William Riley, Leroy Sturges, Don Morris - Mechanics of Materials-John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (2007)

Mechanics ofMaterials
Sixth Edition
WILLIAM F. RILEY
LEROY D. STURGES
Associate Professor
Aerospace Engineering and Engineering Mechanics
Iowa State University
DON H. MORRIS
Professor Emeritus
Engineering Science and Mechanics
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
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Preface
I Discussion ofthe stress element ir1 Chapter 2 is expanded.

INTRODUCTION I Section 4-6 of the Fifth Edition has been moved and com-
bined with section 5-1 l on Design
The primary objectives of a course in mechanics of materi-
I Updated coverage of combined loadings provided in mul-
als are: (1) to develop a working knowledge of the relations
tiple chaptcrs—Chapters 5, 6, and 7—to offer continuous
between the loads applied to a nonrigid body made of a
reinforcement of this difficult topic
given material and the resulting deformations of the body;
' New and revised example problems and homework prob-
(2) to develop a thorough understanding ofthe relations be-
lems throughout.
tween the loads applied to a nonrigid body and the stresses
produced in the body: (3) to develop a clear insight into
the relations between stress and strain for a wide variety of
conditions and materials; and (4) to develop adequate pro- New visualization tool
cedures for finding the required dimensions ofa member of MecMovies, by Tint Philpot of University of Missouri-
a specified material to carry a given load subject to stated Rolla is integrated at appropriate places in the text. Win-
specifications of stress and deflection. These objectives inner of the Premier Award for Excellence in Engineering
volve the concepts and skills that form the foundation of all Education Software, Mecllilovies offers a series of inter-
structural and machine design. active tutorials, quizzes, problems, and games to support
The principles and methods used to meet the general lectures and aid student self-study. Icons i.n the margin re-
objectives are drawn largely from prerequisite courses in fer to appropriate sections of MecMovies, and MecMovie
mechanics, physics, and mathematics together with the ba- Problems and Activities are provided with most end of sec-
sic concepts of the theory of elasticity and the properties of tion problem sets. Available by accessing the companion
engineering materials. This book is designed to emphasize site www.wiley.comfcollege/riley (student companion site)
the required fundamental principles, with numerous appli- and using the registration code that accompanies new copies
cations to demonstrate and develop logical, orderly methods of the text.
ofprocedure. Instead of deriving numerous formulas for all
types of problems, we have stressed the use of fiee-body
diagrams and the equations of equilibrium, together with
the geometry of the deformed body, and the observed rela- ORGANIZATION OF TI-IE TEXT
tions between stress and strain, for the analysis of the force
system acting on a body. Since most mechanics of materials problems begin with a
This book is designed for a first course in mechanics statics problem (finding the forces in structural members
of deformable bodies. Because of the extensive subdivision or the forces in pins cormecting structural members), we
into different topics, the book will provide flexibility in the have included a review of statics in Chapter 1 of this book.
choice of assignments to cover courses of different length The coverage is perhaps more complete and comprehensive
and content. The developments of structural applications than would be necessary for review so that the book could be
include the inelastic as well as the elastic range of stress; used for both statics and mechanics of materials if desired.
however, the material is organized so that the book will be After the review of statics in Chapter 1, Chapters 2
found satisfactory for elastic coverage only. and 3 consist of a thorough discussion ofmaterial stress and
strain including principal stresses and principal strains. We
choose to present principal stresses and principal strains at
this early position to make it easier to talk about maximum
NEW T0 THIS EDITION stresses in the axial, torsional, and flexural applications that
follow. It also allows us to talk about the maximum stresses
Content changes in combined loading situations in Chapters 5, 6, and 7, rather
than waiting until the end ofthe book. The ideas ofprincipal
0 A sign convention for internal forces is established in values also allow for continuous reinforcement throughout
Chapter I and followed consistently throughout the text. the book of the state of stress and strain at a point.
in =1:
iv PREFACE
Material properties and the relationship between

stress and strain are presented in Chapter 4. In Chapters FREE-BODY DIAGRAMS
5, 6, and 7, we consider the stresses and strains in axial, We strongly feel that a proper free-body diagram is just as
torsional, and flexural loading applications. In addition to important in mechanics of materials as it is in statics. It is
calculating the stresses in members subjected to axial load- our approach that, whenever an equation of equilibrium is
ing and the stresses in pressure vessels subjected to inter- written, it must be accompanied by a complete, proper flee-
nal pressure, in Chapter 5 we also calculate the stresses in body diagram. Furthermore, since the primary purpose of
pressure vessels subjected to axial and pressure loading. In a free-body diagram is to show the forces acting on a body,
addition to calculating the stresses in circular shafts sub- the fiee-body diagram should not be used for any other
jected to torsional loading. In Chapter 6, we also calculate purpose. We encourage students to draw separate diagrams
the stresses in circular shafts subjected to axial and torsional to show deformation and compatibility relationships.
