ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Communication Stream

WIRELESS AND MOBILE COMMUNICATION (ECEG-5313)

Assignment

Submitted By: Melaku Negussie

Id: ATR/8477/09

Submitted To: Yihenew Wondie (Dr. Eng.)

Submission Date: September 22, 2021

Assignment 1
1. Handoff margin on power threshold and time threshold
2. What happen for small and large value of power level and time(initial time)
Handoff
Handoff is a strategy which describes the situation when a mobile moves into a different cell
while a conversation is in progress, the Mobile Switching Center (MSC) automatically transfer the
call to a new channel belonging to the new base station.
In other word, handoff means a call proceeds uninterrupted when a mobile station moves from
one cell to another cell. During this event it is expected to be:

 Successfully performed
 As infrequently as possible
 Be imperceptible to the user
So when does this handoff occurs, that is what is required from system designers to specify the
optimum signal level to initiate the handoff. So there is threshold or margin point and it can be
expressed mathematically as follows.

∆=Pr,handoff – Pr,min .usable

Where

Pr,min .usable is the minimum received power in dB below which a call cannot be received.
Pr,handoff is the higher threshold in dB at which the MSC initiates the handoff.
The margin can’t be too large because it will result in:

 Unnecessary handoff
 Consequently, it will burden the MSC
The margin can’t be too small because it will result in:

 Insufficient time to complete the handoff

 Consequently the call will be lost due to weak signal condition
So in the above discussion it was about the handoff margin on power threshold, next we will try
to cover on time threshold.
The base station monitors the level of the signal for a certain period of time before handoff is
initiated. To avoid unnecessary handoff and to ensure the necessary handoffs are completed, the
signal measurement must be correctly optimized.

1
The length of the time or the time threshold to decide the handoff depends on the speed at which
the vehicle is moving or the mobile station is moving. If the slope of the short-term averaged
received signal is steep the handoff should be made quickly.
There is a time call a dwell time over which a call may be maintained within a cell without handoff.
And the time threshold for handoff is not in the range of this time, because it will be unnecessary
hand off if it happens within this range of time when the user is actively receiving a normal signal.
At high speed of the mobile station (MS) handoff needs to happen quickly

 In GSM handoff is typically within 1-2 seconds

 In AMPS, it was 10 seconds for the handoff

2
Assignment 2
1. Try to understand Erlang B and Erlang C
2. Defined variable and express formulas
3. The difference of Erlang B and Erlang C
Erlang
Erlang is a Danish mathematician who developed the fundamentals of trunking theory, which is
the studying of how a large number of population could be accommodated by a limited amount
of servers. Also his name is bear in mind, in the representation of the amount of traffic intensity
carried by a channel that is completely occupied which is equivalent to one Erlang.
There are two types of trunked systems which are commonly used.

Erlang B (Blocked Call Cleared)

This system offers no queuing for call requests, for every user who requests a service

 There is no setup time

 If channel is available the user is given immediate access
 If channel is not available the user is blocked and is free to try again later.
It is assumed that the call arrives as determined by Poisson Distribution.
Furthermore it is assumed that:

 There are an infinite number of users

 There are memory less arrival of requests
 The probability of the user occupying the channel is exponentially distributed
 There are finite number of available channels in the trunking pool.
Erlang B formulas determine the probability that a call is blocked and is a measure of grade of
service (GOS) for a trunked system which provides no queuing for blocked calls. And the formula
is given as follows.

Where C is the number of trunked channels offered by trunked radio system

A is the total offered traffic.

3
Erlang C (Blocked Call Delayed)
This is the second kind of trunked system which provides queue to hold a blocked call. If channel
is not available immediately, the call request may be delayed until a channel becomes available.
To find GOS it is first necessary to find the likelihood that a call is initially denied access to the
system. The likelihood of a call not having immediate access to a channel is determined by Erlang
C formula as follows:

If no channels are immediately available the call is delayed, and the probability that the delayed
call is forced to wait more than t seconds is given by the probability that the call is delayed
multiplied by the conditional probability that the delay is greater than t seconds.

The average delay D for all calls in a queued system is given by

where H is Holding time.

The difference of Erlang B and Erlang C

Erlang B and Erlang C has a major difference

 Erlang B provides no queue for the blocked calls

 Whereas Erlang C provides queue for blocked calls
Erlang B handles the sizing of trunk groves relatively easily in the following four steps:
1. Collect traffic data
2. Determine the average busy hour
3. Choose a target grade of service
4. Use the Erlang B formula

4
Erlang C is considered more difficult because, even the calculation is difficult, complex and more
daunting. It is most commonly used to calculate how long callers have to wait before being
connected to the channel, and this adds the complexity at least in four areas.
1. What is included in call times
2. What is meant by delay (the average delay might be the average of all calls including all
the calls that didn’t wait at all).
3. What’s the hour by hour load
4. How does waiting time affect trunk load

5
Assignment 3
1. Understand two ray model
2. How delta is determined
3. Delay
4. Path difference
Two Ray Model
In a mobile radio channel a single direct path between the base station and mobile station is
seldom. Other propagation model such as free space propagation model is not accurate as there
is no way that there exists only free space between the base station and the mobile especially in
urban area.
Therefore a two ray model is better and useful propagation model since it accounts both the
direct path and the ground reflected propagation path between transmitter and receiver, and it
based on geometric optics.
This model has been found to be reasonably accurate for predicting large scale signal strength
over distance of several kilometers for mobile radio systems that uses:

 Tall tower
 As well as for line of sight microcell channels in urban environments.

