Experiment 1: Measurement and Error Analysis

Department of Biological Sciences

College of Science, University of Santo Tomas
España, Manila Philippines
Abram Reyes, Evan Jose Reyes, Francisco Miguel Reyes, Julienne Mae Rosales

Abstract years. Back then we used body parts, water

clocks, sundials, and a lot more in measuring
To gain sufficient knowledge and data objects and even time (Rogers, 2019). From
for experiments, proper measurements of various traditional measuring tools until now
various variables is necessary. However, where we have systematic tools for us to have
since measurements are prone to accurate, precise, and unified measurements.
inaccuracies, an error analysis is applicable. Even if we are using standard measuring
Error analysis determines the cause and the tools, measurements are still prone to
kind of error that surfaced in the experiment. systematic errors or random errors resulting
In this experiment the researchers conducted in values that are higher or lower than the
the measurement of several calamansi for actual value. To avoid systematic errors,
descriptive statistics. On the other hand, intensive analysis, and adherence to test
different denominations of Philippine coins procedures and ideal conditions are
were used in conducting the error analysis. necessary. A standard unit of measurement
Descriptive statistics resulted in the provides a reference point so measurements
following values: a 0.01 variance, and a 0.11 can be constant, reproducible, accessible, and
standard deviation. The data obtained are accurate and precise. (Sharp, 2000). This
closely identical and low in percent error. analysis will make use of the mean, variance,
The experiment involving the Philippine and standard deviation. The mean is the
coins resulted in an experimental value of average of the data set. On the other hand,
3.0162 and a % error of 3.99. Lastly, the variance is the average squared deviation of
second graphical analysis resulted in an values from the mean (Larson, 2008). Lastly,
experimental value of 3.0724 and a % error the standard deviation is calculated by the
of 2.20. square root of the variance, and it tells you
how spread out the data is, and a measure of
how far each observed value is from the mean
1. Introduction (Ilola, 2018). Additionally, accuracy of the
results can be measured through calculating
Measurement is the act of the percentage error. Percent Error is a
determining the size, shape, length and even measure of discrepancy between the
the weight of an object. The true value of a observed and true value. In this experiment,
measured object is found using various ways the researchers implement descriptive
of quantifying which have changed over the statistics methods to measure the
circumference of a calamansi as accurately as
possible. In addition, graphical and error
analyses are tested on different kinds of
Philippine coins using their circumferences Sample equations:
and diameter. D= 6.90cm = 2.20 cm
π
Range = 2.50 cm - 2.30 cm = 0.20cm
Mean = 24 = 2.4 cm
2. Theory 10
σ2= 0.05+0.05 = 0.1 = 0.0111 cm2
In performing this experiment, 10 10
numerous equations were used to obtain σ= √0.01+0.01 = 0.1054093 cm
certain statistics or to acquire the
10
measurement of one finding into another unit.
The equations, formulas, and symbols used in
Procedure B:
this experiment are the following:
Symbols:
A = cross sectional area
Procedure A:
d2= diameter squared
Symbols:
C = circumference
Formulas:
N = number of data points
A = π (d2)
d = diameter
4
μ= population mean
Complete value of experimental
π = pi
(π= Initial value)
Xi= population value
σ2 =variance
Σ= summation
σ= deviation
Sample equations:
Formulas:
C=πd D=C/π
Range = Max(X) - Min(x) Complete Value of Experimental
Mean = Sum of all data points π= 0.7681 (4) = 3.0724
N

