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Biomes – large biological

communities
 Occur in the absence of
Chapter II. human disturbance

Biomes and Biodiversity  Combination of average

annual temperature and
annual precipitation and
I. Terrestrial Biomes and contain distinctive plant
Different Forest Formations in growth forms that are
the Philippines adapted to that climate
 Important characteristics of
each biomes is its
biodiversity

Location of the world’s biomes Climate diagram

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T
Three major categories of terrestrial biomes u
n
1. Tundra and Boreal Forest
2. Temperate d
• cold and treeless, with • growing season is very short,
3. Tropical r low-growing vegetation usually only about 4 months
during summer
Within these categories are a total of nine biomes a • soil is completely frozen
• PERMAFROST (underlying
(1) Tundra, (2) Boreal Forest, (3) Temperate Rainforest, (4) • Arctic tundra is found in the subsoil) – impermeable,
Temperate Seasonal Forest, (5) Woodland/Shrubland, (6) Temperate northernmost regions of the permanently frozen
Grassland/Cold Desert, (7) Tropical Rainforest, (8) Tropical Seasonal Northern Hemisphere in • small woody shrubs, mosses,
Forest/Savanna, (9) Subtropical Desert Russia, Canada, Scandinavia heaths & lichens; decomposition
and Alaska is slow

• Average annual temperatures • combination of mild

Boreal Forest between 5 and 20 C, moderate
temperatures and high
temperatures and high
precipitation – large trees
precipitation
• sometimes called taiga • Subarctic biome – • Coastal biome, West coast of
very cold climate, North America from northern
• forests made up and plant growth is
primarily of coniferous more constrained by California to Alaska, in southern
(cone-bearing) temperature than by Chile, on the west coast of New
evergreen trees that precipitation Zealand and on the island of
can tolerate cold • Slow decomposition Tasmania, which is off the coast of
winters and short Australia
• Waxy needles –
growing season resistant to • Winters are rainy & summers are
• found between 50 to decomposition foggy
60 in Europe, Russia, • Pine, spruce, fir,
North America maple, aspen
Temperate Rainforest

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• more abundant than

temperate rainforests
• broadleaf deciduous trees Woodland/Shrubland • Coast of southern America
• called temperate deciduous (matorral), southwestern
• Eastern United States, forest Australia (mallee),
Japan, China, Europe, Chile southern Africa (fynbos),
& eastern Australia • rapid decomposition – more large region surrounding
nutrients the Meditterranean Sea
• receives 1 m (39 inches of (maquis), Southern
precipitation annually) • Have higher productivity
California (chaparral)
than boreal forest
• warmer summers & colder • Hot, dry summers and
winters than temperate • One of the first biomes to • Occurrence of wildfires mild, rainy winters
rainforest be converted to agriculture • Drought resistant shrubs • 12 month growing season
such as yucca, scub oak but plant growth is
Temperate and sagebrush constrained by low
• Low in nutrients temperature in summer &
Seasonal • Grazing animals, by relatively low
Forest growing grapes temperatures in winter

Temperate Grassland/Cold Desert Tropical Rainforest

• Lowest average annual precipitation of any • Lie within approximately 20 N and S of the
temperate biome equator
• Great Plains of North America (prairies), • Central and South America, Africa, Southeast
South America (pampas), central asia and Asia, & northeastern Australia
eastern Europe (steppes) • Warm and wet, little seasonal temperature
• Cold, harsh winters and hot, dry summers variation
• Fires are common • Productivity is high, decomposition is extremely
rapid - cleared for agriculture
• Grasses and nonwoody flowering plants
• Contain more biodiversity per hectare than any
• Cold deserts also known as temperate deserts other terrestrial biome and contain up to two-
– sparse vegetation than shortgrass prairies thirds of Earth’s terrestrial species
• Very productive (tallgrass prairie) - agriculture • Large trees, understory, epiphytes, lianas

