Proof by Contradiction

Outline:
6. Proof by Proposition: P is true.
Contradic-
tion
6.1
Proving
Statements Proof : Suppose ∼ P.
with Con-
tradiction
6.2
Proving
Conditional
Statements
by Contra-
diction
6.3
Combining
Techniques
 Proof by Contradiction

Outline:
6. Proof by Proposition: P is true.
Contradic-
tion
6.1
Proving
Statements Proof : Suppose ∼ P.
with Con-
tradiction ..
6.2 .
Proving
Conditional
Statements
We conclude that something ridiculous happens.
by Contra-
diction
For example, 3 is both even and odd.
6.3
Combining
Techniques
 Proof by Contradiction

Outline:
6. Proof by Proposition: P is true.
Contradic-
tion
6.1
Proving
Statements Proof : Suppose ∼ P.
with Con-
tradiction ..
6.2 .
Proving
Conditional
Statements
We conclude that something ridiculous happens.
by Contra-
diction
For example, 3 is both even and odd.
6.3
Combining
Therefore, P is true.
Techniques
 A First Example: Proof by Contradiction

Proposition: There are no natural number solutions to the equation

x 2 − y 2 = 1.
6. Proof by
Contradic-
tion
6.1
Proving
Statements
with Con-
tradiction
6.2
Proving
Conditional
Statements
by Contra-
diction
6.3
Combining
Techniques
 A First Example: Proof by Contradiction

Proposition: There are no natural number solutions to the equation

x 2 − y 2 = 1.
6. Proof by
Contradic-
tion
6.1
Proof : Suppose x, y ∈ N and x 2 − y 2 = 1.
Proving
Statements
Then (x + y )(x − y ) = 1, so x − y and x + y are divisors of 1. Then
with Con-
tradiction (x − y ) = (x + y ) = ±1.
6.2
Proving
So, 0 = (x + y ) − (x − y ) = 2y . Therefore y = 0, contradicting that it is
Conditional
Statements positive.
by Contra-
diction
6.3
Combining
Techniques
 Rational Numbers

Proposition: There is no smallest positive rational number.

6. Proof by
Contradic-
tion
6.1
Proving
Statements
with Con-
tradiction
6.2
Proving
Conditional
Statements
by Contra-
diction
6.3
Combining
Techniques
 Rational Numbers

Proposition: There is no smallest positive rational number.

6. Proof by
Contradic- Proof : Suppose q is the smallest positive number. Then 0 < q2 < q and
tion
6.1
q ∈ Q. This contradicts the assumption that q is the smallest positive rational
Proving
Statements
number.
with Con-
tradiction
6.2
Proving
Conditional
Statements
by Contra-
diction
6.3
Combining
Techniques
 The square root of two is irrational.

p
For p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0, we say the fraction is reduced if gcd(p, q) = 1 and
q
6. Proof by q > 0.
Contradic-
tion
6.1
Proving
Statements
with Con-
tradiction
6.2
Proving
Conditional
Statements
by Contra-
diction
6.3
Combining
Techniques
 The square root of two is irrational.

p
For p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0, we say the fraction is reduced if gcd(p, q) = 1 and
q
6. Proof by q > 0.
Contradic-
tion
6.1
Proving For any integer a, a2 is even if and only if a is even.
Statements
with Con-
tradiction
6.2
Proving
Conditional
Statements
by Contra-
diction
6.3
Combining
Techniques
 The square root of two is irrational.

p
For p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0, we say the fraction is reduced if gcd(p, q) = 1 and
q
6. Proof by q > 0.
Contradic-
tion
6.1
Proving For any integer a, a2 is even if and only if a is even.
Statements
with Con-
tradiction
6.2
Proving
Conditional
√
Statements Proposition: 2 6∈ Q.
by Contra-
diction
6.3
Combining
Techniques
 The square root of two is irrational.

p
For p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0, we say the fraction is reduced if gcd(p, q) = 1 and
q
6. Proof by q > 0.
Contradic-
tion
6.1
Proving For any integer a, a2 is even if and only if a is even.
Statements
with Con-
tradiction
6.2
Proving
Conditional
√
Statements Proposition: 2√6∈ Q.
by Contra-
diction Proof : Suppose 2 ∈ Q.
6.3
Combining
Techniques
 The square root of two is irrational.

