2 (t) − T1 (t)] (2.1.1)
dt mcd

m=sensing element mass (kg)

c=sensing element specific heat (J.K −1 .kg−1 ); for silicon, c = 700 J/o K/kg
k=casing thermal conductivity (W.m−1 .K −1 ); For plastic, k ≈ 0.5 W/m/o K
A=casing surface area (m2 )
d=thickness of casing material (m)
This is the equation of a first-order system, and we should perform dynamic charac-
terization to obtain the transfer function of the sensor.

2.1.2 LM35
Fig.2.1.2 shows the functional block schematic of the temperature sensing IC, LM35.
The supply voltage can be up to 30V. Note that both the supply and the output voltage
are with reference to the terminal labelled Gnd.

Figure 2.1.2: Functional diagram of the sensor LM35

2.2 Aims:
1. To characterize the temperature sensor LM35

2. To determine the transfer function and the order of the system.

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

21 Lab 2: Temperature Sensor

2.3 Experimental Procedure

2.3.1 Material Required
1. Oscilloscope

2. Power Supply

3. LM35

2.3.2 Dynamic characterization of the sensor

Applying sinusoidal temperature changes is not possible. Therefore, we will use a step
change in temperature for dynamic characterization. A beaker of water at a temperature
about 20o C above the ambient temperature is used to provide the step change. Connect
the LM35 to a power supply and the output to an oscilloscope. Set the sweep-time
of the oscilloscope to be about 1s/div. With the LM35 in air ensure that the output
corresponds to the ambient air temperature. Immerse the LM35 quickly into the water
and capture the transient voltage change. Use triggered single sweep capture.

Figure 2.3.1: Experimental application of a step change in temperature

The response of the LM35 to the step change in temperature will be a first-order
response based on eq.2.1.1, and as shown in Fig.2.3.2. From this the time constant of the
system response can be determined. Using the time constant and assuming the system to
be a first order system based on the physics given by eq.2.1.1, we can write the transfer
function and draw the frequency response.
You can either make measurements on the oscilloscope itself or you can transfer the
waveform to a computer and perform the calculations.

2.4 Preliminary Report

1. LM35 is in a TO92 package which has a height of 4mm and width of 4mm. Assum-
ing that this is a cylinder, calculate the parameters of the package. Assume that

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Lab 2: Temperature Sensor 22

Figure 2.3.2: Step change in temperature shown in the upper graph results in the response
shown in the lower graph

the sensor inside is made of silicon and has a mass of 5mg. Using eq.2.1.1 calculate
the theoretical time constant of the system.

2. Write the transfer function for this system.

2.5 Final Report

1. Draw the step-response of the sensor measured in the lab. What is the time con-
stant? What is the corner frequency?

2. Draw the Bode plots of the frequency response.

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu