2.

24 OTHER METALS AND ALLOYS

2.24.1 Titanium:
2.24.1.1 Titanium and titanium alloys:
Titanium enjoys widespread application in the chemical, aerospace, marine and medical fields due to its
light weight, excellent corrosion resistance and high strength-to-width ratio. It has a strong affinity for
oxygen and forms a dense, adherent oxide film on exposure to oxygen. This passive oxide film accounts for
titanium’s excellent corrosion resistance in aqueous salt and oxidising acid solutions, as well as its above
average corrosion resistance to mineral acids.
Titanium tends to oxidise rapidly when heated in air above 650°C. Welding of titanium therefore requires
the use of protective shielding to prevent contamination and embrittlement from oxygen and nitrogen.
Titanium’s relatively low coefficient of thermal expansion minimises the risk of distortion due to welding.
Pure titanium is fairly ductile (15 to 20% elongation) and has a low tensile strength (approximately 205
MPa) at room temperature. Limited amounts of oxygen and nitrogen can strengthen the metal, but cause
significant embrittlement if present in sufficient quantities. Carbon and hydrogen also promote
embrittlement. The addition of these elements usually occurs unintentionally through contamination when
the metal is processed.
Titanium has a hexagonal close-packed crystal structure (α phase) at room temperature, but undergoes a
phase transformation to BCC β-phase on heating above 880°C. Most alloying elements stabilise the β
phase and lower the α→β transformation temperature, thereby allowing β to be present in the
microstructure at room temperature. Aluminium, however, raises the transformation temperature and
stabilises the α phase. The presence of the β phase improves toughness, increases strength, enhances the
hot working properties, but generally has a negative influence on weldability.
There are approximately 25 different titanium alloys in commercial production. Table 2.24.1 contains a list
of these alloys with their UNS (Unified Numbering System) designation (where applicable). As Table 2.24.1
indicates, titanium alloys can be divided into four general categories based on their annealed
microstructure. Some titanium alloys are produced with extra low interstitials (ELI) for applications
requiring good toughness and ductility, particularly at cryogenic temperatures.
• Commercially pure titanium: The commercially pure titanium alloys range in yield strength from approximately
240 MPa to 550 MPa. Differences in strength result from variations in the impurity content (primarily oxygen,
nitrogen and carbon) and the iron level.
• Alpha titanium alloys: Alpha alloys are usually not heat treated to increase strength, and are mainly used where
moderate elevated temperature strength and creep resistance are required. Alpha alloys are also used in
cryogenic applications. The near-alpha alloys generally contain small amounts of β-stabilising elements, and are
considered marginally heat treatable. Alloys in this class include the well- established Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo alloy,
and newer grades such as Ti-1100. Most near-alpha alloys contain small amounts of silicon for high temperature
properties.
• Alpha-Beta titanium alloys: Alpha-beta titanium alloys contain high concentrations of β-stabilisers and exhibit
microstructures consisting of mixtures of α and β phases. These alloys can be utilised in the annealed condition,
or in the solution heat treated and aged condition. The alpha-beta alloys display excellent strength-to-width
ratios in the heat treated condition, and excellent fracture toughness when annealed. The most widely used
alpha-beta titanium alloy is Ti-6Al-4V.
• Metastable titanium alloys: Metastable titanium alloys contain high levels of β stabilising elements. The β→α
transformation on cooling is so sluggish in these alloys that a 100% β microstructure is retained during processing
(e.g. air cooling) down to room temperature. Beta alloys in the single-phase β condition are characterised by
excellent formability. Subsequent ageing in a temperature range from about 480°C to 595°C result in the
precipitation of fine α on the prior-β grain boundaries and intragranularly. Ageing in this range produces a
significant increase in strength, but although very high strength-to-width ratios can be achieved with low ageing
temperatures, ductility and toughness are sacrificed. Metastable β alloys are used frequently in fasteners and
springs, where they exhibit excellent work-hardening characteristics. Newer metastable β alloy, such as Ti-15Mo-
2.7Nb-3Al-0.2Si (Beta 21S) have excellent oxidation resistance and good elevated temperature properties.