Procedure C:
Symbols:
cm = centimeters
in = inches
Formula: 2. The researchers measured the
diameter of the coins with the
use of a ruler.
3. The researchers inputted the
Sample equation: data in the table and computed
for the d2 and the area of the
coins.
4. Then the researchers made a
3. Methodology graph of the circumference vs.
A. Descriptive Statistics the diameter of the coins, and
1. For the first part of the area vs. d2 to find the slope.
experiment, the researchers 5. Using the computed slopes,
measured calamansi’s the researchers computed for
circumference using thread the percent errors.
and ruler. First, the
researchers encircled the C. Medieval Standards
string around the calamansi 1. The researchers utilized the
and cut it. virtual vernier caliper to
2. Then, the researchers measure the width of their
measured the string using a right and left thumbs.
ruler. 2. The researchers converted
3. Subsequently, the researchers their obtained measurements
calculated the diameter of the to centimeters and inches.
calamansi using the given 3. Then, the researchers input
formula. their data in the table.
4. The researchers inputted the
data needed in the table and 4. Results and Discussion
solved for the range, mean
diameter, variance and Table 1. Descriptive Statistics
standard deviation. Sample C (cm) d (actual D (cm)
measuremen
B. Graphical and Error Analyses t) (cm)
1. The researchers measured the 1 6.90 2.30 2.20
circumference of five
1 6.90 2.30 2.20
different coins using the same
method from part A. With the 1 6.90 2.30 2.20
use of a string, the researchers 1 6.90 2.30 2.20
encircled the piece of string 1 6.90 2.30 2.20
around the coins and
2 7.00 2.50 2.23
measured it with a ruler.
 2 7.00 2.50 2.23 4 (5 8.20 2.50 6.25 5.13
2 7.00 2.50 2.23 pesos)
2 7.00 2.50 2.23 5 (20 9.10 3.00 9.00 6.82
2 7.00 2.50 2.23 pesos)

Experimental Value of π 3.0162

Range (cm) 0.20 0.03
from graph of circumference
versus diameter (Slope)
Mean (cm) 2.40 2.22
Accepted value of π 3.1416
Variance (cm2) 0.0111111 0.00025
% Error 3.99
Standard
Deviation (cm2) 0.1054093 0.0158114 Experimental Value of π 3.0724
from graph of Area versus
Table 1 shows the measurements of square of diameter
the calamansi samples. The standard Accepted value of π 3.1416
deviation is 0.11 which is a value close to 0,
which means that the data points are close to
% Error 2.20
the mean. Additionally, the variance of the
measurements is also close to 0, which means
that the data obtained are closely identical.
Table 2 shows the circumference and
The statistical data of both the actual
diameter measurements of the different
measurements and the computed
Philippine coins. In addition, the area of each
measurements are also close to each other,
coin was also determined using the square of
which means that there is a low percent error
the diameter and the calculated π from the
in the data.
measurement. This data was used to make a
graph and determine their experimental value
Table 2. Graphical and Error Analyses
and % error. The first graph consisted of the
Coin C (cm) D (cm) D2 Area circumference vs the diameter which resulted
(cm2) (cm2) in 3.0162 and its % error is 3.99. On the other
hand, the second is a graphical analysis of the
1 (5 5.30 1.60 2.56 2.12
area vs the square of diameter and its
cents)
experimental value of π is 3.0724 and the %
2 (25 5.50 2.00 4.00 2.75 error is 2.20. Comparing the experimental
cents) value of π from the two graphs, the graph of
the area vs square of diameter is closer to the
3 (1 6.50 2.30 5.29 3.74 accepted value of π which is 3.1416. This
peso) explains why the % error of its graph is
smaller in value compared to the % error behavior of the values, the area increases as
from the graph of circumference vs diameter. the square of diameter increases. Thus, the
relationship between area, and the square of
diameter has a strong positive correlation.

Table 3. Medieval Standards

Name of Thumb Width Width
Particip of of
ant Thumb Thumb
(cm) (in)

Figure 1: Graphical representation of

Left 1.325 0.5217
Abram Thumb
circumference and the diameter of the coins
Reyes
Right 1.285 0.5059
The scatter plot above shows the Thumb
behavior of the values correlating the
Left 0.880 0.3500
circumference and the diameter. The values
Evan Thumb
show that there is an increasing trend Jose
between the two variables. Though the rate of Reyes Right 0.890 0.3500
increase is fluctuating, the trendline suggests Thumb
that the value of circumference increases as
Francisc Left 0.615 0.2421
the diameter increases. Thus, there is a o Miguel Thumb
positive correlation between variables Reyes
circumference, and diameter. Right 0.635 0.2500
Thumb