loads and in presstne vessels subjected to torsional loads. In
Chapter 7, we first calculate the normal and shear stresses in
beams subjected to flexural loading. We conclude Chapter 7
with the calculation of stresses in beams and circular shafis PROBLEMS-SOLVING PROCEDURES
subjected to a combination of axial, torsional, and flexural
Students are tnged to develop the ability to reduce problems
loads.
to a series of simpler component problems that can be easily
In Chapter 8, we calculate the deflection ofbeams due
analyzed and combined to give the solution of the initial
to various loading situations and also cover the calculation
problem. Along with an effective methodology for problem
of support reactions for and stresses in statically indeter-
decomposition and solution, the ability to present results in
minate beams. In Chapter 9, we consider the tendency of
a clear, logical, and neat manner is emphasized throughout
columns to buckle. Finally, in Chapter 10 we discuss theo-
the text.
ries of failure and the use of energy methods.
Every chapter opens with a brief Introduction and
ends with a Summary of important concepts covered in the
chapter followed by a set of Review Problems. All prin- HOMEWORK PROBLEMS
ciples are illustrated by one or more Example Problems
and several Homework Problems. The Homework Prob- The illustrative examples and problems have been selected
lems are graded in difliculty and are separated into groups with special attention devoted to problems that require an
of Intt'oductory, Intermediate, and Challenging problems. understanding of the principles of mechanics of materials
Several sections of Homework Problems also have a set of without demanding excessive time for computational work.
Computer Problems. While the computation could be ac- A large number of homework problems are included so
complished by the student writing a FORTRAN program, that problem assignments may be varied from term to term.
the computation could just as easily be carried out using The problems in each set represent a considerable range of
MathCAD, Mathematica, or a spreadsheet program. The difficulty and are grouped according to this range of dif-
important concept of the Computer problems is that they ficulty. Mastery, ir1 general, is not achieved by solving a
require students to analyze how the solution depends on large number of simple but similar problems. ‘While the so-
some parameter of the problem. lution of simple problems is necessary to build a student’s
Most chapters conclude with a section on Design, problem-solving skills and confidence, we believe that a stu-
which includes Example Problems and a set of Homework dent gains mastery of a subject through application of basic
Problems. The emphasis in these problems is that there are theory to the solution of problems that appear somewhat
ofien more than just one criteria to be satisfied in a design difficult.
specification. An acceptable design must satisfy all spec-
ified criteria. In addition, standard lumber, pipes, beams,
etc. come in specific sizes. The student must choose an ap-
propriate structural member from these standard materials.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Since each different choice of a beam or a piece of lumber Results should always be reported as accurately as possible.
has a different specific weight and affects the overall prob- However, results should not be reported to I0 significant fig-
lem differently, students are also introduced to the idea that ures merely because the calculator displays that many digits.
design is an iterative process. One of the tasks in all engineering work is to determine the
PREFACE V
accuracy of the given data and the expected accuiacy of the

final answer. Results should always reflect the accuracy of INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES
the given data. In addition to a firlly worked solutions manual, all fig-
In a textbook, however, it is not possible for stu- ures from the text are available in electronic format for
dents to examine or question the accuracy of the given instructors who adopt this book for use in their classes. All
data. It is also impractical, in an introductory course, to resources will be available for download fiom the book’s
give error bounds on every number. Therefore, since an website: www.wiley.comfcollegelriley.
accuracy greater than about 0.2% is seldom possible for
practical engineering problems, all given data in Exam-
ple Problems and Homework Problems, regardless of the
number of figures shown, will be assumed suificiently ac- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
curate to justify rounding off the final answer to approx-
We are grateful for comments and suggestions received
imately this degree of accuracy (three to four significant
from colleagues and from users of the earlier editions of
figures).
this book. Special thanks go to the following people who
provided input and comments:
Candace M. Anunerman, Colorado School of Mines,
SI VERSUS USCS UNITS James N. Craddock, Southem Illinois University, Leonard
U.S. customary units and SI units are used in approximately De Rooy, Calvin College, Xin-Lin Gao, Michigan Techno-
equal proportions in the text for both Example Problems and logical University, John B. Ligon, Michigan Technological
Homework Problems. To help the instructor who wants to University, Charles E. Bakis, Pennsylvania State University,
assign problems of one type or the other, odd-numbered Shashi S. Marikunte, Southern Illinois University, Timothy
Homework Problems are in U.S. customary units and even- A. Philpot, University of Missouri-Rolla, Ray Ruichong
numbered Homework Problems are in SI rmits. Zhang, Colorado School of Mines, Jiang Zhe, University
of Akron.