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 Table 2.24.1. Compositions of titanium alloys in commercial production.
Nominal composition, wt% Impurity limits (max.), wt%
Designation
Al Sn Zr Mo Others N C H Fe O
Unalloyed grades
ASTM Grade 1 - - - - - 0.03 0.10 0.015 0.20 0.18
ASTM Grade 2 - - - - - 0.03 0.10 0.015 0.30 0.25
ASTM Grade 3 - - - - - 0.05 0.10 0.015 0.30 0.35
ASTM Grade 4 - - - - - 0.05 0.10 0.015 0.50 0.40
ASTM Grade 7 - - - - 0.2 Pd 0.03 0.10 0.015 0.30 0.25
ASTM Grade 11 - - - - 0.12-0.25 Pd 0.03 0.10 0.015 0.20 0.18
ASTM Grade 12 - - - 0.3 0.6-0.9 Ni 0.03 0.10 0.015 0.30 0.25
Alpha and near-Alpha alloys
Ti-0.3Mo-0.8Ni - - - 0.3 0.8 Ni 0.03 0.10 0.015 0.30 0.25
Ti-5Al-2.5Sn (UNS R54520) 5.0 2.5 - - - 0.05 0.08 0.020 0.50 0.20
Ti-5Al-2.5Sn-ELI (UNS R54521) 5.0 2.5 - - - 0.07 0.08 0.0125 0.25 0.12
Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V (UNS R54810) 8.0 - - 1.0 1V 0.05 0.08 0.015 0.30 0.12
Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo (UNS R54620) 6.0 2.0 4.0 2.0 - 0.05 0.05 0.0125 0.25 0.15
Ti-6Al-2Nb-1Ta-0.8Mo (UNS R56210) 6.0 - - 1.0 2Nb; 1Ta 0.02 0.03 0.0125 0.12 0.10
Ti-2.25Al-11Sn-5Zr-1Mo 2.25 11.0 5.0 1.0 0.20 Si 0.04 0.04 0.008 0.12 0.17
a
Ti-5Al-5Sn-2Zr-2Mo 5.0 5.0 2.0 2.0 0.25 Si 0.03 0.05 0.0125 0.15 0.13
Alpha-Beta alloys
Ti-6Al-4V (UNS R56400) 6.0 - - - 4.0 V 0.05 0.10 0.0125 0.30 0.20
Ti-6Al-4V-ELI (UNS R56401) 6.0 - - - 4.0 V 0.05 0.08 0.0125 0.25 0.13
Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn (UNS R56620) 6.0 2.0 - - 0.75 Cu; 6.0 V 0.04 0.05 0.015 1.0 0.20
Ti-8Mn (UNS R56080) - - - - 8.0 Mn 0.05 0.08 0.015 0.50 0.20
Ti-7Al-4Mo (UNS R56740) 7.0 - - 4.0 - 0.05 0.10 0.013 0.30 0.20
Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-6Mo (UNS R56260) 6.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 - 0.04 0.04 0.0125 0.15 0.15
a
Ti-5Al-2Sn-2Zr-4Mo-4Cr 5.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 4.0 Cr 0.04 0.05 0.0125 0.30 0.13
a
Ti-6Al-2Sn-2Zr-2Mo-2Cr 5.7 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 Cr; 0.25 Si 0.03 0.05 0.0125 0.25 0.14
b
Ti-3Al-2.5V (AMS 4943) 3.0 - - - 2.5 V 0.015 0.05 0.015 0.30 0.12
Ti-1100 6.0 2.75 4.0 0.4 0.45 Si - - - 0.02 0.07
Ti-4.5Al-5Mo-1.5Cr (CORONA 5) 4.5 - - 5.0 1.5 Cr - - - - -
Metastable Beta alloys
a
Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al 3.0 - - - 10.0 V 0.05 0.05 0.015 2.5 0.16
Ti-13V-11Cr-3Al (UNS R58010) 3.0 - - - 11.0 Cr; 13.0 V 0.05 0.05 0.025 0.35 0.17
a
Ti-8Mo-8V-2Fe-3Al (UNS R58820) 3.0 - - 8.0 8.0 V 0.05 0.05 0.015 2.5 0.17
a
Ti-3Al-8V-6Cr-4Mo-4Zr (Beta C) 3.0 - 4.0 4.0 6.0 Cr; 8.0 V 0.03 0.05 0.020 0.25 0.12
Ti-11.5Mo-6Zr-4.5Sn (Beta III) - 4.5 6.0 11.5 - 0.05 0.10 0.020 0.35 0.18
Ti-15V-3Al-3Sn-3Cr 3.0 3.0 - - 15.0 V; 3.0 Cr 0.03 0.03 0.015 0.30 0.13
Ti-15Mo-2.7Nb-3Al-0.2Si (Beta 21S) 3.0 - - 15.0 2.7 Nb; 0.2 Si - - - - -
a
Semicommercial alloy; composition limits subject to negotiation with suppliers.
b
Primarily a tubing alloy.

2.24.1.2 Shielding during welding of titanium and titanium alloys:

The gas shielded arc welding processes are well suited for joining titanium and titanium alloys, provided the
gas shielding arrangement adequately protects the weld area from the atmosphere. Because of the
sensitivity of titanium to embrittlement by oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen, the entire component or any
portion heated above 260°C must be protected from atmospheric contamination. Protection from the
atmosphere must be maintained until the weld and surrounding material has cooled to below 260°C. The
three processes normally used for joining titanium are gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), gas metal arc
welding (GMAW) and plasma arc welding (PAW). All three processes can be performed using manual, semi-
automatic and automatic equipment. Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), flux cored arc welding (FCAW)
and submerged arc welding (SAW) are unsuitable for welding titanium.
• Welding in the open: The primary concern when welding in the open (any welding performed without
the use of an enclosed chamber that can be purged prior to and during welding) is maintaining an
adequate inert gas shield – not only for the molten weld pool and adjacent base metal (primary
shielding), but also for the hot, solidified weld metal and the heat-affected zone (secondary shielding)
and shielding for the underside of the weld (backing). Inert shielding gas is used for all primary
shielding, secondary shielding and backing.
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− Primary shielding: Primary gas shielding is provided through the nozzle of the welding torch or gun. The
largest nozzle consistent with accessibility and visibility is recommended (with sizes usually ranging from 12.7
to 19 mm). Nozzles that provide lamellar flow of the shielding gas are desirable, as the risk of contamination
from air due to arc turbulence is reduced. During manual or semi-automatic welding, the welder should use
slow hand movements to prevent turbulence in the vicinity of the arc.
− Secondary shielding: Due to the low thermal conductivity of titanium, a greater length of the hot weld must
be shielded than the gas flow from the torch or gun can provide. Secondary shielding therefore has to be
provided in the form of a trailing shield, an example of which is shown schematically in Figure 2.24.1(a). This
trailing shield usually assumes the shape of a metal chamber fitting over the torch nozzle and attached using
a clamp, with inert gas flowing through a porous metal diffuser screen over the weld area. The shield should
be wide enough to cover the heat-affected zone on either side of the weld bead. When used for welding
pipe, the trailing shield is curved to match the contour of the pipe. For manual welding, a large gas nozzle or
an auxiliary annular gas nozzle can be used with slow welding speeds. Alternatively, secondary shielding can
be incorporated into the weld fixturing by providing inert gas passages in the hold-down bars on both sides of
the seam to allow shielding gas to flow from the torch and hold-down bars into the channel formed by the
bars. This is illustrated schematically in Figure 2.24.1(b).

Figure 2.24.1(b). Torch trailing shield for gas Figure 2.24.1(b). Secondary inert gas shielding
shielded arc welding of titanium and titanium alloys incorporated in the weld fixture.

− Backing: Shielding using inert backing gas is required to protect the weld root and adjacent base metal from
atmospheric contamination. This is accomplished using gas passages in temporary backing (bar or ring),
incorporated into the fixturing (illustrated in Figure 2.24.2). The backing bar or ring contains a clearance
groove under the joint that is filled with inert gas prior to welding. Typical groove dimensions for temporary
backing are given in Table 2.24.2. Backing should be tightly fitted along the entire length of the weld to
ensure uniform weld quality, is usually made out of copper or stainless steel, and may be water cooled to
accelerate weld cooling. The root opening of the joint must approach zero to prevent the arc from impinging
on and fusing the titanium weld to the backing bar. The inert gas pressure in the groove must be kept low to
prevent the formation of a concave root profile. When welding pipe or tube, the interior of the pipe must be
purged of air using inert gas. A volume of inert gas that is at least six times the volume of the pipe is
recommended for purging. In large systems, internal dams may be placed on both sides of the joint to
confine the backing gas to the vicinity of the weld joint. Internal dams must have an inlet for shielding gas,
and an outlet for allowing the displaced air and shielding gas to escape. Internal gas pressure must be kept
low – no more than 4 to 6 mm Hg.
Table 2.24.2. Typical groove dimensions for temporary backing.
Material thickness (mm) Groove width (mm) Groove depth (mm)
0.15 – 0.30 1.00 1.00
0.30 – 0.60 1.60 1.00
0.60 – 0.80 2.40 1.00
0.80 – 1.30 3.20 1.15
1.30 – 2.00 4.80 1.15
2.00 – 3.20 6.35 1.15
3.20 – 6.35 8.00 1.30