p
For p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0, we say the fraction is reduced if gcd(p, q) = 1 and
q
6. Proof by q > 0.
Contradic-
tion
6.1
Proving For any integer a, a2 is even if and only if a is even.
Statements
with Con-
tradiction
6.2
Proving
Conditional
√
Statements Proposition: 2√6∈ Q.
by Contra-
diction Proof : Suppose 2 ∈ Q.
6.3
Combining
Techniques
√ p p
Then 2 = q
for some p, q ∈ Z, and WLOG q
is a reduced fraction.
2
p 2 2
Then 2 = q2
so p = 2q , so 2|p. Then p = 2n for some n ∈ Z. Then
,
(2n)2 = 2q , so q 2 = 2n2 , so 2|q. Therefore gcd(p, q) ≥ 2. This contra-
2

dicts that qp is a reduced fraction.

√
Therefore, 2 6∈ Q.
 Proving Conditional Statements by Contradiction

Outline:
6. Proof by Proposition: P =⇒ Q
Contradic-
tion
6.1
Proving
Statements Proof : Suppose P∧ ∼ Q.
with Con-
tradiction
6.2
Proving
Conditional
Statements
by Contra-
diction
6.3
Combining
Techniques
 Proving Conditional Statements by Contradiction

Outline:
6. Proof by Proposition: P =⇒ Q
Contradic-
tion
6.1
Proving
Statements Proof : Suppose P∧ ∼ Q.
with Con-
tradiction ..
6.2 .
Proving
Conditional
Statements
We conclude that something ridiculous happens.
by Contra-
diction
6.3
Combining
Techniques
 Proving Conditional Statements by Contradiction

Outline:
6. Proof by Proposition: P =⇒ Q
Contradic-
tion
6.1
Proving
Statements Proof : Suppose P∧ ∼ Q.
with Con-
tradiction ..
6.2 .
Proving
Conditional
Statements
We conclude that something ridiculous happens.
by Contra-
diction
Therefore, ∼ P ∨ Q. That is, P =⇒ Q.
6.3
Combining
Techniques
 Proving Conditional Statements by Contradiction

Outline:
6. Proof by Proposition: P =⇒ Q
Contradic-
tion
6.1
Proving
Statements Proof : Suppose P∧ ∼ Q.
with Con-
tradiction ..
6.2 .
Proving
Conditional
Statements
We conclude that something ridiculous happens.
by Contra-
diction
Therefore, ∼ P ∨ Q. That is, P =⇒ Q.
6.3
Combining
Techniques

Lemma: Given integers a and b, with a > 1, if a|b then a 6 | (b + 1).

 Proving Conditional Statements by Contradiction

Outline:
6. Proof by Proposition: P =⇒ Q
Contradic-
tion
6.1
Proving
Statements Proof : Suppose P∧ ∼ Q.
with Con-
tradiction ..
6.2 .
Proving
Conditional
Statements
We conclude that something ridiculous happens.
by Contra-
diction
Therefore, ∼ P ∨ Q. That is, P =⇒ Q.
6.3
Combining
Techniques

Lemma: Given integers a and b, with a > 1, if a|b then a 6 | (b + 1).

Proof : Suppose a|b and a|(b + 1). Then there exist integers x and y such
that ax = b and ay = b + 1. Then y = b+1 a
= ax+1
a
= x + 1a . Since a > 1, 1a is
not an integer, so y is not an integer. This contradicts the assumption that y
is an integer.
 How Many Primes Are There?

Lemma: Given integers a and b, with a > 1, if a|b then a 6 | (b + 1).

6. Proof by
Contradic-
tion
Theorem: Given any finite set P whose elements are prime numbers, there
6.1
Proving
exists a prime number that is not in P.
Statements
with Con-
tradiction
6.2
Proving
Conditional
Statements
by Contra-
diction
6.3
Combining
Techniques
 How Many Primes Are There?

Lemma: Given integers a and b, with a > 1, if a|b then a 6 | (b + 1).

6. Proof by
Contradic-
tion
Theorem: Given any finite set P whose elements are prime numbers, there
6.1
Proving
exists a prime number that is not in P.
Statements
with Con-
tradiction Proof : Let P be a finite set whose elements are prime numbers. If P = ∅,
6.2
Proving then 3 is a prime not in P, so suppose P = {p1 , · · · , pn } and n ≥ 1. Let
Conditional
Statements n := p1 · . . . · pn + 1. Since n > 1, it has at least one prime factor p that is
by Contra-
diction greater than one. By the Lemma, no element of P divides n, so
6.3
Combining p 6∈ P.
Techniques
 How Many Primes Are There?

