Circuits 1

Module 1: Introduction of DC/AC Sources and Electrical Circuit Components

Engineering – is a science by which the properties of matter and the sources of the
energy in nature are made useful to man.

Electricity – is a form of energy [1], result of charges interacting each other [2]. It is
also a field of knowledge, which deals with phenomena of electric charge[3].

Branches of electrical engineering [4]:

1. Power generation, transmission and distribution
2. electric machines, computer
3. automatic control,
4. electronics,
5. communications system, and
6. instrumentation and measurement

Electron Theory of Electricity:

Atom – derived from the Greek work “atomos” meaning indivisible [5]. It is the smallest
possible particles of matter (smallest piece that can exist and still retain its original
properties whatever happens). It has an average diameter of 8 x 10-11 cm [6].

Fundamental building blocks of an atom: Mass (kg) [7] Charge [8]

1. Proton – positively charged particles Qp = 1.602x10– 19 C
mp = 1.67 x 10– 27
= 4.8022x10–10 Stat C

2. Electron – negatively charged particles Qp = – 1.602x10– 19 C

me = 9.11 x 10– 31
= – 4.8022x10–10 Stat C

3. Neutron – electrically neutral

mn=1.672 x 10– 27

Atomic Structure:

Nucleus – small, tightly – has a overall positive charge that consists of protons and
neutron [2]. It has a net positive charge due to the protons.

The interactions responsible for the structure of atoms, molecules and solid are
primarily electrical interactions between electrically charged particles [9].

CKTS 214 – Lecture Page 1 of 13

 Molecules – group of atoms (combination of two or more atoms of the same
element) held together to form an element whose identity can exist isolated [5], While
compound is a combination of two or more atoms of different elements [10].

Electron configuration in different shells [11]:

Principal Quantum Maximum number
Principal Shell Orbit
Number, n electrons, 2n2
K first orbit 1 2
L second orbit 2 8
M third orbit 3 18
N fourth orbit 4 32
O fifth orbit 5 50

Electrical Conductors and Insulators:

Classification of materials according to conductivity: Conductors, Insulators,
and Semi-conductors [12].
a. Conductors- these are materials that permit electric charge to move
from one region of the material to another [9]. Example: silver,
copper, aluminum, etc.
b. Insulators- do not easily create free electrons nor allow the flow of free
electrons [13]. Example: Rubber, plastic, glass, etc.
c. Semiconductors – neither conductors nor insulators [13]. Example:
Germanium, silicon, etc.

Good conductors – have less than four valence electrons, Poor Conductor
(Insulator) – have greater than four valence electrons while, Valence electron of
semiconductor is equal to four [14].

CKTS 214 – Lecture Module 1 Page 2 of 13

 Valence electrons are the electrons found in the outermost shell or orbit of an
atom [13], [15]. While, Free electrons are the electrons that have left there orbit in an
atom and are travelling freely and can easily remove by applying attractive force [15],
[16].
Good conductors have the largest number of free electrons per in3, for Copper –
1.64 x 1024 [15], [17], [18]; Silver – 1.68 x 1024; Aluminum – 1 x 1024; Nickel – 2.56 x
1022; Whereas: Rubber - 3 free electrons/ in3 [18].

In summary, reason why materials are considered to be good conductors:

1. No of free electrons/unit volume
2. No of valence electrons

Systems of Units:
The six basic SI units [19]

The SI prefixes [20]:

Quantities of Electrical Engineering:

1. Charge is the property of matter which is responsible for electric phenomena [3],
measured in coulombs (C) in SI unit and Stat Coulomb (Stat C) in cgs electrostatic
system, (1 C = 3x109 Stat C) [21].
a. The coulomb is a large unit for charges [22]. In 1 C of charge, there are
1/(1.602 × 10−19) = 6.24×1018 electrons.

CKTS 214 – Lecture Module 1 Page 3 of 13

 b. According to experimental observations, the only charges that occur in
nature are integral multiples of the electronic charge e = −1.602 × 10−19 C
[23].
c. The law of conservation of charge states that charge can neither be created
nor destroyed only transferred. Thus the algebraic sum of the electric
charges in a system does not change [23], [24].

