ELECTRIC POWER TRAIN DESIGNAND

DEVELOPMENT FOR ELECTRIC

QUADRICYCLE

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

Siva.S
Sivaramakrishnan.G
Sivaranjan M B
Nithin.M

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

Bachelor of Engineering
in
Automobile Engineering

Madras Institute of Technology

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

March 2020
 ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “Electric Power train Design and

Development for Electric Quadricycle”is the bonafide work of“Siva.S,

Sivaramakrishnan.G, Sivaranjan.M.B, Nithin.M” who carried out the

project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr. M.SenthilKumar Dr. G. Anandkumar

HEAD OFTHE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR

Assistant Professor

Automobile Engineering Automobile Engineering

Madras Institute of Technology Madras Institute of Technology

Anna University Anna University

Chennai-600044 Chennai -600044

 ii

ABSTRACT

Electric vehicles are considered to be the best alternative to reduce tail

pipe emission levels. The range is considered to be one of the major
drawbacks which hinder the consumers from switching towards electric
vehicles. After consideration of this problem, a two – seater light weight
compact electric passenger car suitable for urban commute was designed.
This project concentrates on the design, simulation, and modelling, of the
electric power train required for such a vehicle.
 iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

ABSTRACT
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF SYMBOLS

1. INTRODUCTION

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 DESIGN ANALYSIS OF A RETROFIT
SYSTEM FOR AN ELECTRIC
TWO-WHEELER
2.2 INTEGRATION AND PACKAGING
FOR VEHICLE ELECTRIFICATION
2.3 SENSITIVITY STUDY ON THE DESIGN
METHODOLOGY OF AN ELECTRIC
VEHICLE
2.4 MODELING AND SIMULATION OF
PLUG-IN HYBRID ELECTRIC TWO
 iv

WHEELER FOR ALL-ELECTRIC RANGE

REQUIREMENTS
2.5 RECENT DEVELOPMENT ON ELECTRIC
VEHICLES
2.6 OVERVIEW OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE
CONCEPT AND POWER MANAGEMENT
STRATEGIES
2.7 ELECTRIC VEHICLES

2.8 STUDY OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE

BATTERY RELIABILITY IMPROVEMENT
2.9 A REVIEW OF LITHIUM-ION BATTERY
FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLE APPLICATIONS AND
BEYOND
2.10 DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE POWER
TRAIN: EXPERIMENTAL IMPLEMENTATION AND
PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
2.11 PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF EV POWER
TRAIN SYSTEM WITH/WITHOUT TRANSMISSION
2.12 DEVELOPMENT OF A RANGE EXTENDED
ELECTRIC VEHICLE POWER TRAIN
2.13 EXTENDING THE RANGE OF PLUG-IN
HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES BY CVT
TRANSMISSION OPTIMAL
MANAGEMENT
2.14 ADVANCES IN CONSUMER ELECTRIC VEHICLE
ADOPTION RESEARCH:
 v

A REVIEW AND RESEARCH AGENDA

2.15 DESIGN OF A SMALL PERSONAL

3. BENCHMARKING 23
3.1 BENCHMARKNG OF MAHINDRA’S 23
ELECTRIC VEHICLES
3.2 BENCHMARKING OF RENAULT TWIZY 23
3.3 BENCHMARKING OF TAZZARI ZERO EV 23
3.4 COMPARISON OF AC AND DC MOTORS 23

4. SYSTEM ENGINEERING 23
4.1 ASSUMPTION OF INPUT VALUES 23
4.2 DERIVARTION OF SYSTEM 23
SPECIFICATIONS
4.2.1 AERODYNAMIC DRAG
4.2.2 GRADIENT RESISTANCE
4.2.3 INERTIAL RESISTANCE
4.2.4 ROLLING RESISTANCE
4.2.5 POWER
4.2.6 TRACTIVE FORCE
4.2.7 REQUIRED TRACTION TORQUE
4.2.8 ENERGY CONUMPTION
4.2.9 BATTERY PACK ENERGY
4.2.10 Amp HOURS
4.2.11 ANGULAR VELOCITY OF THE WHEEL
 vi

4.2.12 WHEEL SPEED IN rpm

4.2.13 TORQUE IN EACH DRIVING WHEEL
4.2.14 NOMINAL MOTOR POWER IN Kw
4.2.15 MAXIMUM MOTOR POWER IN Kw
4.3 SELECTION OF DRIVING CYCLE

5. POWER TRAIN SIMUATION THROUGH AMESIM

5.1 INTRODUCTION TO AMESIM SOFTWARE
5.2 VEHICLE CHASSIS SUB-MODEL
5.3 DRIVER INPUT SUB-MODEL
5.4 BATTERY SUB-MODEL
5.5 MOTOR SUB-MODEL
5.6 CONTROLLER SUB-MODEL
5.7 TRANSMISSION SUB-MODEL
5.8 SELECTION OF SIMUALTION DRIVING
CYCLE

6. SIMULATION RESULTS
6.1 CHARGE USED BY LOAD VS TIME
6.2 RANGE VS TIME 
6.3 DEPTH OF DISCHARGE
6.4 VEHICLE DISPLACEMENT VS TIME
6.5 INTERNAL RESISTANCE VS STATE OF
CHARGE
6.6 DEPTH OF DISCHARGE VS TIME 
6.7 LIMITED TORQUE VS TIME 
 vii