Left 0.955 0.3760

Julienne Thumb
Mae
Rosales Right 0.955 0.3760
Thumb

Table 3 shows that the measurements

of the thumbs using the virtual vernier caliper
of every individual is different. The first
Figure 2: Graphical representation of the participant has 1.325 cm and 1.285 cm for
area and square of diameter of the coins
their left and right thumb, the second
participant has 0.880 cm and 0.890 cm, the
This graph shows the relationship
third participant has 0.615 cm and 0.635 cm,
between area and the square of diameter. The
and the last participant has both 0.955 cm.
trendline indicates that the values are
Hence, the method of measuring using the
increasing. In addition, according to the
thumb during the medieval period is not
accurate, since it is not constant and cannot found in experiment 1, and the answer to
be used as a standard measurement. post-lab question 1. Finally, (4) Julienne
According to Reid (2018), equipment used Rosales contributed by writing the
for measuring should be calibrated, and methodology, discussion, conclusion, and
measurements should be replicated to ensure post lab question 3 of exercise 1 as well as the
accuracy and precision. results and discussions.

5. Conclusion References:

In descriptive statistics, both the Allain, R. (2017). Wired. Physics Proves No

standard deviation and the variance is close One Can Safely Text and Drive.
to 0, which means that the measurements can Retrieved
be considered precise. In the Graphical and from:https://www.wired.com/story/p
Error Analyses, the researchers obtained hysics-proves-no-one-can-safely-
3.99% and 2.20% error with the obtained text-and-drive/
coin measurements. The latter having a
smaller value because it is closer to the Helmenstine, A. (2020). What Is the
accepted value of π. In the last activity, it was Difference Between Accuracy and
shown that the size of an individual’s thumb Precision? Retrieved from:
varies from one person to another, meaning https://www.thoughtco.com/differen
that the medieval method of measuring is not ce-between-accuracy-and-precision-
accurate compared to today where measuring 609328
tools are being utilized in order to have
standard unit of measurements. Ilola, E. (2018). Students 4 Best Evidence.
A Beginner’s Guide to Standard
Author Contributions: Deviation and Standard Error.
Retrieved from:
All members of the group performed https://s4be.cochrane.org/blog/2018/
both experiments. In alphabetical order, (1) 09/26/a-beginners-guide-to-standard-
Abram Reyes contributed by using his deviation-and-standard-error/
results in experiment 1 as the basis for the
formal report as well as providing Larson, M. (2008). AHA Journals. Analysis
discussions and answering post lab question of Variance. Retrieved from:
number 2 on both the first and second https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/
exercise. (2) Evan Reyes’ contribution was 10.1161/circulationaha.107.654335
composing the theory section and providing
the answer for exercise 2’s post lab question Ramchandani, S. (2017). How do I find out
number 1. (3) Francisco Reyes’ the height of a building using time?
contributions are providing the abstract, Retrieved from:
introduction, interpretations for the graphs https://www.quora.com/How-do-I-
 find-out-the-height-of-a-building- versus diameter or graph of area
using-time versus square of diameter? Explain
the result you obtained.
Reid, Ari. (2018). How to Improve Your
Precision in the Lab. sciencing.com. Comparing the % error
Retrieved from obtained in Activity B. The % error is
https://sciencing.com/improve- greater in the graph of the
precision-lab-10052147.html circumference versus diameter which
is 3.99. This is because its
Rogers, L. (2019). Nrich. A Brief History of experimental value of π is 3.0162,
Time Measurement. Retrieved from: which is far from the accepted value
https://nrich.maths.org/6070 of π which is 3.1416. On the other
hand, the experimental value of π
Sharp, D. (2000). Measurement Standards. from the graph of area versus square
Retrieved from of diameter, which is 3.0724, is closer
http://www.autex.spb.su/download/w to the accepted value of π.
avelet/books/sensor/CH05.PDF
3. What are the properties of a
Wood, D. et.al. (2015). Factors influencing standard for measurement?
the latency of simple reaction time.
Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. A standard unit should be well
https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2015. defined, as well as constant; hence it
00131 should remain the same in different
places and time. Additionally, it
Answer to Experiment 1 Post-Laboratory should be reproducible, and changes
Questions: along with modifications of physical
1. What is the meaning of a) zero changes.
variance and b) small variance?
Appendix
A zero variance indicates that
all observations are equal. On the Experiment 2: Kinematics of
other hand, a small variance indicates
that the values are close to the mean
Human Motion
and to the other values. Thus, the
values in a small variance are not
spread out. 1. Results and Discussion
Activity 1.
2. Compare the % error you obtained 1.
in Activity B. Where is the % error
greater: graph of circumference
2.
Activity 2.
Activity 3. Figure 3 shows the graph of the total
Table 4. Displacement and Velocity displacement and time. The trend line shown
Time Total Average Instantaneous in this graph is in an upward position
Displacem Velocity Velocity meaning that the person performing the
ent (m) (m/s) (m/s) experiment is moving to the right or in a
positive direction. Meaning, as the time
1 0.72 0.72 1.44
increases, the meters covered also increased.