2. Electric current is the time rate of flow of charge [15], measured in amperes (A).
When a conducting wire (consisting of several atoms) is connected to a battery
(a source of electromotive force), the charges are compelled to move; positive
charges move in one direction while negative charges move in the opposite
direction. This motion of charges creates electric current.

dq
Mathematically, the relationship between current i, charge q, and time t is: i 
dt
t


The charge transferred between time t0 and t is: q  idt
t0

Electric current due to flow of electronic charge in a conductor [25].

It is conventional to take the current flow as the movement of positive charges,

that is, opposite to the flow of negative charges [26].

Types of current [18]:

A. A direct current (dc) is a current that remains constant with time [23].
a. Unidirectional – when the current does vary somewhat in magnitude but
does not reverse in direction. (produced by d- c generator)
b. Continuous – is one which an energy transfer takes place uni –
directionally. (produced by battery)
c. Pulsating – is one which magnitude varies considerably and pulses
regularly, there being no reversal in direction. (produced by half wave
tube rectifier)
B. An alternating current (ac) is a current that varies sinusoidally with time
[27].

CKTS 214 – Lecture Module 1 Page 4 of 13

3. Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a unit charge in an
electrostatic field [28], measured in volts (V). This means that, it is the influence of
a device or a machine that tends to create electron flow.

Mathematically, the relationship between potential difference v, energy w, and

dw
charge q is: v 
dq

Voltage Polarity:
Plus (+) and minus (−) signs are used to define reference direction or voltage
polarity [29].

Point b is −9 V above point a, equivalently

Point a is +9Vabove point b (there is a
a -9V voltage rise from a to b.
9-V voltage drop from a to b.

Types of voltage:
A. dc voltage - constant voltage [30] and it is commonly produced by a battery.
B. ac voltage - a sinusoidally time-varying voltage [31] and produced by an
electric generator.

4. Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts (W),
simply the rate of energy transfer [1], [29].

dw
Mathematically, p 
dt
Where: instantaneous power (p)- is a time-varying quantity
dw dw dq
It follows that, p     vi
dt dq dt
Reference polarities for power using the passive sign convention [29]:

CKTS 214 – Lecture Module 1 Page 5 of 13

Absorbing power (power is being Supplying power (power is being

absorbed by the element)- when the supplied by the element) - when the

current enters through the positive current enters through the negative

terminal of an element terminal of an element

The law of conservation of energy must be obeyed in any electric circuit. Hence, the
algebraic sum of power in a circuit, at any instant of time, must be zero: p = 0 [32].
Confirms the fact that the power supplied to the circuit must balance the total
power absorbed: + power absorbed = - power supplied.

5. Electrical Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules ( J) [29].

Mathematically, the energy absorbed or supplied by an element from time t0 to time t
t t
is: w   pdt   vidt
t0 t0

Conversion: 1 Wh = 3,600 J [33].

The electric power utility companies like NGCP, PELCO, SFELAPCO, etc. measure
electrical energy in watt- hr (Wh).

CKTS 214 – Lecture Module 1 Page 6 of 13

 Sample Problems
(Taken from [29] and [34])

S1.1. Find the current flowing through an element if the charge flow is given by: q(t)
= 5e−2t sin 100t μC.
Solution:
( )
𝑖(𝑡) = = = 5[−2𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛100𝑡 + 𝑒 (100𝑐𝑜𝑠100𝑡)] = 10𝑒 [50𝑐𝑜𝑠100𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛100𝑡]A

S1.2. The charge entering a certain element is shown in the Figure. Sketch the
corresponding current.