6.8 TIME MOTOR SPEED VS TIME

6.9 OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE VS STATE OF
CHARGE 
6.10 MAXIMUM POWER VS DEPTH OF DISCHARGE
6.11 RANGE (FROM 90% - 10 %) VS TIME REAR
AXLE TORQUE VS TIME
6.12 REAR AXLE TORQUE VS TIME 
6.13 SOC VS TIME
6.14 POWER LOSS VS TIME
6.15 TOTAL DRIVING RESISTANCE (EXCEPT
BRAKING) VS TIME 
6.16 VOLTAGE VS DEPTH OF DISCHARGE 
 viii

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO.   TITLE PAGE NO.

3.1 MAHINDRA EV’s

3.2 BENCHMARKING OF RENAULT TWIZY

3.3 RENALUT TWIZY BATTERY

3.4 MOTOR BENCHMARKING

3.5 BENCHMARKING OF TAZZARI ZERO EV

4.1 ASSUMPTION OF INPUT VALUES

4.2 ECE 15 CHARACTERISTICS

4.3 UDC DISTRIBUTION

4.4 MOTOR SPEC DERIVED FOR ZERO GRADIENT

4.5 SYSTEM ENGINEERING RESULTS

 ix

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO.   TITLE PAGE NO.

5.1 VEHICLE CHASSIS SUB-MODEL

5.2 DRIVER INPUT SUB-MODEL

5.3 BATTERY SUB-MODEL

5.4 MOTOR SUB-MODEL

5.5 CONTROLLER SUB-MODEL

5.6 ECE 15 UDC

6.1 CHARGE USED BY LOAD VS TIME

6.2 RANGE VS TIME

6.3 DEPTH OF DISCHARGE

6.4 VEHICLE DISPLACEMENT VS TIME

6.5 INTERNAL RESISTANCE VS STATE OF CHARGE

6.6 DEPTH OF DISCHARGE VS TIME

6.7 LIMITED TORQUE VS TIME

6.8 TIME MOTOR SPEED VS TIME

6.9 OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE VS STATE OF CHARGE

 x

6.10 MAXIMUM POWER VS DEPTH OF DISCHARGE

6.11 RANGE (FROM 90% - 10%) VS TIME

6.12 REAR AXLE TORQUE VS TIME

6.13 STATE OF CHARGE VS TIME

6.14 POWER LOSS VS TIME

6.15 TOTAL DRIVING RESISTANCE (EXCEPT BRAKING) VS

TIME

6.16 VOLTAGE VS DEPTH OF DISCHARGE

 xi

LIST OF SYMBOLS

 ρ – DENSITY OF AIR
 A – FRONTAL AREA
 CD – COEFFICIENT OF DRAG
 V – VELOCITY
 m – MASS
 g – ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY
 θ – ANGLE OF SLOPE IN DEGREES
 a – ACCELERATION
 C rr – COEFFICIENT OF ROLLING RESISTANCE
 FT – TRACTIVE FORCE
 RW – RADIUS OF DRIVING WHEEL
 αwheel – ANGULAR VELOCITY OF THE WHEEL
 T max – MAXIMUM TRACTION TORQUE
 T nominal – NOMINAL TRACTION TORQUE
 G – GEAR RATIO
 N – NEWTON
 Kg/m3 – KILOGRAM PER METER CUBE
 m/s – METER PER SECOND
 Kg – KILOGRAM
 m/s2 – METER PER SECOND SQUARE
 Kw – KILOWATT
 Nm – NEWTON METER
 KWh/Km – KILOWATT HOUR PER KILOMETER
 KWh – KILOWATT HOUR
 rad/s – RADIAN PER SECOND
 rpm – REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE
 UDC – URBAN DRIVING CYCLE
 SOC – STATE OF CHARGE
 DOD – DEPTH OF DISCHARGE
xii
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The importance of fuel-efficient vehicles, which also constitute to lesser emissions,

has grown in recent years. Vehicle manufacturers are facing a lot of competition in
producing vehicles that have higher energy efficiency. Electrification of a vehicle’s
power train is one of the best ways to achieve this target. With zero tailpipe
emissions, an electric vehicle can considerably reduce pollution on the roads.

The number of vehicles used by individuals have increased manifold in

cities and the traffic congestion causes high concentration of exhaust gases to be
released.

Vehicle emissions produce over 90% of air pollution in urban areas in

developing countries. The air quality index shows that 50% of Indian cities have
moderate to poor air quality.

Prolonged exposure to harmful exhaust gases can cause various health

problems to motorists. Electric vehicles, even though provide numerous
advantages over conventional IC engine vehicles, suffer from a few major
drawbacks. Electrification of a vehicle typically goes with a significant increase in
cost, which is crucial for a cost sensitive market like India. Another drawback is
the range and the battery life.

