END TERM EXAMINATION [MAY-2017]

FOURTH SEMESTER [BCA]

cOMPUTER NETWORKS [BCA-210]
Time:3 hrs.

M.M.: 75
any five questions including Q no. 1 which
Note Attempt
se
is compulsory. Select
from each unit. one question

0.1. (a)Discuss different types of Network Models and

topology. (5)
Ans. The most important reference models are:
1.OSI model
2. TCP/IP model.

OSI Model: There are many users who use computer network and are located all
over the world. To ensure national and worldwide data communication ISO (IS0 stands
for InternationaB Organization of Standardization.) developed this model. This is called
a model for open system interconnection (OSI) and is normally called as OSI model.oSI
model architecture consists of seven layers. It defines seven layers or levels in a complete
communication system.

Layer Function Example

Services that are used with SMTP

Application (7) end user applications
Formats the data so that it
can be viewed by the user JPG, GIF HTTPS,
Presentation (6) SSL, TLS
Encrypt and decrypt
Establishes/ends connections INetBlOS, PPTP
Session (5) between two hosts

Responsible for the

transport TCP, UDP
Transport (4) protocol and
error handing
Routers, Layer 3
address from
Reads the IP switches
Network (3) the packet
from Switches
MAC address
Reads the
Data Link (2) the data packet
the physical |Hubs, NICS, Cable
on to
Send data
Physical (1) Wire
and internet protocol.
control protocol
TCP odel; TCP/IP
is
trans1ission
communication
over the internet.

Totocols are set ofof rules

hese rules which g o v e r n
ofdata
every
poaaible
between the host.
computers
nometimes called
the
orinternet

protoc
offers
deseribe the
ovement

addressing
sehenes Thia
nodel ie

of defe1se It is
also called the
and
p l e naming department
model sime
tuerne
etm
it was
for the
designed
protocul
ued
internet.
on the

e¢aluse T C P P is the
 Computer Networks
Fourth Semester,
2-2017
0SI
TCP/IP
sevClayer model tourNaycr model

Applicaton

Presentatlon
*****°**.

Appication
Session

Trrarnspxrt
Transport
Network
*****"'V
Intcricl
Data-link
Network
Physical

Four types of network topologies please

is the way various components ofa n a t . . twork (like nodes
Computer network topology Network topologies define the Ja ike pod.
etc) are arranged.
links, peripherals,
not only physically but also logically. The wa
or structure of network,
and communicate with which different
systems and nodes are connected
of the network.
topology
(a) BUS
BUS Topology: A single transmission medium is shared by all node
(a) Topology n address s.
computer appends the destination
dropstthes . Eachin
packed and drons
address to the data packed
packetin
the line. Each computer listens to the line
and picks the data packet addra e
and sends the acknowledgment to the source computer.

Server

Laser
printer Scanner

Router

Advantage of Bus Network

1. Reduction in physical lines
2. Failure of one computer does not affect the network
3. Addition of new
computer is easy.
Disadvantage of Bus Network
1. All
computers must have good communication and decision making ility
2. If link fails, the capa
network fails
b) Star Topology:
Multiple computers are Connected to a host compuk
unication

routing function is
performed by host computer, which controls the
between two computers. co
 1.P University-|BCA-AB Publisher
2017-3

HUB Router

Laser
Printer

Advantage of Star Network

h nodes.
(1) Minimal line cost. Only n-l lines are required for connecting
nodes.
(2) Transmission delays between nodes do not increase by adding
new

unaffected
(3) If local computer fails, the network remains
Disadvantage of Star Network
If it falls the entire network fails.
1. System depends on central host computer.
is connected to two ofits neighbor forming
(c) Ring Topology: In this each computer central A node can receive
There is no computer.
a circular arrangement of computers. will it
nodes. If the data is for it's own use, it
consume

data from one of its two adjacent

or passes 'it on to the next node.