Solution: 𝑖(𝑡) = is same as computing the slope of a function

0  2s: 𝑖 = = 25 A
25 𝐴, 0 < 𝑡 < 2𝑠
2  6s: 𝑖 = = - 25 A 𝑖 = −25 𝐴, 2 < 𝑡 < 6𝑠
25 𝐴, 6 < 𝑡 < 8𝑠
6  8s: 𝑖 = = 25 A

S1.3. The current flowing through an element is i(t) = 3t A, calculate the net charge
entering the element if q(0) = 0
3𝑡 𝐴, 0 < 𝑡 < 6𝑠
18 𝐴, 6 < 𝑡 < 10𝑠
𝑖(𝑡) =
−12 𝐴, 10 < 𝑡 < 15𝑠
0, 15 < 𝑡 < 20𝑠

Solution: using 𝑞(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡

For 0<t<6: 𝑞(𝑡) = ∫ 3𝑡𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 + 𝑐

when q(0) = 0
0 = 1.5(0)2 + c;
c=0
At 0<t<6; q(t) = 1.5t2
When t = 6; q(6) = 1.5(6)2 = 54
For 6<t<10: 𝑞(𝑡) = ∫ 18𝑑𝑡 + 𝑞(6) = 18𝑡 + 𝑐 + 𝑞(6)
when q(6) = 54
54 = 18(6) + 𝑐 + 54; c = - 108
At 6<t<10; 𝑞(𝑡) = 18𝑡 − 108 + 54 = 18𝑡 − 54
When t = 10; q(10) = 18(10) – 54 = 126

CKTS 214 – Lecture Module 1 Page 7 of 13

 For 10<t<15: 𝑞(𝑡) = ∫ −12𝑑𝑡 + 𝑞(10) = −12𝑡 + 𝑐 + 𝑞(10)
when q(10) = 126
126 = −12(10) + 𝑐 + 126; c = 120
At 10<t<15; 𝑞(𝑡) = −12𝑡 + 120 + 126 = −12𝑡 + 246
When t = 15; q(15) = - 12(15)+246 = 66
For 15<t<20: 𝑞(𝑡) = ∫ 0𝑑𝑡 + 𝑞(15) = 0 + 𝑐 + 𝑞(15)
when q(15) = 66
66 = c + 66; c=0
At 15<t<20; 𝑞(𝑡) = 66
1.5𝑡 C, 0 < 𝑡 < 6𝑠
18𝑡 − 54 C, 6 < 𝑡 < 10𝑠
Therefore: 𝑞(𝑡) =
−12𝑡 + 246 C, 10 < 𝑡 < 15𝑠
66 C, 15 < 𝑡 < 20𝑠

S1.4. Find the charge q(t) flowing through a device if the current is: i(t)=20 cos (10t +
/6) μA, q (0) = 2μC.

Solution: 𝑞(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 20 ∫ cos 10𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡

By substitution: let 𝑢 = 10𝑡 + ; 𝑑𝑢 = 10𝑑𝑡; 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑢

𝜋
20 cos 10𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡 = 2 cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 2 sin 𝑢 + 𝑐
6
But 𝑢 = 10𝑡 +
𝜋
𝑞(𝑡) = 2 sin 𝑢 + 𝑐 = 2 sin 10𝑡 + +𝑐
6
At q(0) = 2μC
2 = 2 sin (0+/6) + c
c=1
𝜋
𝑞(𝑡) = 2 sin 10𝑡 + + 1 𝜇𝐶
6

S1.5. An energy source forces a constant current of 2 A for 10 s to flow through a

lightbulb. If 2.3 kJ is given off in the form of light and heat energy, calculate
the voltage drop across the bulb.

Solution:
The total charge is q  it  2 x10  20C
w 2.3 x10 3
The voltage drop is v    115V
q 20

S1.6. Determine the energy absorbed in 5ms if the current entering its positive
terminal is i(t) = 40 cos 4t A, and the voltage is v(t) = 30 cos 4t V.

CKTS 214 – Lecture Module 1 Page 8 of 13

 t t
Solution: w   pdt   vidt
t0 t0

0.005 0.005
w  30 cos 4t 40 cos 4t dt  1200  cos 4tdt
2

0 0

By substitution: let 𝑢 = 4𝑡; 𝑑𝑢 = 4𝑑𝑡; 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑢

.
1200
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑢𝑑𝑢
4
Trigonometric Identities: cos2u = ½ (1+cos2u)
1 1
300 (1 + cos 2𝑢)𝑑𝑢 = 150 𝑢 + sin 2𝑢
2 2
But 𝑢 = 4𝑡
0.005 0.005
 1   1 1 
w  1200  cos 4tdt  150 4t  sin 8t 
2
 150 4(0.005)  sin(8 * 0.005)  0  sin 0
0  2 0  2 2 
w =5.999 J

S1.7. Figure shows the current through and the voltage across a device. Find the
total energy absorbed by the device for the period 0 t 4 seconds.