These drawbacks are hindering the customer’s move towards electric

vehicles. In order to eliminate these drawbacks, micro cars and shared mobility are
 2

proposed. The reduced size of micro cars will help reduce the overall weight, and
in turn improve the range. Since it is targeted only for commute, a slightly lower
vehicle performance (top speed), is sufficient. Ease of manoeuvrability in city
traffic, requirement of fewer parking spaces, and a range that will be sufficient for
urban commute (to and from the work place), are major advantages of a two -
seater electric vehicle.
The objective is to design and develop an electric power train for a two –
seater micro car, which will be suitable for urban commute, simulate the power
train model in AMEsim software by Siemens, and then making a prototype to
correlate the simulation results.
 3

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 DESIGN ANALYSIS OF A RETROFIT SYSTEM FOR AN ELECTRIC
TWO-WHEELER

Keywords: Electric two wheelers, Batteries, Controller, DC motor, Resistance,

Gross Vehicle Weight.
 Equation/Relationship: Relations for acceleration force, total
tractive effort, wheel motor torque, and sample calculations were
given.
 Variable and Constants: Coefficient of friction with respect to
contact surface, factors affecting surface friction, resistance factor,
maximum inclination angle, minimum and maximum resistance
forces.
 Method/Procedure: Methods to design with respect to ergonomics,
safety issues related to battery, motor operations.
 Model: Configuration/Layout of battery, motor, controller, and drive
train.
 Knowledge takeaways: The requirement of electrification in urban
commute, packaging of an electric DC motor, batteries, controllers in
place of a conventional IC engine were studied.

2.2 Integration And Packaging For Vehicle Electrification

Keywords: Product attribute listings, centre of gravity, conceptual design process,

vehicle integration analysis, past experience, Financial, Packaging, Component
availability, hybridization.
 Equation/Relationship: Weight target sheets, Vehicle integration
 4

analysis, Indicative tracking.

 Variable and Constants: Resistance forces, Base weight,
modification factor.
 Method/Procedure: Process of vehicle electrification, process of
hybridization, component wise packaging, miniaturization of power
electronics, E-machine packaging, high voltage battery integration,
weight analysis procedure.
 Model: Package architecture selection, benchmarking strategies,
design process flow.
 Knowledge takeaways: In order to build a vehicle system parts
integration is important. Process of converting existing vehicles into
electric and hybrid vehicles was studied. An overview of integration
analysis, conceptual design process was obtained.

2.3 Sensitivity Study on The Design Methodology of An Electric Vehicle

Keywords: Electric and hybrid vehicles, Power train performance, Driving cycle,
sensitivity study, Transmission ratio, Efficiency map.
 Equation/Relationship: Power train traction power, traction torque,
maximum vehicle speed, vehicle acceleration requirements,
displacement, electric motor speed, traction power of motor, total
battery energy, total battery mass.
 Variable and Constants: Rolling drag coefficient, aerodynamic drag
coefficient, vehicle frontal area, air density, vehicle empty weight.
 Method/Procedure: Characterization of electric machines, efficiency
map utilisation, utilisation of urban driving cycles, sensitivity analysis
for various driving cycles.
 5

 Model: Efficiency map for different transmission ratios, NEDC

driving cycle, ARTEMIS driving cycle.
Knowledge takeaways: Methodology to design an electric vehicle and to evaluate
the sensitivity of the sizing process to the assumptions and the requirements taken
into account was studied.

2.4 MODELLING AND SIMULATION OF PLUG-IN HYBRID ELECTRIC

TWO-WHEELER FOR ALL-ELECTRIC RANGE REQUIREMENTS

Keywords: Electric vehicle, hybrid vehicle, vehicle modelling, Simulation,

Traction force, MATLAB, Driving range.
 Equation/Relationship: Acceleration force, Gradient resistance,
Total tractive effort, Energy of battery, Wheel motor torque, Specific
energy, Cycle life, Energy density, Specific power.
 Variable and Constants: Coefficient of drag, cruising speed,
aerodynamic drag coefficient, vehicle frontal area, air density.
 Method/Procedure: Vehicle modelling using empirical methods,
performance simulation in MATLAB, Usage of driving cycles,
Comparison of battery energy, battery selection process.
 Model: Free body diagram of two-wheeler, design process flow.
Knowledge takeaways: Procedure for modelling and simulation of plug-in hybrid
electric two-wheeler using MATLAB software with reference to Indian driving
cycle was studied.

2.5 RECENT DEVELOPMENT ON ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Keywords: Electric vehicle, AFS, steering system, braking system, ABS, Battery
management systems, Inverter.
 6

 Equation/Relationship: State of Charge, State of Health, Energy of

battery, Specific energy, Cycle life, Energy density, Specific power.
 Variable and Constants: Capacitance, Energy efficiency of battery,
Working Temperature
 Method/Procedure: Electric and Hybrid vehicle architecture
comparison, Key components, Motor selection, Drive selection, Ultra
capacitor requirements, battery and energy management system
selection, charging network selection, braking system and steering
system selection.
 Model: H-bridge converter for charger, Schematic of a BMS, ABS
braking system model, suspension model, Series and parallel HEV
drive train models.
Knowledge takeaways: Recent trends and development in various subsystems of
electric vehicle is discussed in detail. A detailed overview of batteries, motors,
suspension, braking and steering systems were given.