Router

Laser printer

Network
Advantage of Ring
1. No data collision
network
2. More reliable than star 1s present
computer
when no central
5. Works well even
 Forth Momestnr, tn putor Mntmaka
9017
Network
DHsadvantage of Nar
propnrlional
ln the n u m l n r tf ndln
i directly
Ielay
p n A h 6 (nta ty t e t
Earhcompaler requires nollwar
compare
to t a r nat wrk
ow An
njnth f4nnfistat
In thin topoloy is tdie
id Mesh Tvpology
K p u t e r in
the network
edicated link between ovory romputer

Advantage of Mosh Network

1.Communication is very fast.
2. No need of routing capability.
3. Very reliable
Disadvantage of Ring Network
1. Very high
cost because of large number of links. N(N-1/2
connect N computers. linka are rei
2. Difficult to setup because of large nurmber of
links.
3. Only suitable for few
computers
Q.1. (b) Distinguish between FDM, TDM
and WDM.
Ans. Whenever the bandwidth of
a medium linking two devices is
bandwidth needs of the devices, then the greater than he
link can be shared.
oftechniques that allows the simultaneous Multiplezing ia the st
single data link. The advantage of transmission of multiple signals acrss
multiplexing is the efficient utilization of tartwitn
Frequency division multiplexing
applied when the band width of a link (FDM) is an analog technique that
signals to be transmitted. In FDM (in Hz) is greater than the combined can
bandwdta
different carrier signal generated by each sending device
frequencies.
composite signal that can be These modulated signals are then combined in mou.
to
transmitted by the link. Carrier " a

are
frequencies *ea

Channel 1D
Channel 12 M
Channel 3
X
 1.P. University-{BCAJ-AB Publisher
2017-5
handwidth ranges of the channels through which the various
hy ufficient bandw

Channels must be separated by strips of unused sigmals travel.

bandwidth (guard bands) to prevent
lapping. FDM
from overlapping. FPDM is an analog
multiplexing technique that combines
enal. Example: Radio,ttelevision broad casting, etc.
siCTnals

sig WaveDivision
Div Multiplexing: WDM is an analog process. It is similar to the FDM.
is the same
bu different in
s a m e but
frequency. The frequencies are very high. This technique
The
mbining difterent signals
combining differ of different frequencies. But it. is specifically used to
mbine lots of Optical Carrier signals into a single optical fiber. WDM uses fiber
eal cable to transmit the signal. Combining and splitting of light sources are easily
adled by a prism. A prism bends a beam of light based on the angle of incidence and
frequency. Using this technique, a multiplexer can be made to combine
enut beam of light, each containing a narrow band of frequencies, into one outputseveral
beam
afa wider band of frequencies. A demultiplexer can also be made to reverse the process.

Fiber with mux's

wavelengths

WDM mux WDM demux

Time Division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process. It allows several

connections to share the high bandwidth of a link. Instead of sharing a portion of the
bandwidth as in FDM, here in TDM time is shared. Each connection occupies a portion
oftime in the link. The data flow of each connection: divided in to units and the link
combines one unit of each connections to make a frame. The size of the unit can be one
bit or several bits. For n input connections a frame is organized in to minimum ofn time
slots. Each slot is carrying one unit from each connection as shown.