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S
Tropical Seasonal Forest/Savanna
u
• Warm temperatures and distinct wet and dry
seasons b
• Called tropical deciduous forest t
• Central America, on the Atlantic coast of South r
America, in southern Asia, northern Australia, and D • roughly 30° N and S, hot temperatures, extremely dry
in sub-Saharan Africa o conditions, and sparse vegetation prevail
e
• Savannas – relatively open landscapes dominated p • also known as hot deserts, includes the Mojave Desert in
by grasses & scattered deciduous trees s the southwestern United States, the Sahara Desert in
• Acacia and baobab trees i Africa, the Arabian Desert of the Middle East, and the
e
• Presence of trees & a warmer average annual c Great Victoria Desert of Australia
temperature (savanna vs. grassland) r • Cacti, euphorbs, and succulent plants
a
• Promote decomposition - soil fairly fertile t
l

SE Asia Reconstructions
50-0 Ma

Forest Formation
of the
Philippines
Sub-topic II
© Robert Hall 1995
Source: Fernando, 2005 Source: Haribon Foundation, 2002

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50 45

40 30

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20 10

5 0

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Tropical lowland
evergreen rain forests

 A nation of islands

 Each island has

different geologic
processes  Zone corresponding to areas with
uniform rainfall throughout the
year, lowland evergreen rain
forest develops Tropical lowland evergreen rain
forest

Forest Formations of the Philippines (modified from Whitmore 1984a, 1990)

Climate Soil-Water Regime Localities Soils Elevation Forest Formations (Habitat) 1. Tropical Lowland
Ever Wet Dry land Inland Zonal soils Lowland to 1200 m Tropical lowland evergreen rainforest
Mountains 1200-1500 m Tropical lower montane rainforest
T
R Evergreen
Rainforest
O
1500-3000 m Tropical upper montane rainforest P
I
3000 m –tree line Tropical sub-alpine forest
C
Limestone Mostly lowlands Forest over limestone A
L
Ultramafic rocks Mostly lowlands Forest over ultramafic rocks
R
Coastal Sandy Sea level – 50 m Beach forest A
Water table high, Salt water Mangrove forest I
at least & N
F
periodically brackish
O
water R
Freshwater Oligotrophic Peat swamp forest E
peats S
T
Eutrophic Almost permanently wet Freshwater swamp forest S
(muck & to periodically wet
mineral soils
Seasonally Moderate annual Tropical semi-evergreen rainforest
Dry shortage
Marked annual Tropical moist decidiuous forest
Monsoon
Forests

shortage
Source: Fernando et al 2008

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• Most luxuriant of all plant communities • Occurs from coastal flats up to 900 -1,100 m alt

• It is a tall, dense, evergreen forest to 45 m tall, with large

numbers of trees growing together • Characterized by its richness in tree flora

• Three strata or canopy layers: (top) emergent trees • Dipterocarpaceae forms the major component of the
individually; (2) main stratum (24-36 m) and smaller trees & forest and its emergent
saplings of the top canopy species below

• Known to have the most number of species of any

• Buttresses, cauliflory, ramiflory, pinnate leaves, and lamina rain forest formation, subjected to commercial
of mesophyll size are common in this formation, woody vines
logging, shifting cultivation and timber poaching

R. lagascae Blanco
(1845) Luzon R. manillana Teschem.
(1841) Samar R. speciosa Barcelona & Fernando
(2002) Panay & Negros

Rafflesia schadenbergiana Goepp.