Lemma: Given integers a and b, with a > 1, if a|b then a 6 | (b + 1).

6. Proof by
Contradic-
tion
Theorem: Given any finite set P whose elements are prime numbers, there
6.1
Proving
exists a prime number that is not in P.
Statements
with Con-
tradiction Proof : Let P be a finite set whose elements are prime numbers. If P = ∅,
6.2
Proving then 3 is a prime not in P, so suppose P = {p1 , · · · , pn } and n ≥ 1. Let
Conditional
Statements n := p1 · . . . · pn + 1. Since n > 1, it has at least one prime factor p that is
by Contra-
diction greater than one. By the Lemma, no element of P divides n, so
6.3
Combining p 6∈ P.
Techniques

Example: P = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13}; p = 30031 = 59 × 509;

59 and 509 are not in P.
 How Many Primes Are There?

Lemma: Given integers a and b, with a > 1, if a|b then a 6 | (b + 1).

6. Proof by
Contradic-
tion
Theorem: Given any finite set P whose elements are prime numbers, there
6.1
Proving
exists a prime number that is not in P.
Statements
with Con-
tradiction Proof : Let P be a finite set whose elements are prime numbers. If P = ∅,
6.2
Proving then 3 is a prime not in P, so suppose P = {p1 , · · · , pn } and n ≥ 1. Let
Conditional
Statements n := p1 · . . . · pn + 1. Since n > 1, it has at least one prime factor p that is
by Contra-
diction greater than one. By the Lemma, no element of P divides n, so
6.3
Combining p 6∈ P.
Techniques

Example: P = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13}; p = 30031 = 59 × 509;

59 and 509 are not in P.

Corollary: There are infinitely many prime numbers.

 How Many Primes Are There?

Lemma: Given integers a and b, with a > 1, if a|b then a 6 | (b + 1).

6. Proof by
Contradic-
tion
Theorem: Given any finite set P whose elements are prime numbers, there
6.1
Proving
exists a prime number that is not in P.
Statements
with Con-
tradiction Proof : Let P be a finite set whose elements are prime numbers. If P = ∅,
6.2
Proving then 3 is a prime not in P, so suppose P = {p1 , · · · , pn } and n ≥ 1. Let
Conditional
Statements n := p1 · . . . · pn + 1. Since n > 1, it has at least one prime factor p that is
by Contra-
diction greater than one. By the Lemma, no element of P divides n, so
6.3
Combining p 6∈ P.
Techniques

Example: P = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13}; p = 30031 = 59 × 509;

59 and 509 are not in P.

Corollary: There are infinitely many prime numbers.

Proof : We define P to be the set of all primes. If P is finite, then by the
Proposition, P is not the set of all primes. Therefore, P is infinite.
 Prove the Following, Somehow

Proposition: The sum of a rational number and an irrational number is

irrational.
6. Proof by
Contradic-
tion
6.1
Proving
Statements
with Con-
tradiction
6.2
Proving
Conditional
Statements
by Contra-
diction
6.3
Combining
Techniques

Proposition: Every nonzero rational number can be expressed as the product

of two irrational numbers.
 Prove the Following, Somehow

Proposition: The sum of a rational number and an irrational number is

irrational.
6. Proof by
Contradic- Proof :
tion p
6.1
Let r ∈ Q and n ∈ R. Then r = for some p, q ∈ Z. Suppose r + n ∈ Q.
Proving q
Statements
with Con-
Then r + n = ba for some a, b ∈ Z. Now:
tradiction
6.2 a
Proving
Conditional
r +n =
Statements b
by Contra-
diction a a p aq − bp
6.3 n = −r = − =
Combining b b q bq
Techniques

Since bq ∈ Z and aq − bp ∈ Z, we conclude n ∈ Q.

Proposition: Every nonzero rational number can be expressed as the product

of two irrational numbers.
 Prove the Following, Somehow

Proposition: The sum of a rational number and an irrational number is

irrational.
6. Proof by
Contradic- Proof :
tion p
6.1
Let r ∈ Q and n ∈ R. Then r = for some p, q ∈ Z. Suppose r + n ∈ Q.
Proving q
Statements
with Con-
Then r + n = ba for some a, b ∈ Z. Now:
tradiction
6.2 a
Proving
Conditional
r +n =
Statements b
by Contra-
diction a a p aq − bp
6.3 n = −r = − =
Combining b b q bq
Techniques

Since bq ∈ Z and aq − bp ∈ Z, we conclude n ∈ Q.