E
U M
x

TDM WDM
FDM
Digital Techniqe Anolog Technige
Anolog Techniqe Fiber optic cable are used for
Wire cables are used
Wire cables are used transmission.
for transmission
for transmission
Total frequency bands are
Total frequency bands Total available time is
divided into several divided into several users.
are divided into several
users users
Transmission of two or A multiplex system for
A multiplex system for transmitting two or more
more signals on the
transmitting two or more light signals over the same
Signals over a common same path, but at different
fiber optic cable.
times.
path by using a different
frequency band for each
signal.
 Fourth Semester, Computer Networks
6-2017
TDM unply partitioning Use of pnsm to
the signal is multipleved
ome from different
the bandwidth of the combine
several light beams
channel connection two one and then to
into
sourres tranamitters DE
nodes into infinite set multiplex them
oftime slots
Cmplexity is mhoderate Complevity is moderate Complex to achieve
U'sed in Radio and cable Used in ISDN Used heavy data
tranafer
1.(e) Disceribe three Internetworking Devices.
Ans. An internetworking device is a widely-used term for any hardware 5
networks that connect different network resources. Key devices that comprisea e wit
are routers. bridges, repeaters and gateways. All devices have separately ins
swpe features. per network requirements and soenarios. installed
Routers: Routers Are networking devices used to
extend or segment networks by forwarding packets
from one logical network to another. Routers are most
often used in large internetworks that use the TCP/IP
protocol suite and for connecting TCP/IP hosts and
local area networks (LANs) to the Internet using
dedicated leased lines.
Routers work at the network layer (layer 3) of the Open Systems
OSD reference model for networking to move packets Interconnection
between networks using their
logical addresses (which, ia the case of TCPAP, are the IP addresses of destination
hosts on the network). Because routers operate at a higher OSI level than
bridges dn
they have better packet-routing and filtering capabilities and greater processing pome
which results in routers costing more than bridges.
Bridges: A bridge is used to join two network segments together, it allows
computers on either segment to access resources on the other. They can also be used to
divide large networks into smaller segments. Bridges have all the features of
but can have more nodes, and since the network is divided, there is repeaters
fewer computers
competing for resouroces on each segment thus improving network performance.
Bridges can also connect networks that run at different speeds, different
or different
protocols. But they cannot, join an Ethernet segment with a Token topologies,
segment, because these use different networking standards. Bridges operate at Ring both
the Physical Layer and the MAC sub-layer of the Data Link
MAC header of each frame to determine on which side of layer. Bridges read the
the bridge the destination
device is located, the bridge then repeats the
transmission to the segment where the
device is located.
Repeater: A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the
signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or
extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the samecorrupted so
network.as
A
important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do no
the signal becomes weak, they amplify the signal. When
copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the orng
strength. It is a 2 port device.
Gateways: Agateway is a device used to connect networks tomls
using different proto
Gateways operate at the network layer of the OSI model. In order wth

network, an IP host must be configured with a routecommunicate

a host on another
to
to the desanip
network. If a configuration route is not
router) to transmit found, the host uses the gateway
(ahere
the traffic to the destination host. The whe
default t
the IP sends packets that are destined for remote networks. If no gateway 15 ewayi

specified, communication is limited to the local network. default f

Gateways receive aa
 1.P University-{BCA-AB Publisher
2017-7
using type of protocol
sing one type stack, removes that
rotocol stack that the other network can use.protocol
e t w o . stack and repackages it.
ththe protocol
Example0s

-mail gateway8-for examnple, a gateway that receives Simple Mail Transfer

sacal (SMTP) e-mail, translates it into a standard X.400 format, and forwards it to
its destination

. Gateway Service for NetWare (GSNW), which enables a machine

oosoft Windows NT Server or Windows Server to be a gateway for Windowsrunning
clients
that they can access tile and print resources on a NetWare server
.Gateways between a Systems Network Architecture (SNA) host and computers
an TCP/P network, such as the one provided by Microsoft SNA Server
. A packet assembler/disassembler (PAD) that provides connectivity between a
local area network (LAN) and an X.25 packet-switching network
9.1. (d) Diseuss design responsibilities of Data Link layer of OSI Model.
(5)
Ans. Design Issues With Data Link Layer:
The issue that arises in the data link layerland most of the higher layers as
well) is how to keep a fast transmitter from drowning a slow receiver in data. Some
traffic regulation mechanism is often needed to let the transmitter know how much
buffer space the receiver has at the moment. Frequently, the flow regulation and the
error handling are integrated.
Broadcast networks have an additional issue in the data link layer: How to
control access to the shared channel. A special sublayer of the data link layer, the
Medium Access Control(MAC) sublayer, deals ith this problem.
Q.1. (e) What is two-node loop instability problem? Discuss its two solution.
Ans. Two-Node Loop Instability: A problem with distance vector routing is
instability means a network using this protocol can become unstable
Analyse the following diagram.
1. both node A and B know how to reach node X
2. the link between A and X fails
.Node A change its table
3a. If node A can send its routing table to B immediately
Everything is fin