Mindanao (1885)

Rafflesia aurantia
Barcelona, Co & Balete
R. mira Fernando & Ong (2009) Luzon: Quirino
R. baletei
(2005) Mindanao R. lobata Galang & Madulid
Barcelona &
Cajano (2006) Panay: Antique
(2006) Luzon:
Camarines Sur

Rafflesia philippensis
Blanco (1845) S Luzon
Rafflesia leonardi Barcelona & Pelser Rafflesia sp. Mindanao: South
(2008) Luzon: Cagayan Cotabato

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Overcollection of
Platycerium coronarium from the wilderness of
Quezon, Laguna, Albay, Mindanao, Southern Leyte, etc

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2. Tropical Lower Montane Rainforest

• Intermediate between the lowland evergreen rain forest and the

upper montane rain forest

• Massenerhebungseffekt or the mass elevation effect

• The lower montane rain forest connects the lowland evergreen

forest with the upper montane rain forest, usually between c.
800-1,300 m alt

• Differs in canopy, fewer and smaller emergent trees, dominant

tree species include the oaks (Quercus spp.) and laurels
(Neolitsea, Cinnamomum and Litsea); Fagaceae, Agathis
philippinensis, tree ferns and epiphytic ferns

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Leopard Cat

Spotted deer

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3. Tropical Upper Montane Rain Forest

• Commonly called the mossy forest (abundance of mosses &
liverworths that cover the tree trunks and branches)

• 1000 m elevation with the upper limit varying depending on

the locality, size and height of the mountain

• Mossy condition and dwarfed, crooked trees formation

• Strong winds
and steep
terrain; trees are
short (about 6 –
8 m) and twisted
with dense
mosses
Mossy forest in Mt. Janagdan, Ormoc City

• Tree species include oak (Eugenia, Quercus, Lithocarpus);

broadleaf species (Symplocos, Engelhardia, Syzgium and
Myrica), conifers (Dacrydium, Dacrycarpus and Podocarpus). Source: Haribon Foundation, 2002

Species of Ericaceae (Rhododendron and Vaccinium) and Luzon bushy tailed cloud rat (Crateromys schadenbergi)
Melastomataceae (Astronia, Medinilla and Melastoma)

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4. Tropical Sub-Alpine Forest

Tropical subalpine forest
• Elevation: 2,500 amsl – up
• Vegetation dominated by small • Occurs beyond the upper montane forest zone up to the
woody dicots with microphyllous altitudinal limit of tree growth (the tree line) on the bigger
leaves forming a low dense canopy mountains

• Soil is shallow, acidic and nutrient

• The transition from the upper montane rain forest to the
poor subalpine forest is through a gradual ecotone
• Mindoro (Mt. Halcon – Mt. Sialdang
Range), Bukidnon (Mt. Dulang • Mt. Halcon (2,582 m) range on Mindoro island
dulang – Mt. Kitanglad Range) and
Davao (Mt. Apo)

5. Forest over Limestone or Karst Forest

Common woody dicots include: Styphelia suaveolens, Rhododendron

quadrassianum, Vaccinium myrtoides, Mylica javanica, Leptospermum
flavescens and Eurya coriacea

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Molave • Substrate predominantly

• Sedimentary rock outcrops consisting mainly of calcium
limestone and characterized by
carbonate formed by calcium-secreting marine organisms
white cliffs, ridges and caves; thin
millions f years before tectonically being lifted above sea
layer of soil and the area is dry
• Dominant tree species
• Cover about 10% of its total land area (Philippines) includes molave (Vitex
Narra
parviflora), narra
(Pterocarpus indicus)
• Important in providing complex habitats for a diverse range
and tindalo (Afzelia
of organism, maintaining the hydrological integrity of a
rhomboidae)
watershed and in providing groundwater for consumption
and irrigation for agricultural production • Vegetation • Deciduous
includes small foliage especially
leguminous in regions where
• Exploited for their valuable timber or subject to quarrying trees, bamboos the dry season is
for cement manufacturing and shrubs pronounced

Mast Fruiting of Apitong

(Dipterocarpus grandiflorus)

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Limestone Quarrying in Calikuan

Island, Guian, Eastern Samar

• Ultramafic rocks – igneous or metamorphic which comprise

less than 45% silica (SeO2) and have high concentrations
of heavy metals – magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), chromium
(Cr), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni) and low concentrations of
phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and calcium (Ca)