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• Welding in a chamber: Many titanium weld designs are not adaptable to welding in the open air,
because adequate gas shielding would be difficult to achieve. These welds can be performed in an
enclosed chamber filled with inert gas. Two types of welding chambers are used: flow-purged and
vacuum-purged. The welding atmosphere in a flow-purged chamber is obtained by flowing inert gas
through a chamber to flush out air. The volume of gas needed to obtain a welding atmosphere of
sufficient purity in the chamber is 5 to 10 times the chamber volume. The appropriate inert gas flow
rate and air displacement time for a specific chamber should be established by welding tests. In a
vacuum-purged chamber, air is removed with a mechanical pump, often to a pressure of 3.10-3 torr (or
400 Pa). For higher levels of cleanliness (such as for nuclear applications), a diffusion pump can be used
to reduce the pressure further to 10-4 torr (13.3 Pa). Once the chamber has been vacuum purged, it is
back-filled with inert gas with a dew point of -60°C or lower. The gas atmosphere should be monitored
using appropriate gas analysing equipment or by welding and testing of coupons.

2.24.1.3 Processes for welding titanium and titanium alloys:

• Gas tungsten arc welding: GTAW is commonly used for welding titanium and titanium alloys,
particularly for sheet thicknesses up to 3 mm. Welding in open air (i.e. not in an enclosed welding
chamber that can be purged of air prior to and during welding) is best performed in the flat position so
that the welding torch and secondary shielding devices maintain adequate inert gas shielding. To
prevent porosity, specially designed secondary shielding devices should be used when welding out of
position. Direct current, electrode negative polarity is normally used with type EWTh-2 thoriated
tungsten electrodes. Electrode extension beyond the gas nozzle must be limited to the amount
required for good visibility of the weld pool. Scratch starting should never be used to initiate the arc.
The arc shall be initiated using a starting tab or the high-frequency generator of the power supply.
When gas tungsten arc welding in the open air, welding should be terminated on a run-off tab, or the
welding torch should dwell over the weld with a postflow of shielding gas after interrupting the welding
current. This postflow must be maintained until the weld has cooled to below 260°C. When filler
metal is added, the heated end of the filler rod or wire should be held under the gas nozzle at all times
to prevent contamination. If the tip of the wire becomes contaminated, it must be sectioned off and
discarded before welding can continue.
• Gas metal arc welding: GMAW may be used when joining titanium and titanium alloys more than 3.2
mm in thickness. Conventional GMAW power sources, welding torches and control systems are
satisfactory for welding titanium. For welding in the open (i.e. not in an enclosed welding chamber that
can be purged of air prior to and during welding), supplemental shielding devices similar to those
described earlier, must be employed. The device used for providing the trailing shield in GMAW has to
be considerably longer than that used with GTAW. A leading shield may also be required when visual
inspection or the progressive-radius bend test reveals excessive oxidation of the weld and surrounding
base metal. Globular transfer is not recommended for welding titanium because of the high risk for
excessive spatter and incomplete fusion. Short-circuiting transfer can be used for welding thin sections
in all positions, but care should be taken to avoid incomplete fusion. Spray transfer is recommended
when welding thick sections in the flat and horizontal positions. A longer, wider gas shield is required
for spray transfer due to the high heat input. Pulsed spray transfer is advantageous for welding thinner
sections and for welding in positions other than flat. The welding conditions selected should always
produce smoothly contoured welds that blend smoothly with the base metal.
• Plasma arc welding: PAW of titanium and titanium alloys may be performed using the melt-in
technique or keyhole technique. The two techniques may also be combined when welding thick
sections. Keyhole welding can be used for welding square-groove joints in one or two passes in
titanium for plate thicknesses from 1.6 mm to 12.7 mm. Filler metal should be added to prevent
undercut and concave joint faces. Alternatively, a final “cosmetic” pass with filler metal may be used to
correct undercut and excessive concavity. Single-V or single-U grooves with root face heights of 6.3
mm or more may also be welded using the keyhole technique. The first pass is welded using the
keyhole technique, with or without the addition of filler metal. The second pass shall then be welded
with PAW or GTAW using filler wire or rod.

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2.24.1.4 Welding consumables:
When welding titanium and titanium alloys, the filler wire or rod should be of the same nominal
composition as the base metal. For example, ASTM Grade 2 titanium is welded with ERTi-2 filler metal
(refer to ANSI/AWS A5.16 – Specification for Titanium and Titanium Alloy Welding Electrodes and Rods).
The filler wires or rods must be free of dirt, oil, grease, drawing compounds and any surface imperfections
that may entrap foreign matter. Prior to use, the filler wire or rod must be inspected for mechanical
defects and rejected if found to contain surface defects. The filler wire has to be cleaned immediately prior
to use, and acetone-soaked, lint-free cloth can be used to assess surface contamination caused by the
lubricant used in the wire-drawing operation, in addition to cleaning the filler wire. Pickling can also be
used for cleaning. Cleaned wire should be stored under clean conditions and spools on the wire feeder
must be covered when not in use, and moved to a clean area between jobs. Cleaned wire should be
handled with lint-free gloves to prevent contamination.
In welding titanium or titanium alloys, only argon or helium (or on occasion a mixture of the two gases) can
be used for shielding (primary shielding, secondary shielding and backing). Oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen or
CO2 should never be added to the inert shielding gas due to the risk of embrittlement. The inert shielding
gas should have a dew point of -60°C or lower and care must be taken to ensure that the inert gas system is
leak-tight to avoid contamination by air or moisture. Hoses used for shielding gas must be clean,
nonporous and flexible, made of Tygon or vinyl plastic. Rubber hoses should never be used due to risk of
air absorption and contamination.