Before failure
EEA
{B)

After failure
(A)- {B)
After A receives
update from B
x) )

After B receives 4
update from A (A 8

E E
Finall
A
 Pourth Semester, Computer Networks
-21917
its rrating table to A first
3b Horwever, if node B sends
a s e u m e s that B has found
a way to reach
Node A
its update to B and B aleo update its routing table
4. A Bends new

5 Bsends ita new update to A and so on..until the cost reach

nfinity
Then both A and B knows that the link is
broken
6
As a result, during the time before cost reaches infinity
A packet destined for X bounces between A andB
Create a two-node loop problem
Solutions to the two-node loop problem: Defining infinity
Split horizon
Split horizon and porison reverse
Defining Infinity: Redefine infinity to a smaller number which shortens the
time
of instability.
Moat implementation define the distance between each node to be 1 and define
16 as infinity
As a result, the distance vector scheme cannot he used in large system and the
size of network, in each direction, can not exceed 15 hops
Split Horizon: Do not flood the table through each interface and a router must
distinguish between different interface.
I f a router receíved route updating message from an interface This same updated
information must not be sent back through this interface Since the information has
n e frorn the ending one

RIP

Ne3

E receives information about Netl and Net2 through its left interface
This infornation is updated and passed on through the right interface but not to
the left
Thus, in the figure of two-node instability
Node B elimínates the last line of its routing table before it sends to A
Node A then keeps the value ofinfinity as the distance to X
Later when A sends its routing table to B
B then correct its routing table
The system becomes stable after the first update
Bonh node A and B know that X is not reachable
Split Horizon and Poison Reverse:
Drawback of wplit horizon C
Distance vectr uses a tímer
 I.P. University-|BCAJ-AB Publisher 2017-9
If there is no news about a route within the time duration
Delete the route
Since Node B eliminates the route toX
Node Acannot decide it is due to split horizon or because B has not received any
about X recently
pews
Solution to the above drawback is Split Horizon and Poison Reverse which is a
horizons.
ariation of split
.Information received is used to update routing table and then passed out to all
nterface

However, a table entry is set to a metric of infinity as it's Come through and goes
out interface are the same
For example
Router Bhas received information about Netl and Net2 through its left interface
Thus, it sends information out about Netl and Net2 with a metric of 16 to its left
interface (assume 16 is infinity)