Final judgments concerning organization of material
and emphasis of topics, however, were made by the au-
ANSWERS PROVIDED thors. We will be pleased to receive comments from readers
Answers to about half of the Homework Problems are and will attempt to acknowledge all such communications.
provided on the student companion site: www.wiley.comf Comments can be sent by email to sturges@ iastate.edu or
college/Riley. Since the convenient designation ofproblems to dhmorris @ vt.edu.
for which answers are provided is ofgreat value to those who
make up assignment sheets, the problems for which answers William F. Riley
are provided are indicated by means of an asterisk [*) after Leroy D. Sturges
the problem number. Don H. Morris
This page intentionally left blank
I Contents
Chapter I Chapter 4
Introduction and Review ofStatiw I Material Properties and Stress-Strain
1-1 INTRODUCTION l Relationships 153
1-2 CLASSIFICATION OF FORCES 2 4-1 INTRODUCTION 153
1-3 EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY 4 4-2 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAMS I53
1-4 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE BODY 30 4-3 GENERALIZED HOOKE‘S LAW I64
1-5 INTERNAL FORCES 34 4-4 THERLIAL STRAIN 176
SUMMARY 44 4-5 STRESS-STRAIN EQUATIONS FOR
ORTHOTROPIC MATERIALS 180
SUMMARY I84
Chapter 2
Analysis ofStress: Concepts and
Definitions 48 Chapter 5
2-1 INTRODUCTION 48
Axial Loading Applications and Prmsure
2-2 NORMAL STRESS UNDER AXIAL LOADING 48 Vessels 189
2-3 SHEARING STRESS IN CONNECTIONS 49 5-1 INTRODUCTION 189
2-4 BEARING STRESS 51 5-2 DEFORMATION OF AXIALLY LOADED
2-5 UNITS OF STRESS 51 MEMBERS 189
2-6 STRESSES ON AN INCLINED PLANE IN AN 5-3 DEFORMATIONS IN A SYSTEM OF AXLALLY
AXIALLY LOADED MEMBER 65 LOADED BARS 201
2-7 STRESS AT A GENERAL POINT IN AN 5-4 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE AXIALLY
ARBITRARILY LOADED MEMBER 72 LOADED MEMBERS 209
2-8 TWO-DIMENSIONAL OR PLANE STRESS 74 5-5 THERMAL EFFECTS 225
2-9 TI-IE STRESS TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS 5-6 STRESS CONCENTRATIONS 234
FOR PLANE STRESS 75 5-7 INELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF AXIALLY LOADED
2-10 PRINCIPAL STRESSES AND MAXIMUM MEMBERS 239
SI-IEARING STRESS—PLANE STRESS 85 5-8 THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS 246
2-11 MOI-IR’S CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRESS 98 5-9 COMBINED EFFECTS—AXIAL AND PRESSURE
2-12 GENERAL STATE OF STRESS AT A POINT 108 LOADS 254
SUMMARY 1 17 5-10 THICK-‘WALLED CYLINDRICAL PRESSURE
VESSELS 257
5-ll DESIGN 264
Chapter 3 SUMMARY 270
Analysis ofStrain: Concepts ami
Definitions 121
Chapter 6
3-1 INTRODUCTION 121
Torsional Loading ofShafls 2 76
3-2 DISPLACEMENT, DEFORMATION, AND
STRAIN 121 6-1 INTRODUCTION 276
3-3 TIIE STATE OF STRAIN AT A POINT 129 6-2 TORSIONAL SI-IEARING STRAIN 277
3-4 THE STRAIN TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS 6-3 TORSIONAL SHEARING STRESS—THE ELASTIC
FOR PLANE STRAIN 130 TORSION FORMULA 279