2.24.1.5 Weld cleaning:

Prior to welding, brazing or heat treatment, titanium components must be cleaned of surface contaminants
and dried. Ordinary tap water should never be used to rinse titanium parts, as chlorides and other cleaning
residues can lead to stress corrosion cracking. Hydrocarbon residues can also result in contamination and
embrittlement of titanium. General guidelines for cleaning titanium components prior to welding are given
below:
• The joint and the adjacent base metal surfaces should be cleaned over a distance extending at least 5
cm beyond the width of the trailing gas shield on each side of the weld groove.
• All pre-weld cleaning operations must be performed immediately prior to welding. When this is
impractical, parts should be stored in sealed bags containing dessicant or in a controlled humidity
storage room. Alternatively, thorough degreasing and light pickling of parts immediately prior to
welding is required. Mechanical abrasion of the joint surfaces, followed by washing with a suitable
solvent, may be used instead of pickling.
• Cleanliness is essential during fabrication welding. All titanium welding should be performed in a
designated area separated from other welding activities. All stubs, rods, flux, slag and other foreign
material must be removed from the equipment and immediate area designated for welding.
• Correct storage and handling of all titanium must be ensured, and contamination with ferrous materials
avoided at all times. Plate racks, work tables, fork lifts, plate grabs, plate rollers and bending devices
must be cleaned before use, and guillotine blades wiped down with acetone. Surface damage, such as
scraping or scratching when removing plates from racks, must be avoided. Contamination from paint,
wax and marking pens, rubber tread marks from shoes and tyres, oil from overhead cranes and exhaust
fumes should be avoided.
• Weld spatter should be removed from each weld bead prior to depositing the succeeding pass, and all
spatter removed from the completed weld and surrounding plate material.
• Any fixturing to be used during welding should be thoroughly cleaned and degreased prior to loading
the workpieces.
• The recommended cleaning procedure depends on the nature of the oxide layer present in the vicinity
of the weld joint prior to welding:

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 − Scale-free material requires only degreasing using steam cleaning, alkaline cleaning, vapour degreasing or
solvent cleaning procedures. The only solvents allowed for use in cleaning titanium parts are methyl ethyl
ketone, toluene and acetone. Chlorinated or silicated solvents and methyl alcohol (methanol) should not be
used due to the risk of inducing stress corrosion cracking in the finished part.
− Light oxide scale formed below 540°C (characterized by a straw yellow or metallic blue tarnish) should be
cleaned using a suitable degreasing procedure, followed by acid pickling (in a mixture of hydrofluoric acid and
nitric acid) and rinsing. Alternatively, wire brushing or draw filing may be used after degreasing, followed
immediately by acid pickling and rinsing
− High-temperature scale on titanium parts exposed to temperatures in excess of 540°C (flaky or dull gray
oxide) is difficult to remove chemically, and must be removed using a suitable degreasing procedure,
followed by abrasive wet blasting or salt bath descaling, acid pickling, rinsing and drying.

2.24.1.6 Defects in titanium alloy welds:

• Contamination cracking: When titanium is exposed to air, moisture or hydrocarbons at temperatures
higher than 500°C, it readily picks up oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and hydrogen. These elements increase
the strength of titanium, but results in a substantial decrease in ductility. When contamination exceeds
certain levels, the stresses generated during welding may cause weld metal cracking. Contamination
cracking can be avoided by minimising exposure of the molten weld pool and HAZ to interstitials or
compounds that contain interstitial elements.
• Hydrogen embrittlement: If a microcrack is present in the weld metal, hydrogen atoms will tend to
diffuse to the crack tip. When a critical concentration of hydrogen is reached, titanium hydrides
precipitate ahead of the crack tip. These hydrides will eventually rupture, allowing the crack to
advance. Upon rupture the hydrides redissolve and hydrogen diffuses to the new crack tip. Cracking
can be prevented by minimising exposure of the weld to hydrogen (such as moisture or hydrocarbons).
The dew point of the shielding gas should at least -50°C or no more than 34 ppm H2O.
• Porosity: Weld metal porosity originates at the trailing edge of the weld pool, where interstitial
elements (oxygen or hydrogen) tend to partition between dendrites during solidification. Micropores
form when the gas solubility is reduced during solidification and atoms combine to form H2 and O2
molecules. Once nucleated, these micropores can be trapped in the interdendritic positions by the
solidifying weld metal, or coalesce into macropores. Porosity can be prevented by avoiding exposure of
the molten weld pool to oxygen or hydrogen during welding. This requires thorough degreasing prior
to welding and adequate shielding of the arc and solidifying weld metal using inert shielding gas.
• Ductility dip cracking: Certain alloy compositions become susceptible to cracking when cooled from
above the beta transition temperature. Microstructures with α films at the prior β grain boundaries
and coarse Widmanstätten α colonies are more prone to cracking. These cracks are believed to occur
when volumetric differences exist as a result of the transformation of β to α on cooling. When the
prior β grains transform to α, the grain boundaries are loaded in tension, and this results in rupture
within the grain boundary α films.

2.24.2 Magnesium:
Magnesium alloys are used in a wide variety of applications where light weight is important. It is well
known for its low density (1660 kg/m3, or about one-fourth that of steel and two-thirds that of aluminium),
machinability, weldability and the high strength-to-weight ratio of its alloys. Magnesium melts at about
649°C (almost the same melting temperature as that of aluminium), but boils at about 2025°C (low
compared to other structural materials). Its coefficient of expansion is similar to that of aluminium (twice
that of steel), resulting in high levels of distortion during welding. The fixturing required to weld
magnesium is very similar to that needed for joining aluminium. Its electrical resistivity about 1.7 times
that of aluminium. Good strength and stiffness at both room and elevated temperatures, combined with
light weight, make magnesium alloys useful for some aerospace applications.
Magnesium and its alloys have a hexagonal close-packed crystal structure. The amount of deformation that
can be sustained at room temperature is limited when compared to aluminium alloys, but the formability

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increases rapidly with temperature (the alloys can be severely cold worked at temperatures between 200°C
and 315°C). Forming and straightening operations and weld peening are generally performed at elevated
temperatures. Magnesium has low ductility compared to aluminium and is notch-sensitive, particularly in
fatigue. Tensile properties increase and ductility decreases with decreasing testing temperature.
When heated in air, magnesium oxidises rapidly, forming an oxide that inhibits wetting and flow during
welding, brazing and soldering. For this reason, a protective shield of inert gas or flux must be used on
exposure to elevated temperatures to prevent oxidation. The oxide layer recrystallizes at high
temperatures and becomes flaky. It tends to break up more readily during welding than the oxide that
forms on aluminium. Magnesium oxide (MgO) is highly refractory and insoluble in both liquid and solid
magnesium.
Under normal conditions, the corrosion resistance of many magnesium alloys in non-industrial
atmospheres is better than that of ordinary iron and equal to some aluminium alloys. For maximum
corrosion resistance, chemical surface treatments, paint finishes and plating may be used. Galvanic
corrosion may be a serious problem when magnesium is in contact with other metals in the presence of an
electrolyte. Some magnesium alloys are susceptible to stress corrosion cracking if residual stresses from
welding or fabrication are not reduced to a safe level by heat treatment.