RIP messages RIP messages

Net1 16 Net1 Net1 16| Net1 2

Net2 1|Ne 16
Net2 16|Net2 1

Net32|Net3 16 Net3 1 Net3 16

( Net1 Net2 Net3

UNIT-I
Q.2. Describe different technical specifications of UTP, Coaxial cable and
Fiber optic cable as transmission media, (12.5)
Ans. Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable:
It is the most common type of telecommunication when compared with Shielded
Twisted Pair Cable which consists of two conductors usually copper, each with its own
colour plastic insulator. Identification is the reason behind coloured plastic insulation.
UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ.
11 connector and 4 pair cable use RJ-45 connector.
CAT-1 through CAT-5 by
Unshielded twisted-pair cable is divided into categories enhancements
the Electronic Industries Association (EIA). There are
alsoproprietary
better performance over longer distances.
to the CAT-5 specification that allow for even
shown in Table 1. These standards
The EIA provides specifications for UTP cable, as
R.J-1l connectors,
apply to four-pair UTP. UTP uses RJ-45 and
TABLE 1: UTP Specifications
Performance Application
Type of UTP |
CAT-1 None None
CAT-2 1MHz Telephone Wiring
10BaseT. Token Ring 4 Mbps, ISDN low speed
CAT-3 16MHz
Token Ring 16
CAT-4 20MHz
100BaseT. 100 VG-AnyLAN, Token Ring 20 Mbps|
CAT-5 100MHz
 Fourth Somestor, Computor Networkw
10-2017
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial iN Called by thia name because it containa two conductors that aro.
each other. Coppor is used in this as contre conductor which can be ARlidarallel t
standand one. It is surrounded by PVC installation, a sheath which is re or
foil, barid or both. in an
outer eonductor of netal
Outer metallic wrapping is used as a shield agninst noise and as the second cond.
which completes the circuit. The outer conductor is also encased in an ingulatin ct
The outermost part is the plastic cover which protects the whole cable.
TABLE 2. Various Types of Coaxial Cable and TheirApplications
Cable Type Impedanco Application
RG-59 75 ohms Cable TV
RG-58 50 ohms, 5 mm in diameter 10Base 2 or Thin Net
RG-11 and RG-8 50 ohms. 10 mm in diameter 10Base 5 or Thick Net
Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks, where a singla
coaxial network could carry 10,000 voice signals. le
Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables. In the traditional cable TV network
the entire network used coaxial cable. Cable TV uses RG-59 coaxial cable.
In traditional Ethernet LANs. Because of it high bandwidth, and
consequence
high data rate, coaxial cable was chosen for digital transmission in early Ethernet
LANs. The 10Base-2, or Thin Ethernet, uses RG-58 coaxial cable with BNC
to transmit data at 10Mbps with a range of 185 m. connectors
Fiber Optic Cable: A fibre-optic cable is mada of glass
signals in the form of light.
or plastic and transmits
Optical fibres use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic core
is surrounded by a cladding of
less dense glass or plastic. The difference in density of
the two materials must be such that a beam
off the cladding instead of
of light moving through the core is reflected
being
refracted into it.

Cladding
Sender Core
Receiver
Cladding
Internal view of an Optical fibre
Propagation Modes: Current technology
supports two modes
Single mode) for propagating light along optical (Multimode an
different physical characteristics. Multimode channels, each requiring fibre wu
can be implemented
in two forms: 5tep"
index and Graded-index.

Mode

Multimode
Single mode

Step index
Graded index
 I.P. University-{BCA-AB Publisher 2017-11
14imode: Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source
through the core in different paths. How these beams move within the cable
the structure«of the core as shown in the below
dependson figure.

Source Destination

a. Multimode, step index

Source Destination

b. Multimode. graded index

Source
JUL
Destination

.Single mode
core remains constant from
I n multimode step-index fibre, the density of the
this constant density in a straight
the centre to the edges. A beam of light moves through
line until it reaches the interface of the core and the cladding.
which contributes to
The step-index refers to the suddenness of this change,
term
the fibre.
the distortion of the signal as it passes through
decreases
through the
In multimode graded-index fibre, this distortion gets
refraction. This index of refraction is
index of
cable. The word index here refers to the
is one with varying densities.
related to the density. A graded-index fibre, therefore,
the core and decreases gradually to its lowest at the
Density is highest at the centre of
edge.
fibre and a highly focused source of
Single Mode: Single mode u s e s step-index
of all close to the horizontal. The
light that limits beams to a small rangewithangles,
a much smaller diameter than that of
single-mode fibre itself is manufactured
lower density.
multimode fibre, and with substantially
The decrease in density results in a critical angle that is close enough to 90 degree
almost horizontal.
O make the propagation of beams
Fibre Sizes: Optical fibres are defined by the ratio of the diameter or their core too
diameter of their cladding, both expressed mmcrometers. The common sizes are
in
the
shown in the figure below:
 Semester,
Computer Networks
Fourth
12-9201
Cladding (um) Mode
C'ore (um)
Tpe
12 Multimodo, graded index
M12
12 Multimode, graded indey
19
62
126 Multimode, graded indey
100
125
Single mode
is used for cable TV t
Channel(SC) connector u8es push/pu
The Subseriber used for connecti
connector is uses

king Rystem The

Straight-Tip(ST)
that i8 the s a m e size as T Cable to the
BJ45.
l devves. MT RJ is n
connector

nelwrking
Diseuss the following:
.3.
a ) D T E - C E Interface
(12.5)
terms related to computer networking.
Ans. The fwo important