Proposition: Every nonzero rational number can be expressed as the product

of two irrational numbers.
Proof : √
If r ∈ Q − {0}, then r = 2 · √r 2 , and √r 2 6= 0. We claim √r 2 6∈ Q. If √r 2 ∈ Q,
√
then √r 2 = pq for some p, q ∈ Z and p 6= 0. Then 2 = qrp . Since qr ∈ Z and
√
p ∈ Z − {0}, 2 ∈ Q. But, we know that’s not true. Therefore,
√r 6∈ Q.
2
 Prove the Following, Somehow

6. Proof by
Contradic-
tion
6.1 Proposition: There are no rational number solutions to the equation
Proving
Statements x 3 + x + 1 = 0.
with Con-
tradiction
6.2
Proving
Conditional
Statements
by Contra-
diction
6.3
Combining
Techniques
 Prove the Following, Somehow

6. Proof by
Contradic-
tion
6.1 Proposition: There are no rational number solutions to the equation
Proving
Statements x 3 + x + 1 = 0.
Proof : Suppose x ∈ Q and x 3 + x + 1 = 0. Then x = qp for two integers p
with Con-
tradiction
6.2
Proving and q with gcd(p, q) = 1.
Conditional 3
Statements
by Contra- Then qp3 + pq + 1 = 0. Multiplying both sides of the equation by q 3 , it follows
diction
6.3 that p 3 + pq 2 + q 3 = 0.
Combining
Techniques Case 1: p and q are both odd.

Case 2: p is odd and q is even.

Case 3: p is even and q is odd.

Case 4: p and q are both even.

 Prove the Following, Somehow

Lemma: The product of two odd numbers is odd. The product of an even
and odd number is even. The sum of two integers is even if and only if they
6. Proof by
Contradic- have the same parity.
tion
6.1 Proposition: There are no rational number solutions to the equation
Proving
Statements x 3 + x + 1 = 0.
Proof : Suppose x ∈ Q and x 3 + x + 1 = 0. Then x = qp for two integers p
with Con-
tradiction
6.2
Proving and q with gcd(p, q) = 1.
Conditional 3
Statements
by Contra- Then qp3 + pq + 1 = 0. Multiplying both sides of the equation by q 3 , it follows
diction
6.3 that p 3 + pq 2 + q 3 = 0.
Combining
Techniques Case 1: p and q are both odd.

Case 2: p is odd and q is even.

Case 3: p is even and q is odd.

Case 4: p and q are both even.

 Prove the Following, Somehow

Lemma: The product of two odd numbers is odd. The product of an even
and odd number is even. The sum of two integers is even if and only if they
6. Proof by
Contradic- have the same parity.
tion
6.1 Proposition: There are no rational number solutions to the equation
Proving
Statements x 3 + x + 1 = 0.
Proof : Suppose x ∈ Q and x 3 + x + 1 = 0. Then x = qp for two integers p
with Con-
tradiction
6.2
Proving and q with gcd(p, q) = 1.
Conditional 3
Statements
by Contra- Then qp3 + pq + 1 = 0. Multiplying both sides of the equation by q 3 , it follows
diction
6.3 that p 3 + pq 2 + q 3 = 0.
Combining
Techniques Case 1: p and q are both odd.

Case 2: p is odd and q is even.

Case 3: p is even and q is odd.

Case 4: p and q are both even.

 Prove the Following, Somehow

Lemma: The product of two odd numbers is odd. The product of an even
and odd number is even. The sum of two integers is even if and only if they
6. Proof by
Contradic- have the same parity.
tion
6.1 Proposition: There are no rational number solutions to the equation
Proving
Statements x 3 + x + 1 = 0.
Proof : Suppose x ∈ Q and x 3 + x + 1 = 0. Then x = qp for two integers p
with Con-
tradiction
6.2
Proving and q with gcd(p, q) = 1.
Conditional 3
Statements
by Contra- Then qp3 + pq + 1 = 0. Multiplying both sides of the equation by q 3 , it follows
diction
6.3 that p 3 + pq 2 + q 3 = 0.
Combining
Techniques Case 1: p and q are both odd. By repeated application of the lemma, p 3 ,
pq 2 , and q 3 are all odd, so p 3 + pq 2 + q 3 is odd, contradicting
p 3 + pq 2 + q 3 = 0.
Case 2: p is odd and q is even.