Using method of image the path difference ∆, between the line of sight and the ground reflected
paths can be expressed and Tylor series approximation is used for simplification.

6
Using the path difference equation the phase difference between the two E-field components
and the time delay between the arrivals of the two components can be easily computed as
follows respectively:

7
 Assignment 4
1. Assessment on modulation in wireless mobile
2. Different type and Techniques of modulation
3. Comparison of constant envelop modulation and amplitude modulation
Modulation
Modulation is the process of encoding information from a message source in a manner suitable
for transmission. It generally involves translating a baseband message signal (called the source)
to a band pass signal at frequencies that are very high when compared to the base-band
frequency. The band pass signal called the modulated signal and the baseband message signal is
the called the modulating signal.
Modulation may be done by varying the amplitude, phase, or frequency of a high frequency
carrier in accordance with the amplitude of the message signal. Demodulation is the process of
extracting the baseband message from the carrier so that it may be processed and interpreted
by the intended receiver.

Types and Techniques of Modulation used in Mobile Radio Systems

There are two modulation schemes analog and digital modulation schemes.
Amplitude Modulation (AM): is an analog modulation techniques in which the amplitude of a
high frequency carrier signal is varied in accordance to the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating message signal. The modulating and the AM signal is shown in the figure below
respectively.

AM has different types and includes the following two modulation techniques:

 Single Sideband AM (SSB)

 Pilot Tone SSB

8
Demodulation techniques of AM
1. Coherent demodulation: requires knowledge of the transmitted carrier frequency and
phase at the receiver.
2. Non-coherent detection: requires no phase information.
Angle Modulation: varies the sinusoidal carrier signal in such a way that the angle of the carrier
is according to the amplitude of the modulating baseband signal. In this method the amplitude
of the carrier wave is kept constant (this is why FM is called constant envelope).
The two most important classes of angle modulation are:

 Frequency modulation and

 Phase modulation
Frequency Modulation (FM): is an analog modulation techniques used in mobile radio systems.
In FM the amplitude of the modulated carrier signal is kept constant while its frequency is varied
by the modulating message signal m(t), as show in the equation below.

Where Ac is the amplitude of the carrier, fc is the carrier frequency, and kf is the frequency
deviation constant. There are two methods of generating FM signal.
1. Direct method: the carrier frequency is varied in accordance with the input of the
modulating signal, voltage controlled oscillators (VCO) are used.
2. Indirect method: a narrowband FM signal is generated using a balanced modulator and
frequency multiplication to increase both the frequency deviation and the carrier
frequency to the required signal.
Phase Modulation (PM): is a form of angle modulation and also another techniques of analog
modulation scheme in which the angle of the carrier signal is varied linearly with the baseband
message signal m(t), as shown in the equation below.

Where kθ is the phase deviation constant.

Comparison of constant envelop modulation and amplitude modulation.

 The transmitted power of constant envelop signal is constant regardless of the amplitude
of the modulating signal.
 The constant envelop of the transmitted signal allows efficient class C power to be used
for RF power amplification of FM.

9
  In AM, however it is critical to maintain linearity between the applied message and the
amplitude of the transmitted signal, thus linear class A or AB amplifier which are not as
power efficient, must be used.
 An FM signal is a constant envelope signal, due to the fact that the envelope of the carrier
does not change with changes in the modulating signal.
 FM offer superior qualitative performance in fading when compared to AM.
 In FM, it is possible to tradeoff bandwidth occupancy for improved noise performance,
generally it has better noise immunity than AM.
 The ability of an FM system to trade bandwidth for SNR is perhaps the most important
reason for its superiority over AM.

Digital Modulation
Modern mobile communication system use digital modulation techniques. Advancement in very
large scale integration (VLSI) and digital signal processing (DSP) have made digital modulation
more cost effective than analog modulation techniques.
Digital modulation offers many advantage over analog modulation techniques some of them are:

 Greater noise immunity

 Robustness to channel impairments
 Easier multiplexing of various forms of information and
 Greater security
The most common digital modulation techniques are:
1. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): is a frequency modulation scheme in which digital information
is transmitted through discrete frequency changes (shifts) of a carrier wave.

2. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): is a form of amplitude modulation that represents digital data
as shifts in the amplitude of a carrier wave.

10
3. Phase Shift Keying (PSK): is a form of phase modulation where the carrier’s phase shifts to
one of a finite set of possible phases.

4. Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK): In QPSK, there are 4 symbols (M = 4) and thus, 2 bits
per symbol (N = log2M = 2). Two of the possible constellations for QPSK are shown in the
following figure, and the four symbols from QPSK Constellation #2 are shown to the right of
these constellations.

11
References

[1]. THEODORE S RAPPAPORT, Wireless Communication Principles and Practices, Second

Edition.
[2]. JOUR ANGUS, Ian, An Introduction to Erlang B and Erlang C.
[3]. The United States Naval Academy, Lesson 21 Digital Modulation.

12