2.6 Overview of Electric Vehicle Concept and Power Management Strategies

Keywords: Electric vehicle, Power management, Charging techniques, multiple

sources, Hybrid Electric Vehicles.
 Equation/Relationship: Energy of battery, Specific energy, Cycle
life, Energy density.
 Variable and Constants: Energy efficiency, C rating, panel
efficiency (PV cell).
 Method/Procedure: Electric vehicle design according to need,
different types of Hybrid electric vehicle architecture, Design of solar
 7

electric vehicle, packaging of components.

 Model: Simplified drive train architecture of Solar electric vehicles,
Fuel cell vehicle, multi power supply model for electric vehicle.
Knowledge takeaways: Major existing types of electric vehicles and hybrid
vehicles were compared based on their configurations, advantages and
disadvantages. Power management strategies were given in detail. Overview of
offline, online and rule-based power management algorithms was studied. Multi
power source architecture, different charging techniques and charging standards
were studied.

2.7 ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Keywords: Electric vehicle, Fuel cells, energy source, Development trends,

Energy management, Barriers in Electric vehicle.
 Equation/Relationship: Motor power, Maximum torque, Battery
energy.
 Variable and Constants: Fuel cell heat constant, motor efficiency.
 Method/Procedure: Electric vehicle need, tackling present hurdles,
steps involved in EV commercialization, HEV configurations.
 Model: Fuel cell vehicle, Model configuration of HEV, fuel cell
configurations.
Knowledge takeaways: The present status of electric and hybrid vehicles
worldwide with emphasis on engineering philosophies were reviewed. Fuel cell
technology, power electronics, energy storage and controls were studied.
 8

2.8 STUDY OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE BATTERY RELIABILITY

IMPROVEMENT

Keywords: Electric vehicle, Battery, Reliability improvement, Battery life.

 Equation/Relationship: Energy of battery, Battery life, State of
Charge, State of Health, Cell equalization, Battery tolerance.
 Variable and Constants: Energy efficiency, C rating, Fuel gauge
function, recommended operating temperature range.
 Method/Procedure: Battery failure types, grid growth, Process of dry
out, Sulfation, Core battery performance test, Accelerated aging,
actual-use simulation, Battery testing method, life prediction method.
 Model: Physico-chemical aging model, Weight-Ah model, parameter
identification and model complexity, Accelerated life cycle model.
Knowledge takeaways: Focus on reliability of Electric vehicle battery;
recognition of battery failure types, Valve regulated lead acid battery was studied.
Core battery performance test, special performance test, safety and abuse test, life
cycle test, federal urban driving schedule regime, dynamic stress test regime,
safety testing, abuse testing, baseline life test. Event oriented aging model,
improvement of battery reliability through thermal protection, state of charge, state
of health monitoring, cell equalization, tolerance setting.

2.9 A REVIEW OF LITHIUM-ION BATTERY FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLE

APPLICATIONS AND BEYOND
Keywords: Lithium ion battery, Optimization, State of Charge, Algorithm, second
life Battery, Remaining useful life.
 9

 Equation/Relationship: State of Charge estimation, State of charge

rates, cell difference model.
 Variable and Constants: Secondary capacity of battery, Hybrid
power pulse power characteristic.
 Method/Procedure: Sorting of lithium ion batteries, Thevenin model,
multi point spectral impedance, Model sorting, Open circuit voltage,
state of charge estimation, rule of second used battery.
 Model: Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy, Thevenin model,
lumped battery circuit model, Open circuit voltage model.
Knowledge takeaways: Recent research and developments of lithium ion battery
used in electric vehicle were given. Methods of battery sorting, characteristics and
challenges of estimating battery’s remaining useful life (RUL) were studied.

2.10 DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE POWER TRAIN:

EXPERIMENTAL IMPLEMENTATION AND PERFORMANCE
ASSESSMENT

Keywords: Electric vehicle, PMSM, field-oriented control, lithium-ion battery,

Ultra capacitor, State of charge, Dynamometer.
 Equation/Relationship: Tractive effort, rolling resistance,
aerodynamic drag, total driving torque, final vehicle velocity, power
generated from motor, total tractive torque.
 Variable and Constants: Ratio of final drive gearbox, Frontal area of
the vehicle, aerodynamic coefficient, rolling resistance coefficient, Air
density, Gradient of the road, rated voltage, capacitance, resistance.
 10

 Method/Procedure: Acceleration test of PMSM and the vehicle,

discharging test procedure of the battery, Driving test procedure, Ultra
capacitor ESS.
 Model: Battery management system model, Torque control of PMSM
and current control of battery pack, Dynamometer model.
Knowledge takeaways: Performance of electric vehicle based on theoretical
calculations and the evaluation of dynamic performance using a commercial
dynamometer. Ultra-capacitor, DC/DC converters were studied. Control system of
power train along with experimental results and assessment.