2.24.2.1 Magnesium alloys:

Most magnesium alloys are ternary types, and can be broadly subdivided into four groups based on the
major alloying element: aluminium, zinc, thorium and rare earths. There are also two binary types
employing manganese and zirconium. The magnesium-aluminium and magnesium-zinc alloy groups are
suitable only for room temperature service, whereas the magnesium-thorium and magnesium-rare earth
alloys are designed for elevated temperature service. These alloys display good tensile and creep
properties up to 370°C.
Magnesium alloys are designated by a combination letter-number system composed of four parts.
• Part 1 indicates the two principal alloying elements by code letters arranged in order of decreasing percentage.
These code letters are shown in Table 2.24.3.
• Part 2 indicates the percentages of the two principal alloying elements in the same order as the code letters. The
percentages are rounded to the nearest whole number.
• Part 3 is an assigned letter to distinguish different alloys with the same percentages of the two principal alloying
elements.
• Part 4 is separated from Part 3 by a hyphen and indicates the temper condition of the product, consisting of a
letter and number similar to those used for aluminium.

Table 2.24.3. Code letters for the magnesium alloy designation system.
Letter Alloying element
A Aluminium
E Rare earths
H Thorium
K Zirconium
M Manganese
Q Silver
Z Zinc

An example is alloy AZ63A-T6. The AZ indicates that aluminium and zinc are the two principal alloying
elements. The alloy contains nominally 6% aluminium and 3% zinc. The letter A indicates that this was the
first standardised alloy of this composition, and the fourth part, T6, shows that the product has been
solution heat treated and artificially aged.
Magnesium alloys are produced in the form of cast and wrought products, including forgings, sheet, plate
and extrusions. Commercial alloys are listed in Table 2.24.4. With most magnesium alloys, the
solidification temperature range increases as the alloy content increases. This contributes to a greater

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tendency for cracking during welding. At the same time, the melting temperature and the thermal and
electrical conductivities decrease. Less heat input is therefore required for fusion welding as the alloy
content increases. Aluminium and zinc show decreasing solubility in solid magnesium with decreasing
temperature, and alloys containing sufficient amounts of these elements can therefore be strengthened by
precipitation-hardening.
Table 2.24.4. Commercial magnesium alloys.
Commercial magnesium alloys for room temperature service.
ASTM Nominal composition, % (balance Mg)
designation Al Zn Mn REa Zr Th
Sheet and plate
AZ31B 3.0 1.0 0.5 - - -
M1A - - 1.5 - - -
Extruded shapes and structural sections
AZ10A 1.2 0.4 0.5 - - -
AZ31B 3.0 1.0 0.5 - - -
AZ61A 6.5 1.0 0.2 - - -
AZ80A 8.5 0.5 0.2 - - -
M1A - - 1.5 - - -
ZK21A - 2.3 - - 0.6 -
ZK60A - 5.5 - - 0.6 -
Sand, permanent mould or investment castings
AM100A 10.0 - 0.2 - - -
AZ63A 6.0 3.0 0.2 - - -
AZ81A 7.6 0.7 0.2 - - -
AZ91C 8.7 0.7 0.2 - - -
AZ92A 9.0 2.0 0.2 - - -
K1A - - - - 0.6 -
ZE41A - 4.2 - 1.2 0.7 -
ZH62A - 5.7 - - 0.7 1.8
ZK51A - 4.6 - - 0.7 -
ZK61A - 6.0 - - 0.8 -
a
As mischmetal (approximately 52% Ce, 26% La, 19% Nd, 3%Pr).

Commercial magnesium alloys for elevated temperature service.

ASTM Nominal composition, % (balance Mg)
designation Th Zn Zr RE* Mn Ag
Sheet and plate
HK31A 3.0 - 0.7 - - -
HM21A 2.0 - - - 0.5 -
Extruded shapes and structural sections
HM31A 3.0 - - - 1.5 -
Sand, permanent mould or investment castings
EK41A - - 0.6 4.0 - -
EZ33A - 2.6 0.6 3.2 - -
HK31A 3.2 - 0.7 - - -
HZ32A 3.2 2.1 0.7 - - -
QH21A 1.1 - 0.6 1.2 - 2.5
a
As mischmetal (approximately 52% Ce, 26% La, 19% Nd, 3%Pr).

Welded construction for room temperature service is frequently designed with AZ31B alloy. It offers a
good combination of strength, ductility, toughness, formability and weldability in all wrought product
forms. AZ80A and ZK60A can be artificially aged to develop good strength properties for room temperature
applications. AZ10A, M1A and ZK21A alloy welds are not sensitive to stress corrosion cracking and
postweld stress relief heat treatment is therefore not required. These alloys are strengthened by work
hardening for room temperature service. HK31A, HM21A and HM31A are designed for elevated
temperature service. They are strengthened by a combination of work hardening and artificial
precipitation hardening.
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The most widely used casting alloys for room temperature service are AZ91C and AZ92A. These alloys are
more crack-sensitive than the wrought Mg-Al-Zn alloys with lower aluminium content. Consequently, they
require preheating prior to fusion welding. EZ33A has good strength stability for elevated temperature
service. HK31A and HZ32A are designed to operate at higher temperatures than EZ33A. QH21A has
excellent strength properties up to 260°C. All of these alloys require heat treatment to develop optimal
properties. They have good welding characteristics.

2.24.2.2 Heat treatment of magnesium alloys:

Magnesium alloys are heat treated to improve mechanical properties. A solution heat treatment improves
strength, toughness and impact resistance. A precipitation heat treatment after solution annealing
increases strength and hardness, with some sacrifice in toughness. Combinations of solution annealing,
strain hardening and precipitation strengthening are often used with wrought products.