)Date Terminal Equipment (DTE)

(DCE)
6)Dat& Circuit-terminating Equipment
The data generated by
DTE is passed along with any essential control aL
then converts the signal to a layout
and design structro racters,
to a DCE. The DCE

the broadcast medium and bring ontothe

it network link. When the signat Dle to
the
receiving end, this process is upturned.
DTE: Any component that function each as a source or as a target for binaru d
digital
data and information. It can be a terminal, computer, microcGmputer, printer, fax machine
or any other device that either generates or consumes digital data.
DCE: Any efficient component that either transmits or receives data and information
in the structure of an analog or digital signal all the way through network. A DCE takes
information generated by a DTE, changes them to a suitable signal, and then introdus
the signal onto the telecommunication link.
To reduce the weight on data dispensation tools manufacturers and
users, principle
standards have been made that state the precise environment of the interface
between
the DTE and the DCE. Such interfaces have 4 important characters:
Mechanical Electrical Functional Procedural.

DTE-DCE Interface
DTE-DCE stndards try to desine the mechaaical.|
electrwal. and functional
coniecton between thecharacteristics
DTE andDCE
of

Network
DCE
DTE DCE
DTE

Example: let's say We have

nternet through a' modem computer on which wants to
a
I t hthe

nodem to the number

dial and dial-up connection. To to conu
a tellyour
the nodem of the of your provider. get the n
becomes quiet andprovider will answer After your
connection is established.
you see your call and youmodems
will hear vou th
your login prompt a gram i
or your dialingP
 I.P. University-[BCAJ-AB Publisher
2017-13
you
have aa «connection with the server from your provider and you can wander
have
Now
h el n t e r n e t .

Lhis example you PC is a Data 'Terminal (DTE). The two modems (yours and that
In th
ovider)
your provid are DCEs, they make the communication between you and your
e nO8sible. But now we have to look at the server of your provider. Is that a DTE
p w v i d e

he answer is a DTE. It ends the communication line between you and the server.
whough it gives you the possibility to surf around the globe. The reason why it is a
TEis that when you want to gofrom your provides'server to another place it uses
ther interface. So DTE and DCE are interface dependent
Modems (modulators/demodulators) are data communication devices that convert
diorital signals to analog signals, and vice versa. Modems allow digital transmissions
er analog telephone lines. They allow people to connect their computers with other
a puters, corporate office LANs, and the Internet. Modems are used to establish
ennections of the telephone company's local loop, which is the analog copper cable that
runs between homes and businesses to the telephone company central office (CO). The
ohone company then switches the call like any other voice call to create a point-to-point
ink to the destination.
The VSeries recommendations from the International Telecommunication Union
CTU) are listed below. They include the most commonly used modem standards and
other telephone network standards.
V.22 Provides 1200 bits per second at 600 baud (state changes per second).
The first true world standard, it allows 2400 bits per second at 600
V.22bis
baud.
V.32 Provides 4800 and 9600 Bits per second at 2400 baud.
Provides 14,400 bits per second or fallback to 12,000,9600,7200, and
V.32bis
4800 bits per second.
Provides 19,200 bits per second or fallback to 12,000,9600,7200, and
V.32terbo data rates with
4800 bits per second; c a n operate at higher
standard.
compression; was not a CCITT/ATU
and 19,200 bits
V.34 Provides 28,800 bits per second or fallback to 24,000
with V.32 and V.32bis.
per second and backwards compatibility
to 31,200 or V.34
V.34bis Provides up to 33,600 bits per second or fallback
transfer rates.
network access device and a packet
V.35 The trunk interface between a
19.2 Kbps. V.35 may use the
network at data rates greater than
circuits as a group. There are V.35
bandwidths of several telephone
Gender Changers and Adapters.
and other standards but with
V42 Same transfer rate as V.32, V.32bis,
therefore more reliable.
better e r r o r correction and
second downstream (but in practice
V.90 Provides up to 56,000 bits per
from the x2 technology of 3Com (US
somewhat less). Derived
Robotics*and Rockwell's
K56tlex technology.
modem specification from the ITU
V.92 V.92 is the n e w dial-up
Telecommunications Union) that introduces three
new
(International
add convenience and performance
for the modem
features that will
Modem-On-Hold and PCM
user. The three
features are Quick Connect,