2.11 PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF EV POWER TRAIN SYSTEM

WITH/WITHOUT TRANSMISSION

Keywords: Electric vehicle, Power rain, transmission, gearbox, power drive

system, hybrid vehicles, BLDC motor.
 Equation/Relationship: Tractive effort, Rolling resistance,
aerodynamic drag, acceleration performance, Gear ratio.
 Variable and Constants: Ratio of final drive gearbox, Frontal area of
the vehicle, aerodynamic coefficient, rolling resistance coefficient, Air
density, Gradient of the road.
 Method/Procedure: Structure configuration fuel cell electric vehicle,
analysis of power drive system, calculation of acceleration
performance of electric vehicle, comparison of 5-speed transmission
and single speed transmission in an electric vehicle.
 Model: Battery management system model, Structure of plug-in
hybrid, battery powered EV, model of fuel cell EV, Traction motor
 11

with multispeed gearbox, traction motor with single speed gearbox.

Knowledge takeaways: Concept of plug-in hybrid EV, fuel cell EV configuration,
Battery EV configuration, analysis of power drive system, comparison of traction
motors coupled with 5-speed transmission and single speed transmission backed
with result of theoretical calculations.

2.12 DEVELOPMENT OF A RANGE EXTENDED ELECTRIC VEHICLE

POWER TRAIN FOR AN INTEGRATED ENERGY SYSTEMS
RESEARCH PRINTED UTILITY VEHICLE

Keywords: Electric vehicle, Power rain, printed vehicle, range extender, additive
manufacturing, rapid prototyping, hybrid vehicles, natural gas.
 Equation/Relationship: Tractive effort, motor torque, generator load.
 Variable and Constants: Fill rate of extruder, extruder temperature,
bed temperature, range, estimated top speed, acceleration, depletion
rate of battery.
 Method/Procedure: Big Area Additive Manufacturing (BAAM)
process, vehicle chassis rapid prototyping with BAAM, power train in
the loop testing, performance simulation study, chassis dynamometer
setup.
 Model: Power train configuration model, comparison of experimental
BEV results with modelling results, BEV drive cycle results.
Knowledge takeaways: Insight into advanced manufacturing techniques like
BAAM, condensed vehicle development with 3D printing, development of hybrid
electric vehicle power train with simulation phase, component sizing study,
 12

experimentation phase, and integration phase. Chassis dynamometer setup with

experimentation, and regenerative braking.

2.13 EXTENDING THE RANGE OF PLUG-IN HYBRID

ELECTRICVEHICLES BY CVT TRANSMISSION OPTIMAL
MANAGEMENT

Keywords: Electric vehicle, plug-in hybrid vehicles, optimal control, transmission

optimization, fuel efficiency, CVT.
 Equation/Relationship: Vehicle motion relation with Newton’s
second law, motor speed, motor torque, rate of change of fuel mass,
State of charge relation.
 Variable and Constants: Frontal area of the vehicle, aerodynamic
coefficient, rolling resistance coefficient, Air density, Gradient of the
road, reduction gear of motor, CVT ratio, torque demand.
 Method/Procedure: Modelling of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles,
Engine and CVT transmission optimization, and power split
optimization.
 Model: Modelling of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, engine fuel
consumption map modelling, traction system battery current map, IC
engine model, optimal fuel consumption map and optimal CVT ratio
map for the engine and CVT combined model.
Knowledge takeaways: Modelling of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, Engine and
CVT transmission optimization were studied. Map of fuel consumption under
optimal CVT ratio, comparison of simulation results between fixed gear and
optimal CVT.
 13

2.14 ADVANCES IN CONSUMER ELECTRIC VEHICLE ADOPTION

RESEARCH: A REVIEW AND RESEARCH AGENDA

Keywords: Electric vehicle, consumer behaviour, adoption behaviour, intention,

Economics, future mobility, framework.
 Method/Procedure: Classification EV depending on need,
identification of relevant studies, theoretical frameworks in consumer
EV adoption, diffusion of innovations.
 Model: a detailed model study of contextual factors, technical factors,
cost factors, individual and social factors.
Knowledge takeaways: Identification customer requirements, focusing on
relevant studies, acceptance, and consumer adoption, theory of planned behaviour,
rational choice theory, normative theory, environmental attitudes, self-identity and
lifestyle were studies. Role of consumer emotions, behaviour influenced by
attitudinal factors, are discussed.

2.15 DESIGN OF A SMALL PERSONAL ELECTRIC VEHICLE AS AN

EDUCATIONAL PROJECT

Keywords: Electric vehicle, Electric go-kart, Simulation, DSP, Design, Chassis.

 Equation/Relationship: Minimally required DC bus voltage.
 Variable and Constants: Motor power, motor maximum speed, bus
voltage, rotor position.
 Method/Procedure: Rapid prototyping platform with A/D converter,
 14

DSP and FPGA board, didactical considerations, evaluation of targets,

selection of design specifications, motor and battery selection, control
scheme selection.
 Model: MATLAB/Simulink model of power train, AC/DC converter,
Torque/speed characteristics, Energy flow model.
Knowledge takeaways: Importance of team meetings, gathering information,
cross checking of information, cost estimation; evaluation and review of results
were observed. Fixing of design specifications by case studies and benchmarking.
Selection process for motor and battery, simulation power electronics and drive
train. Field oriented control scheme, application of control sensors, mechanical
assembly.
 15

CHAPTER 3
BENCHMARKING

Benchmarking is a standard procedure that helps to develop a new system with the
help of knowledge obtained from competitors to stay ahead, or simply get an
insight on the technology and specifications being used. By studying the existing
best in class models, methods, technologies, it is possible to obtain category
specific knowledge and therefore implement changes and subsequently obtain
significant improvements. It also helps in reducing the cost and time spent in
research and development, which will most probably yield results which are
similar to that of the competitors who are being studied.