• Serpentine soils (reddish brown in color & clayish in

• High concentration of texture)
iron and magnesium,
unproductive
• Often called ultrabasics or serpentines
• Eastern Isabela and
6. Forest over Ultrabasic or Northern Zambales, Mt.
Victoria in Palawan
• Stunted forests with diameters too small for utilization
Ultramafic Rocks

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• Nickel hyperaccumulators: Phyllanthus balgooyi,

Brackenridgea palustris & Walsura monophylla

• Low heathlike-shrub, viz., Planchonella spp. And the heavy

metal indicators, i.e., Scaevola micrantha, Brackenridgea Magkuno (Xanthostemon
palustris and Exocarpus latifolius. fruticosus)

• Other tree species include Ochrosia glomerata,

Gymnostoma, Suregada, Archidendron, Pouteria,
Embolanthera spicata (endemic)

• The original forest on ultramafic rocks in many areas in the Gisok Puropungyot
Philippines no longer exist because of mining (Terminalia darlingii)

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Mining

Small-Scale Chromites Mining in

Salcedo, Eastern Samar

7. Beach Forest

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• Littoral forest: sea level to 50 asml

• Characterized by low grasses, shrubs and trees mainly of the genera
Terminalia (talisay), Barringtonia (bitoon) and the screw-pine Pandanus • Forms a narrow strip of woodland along the sandy and
(pandan) whose leaves are woven into mats, hats and baskets
gravelly beaches of the seacoast beyond the upper tidal
• Coastal areas throughout the country e.g. Samar, Palawan, Mindanao
limits
Pandanus spp.
Screw-pine • Can be bordered on its sides by limestone or other
Pandanaceae rocks, or it merges with the mangrove formation

Barringtonia
acutangula
• This formation has two facies (initial stage – pes-caprae
Himbabalod
association; second facies – Barringtonia association)
Lemiaceae Terminalia catappa
Talisay (Combretaceae)

• accreting shore where new sand is continuously being Barringtonia association

deposited is a low herbaceous plant cover consisting mostly of
• includes the following principal tree species:
creepers with long stems often rooting at the nodes Terminalia catappa, Erythrina orientalis, Pandanus
• Pes-caprae association of the beach formation in Calikuan tectorius, Cerbera manghas, Calophyllum
island, Guiuan, Eastern Samar with Crinum asiaticum, inophyllum, Barringtonia asiatica, Casuarina
Euphorbia atoto and Ipomea pescaprae equisetifolia

• Still-rooted Pandanus tectorius occurs commonly

• The coconut (Cocos nucifera), although long
widely cultivated, is believed to be originally part
of this flora

• Fruits & seeds – water dispersal; wind-dispersed

Pes-caprae association

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Beach Forest in Barangay

Pinarigusan, San Miguel, Leyte

8. Mangrove Forest

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• Continually decline
Some propagules are viviparous
Often referred to as the forest of since the early
(Rhizophora, Bruguiera, Ceriops)
the sea Cryptoviviparous (Avicennia) 1920s (Manila bay
Special adaptation (tolerance to 39 species have been recorded in the – harvesting for
highly saline, unstable water- Philippines fuel woods)
logged and oxygen poor soils; 3 families and 5 genera – • From 1950s –
buttresses, stilt or prop roots, Rhizophoraceae (Bruguiera, Ceriops, converted to
knee roots and pneumatophores Rhizophora), Lythraceae aquaculture) been
for support and gas exchange, (Sonneratia), and Avicenniaceae regarded as the
and water buoyant propagules (Avicennia) - 13 species in all main factor in the
that survive dispersal by brackish 20 m or more (height, undisturbed) decline of
and seawater for many weeks Feature – zonation mangrove forest
and over long distances) Protection from waves, stabilize • Others have been
sediments and etc.. cut and reclaimed

Mangrove forest converted into

fishpond in Tubod, Lanao del Norte

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9. Peat Swamp Forest

• Occurs in areas where the water table is higher than the
surrounding areas, with the peat often about 50 cm deep
or more, acidic (pH ≤ 4)