2.24.2.3 Welding of magnesium and magnesium alloys:

The relative weldability of magnesium alloys by gas shielded arc welding and resistance spot welding
processes are shown in Table 2.24.5. Castings are normally not resistance welded. The Mg-Al-Zn and the
alloys that contain rare earths or thorium as major alloying elements display the best weldability. Alloys
with zinc as major alloying element are more difficult to weld successfully. These alloys have a wide
melting range, making them more sensitive to hot cracking.
Table 2.24.5. Relative weldability of magnesium alloys.
Alloy Gas shielded arc welding Resistance spot welding
Wrought alloys
AZ10A Excellent Excellent
AZ31B, AZ31C Excellent Excellent
AZ61A Good Excellent
AZ80A Good Excellent
HK31A Excellent Excellent
HM21A Excellent Good
HM31A Excellent Good
M1A Excellent Good
ZK21A Good Excellent
ZK60A Poor Excellent
Cast alloys
AM100A Good -
AZ63A Fair -
AZ81A Good -
AZ91A Good -
AZ92A Fair -
EK41A Good -
EZ33A Excellent -
HK31A Good -
HZ32A Good -
K1A Excellent -
QH21A Good -
ZE41A Good -
ZH62A Poor -
ZK51A Poor -
ZK61A Poor -

The cleanliness of magnesium alloy components and filler metals is important for obtaining sound welds of
acceptable quality as any surface contamination will inhibit wetting and fusion. Magnesium alloys are
normally supplied with an oil coating, an acid-pickled surface or a chromate conversion coating. The
surfaces and edges to be joined must be cleaned just before welding to remove the as-supplied surface
protection, as well as any dirt or oxide present. Oil, grease and wax are best removed by either washing

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with organic solvents or vapour degreasing in a chlorinated hydrocarbon solvent. Subsequent cleaning in
alkaline or emulsion-type cleaners is recommended to ensure that the surfaces are free from hydrocarbon
contamination. After all oil and other organic material have been removed, the part or joint is ready for
chemical or mechanical cleaning. A bright pickle will produce suitable clean surfaces for welding. Final
mechanical cleaning is preferred for most critical production applications to ensure uniform surface
cleanliness. Stainless steel wool or a wire brush is recommended, provided wire brushing does not gouge
the surface.
The weldability of most magnesium alloys is good when the proper filler metal is employed. A filler metal
with a lower melting point and a wider solidification range than the base metal will provide good
weldability and minimise weld cracking. The recommended filler metals for various magnesium alloys are
shown in Table 2.24.6.
Table 2.24.6. Recommended filler metals for arc welding of magnesium alloys.
Recommended filler metal a
Alloys
ER AZ61A ER AZ92A ER EZ33A ER AZ101A Base metal
Wrought alloys
AZ10A X X
AZ31B X X
AZ61A X X
AZ80A X X
ZK21A X X
HK31A X
HM21A X
HM31A X
M1A X
Cast alloys
AM100A X X X
AZ63A X X X
AZ81A X X X
AZ91C X X X
AZ92A X X X
EK41A X X
EZ33A X X
HK31A X X
HZ32A X X
K1A X X
QH21A X X
ZE41A X X
ZH62A X X
ZK51A X X
ZK61A X X
a
Refer to ANSI/AWS A5.19, Specification for Magnesium Alloy Welding Electrodes and Rods, for additional information.

The need to preheat components prior to welding is largely determined by the product form, section
thickness and the degree of restraint on the joint. Thick sections may not require preheating unless the
level of joint restraint is high. Thin sections and highly restrained joints require preheat to avoid weld
cracking. This is particularly true for alloys high in zinc. The required preheat temperature ranges are
shown in Table 2.24.7. The maximum preheat temperature should not exceed the solution heat treatment
temperature of the alloy. Welded castings are usually heat treated to obtain the desired mechanical
properties. The appropriate heat treatment will depend on the temper of the casting before welding, as
shown in Table 2.24.7.

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 Table 2.24.7. Recommended weld preheat and postweld heat treatments for various cast magnesium alloys.
Desired
Temper
temper
Alloy before Weld preheata Postweld heat treatmenta
after
welding
welding
AZ63A T4 T4 Heavy and unrestrained sections: none or local. Thin and restrained 1.5 h at 390°C.
sections: 175-380°C
T4 or T6 T6 Same as for T4 above. 1.5 h at 390°C, followed by 5
h at 220°C.
T5 T5 Heavy and unrestrained sections: none or local. Thin and restrained 5 h at 220°C.
sections: none to 260°C (1.5 h maximum at 260°C).
AZ81A T4 T4 Heavy and unrestrained sections: none or local. Thin and restrained 0.5 h at 415°C.
sections: 175-400°C.
AZ91C T4 T4 Same as for AZ81A-T4 above. 0.5 h at 415°C.
T4 or T6 T6 Same as for AZ81A-T4 above. 1.5 h at 415°C, followed by 4
h at 215°C or 16 h at 168°C.
AZ92A T4 T4 Same as for AZ81A-T4 above. 0.5 h at 410°C.
T4 or T6 T6 Same as for AZ81A-T4 above. 0.5 h at 410°C, followed by 4
h at 260°C or 5 h at 220°C.
AM100A T6 T6 Same as for AZ81A-T4 above. 0.5 h at 415°C, followed by 5
h at 220°C.
EK41A T4 or T6 T6 None to 260°C (1.5 h maximum at 260°C). 16 h at 205°C.
T5 T5 None to 260°C (1.5 h maximum at 260°C). 16 h at 205°C.
EZ33A F or T5 T5 None to 260°C (1.5 h maximum at 260°C). 5 h at 215°C, or 2 h at 330°C
plus 5 h at 215°C.
HK31A T4 or T6 T6 None to 260°C. 16 h at 205°C, or 1 h at 315°C
plus 16 h at 205°C.
HZ32A F or T5 T5 None to 260°C. 16 h at 315°C.
K1A F F None. None.
ZE41A F or T5 T5 None to 315°C. 2 h at 330°C, or 2 h at 330°C
plus 16 h at 175°C.
ZH62A F or T5 T5 None to 315°C. 16 h at 175°C, or 2 h at 330°C
plus 16 h at 175°C.
ZK51A F or T5 T5 None to 315°C. 16 h at 175°C, or 2 h at 330°C
plus 16 h at 175°C.
ZK61A F or T5 T5 None to 315°C. 48 h at 150°C.
T4 or T6 T6 None to 315°C. 2 to 5h at 500°C, plus 48 h at
130°C.
a
Temperatures shown are maximum allowable. Furnace controls should be set so that temperature does not cycle above maximum.