BENCHAMRKING MAHINDRA EV:

The Indian automobile manufacturing giant Mahindra and Mahindra has launched
several innovative electric vehicles in varying categories. The following vehicles
by Mahindra and Mahindra were chosen for benchmarking as they closely
represent the targeted electric quadricycle.

 TREO (Auto)

 e-SUPRO (Cargo van)

 e-Alfa mini (auto)

 e2o (car)
 16

MAHINDRA EV’s
Transmissio Kerb Top
Vehicle  Motor Battery  Range 
n Weight Speed 
max Max
  Type Capacity  Rating        
power  Torque
  kW Nm   kWh Ah   kg kmph Km
Treo
5.4 30 BLDC 3.37 N.A  Direct Drive  350 45 170
(Auto)
E-SUPRO 3, Phase
(Cargo 25 90 AC  N. A 200 Direct Drive  1320 60 115
Van) Induction
e-Alfa
mini 5.2  27  BLDC N.A  120 Direct Drive  400 25  120
(auto)

Table 3.1 Mahindra EV’s

By benchmarking we are able to know the various types of motors that are being
used in the market by Mahindra and Mahindra, and the specifications of the motor,
battery capacity, and the type of transmission being used.

BENCHMARKING OF RENAULT TWIZY

Renault Twizy is a compact electric two-seater passenger vehicle that is being

manufactured Renault from 2012. This compact microcar is also similar to the
targeted electric quadricycle. This makes Twizy an ideal candidate for
benchmarking.

Height  1.454
Width 1.381
Area 2.007974
Weight 474
 17

g 9.81
Velocity 22.16
Air density 1.2041
Co.eff of drag 0.64
Crr 0.015
Acceleration 2.04

Table 3.2 Benchmarking Of Renault Twizy

RENAULT TWIZY BATTERY

Table 3.3 Renault Twizy Battery

 18

By analysing the various specifications and parameters that were used in Twizy we
are able to get an idea on the specifications required for the vehicle that is being
designed.

MOTOR COMPARISON

 AC INDUCTION MOTOR

 In an induction motor, which is also called as asynchronous motor, the

electric current in the rotor needed to produce torque is obtained with
the help of electromagnetic induction from the rotating magnetic field
of the stator winding. They are called asynchronous motors as they
operate at a speed less than synchronous speed.

 AC SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

 They run at synchronous speed. The synchronous speed of a motor

depends on the supply frequency and the number of poles in the
motor. We can change the synchronous speed of the motor by
changing the supply frequency and the number of poles.

 DC BRUSHED MOTOR

 It is an internally commutated electric motor. The speed variation of a

brushed DC motor can be done by varying the operating voltage or
strength of the magnetic field.

 DC BRUSHLESS MOTOR

 They are synchronous motors powered by direct current. The inverter

provides electricity in the form of alternating current to drive each
 19

phase of the motor through a closed loop controller. The controller

provides pulses of current to the motor windings that controls the
speed and torque of the motor.

By fixing the required motor output power as 5.5 Kw, we are able to benchmark
and compare various types of motors that will be suitable for the current
application.

S.No Parameter Ac Motor Dc Motor

Induction Synchronous Brushed Brushless
1 Peak 35.603 24.122 27.284 24.117
Torque(Nm)

2 Weight(Kg) 20.86 11 12.7 11

3 Speed(Rpm) 4000 3500 3500 2000-6000
4 Cost ₹1,49,498 ₹60,791 ₹34,949 ₹37900
5 Safety 48V 350A 48V 120A 48V 120A 48V 120A
(Voltage,
Current)

6 Dimensions 271.22(L)*1 126(L)*206(D) 139.7(L)* 126(L)*206

70.18(D) 203.2(D) (D)

Table 3.4 Motor Benchmarking

The main parameters that are being used to benchmark are peak torque, weight,
speed, cost, voltage, current, and the external dimensions. The above table gives us
a comprehensive view on the ideal motor that can be selected.
 20

BENCHMARKING OF TAZZARI ZERO EV

Tazzari zero is an electric micro car that was launched in 2009, by Tazzari Group
based out of Italy. Similar to Renault Twizy, this microcar also closely matches the
external dimensions of the vehicle that is being developed. This makes Tazzari EV
a vital candidate for benchmarking.