• Occasionally with soft-crust over semi-liquid interior with

large pieces of wood, the only incoming water is from rain
and thus low in nutrients

• Supports plant, animal and microbial biodiversity as

watershed and increasingly for their significant role in
global terrestrial carbon storage

• Economic and cultural importance to the indigenous people 10. Freshwater

Swamp Forest
• Concentric zonation of the vegetation

• Most of the peatland forest are already converted to

agriculture (rice cultivation) or other uses (Leyte Sab-a
Basin and Agusan Marsh in Mindanao)

• Prominent & distinctive tree – Tristaniopsis, Calophyllum,

Syzygium

• Forest floor is dominated by the spiny-leaved sedge

Lepironia articulata

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• Regularly to occasionally inundated with mineral-rich • Agusan valley and west of Pagalungan (Mindanao) –Agusan
freshwater (pH≥6) from rivers and streams with the water Marsh
level fluctuating, thus allowing periodic drying of the soil
surface.
• Ligawasan Marsh in Mindanao

• Differs from the peat swamp forest which has deep peat
and is solely dependent on rain as source of water. • This formation includes the Lanipao Swamp Forest briefly
described and illustrated by Weidelt and Banaag (1982)
with Terminalia copelandii as the dominant species
• Palms and pandans, to low scrub with scattered tress, to
forest dominated by a single species, or mixed freshwater
swamp forest resembling a lowland evergreen rain forest • Leyte Sab-a Basin – Terminalia copelandi, Nauclea
orientalis, Barringtonia racemose, Metroxlyon sagu

Freshwater swamp forest converted into rice field

in Sab-a Basin, San Miguel, Leyte • Ecologically important in regulating flood peaks in the
rainy season and maintaining ground water in the dry
season

• Habitat for wildlife species, including freshwater fishes

and migratory birds

• Home of indigenous people

• Cleared for rice cultivation and oil palm plantations

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• Occurs in areas where there is a yearly water stress of

some duration or a very distinct strong dry season

• Includes both evergreen and deciduous trees in a mixture,

but with a tendency towards gregariousness

• Species diversity is high but less so than the lowland

evergreen rain forest

• When cut, is more frequently replaced by grasses

(Imperata cylindrica)

Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest

• Occurs in areas of seasonally drier climates where water
availability can be periodically limiting to plants and the
forest
Marine and Freshwater
Environment
• Found on coastal hills or the leeward side of mountains

Sub-topic II
• The trees in this formation are usually unbuttressed, low- Environmental Science
branching and form an uneven low canopy often less than
30 m. tall

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Aquatic biomes
Major types of Organism
• Categorized by salinity, depth and water flow
• Temperature is an important facto in determining which 1. Plankton – weakly swimming, free-floating (1)
species can survive in a particular aquatic habitat but it is phytoplankton – drifting plants, (2) zooplankton –
not a factor used to categorize aquatic biomes drifting animals, (3) ultraplankton – huge populations
of much smaller plankton
Broad Categories of Aquatic Biomes
2. Nekton – strongly swimming consumers (i.e., fish,
1. Freshwater biomes (stream, rivers, lakes and wetlands) turtles, whales)
2. Saltwater biomes (also known as marine biomes i.e.,
estuaries, coral reefs and open sea)

Major types of Organism

3. Benthos – bottom dwellers (i.e., oysters, clams,
worms, lobsters and crabs)

4. Decomposers – (mostly bacteria) – break down

organic compounds in the dead bodies and wastes of
aquatic organisms into nutrients

Streams and Rivers – lotic system

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• Have few plants or algae (producers)

• Characterized by flowing fresh water
• Inputs of organic matter from terrestrial biomes (base of
• Streams (also called creeks) - typically narrow and carry food web)
relatively small amounts of water
• Insect larvae and crustaceans (crayfish) and fish
• Rivers – typically wider and carry larger amounts of water
• Fast-moving streams and rivers typically have stretches of
turbulent water called rapids, where water and air are
• Combination of streams – large enough to be called river mixed together.