Solution:
The given curves are represented by:
10𝑡 𝑉, 0 < 𝑡 < 1
25𝑡 𝑚𝐴, 0 < 𝑡 < 2
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡) = 10 𝑉, 1 < 𝑡 < 3
100 − 25𝑡 𝑚𝐴, 2 < 𝑡 < 4
40 − 10𝑡 𝑉, 3 < 𝑡 < 4

𝑤(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑖(𝑡)𝑑𝑡

𝑤= (10𝑡)(25𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + (10)(25𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + (10)(100 − 25𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + (40 − 10𝑡)(100 − 25𝑡)𝑑𝑡

𝑤 = 250 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑡𝑑𝑡 + (4 − 𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + (16 − 8𝑡 + 𝑡 )𝑑𝑡

𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
𝑤 = 250 + + 4𝑡 − + 16𝑡 − 4𝑡 +
3 2 2 3
1 4 1 9 4 64 27
𝑤 = 250 + − + 12 − − 8 + + 64 − 64 + − 48 + 36 − = 916.7 mJ
3 2 2 2 2 3 3

S1.8. Find the power absorbed by each of the elements.

CKTS 214 – Lecture Module 1 Page 9 of 13

 Solution: P = VI
P1 =  30(10) =  300 W P4 =  8(4) =  32 W
P2 = 10(10) = 100 W P5 =  12(0.4)(10) =  48 W
P3 = 20(14) = 280 W
To check p must be equal to zero:
P=100+280 – 300 – 32 – 48 = 0

S1.9. A battery may be rated in ampere-hours (Ah). A lead-acid battery is rated at

160 Ah. (a) What is the maximum current it can supply for 40 h? (b) How
many days will it last if it is discharged at 1 mA? (c) The battery takes 8hr to
be fully charge at 220V, 5A. Determine the cost of charging the battery if
electricity costs Php 11.00 per kWh.

Solution:
a.) 160 Ahr = I  (40 hr)
I=4A
b.) 160 Ahr = 1 x 10-3 A  (t)
160 A ∙ h 1 day
t= × = 6,667 days
1 × 10 A 24 hr
c.) w = Pt = VIt = 220(5)8 = 8,800 Whr = 8.8 kWhr
cost = 8.8 kWhr x Php 11.00/kWhr = Php 96.80

Practice Problems
P1.1. Find the current flowing through an element if the charge flow is given by q(t) =
20 cos 50πt nC
P1.2. The total charge entering a terminal is given by q = 5t sin 4πt mC. Calculate
the current at t = 0.5 s.
P1.3. Determine the total charge entering a terminal between t = 1 s and t = 2 s if
 
the current passing the terminal is i  3t 2  t A
P1.4. Find the charge q(t) flowing through a device if the current is i(t) = 10e−30t sin
40t A, q (0) = 0
P1.5. The current through an element is shown in Figure. Determine the total
charge that passed through the element at: (a) t = 1 s (b) t = 3 s (c) t = 5s.

CKTS 214 – Lecture Module 1 Page 10 of 13

P1.6. The current flowing through a wire is given by Figure. Determine the net
charge moving through the wire if q(0)=0 .

P1.7. Determine the energy absorbed in 2 s if the current entering its positive
terminal is i(t) = 5 cos 60πt A, and the voltage is v(t) = 2i V.
P1.8. The constant voltage across a device is 10 V and the current through it is
shown in the figure. Find the net energy absorbed by the device.

P1.9. Find the power absorbed by each of the elements

P1.10. A 30-W incandescent lamp is connected to a 120-V source and is left burning
continuously in an otherwise dark staircase. Determine: (a) the current
through the lamp, (b) the cost of operating the light for one non-leap year if
electricity costs Php 11.00 per kWh.

CKTS 214 – Lecture Module 1 Page 11 of 13

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