TAZZARI ZERO EV
SPECIFICATION VALUE DIMENSION
S
DIMENSIONS
Length  2795 mm
Width 1500 mm
Height 1450 mm
Load Capacity 445 mm
Weight 450 mm
Ground Clearance 180 mm
PERFORMANCE
Motor Type THREE PHASE AC
INDUCTION
Motor Power 15 KWh
Battery Type Li Ion Fe
Battery rating 15 KWh
Torque 150 Nm
 21

Range 87 Miles
Charging Time 20 - 80% = 50 minutes
BRAKING Disc Brake system (*4)
EURO NCAP 1 star
CHASSIS
Type Space frame
Material Steel

Table 3.4 Benchmarking Of Tazzari Zero EV

After benchmarking of similar vehicles that have been in the industry, we are able
to proceed towards system engineering. The vehicles that were benchmarked have
been in the consumer market for quite some time, thereby making the designs,
specifications and layouts reliable.
 22

CHAPTER 4
SYSTEM ENGINEERING

4.1 ASSUMPTION OF INPUT VALUES

The following are the input parameters which were assumed:
1. Weight.
2. Max vehicle speed.
3. Height.
4. Width.
5. Air density.
6. Coefficient of drag.
7. Coefficient of rolling resistance.
8. Acceleration.
9. Radius of wheel.

Fig 4.1 Assumption of input values

 23

4.2 DERIVATION OF SYSTEM SPECIFICATIONS

4.2.1 Aerodynamic Drag:

 0.5*ρ*A*CD*V2 (N)
 Where ρ is the density of air (1.204 kg/m3),
 A is the frontal area (Width*Height),
 CD is the coefficient of drag (0.6)
 V is the vehicle velocity. (in m/s)
4.2.2 Gradient Resistance:
 m*g*sinθ, (N)
 Where m is the mass of the car (kg),
 g is the acceleration due to gravity (m/s2),
 θ is the angle of the slope in degrees.

4.2.3 Inertial Resistance:

 1.05*m*a,
 A is the acceleration of the vehicle (m/s2).
 5% of the total mass is taken as the rotating mass.
4.2.4 Rolling Resistance:
 Crr *m*g*cosθ,
 Where Crr is the coefficient of rolling resistance (0.015 for dry
roads),
 m is the mass of the vehicle (kg),
 G is the acceleration due to gravity (m/s2),
 θ is the angle of the slope (in degrees)
 24

4.2.5 Power:
 (FT*V)/1000, (Kw)
 where FT is the tractive force (N)
 V is the vehicle speed (m/s)
4.2.6 Tractive Force:
 It is the sum of aerodynamic drag, gradient resistance, rolling
resistance, and inertial resistance. (N)
4.2.7 Required Traction torque:
 FT * Rw, (Nm)
 Where Rw is the radius of the driving wheel, (m)
4.2.8 Energy consumption:
 Power/V, (KWh/Km)
 Where V is the velocity in kmph.
4.2.9 Battery pack energy:
 Energy consumption * Range, (KWh)
 Range in km.
4.2.10 Amp hours:
 (Battery pack energy (KWh) * 1000)/Voltage,
 Where voltage is 48v in our case.
4.2.11 Angular velocity of the wheel:
 V/Rw (rad/s).
 Where V is the vehicle speed in m/s
 Rw is the wheel radius in meters.
4.2.12 Wheel speed in rpm:
 (angular velocity of the wheel) *9.54929, (rpm)
4.2.13 Toque in each driving wheel:
 (Maximum traction torque/2), (Nm).
 25

4.2.14 Nominal motor power in Kw:

 ((Tmax*αwheel)/Efficiency)/1000.
 Where Tmax is the maximum traction torque in Nm,
 α wheel is the angular velocity of the wheels in rad/s.
4.2.15 Maximum motor power in Kw:
 Nominal motor power * 1.65
 For a given gear ratio G,
o Nominal motor torque required is given by,
o (Tnominal *α wheel ) / (Rated speed * Efficiency) (Nm).
o Where Tnominal is the nominal traction torque required in
Nm,
o α wheel is the angular velocity of the wheel in rad/s,
o Rated speed is given as (α wheel / G) in rad/s.

4.3 SELECTION OF DRIVING CYCLE

The ECE is an urban driving cycle (UDC). It is devised to represent
city driving conditions. It is characterized by low vehicle speed, along with
driving patterns like deceleration that closely matches city driving
conditions.
 26

Fig 4.2 ECE 15 Characteristics

This is called as a type I test of the Urban Driving Cycle, and it is

widely used to simulate the driving conditions of light weight vehicles in city
traffic. The following figure shows the detailed ECE 15 cycle that was used to
simulate the driver behaviour in city traffic.

The cycle lasts for 195 seconds, and the maximum speed at which the
vehicle is driven is 50 kmph, whereas the maximum acceleration applied is 1.042
m/s2.
 27

Fig 4.3 UDC Distribution

4.4 SYSTEM ENGINEERING RESULTS

Based on the various assumptions made based on the requirements, and the ECE
15 urban driving cycle, it was possible to calculate the specifications required for
the battery, motor, and gear ratio in order to achieve the desired performance.
 28

Fig 4.4 Motor spec derived for zero gradient

Fig 4.5 System engineering results

 29

CHAPTER 5
POWER TRAIN SIMUATION THROUGH AMESIM

5.1 INTRODUCTION TO AMESIM SOFTWARE

5.2 VEHICLE CHASSIS SUB-MODEL

The Vehicle Chassis sub-model is equipped with both front and rear axles which
allow 4x4 applications. Various resistive force such as rolling friction, road
gradient and aerodynamic drag are taken into account. The sub-model also allows
choosing between two longitudinal slip configurations i.e., without slip & with slip