GTAW and GMAW processes are commonly used for joining magnesium alloy components. Inert shielding
is required to avoid excessive oxidation and entrapment of oxide in the weld metal. Flux shielded
processes do not provide adequate oxidation protection. Argon, helium and mixtures of these gases are
used for welding magnesium alloys.
• GTAW: GTAW is used for joining magnesium components and for the repair of magnesium castings. Techniques
similar to those used for aluminium are used for welding magnesium. AC welding is preferred because of the
good cathodic cleaning action of the arc. DCEP provides excellent cleaning, but can only be used to weld thin
sections because the welding current is limited by heating of the tungsten electrode. DCEN is not commonly used
for welding magnesium alloys because of the absence of the arc-cleaning action. DCEN with helium shielding can
produce narrow, deep penetration and it is sometimes used for mechanised welding of square-groove butt joints
in sections up to 6.4 mm in thickness. Careful preweld cleaning and good fit-up are required.
• GMAW: Argon shielding is used for GMAW of magnesium alloys. Mixtures of argon and helium are occasionally
used to aid filler metal flow and increase penetration, but pure helium is undesirable because it raises the current
required for spray transfer and increases weld spatter.

High residual stresses from welding or forming promote stress corrosion cracking (SCC) of magnesium
alloys that contain more than 1.5% aluminium. Transgranular SCC in welded structures usually occurs

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adjacent to the weld. Thermal stress relieve treatments are used with these alloys to reduce residual stress
levels. Other magnesium alloys do not appear to be sensitive to this type of cracking.
Magnesium and magnesium alloy sheet and extrusions can readily be spot welded using resistance spot
welding techniques in thicknesses ranging from about 0.5 mm to 3.3 mm. Careful preweld cleaning, high
welding currents and short welding times are required.

2.24.3 Tantalum:
Tantalum is an inherently soft, formable metal that, like all refractory metals, have a high melting
temperature. It has a BCC crystal structure that remains stable until melting. It is one of the heavier
metals, with a density approximately twice that of steel. Unlike most BCC metals, tantalum retains good
ductility to very low temperatures and does not exhibit a ductile-to-brittle transition temperature. Its
Charpy V-notch impact strength at -196°C is more than 270 J.
Tantalum has excellent resistance to corrosion in various acids, alcohols, sulphates and other chemicals.
For this reason, it is widely used in chemical handling equipment. The metal is also used in electrical
capacitors and for high temperature furnace components. It oxidises in air at temperature greater than
300°C. Above this temperature, it is attacked by hydrofluoric, phosphoric and sulphuric acids and by
chlorine and fluorine gas. Tantalum also reacts readily with carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen at elevated
temperatures. When dissolved interstitially, these elements and oxygen increase strength, while reducing
ductility. Tantalum products can be produced by powder metallurgy, vacuum arc melting or electron beam
melting.

2.24.3.1 Tantalum alloys:

Commercial tantalum alloys are shown in Table 2.24.8. These alloys are essentially solid solutions
strengthened with tungsten, and smaller amounts of hafnium, niobium, rhenium and carbon. In wrought
form, all these alloys display good ductility at cryogenic temperatures. All the refractory metals, i.e.
molybdenum, tungsten and niobium, are highly soluble in tantalum. Tungsten and molybdenum have the
greatest strengthening effect on tantalum, while hafnium has a somewhat lesser effect. Zirconium,
titanium and hafnium increase the strength of tantalum by forming small, well-dispersed carbides, oxides
and nitrides with residual and added carbon, oxygen and nitrogen. Titanium has little effect on solid
solution strengthening, but lowers the melting point.
Table 2.24.8. Typical commercial tantalum alloys.
Common designation Nominal composition, %
KBI-10 97.5Ta-2.5W
Ta-10W 90Ta-10W
FS-63 97.4Ta-2.5W-0.15Nb
T-111 90Ta-8W-2Hf
T-222 87.5Ta-10W-2.5Hf-0.01C
Astar 8110 90.3Ta-8W-1Re-0.7Hf-0.025C

Complex tantalum alloys, such as T-222, contain intentional carbon additions and can be precipitation
hardened by forming a fine carbide dispersion on heat treatment.

2.24.3.2 Welding of tantalum and tantalum alloys:

Tantalum and its alloys should be cleaned thoroughly before welding. Components should be degreased
with a detergent or solvent, followed by chemical etching (a solution of 40% nitric acid, 10 to 20%
hydrofluoric acid and 40 to 50% water is recommended). This step is followed by hot and cold rinsing in
deionised water and spot-free drying. Cleaned components should be stored in a clean room with
controlled humidity until ready for use.
Tantalum and tantalum alloys are readily weldable using the processes and procedures described for
titanium in §2.24.1. Contamination with oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and carbon should be avoided to

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prevent embrittlement, and the weld and surrounding metal need to be protected from the atmosphere
down to 300°C. Preheating is not required.
GTAW with DCEN and thoriated electrodes is most widely used, but tantalum can also be joined using
plasma arc welding, electron beam welding and laser beam welding. Resistance spot welding of thin sheet
tantalum is feasible, but adherence and alloying between copper-alloy electrodes and tantalum is a
problem. Tantalum is readily fusion welded to niobium, titanium and zirconium. Fairly ductile welds are
expected because of the high levels of solid solubility between these elements. By comparison, fusion
welds between tantalum and common structural materials (including steel) are brittle due to the formation
of brittle intermetallic compounds. Solid state welding processes (friction welding, diffusion bonding and
ultrasonic welding) and high-temperature brazing can also be used to join tantalum and tantalum alloys.

2.24.4 Zirconium:
Zirconium is very similar to titanium, except that zirconium’s density is approximately 50% higher than that
of titanium. Zirconium has a close-packed hexagonal crystal structure (α phase) up to approximately 870°C
and transforms to a BCC structure (β phase) above this temperature.
Zirconium is very resistant to corrosive attack by most organic and mineral acids, strong alkali’s and some
molten salts. It is also corrosion resistant in water, steam, seawater and liquid metals at elevated
temperatures and pressures. Its corrosion resistance results from the formation of a stable, dense,
adherent and self-healing zirconium oxide film on the metal surface. It is used for corrosion applications in
the petrochemical, chemical processing and food processing industries, and zirconium alloys are widely
used in the nuclear industry for their low thermal neutron absorption characteristics. Nuclear applications
limit the hafnium content to 0.010% because of hafnium’s high thermal neutron absorption.
A visible oxide forms on zirconium in air at approximately 200°C, and a loose scale develops with long term
exposure to temperatures above 425°C. At high temperatures, oxygen and nitrogen are readily soluble in
the metal. Contamination with these elements increases the tensile strength, but reduces ductility.