2 1.24 0.62 1.24

3 1.85 0.62 1.24

4 2.48 0.62 1.24

5 3.1 0.62 1.24

6 3.75 0.63 1.26 Figure 4. Graph of Instantaneous Velocity

and Time
7 4.31 0.62 1.24
Based on the figure presented above,
8 4.94 0.62 1.24
instantaneous velocity is not constant and
changes throughout the experiment. The
instantaneous velocity peaked at 1.44 m/s2 at
9 5.52 0.62 1.24
the first second of the walk. Instantaneous
velocity changes since the speed is changed
10 6.08 0.61 1.22
as time passes.

Activity 4.
Table 5. Reaction Time
Person Reaction Time Reaction Time
(s) (s) with
Distraction

Reyes, Abram 0.18 0.20

Reyes, Evan 0.05 0.05

Jose

Reyes, Francisco 0.22 0.27

Figure 3. Graph of Total Displacement and Miguel
Time Rosales, 0.16 0.21
Julienne Mae

Mean 0.1525 0.1825

 a moment but if you are traveling 25 m/s (25
meters per second) which is already the
length of about 2 buses or a soccer field, a lot
of things can already happen in that amount
of distance. According to Allain, R. (2017), It
is not only the time spent in moving that we
should consider, but we should also consider
the time required to react to anything that
Figure 5. With and Without Reaction Time could happen.
Distraction
3. Draw the position (length) versus
Reaction time is the time needed for a time graph of a muscle tissue
person to respond to a stimulus, also used to during an (1) isometric contraction
measure processing speed. (Woods, et.al., and (2) isotonic contraction when
2015). Figure 5 shows that the reaction time lifting up and down a barbell.
is affected by the presence of distractions, in
which the reaction time is slower when it is
present, compared to when it is absent.

2. Applications

1. Devise a way to determine the

height of a building using only a
stopwatch.

In order to determine how high a building

Graph 1. Isometric Contraction of a Muscle
is with only a stopwatch, one can go to the
Tissue
roof of the building, drop an item from the
roof of the building and time the descent of
the item. After the time has been recorded, In an isometric contraction, it can be
the formula S=½(-a)(t)^2 can be used, observed that the muscle does not grow nor
wherein: a= 9.8m/s^2 and t= time of descent change in position since this contract at a
constant length/position and it takes hold of
2. From the point of view of physics, is the position it is in for a certain amount of
there a basis to the law banning the time. Thus, the graph shows that its position
use of cellphones while driving? is the same over time.

From the point of view of physics, a basis

that can be attributed to this situation is the
formula for velocity which is the change in
position over the change in time. Let us say
that you wanted to check your phone for just
Graph 2. Isotonic Contraction of a Muscle Tissue

The isotonic contraction of the

muscle can be divided into two types. A
concentric action refers to the contraction of
the muscle wherein it shortens its length over
time. An eccentric action, however, increases
the muscle’s length over a period. Thus,
when lifting a dumb bell, the muscle first
exerts a concentric action which leads to the
shortening of its length. And, when putting
the muscle at rest, by letting go of the
dumbbell, the muscle increases in length over
a period of time.