Upstream.
 Notworks
14-2017 Fourth Somestor, Computer

Tranwmiswsion Impairmonts.
Q3. (b) Difforent types of are not perfect
transmission medin, which
Ans. Signals travol through at the begin. The
This méans that the signal
imperfection causos signal impairment. the end of the medium. What is se
of
the signal at
the medium is not tho samo an
aro attenuation, distortion, and
what is received. Three causos ofimpairment
loas energy. When signal,
a simple or composite travel
1.Attenuation means a of the resi
medium, it loses of its energy in overcoming
some t esistance of
through a electric signals gets warm, if not hot, after a e
medium. That is why a wire carrying
is converted to heat. To compensate
Some electrical energy in the signal
of the this
used to amplily the signal.
loss, amplifiers are

Artenuated Amplifed
Original

AA AA
Amplier
AM
Point Transmisslon medium Point 2 Point 3

2. Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape. Distortion can ocur
in a composite signal made of different frequencies.Each signal component has its own
propagation speed through a medium and, therefore, its own delay in arriving at the
final destination. Differences in delay may create a difference in phase if the delayis
riot exactly the same as the period duration. In other words, signal components at the
receiver have phases different from what they had at the sender. The shape of the
composite signal is therefore not the same.

Composte sgnal
ent

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AA
AA- M
Composte signa
ceed

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Component
n phase ConponenNs.
nut ol phase
AL tUe ser1cder
At the reneNer
3. Noise is another cause of
noise, induced noise, impairment. Several types of noise, suCn a
crosstalk, and impulse rmal
motion of electrons in a noise, may corrupt the signaa pot
noise is the random
originally sent by the transmitter. wire which creates an
and Induced noise comes from sou
extra as m
ources such o8otors
appliances.
acts as the
These devices act as a
sending antenna, and the
m e d i u m

acts as a receiving antenna. Crosstalk is the effeet

sion

sending antenna and the other transm

of one wire on the One wi
spike (a signal with high as the
receiving tenna.
anter
oteise
Impulse ne
is
lightning, and so on. energy in a very short time) ower line,

that comes Iro

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 I.P. University-[BCAI-AB Publisher
2017-15

Transmitted
Nolse Received

AA AANAM

Point 1 Transmission medium Point 2

Q.3. (c) Design responsibility of transport layer in oSI model.

Ans. Design Issues With Transport Layer:
Accepting data from Session layer, split it înto segments and send to the network
Jayer.
Ensure correct delivery of data with efficiency.
Isolate upper layers from the technological changes.
Error control and flow control.
UNIT-II
(12.5)
Q.4. Discuss the following w.r.t error detection and correctian.
(a) Redundancy
Ans. Redundancy
errors is redundancy. To be able to
The central concept in detecting some correcting
some extra bits with our data. These redundant
detect or correct errors, we need to send
removed by the receiver. Their presence allows the
bits are added by the sender and
receiver to detect or correct corrupted bits.
rrors we need tR Send extra fredundant) bits with data.