 Ports 1 and 3 are the rear and front braking controls receiving signal
module 
 Ports 2 and 4 are mechanical ports which receive the driving torque and
send the rotary velocity for each axle.
 Port 5 receives the forces applied to the vehicle and returns the vehicle
linear displacement velocity and acceleration. 
 Port 6 and 7 are signal ports which should be connected to the environment
module 
 Port 8, 9 and 10 are signal ports which can be used to get vehicle speed,
vehicle position and altitude.
 Port 11 is the vehicle load [kg].
 Port 12 is connected to driver module or information get components.
 30

Fig 5.1 Vehicle Chassis sub-model

5.3 DRIVER INPUT SUB-MODEL

This sub-model provides the driver input signals such as acceleration and braking
according to the selected driving cycle data. Ports 2, 3 are connected to the
Controller which actuates the acceleration and braking. Port 5 gives the input data
from the chassis 
 31

Fig 5.2 Driver input sub-model

5.4 BATTERY SUB-MODEL 

In the battery sub-model the voltage can be given as a fixed or variable value and
the parameters are given accordingly such as internal resistance, voltage and open
circuit voltage. The thermal changes can be computed with the given parameters.
Ports 3 and 4 are the positive and negative terminals of the battery. Port 1 is
connected to a temperature sensor and Port 2 is used to determine the State Of
Charge (SOC)
 32

Fig 5.3 Battery sub-model

5.5 MOTOR SUB-MODEL

This sub-model is bidirectional (motor / generator). When it is connected to battery

the output torque characteristics can be obtained. Port 2 is connected to a rotary
speed sensor which determines the rotational velocity of the output shaft. Port 5
and 6 is connected to the positive and negative terminal of the battery. Port 4 & 3
is connected to the motor controller to create a feedback loop. Port 1 is connected
to a temperature sensor 
 33

Fig 5.4 Motor sub-model

5.6 CONTROLLER SUB-MODEL

The Vehicle Control Unit / Controller receive data from chassis, battery, motor and
driver. It optimises the range by controlling the battery consumption. The motor
can be converted into generation during braking and the braking energy can be
used to charge the battery. Port1 &2 is connected to the motor. Port 3 is connected
to the live axle of the vehicle. Port 4 is connected to the rotary speed sensor. Ports
5, 6, 7 and 8 are connected to the driver module.
 34

Fig 5.5 Controller sub-model

5.7 TRANSMISSION SUB-MODEL

A single speed reduction gear is used in this analysis where the gear ratio is given
as the parameter. The torque from the motor is multiplied according to the gear
ratio and is transmitted to the drive shaft. The Port 2 is connected to the motor via
the rotary speed sensor and Port 1 is connected to the live axle.
 35

5.8 DRIVING CYCLE

ECE 15
The ECE is an urban driving cycle. It is devised to represent city driving
conditions. It is characterized by low vehicle speed, along with driving patterns
like deceleration that closely matches city driving conditions.

Fig 5.6 ECE 15 UDC

 36

CHAPTER 6
SIMULATION RESULTS

6.1 CHARGE USED BY LOAD VS TIME

Fig 6.1 Charge Used by Load Vs Time

This graph shows the charge consumed by the load for one complete driving cycle.
 37

6.2 RANGE VS TIME 

Fig 6.2 Range Vs Time

6.3 DEPTH OF DISCHARGE

Fig 6.3 Depth Of Discharge

 38

6.4 VEHICLE DISPLACEMENT VS TIME

Fig 6.4Vehicle Displacement Vs Time

 39

6.5 INTERNAL RESISTANCE VS STATE OF CHARGE

Fig 6.5 Internal Resistance Vs State of Charge

6.6 DEPTH OF DISCHARGE VS TIME 

Fig 6.6 Depth Of Discharge Vs Time 

 40

6.7 LIMITED TORQUE VS TIME 

Fig 6.7 Limited Torque Vs Time

6.8 TIME MOTOR SPEED VS TIME

Fig 6.8 Time Motor Speed Vs Time

 41

6.9 OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE VS STATE OF CHARGE 

Fig 6.9 Open Circuit Voltage Vs State of Charge

 42

6.10 MAXIMUM POWER VS DEPTH OF DISCHARGE

Fig 6.10 Maximum Power Vs Depth of Discharge

6.11 RANGE (FROM 90% - 10 %) VS TIME 

Fig 6.11 Range (From 90% - 10 %) Vs Time

 43

6.12 REAR AXLE TORQUE VS TIME 

Fig 6.12 Rear Axle Torque Vs Time 

6.13 SOC VS TIME

Fig 6.13 SOC Vs Time

 44

6.14 POWER LOSS VS TIME

Fig 6.14 Power Loss Vs Time

6.15 TOTAL DRIVING RESISTANCE (EXCEPT BRAKING) VS TIME 

Fig 6.15 Total Driving Resistance (Except Braking) Vs Time

 45

6.16 VOLTAGE VS DEPTH OF DISCHARGE 

Fig 6.16 Voltage Vs Depth of Discharge