Case 3: p is even and q is odd.

Case 4: p and q are both even.

 Prove the Following, Somehow

Lemma: The product of two odd numbers is odd. The product of an even
and odd number is even. The sum of two integers is even if and only if they
6. Proof by
Contradic- have the same parity.
tion
6.1 Proposition: There are no rational number solutions to the equation
Proving
Statements x 3 + x + 1 = 0.
Proof : Suppose x ∈ Q and x 3 + x + 1 = 0. Then x = qp for two integers p
with Con-
tradiction
6.2
Proving and q with gcd(p, q) = 1.
Conditional 3
Statements
by Contra- Then qp3 + pq + 1 = 0. Multiplying both sides of the equation by q 3 , it follows
diction
6.3 that p 3 + pq 2 + q 3 = 0.
Combining
Techniques Case 1: p and q are both odd. By repeated application of the lemma, p 3 ,
pq 2 , and q 3 are all odd, so p 3 + pq 2 + q 3 is odd, contradicting
p 3 + pq 2 + q 3 = 0.
Case 2: p is odd and q is even. By repeated application of the lemma, p 3
is odd, while pq 2 and q 3 are even, so p 3 + pq 2 + q 3 is odd, contradicting
p 3 + pq 2 + q 3 = 0.
Case 3: p is even and q is odd.

Case 4: p and q are both even.

 Prove the Following, Somehow

Lemma: The product of two odd numbers is odd. The product of an even
and odd number is even. The sum of two integers is even if and only if they
6. Proof by
Contradic- have the same parity.
tion
6.1 Proposition: There are no rational number solutions to the equation
Proving
Statements x 3 + x + 1 = 0.
Proof : Suppose x ∈ Q and x 3 + x + 1 = 0. Then x = qp for two integers p
with Con-
tradiction
6.2
Proving and q with gcd(p, q) = 1.
Conditional 3
Statements
by Contra- Then qp3 + pq + 1 = 0. Multiplying both sides of the equation by q 3 , it follows
diction
6.3 that p 3 + pq 2 + q 3 = 0.
Combining
Techniques Case 1: p and q are both odd. By repeated application of the lemma, p 3 ,
pq 2 , and q 3 are all odd, so p 3 + pq 2 + q 3 is odd, contradicting
p 3 + pq 2 + q 3 = 0.
Case 2: p is odd and q is even. By repeated application of the lemma, p 3
is odd, while pq 2 and q 3 are even, so p 3 + pq 2 + q 3 is odd, contradicting
p 3 + pq 2 + q 3 = 0.
Case 3: p is even and q is odd. By repeated application of the lemma, p 3
and pq 2 are even, while q 3 is odd, so p 3 + pq 2 + q 3 is odd, contradicting
p 3 + pq 2 + q 3 = 0.
Case 4: p and q are both even.
 Prove the Following, Somehow

Lemma: The product of two odd numbers is odd. The product of an even
and odd number is even. The sum of two integers is even if and only if they
6. Proof by
Contradic- have the same parity.
tion
6.1 Proposition: There are no rational number solutions to the equation
Proving
Statements x 3 + x + 1 = 0.
Proof : Suppose x ∈ Q and x 3 + x + 1 = 0. Then x = qp for two integers p
with Con-
tradiction
6.2
Proving and q with gcd(p, q) = 1.
Conditional 3
Statements
by Contra- Then qp3 + pq + 1 = 0. Multiplying both sides of the equation by q 3 , it follows
diction
6.3 that p 3 + pq 2 + q 3 = 0.
Combining
Techniques Case 1: p and q are both odd. By repeated application of the lemma, p 3 ,
pq 2 , and q 3 are all odd, so p 3 + pq 2 + q 3 is odd, contradicting
p 3 + pq 2 + q 3 = 0.
Case 2: p is odd and q is even. By repeated application of the lemma, p 3
is odd, while pq 2 and q 3 are even, so p 3 + pq 2 + q 3 is odd, contradicting
p 3 + pq 2 + q 3 = 0.
Case 3: p is even and q is odd. By repeated application of the lemma, p 3
and pq 2 are even, while q 3 is odd, so p 3 + pq 2 + q 3 is odd, contradicting
p 3 + pq 2 + q 3 = 0.
Case 4: p and q are both even. Then 2 divides both p and q. This
contradicts that gcd(p, q) = 1.