• Slow-moving rivers – less mixing of air and water (catfish)

Lakes and Ponds

• Contain standing water, at least some of which is
too deep to support emergent vegetation (plants
that are rooted to the bottom and emerge above
the water’s surface)

• Lakes large natural bodies of standing freshwater

formed when precipitation, runoff, or groundwater
seepage fills depressions in the earth’s surface

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Distinct Zones • Oligotrophic lakes – lakes that have a

small supply of plant nutrients (poorly
nourished) (deep & has steep banks)
• Littoral zone – shallow area of
soil and water near the shore
where algae & emergent plants • Eutrophic lake – lake with a large
grow supply of nutrients needed by
• Limnetic zone (open water) – producers (shallow & murky brown or
floating algae (phytoplankton) green water)
• Profundal zone – very deep
lakes have a region of water
below the limnetic zone
• Benthic zone – muddy bottom of
a lake/pond

Freshwater Wetlands Swamps

• wetlands that contain
• Aquatic biomes that are submerged or saturated by water emergent trees, such as the
for at least part of each year, but shallow enough to Great Dismal Swamp in
support emergent vegetation throughout Virginia and North Carolina
and the Okefenokee Swamp
in Georgia and Florida
Bogs
• Support species of plants that are specialized to live in • Very acidic
submerged or saturated soils wetlands that
typically
• are wetlands that
contain
• Among the most productive biomes (lake in large amounts contain primarily
sphagnum
of rainwater and release it slowly into the groundwater or nonwoody
moss and
into nearby streams, thus reducing the severity of floods vegetation,
spruce trees
and droughts) including cattails
Marshes and sedges

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Salt Marshes
• occur along tropical
• are found along the coast in temperate and subtropical coasts
climates
• Diverse group of salt
• contain nonwoody emergent vegetation tolerant trees that
grow along warm, calm
• Many salt marshes are found in estuaries,
marine coasts around
which are areas along the coast where the the world
fresh water of rivers mixes with salt water
from the ocean. Mangroves

Intertidal Zone
Coral Reefs
• is the narrow band of coastline that exists between the
levels of high tide and low tide
• which are found in warm, shallow waters beyond the
shoreline, represent Earth’s most diverse marine biome
• range from steep, rocky areas to broad, sloping mudflats
• Tiny animals and single-celled algae, live in water that is
• Condition is relatively stable when submerged during high relatively poor in nutrients and food
tide
• Coral bleaching - phenomenon in which the algae inside the
• Harsh during low tide, exposed to sunlight, high corals die
temperatures and desiccation

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Open Ocean
• Photic zone – upper layer of water that receives enough
sunlight to allow photosynthesis (algae)

• Aphotic zone – deeper layer of water that lacks sufficient

sunlight for photosynthesis (energy contained in the bonds
of methane and hydrogen sulfide via chemosythesis i.e.,
tubeworms)

• Benthic zone – ocean floor

Open Ocean Open Ocean

• Benthic – occur on the bottom • Shorelines are known as littoral
• Pelagic – (from “sea” in Greek) zones
zones are the water column
• Intertidal zone – area exposed by
• Epipelagic zone (epi = on top) has low tides
photosynthetic organism.
• Mesopelagic (meso = medium) • Continental shelf – relatively
• Bathypelagic (bathos = deep) zones shallow region along a continent’s
coast, which may reach a few
• Abyssal zone – deepest layers kilometers or hundreds of
(4000 m) Light penetrates only the top 10–20 m of the
kilometers from the shore
Light penetrates only the top 10–20 m of the
ocean. Below this level, temperatures drop and ocean. Below this level, temperatures drop and
• Hadal zone – deeper than 6000 m pressure increases. Nearshore environments pressure increases. Nearshore environments
include the intertidal zone and estuaries. include the intertidal zone and estuaries.

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