2.24.4.1 Alloying and phase stability:

The chemical compositions of commercially pure zirconium and commercial zirconium alloys are shown in
Table 2.24.9. Alloying and impurity elements in zirconium tend to stabilise either the α phase or the β
phase, and most alloying elements have almost unlimited solubility in zirconium. Above their solubility
limit, they exist as intermetallic compounds in an α matrix.
Table 2.24.9. Chemical compositions of commercial zirconium and zirconium alloys.
Composition, %a
ASTM Grade b
Zr+Hf, min. Sn Nb Fe+Cr O, max.
c
R60702 99.2 - - 0.2 max. 0.16
R60704d 97.5 1.0-2.0 - 0.2-0.4 0.18
R60705e 95.5 - 2.0-3.0 0.2 max. 0.18
R60706e 95.5 - 2.0-3.0 0.2 max. 0.16
a
Maximum of 0.0005% hydrogen, 0.025% nitrogen and 0.05% carbon.
b
Maximum of 4.5% hafnium.
c
Grade R60001 is nuclear grade unalloyed zirconium.
d
A similar nuclear grade, R60802, is commonly called Zircaloy-2; and grade R60804 is called Zircaloy-4.
e
The similar nuclear grade is R60901, also commonly called Zr-2.5Nb.

• α-stabilisers: Certain alloying elements stabilise the α phase and raise the α-to-β transformation temperature.
This group includes aluminium, beryllium, cadmium, carbon, hafnium, oxygen, nitrogen and tin. Tin is the only
alloying elements in this group used in commercial alloys. Small amounts of oxygen strongly influence the
transformation temperature, with the transformation from α to β initiating at 870°C in the presence of 1000 ppm
oxygen, and at 920°C with 1650 ppm oxygen. Zirconium ores usually contain a substantial amount of hafnium
(4.5% maximum) that remains in the metal unless intentionally removed (as required for nuclear applications).
• β-stabilisers: Alloying elements that stabilise the β phase and lower the transformation temperature include
cobalt, niobium, copper, hydrogen, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silver, tantalum, titanium, tungsten

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 and vanadium. Of these, niobium is the only alloying element used commercially. Zirconium is embrittled by the
absorption of hydrogen, which takes place rapidly between 315°C and 980°C.
• Low solubility intermetallic compounds: Carbon, silicon and phosphorus have very low solubility in zirconium,
even at temperatures in excess of 1000°C. They readily form stable intermetallic compounds and are relatively
insensitive to heat treatment. As requirements for higher strength and corrosion resistance increase, more
alloying elements are added to zirconium. Once the solubility limit is exceeded, however, intermetallic
compounds or second phases form, which tend to lower the ductility and reduce the corrosion resistance of the
zirconium alloy.
Zirconium is alloyed commercially with niobium or tin, and small additions of chromium, iron and nickel.
The equivalent nuclear grades, known as Ziraloy-2, Ziraloy-4 and Zr-2.5Nb, are deliberately low in hafnium
and impurity elements that form intermetallic phases.
Zirconium is usually annealed at approximately 790°C for 20 minutes at temperature in a neutral or slightly
oxidising atmosphere or in vacuum. Annealing of welds is not required due to the high ductility of
zirconium alloys, but stress relieving can be performed at 680°C for 15 to 20 minutes at temperature,
followed by air cooling. Commercial zirconium alloys are supplied and used in either the annealed
condition, or the cold worked and stress relieved condition.

2.24.4.2 Welding of zirconium and zirconium alloys:

Zirconium and zirconium alloys are cleaned and stored for welding in the same manner as described for
titanium in §2.24.1. Zirconium and zirconium alloys are also readily welded using the processes and
procedures described in §2.24.1 for titanium. GTAW with DCEN polarity and thoriated tungsten electrodes
is most widely used. Zirconium has a low coefficient of thermal expansion, resulting in low levels of
distortion during welding. Residual stress levels are also low due to the metal’s low modulus of elasticity.
Welded joints in zirconium normally do not crack unless contaminated during welding. Inclusions are not
normally a problem, as the metal has a high solubility for its own oxide.
Some porosity may be found in zirconium welds. It is usually prevented by applying one or more of the
following corrective actions:
• Increasing the welding current.
• Decreasing the welding speed.
• Applying a preheat to drive off volatiles.
• Adjusting the inert gas coverage area.
• Using proper preweld cleaning procedures for the base and filler metal.
Bare welding electrodes and rods, according to AWS A5.24-90 are used to weld the commercial grades of
zirconium and zirconium alloys. Type ERZr2 is used to weld commercially pure zirconium (UNS 60702), type
ERZr3 to weld Zr-1.5Sn (UNS 60704) and type ERZr4 to weld Zr-2.5Nb (UNS R60706). These filler metals
should not be used to weld nuclear grade zirconium and zirconium alloys because of the higher allowed
hafnium and impurity contents. Sheared strip or specially produced wire should be used to weld nuclear
grade material.
The welding technology is similar, if not identical, for both industrial and nuclear alloy grades, with the
exception that nuclear specifications usually require the use of high-purity atmospheres. This can be
achieved only by the use of vacuum-purged welding chambers that can be evacuated to a pressure of 13.3
mPa (or 104 torr) and backfilled with high-purity inert gas. This sequence may need to be repeated two or
three times to achieve the desired high-purity gas atmosphere.
When the Zr-1.5Sn alloy is electron beam or laser welded in vacuum, tin may be lost through evaporation
from the molten weld pool because of its high vapour pressure. One function of the tin is to improve the
corrosion resistance of the zirconium alloy, and excessive remelting of the weld metal should therefore be
avoided for critical corrosion applications.
Zirconium can be fusion welded successfully only when it is joined to itself or one of the other reactive
refractory metals: titanium, niobium, tantalum or hafnium. When welded to other metals, such as iron or
copper, extremely brittle intermetallic compounds are formed that embrittle the weld metal.

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