3-5 PRINCIPAL STRAINS AND MAXIMUM SHEAR 6-4 TORSIONAL DISPLACEMENTS 281
STRAIN 135 6-5 STRESSES ON OBLIQUE PLANES 295
3-6 MOI-IR’S CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRAIN 140 6-6 POWER TRANSMISSION 300
3-7 STRAIN MEASUREMENT AND ROSETTE 6-7 STATICALLY INDETERIVIINATE MEMBERS 303
ANALYSIS 142 6-8 COMBINED LOADING—AXI.AL, TORSIONAL,
SUMMARY 148 AND PRESSURE VESSEL 315
vii
viii CONTENTS
6-9 STRESS CONCENTRATIONS IN CIRCULAR 8-6 DEFLECTIONS BY SUPERPOSITION 520

SHAFT S UNDER TORSIONAL LOADINGS 322 8-7 DEFLECTIONS DUE TO SI-IEARING STRESS 530
6-10 INELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF TORSIONAL 8-8 DEFLECTIONS BY ENERGY METHODS-
MEMBERS 325 CASTIGLIANOS THEOREM 532
6-11 TORSION OF NONCIRCULAR SECTIONS 331 8-9 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE BEAMS 542
6-12 TORSION OF THIN-WALLED TUBES—SHEAR 8-1 0 DESIGN PROBLEMS 567
FLOW 333 SUMMARY 574
6-13 DESIGN PROBLEMS 339
SUMMARY 344
Chapter 9
Colmnns 5 78
Chapter 7 9-1 INTRODUCTION 578
Flexaral Loading: Stresses in Beams 349 9-2 BUCKLING OF LONG, STRAIGHT COLUIVINS 579
7-1 INTRODUCTION 349 9-3 EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT IDEALIZED END
7-2 FLEXURAL STRAINS 352 CONDITIONS 587
7-3 FLEXURAL STRESSES 354 9-4 EMPIRICAL COLUMN FORMULAS—CENTRIC
7-4 THE ELASTIC FLEXURE FORMULA 356 LOADING 592
7-5 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS IN 9-5 ECCENTRICALLY LOADED COLUMNS 600
BEAMS 366 9-6 DESIGN PROBLEMS 606
7-6 LOAD, SHEAR FORCE, AND BENDING MOMENT SUMMARY 610
RELATIONSI-HPS 376
7-7 SHEARING STRESSES IN BEAMS 391
7-8 PRINCIPAL STRESSES IN FLEXURAL Chapter 10 . ,.
MEMBERS 405 Energy Methods and Theories ofFailure 614
7-9 FLEXURAL STRESSES—UNSYMMETRICAL
BENDING 410 10-1 INTRODUCTION 614
7-10 STRESS CONCENTRATIONS UNDER FLEXURAL PART A: ENERGY IVIETHODS 615
LOADINGS 418 10-2 STRAIN ENERGY 615
7-11 INELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF FLEXURAL 10-3 ELASTIC STRAIN ENERGY FOR VARIOUS LOADS
MEMBERS 422 61 7
7-12 SHEARING STRESSES IN TI-]1N-WALLED OPEN 10-4 IMPACT LOADING 624
SECTIONS—SHEAR CENTER 431 PART B: TI-IEORIES OF FAILURE FOR STATIC
7-13 FLEXURAL STRESSES IN BEAMS OF TWO LOADING 637
MATERIALS 441 10-5 INTRODUCTION 637
7-14 FLEXURAL STRESSES IN REINFORCED 10-6 FAILURE THEORIES FOR DUCTILE MATERIALS
CONCRETE BEAMS 445 637
7-15 FLEXURAL STRESSES IN CURVED BEAMS 450 10-7 FAILURE THEORIES FOR BRITILE MATERIALS
7-16 COMBINED LOADING: AXIAL, PRESSURE, 650
FLEXURAL, AND TORSIONAL 457 SUMI\4ARY 654
SUMMARY 480
Appendices
A SECOND MOMENTS OF AREA 659
Chapter 8 B TABLES OF PROPERTIES 683
Flexaral Loading: Beam Deflections 487
8-1 INTRODUCTION 487
Answers‘
8-2 THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF THE ELASTIC
CURVE 487
8-3 DEFLECTION BY INTEGRATION 489 Index 705
8-4 DEFLECTIONS BY INTEGRATION OF SHEAR
FORCE OR LOAD EQUATIONS 502
8-5 SINGULARITY FUNCTIONS 507 “Available online at the Wiley website www.wiley.com
Chapter 1
Introduction and
Review of Statics
1-1 INTRODUCTION
The primary objective of a course in mechanics of materials is the development of
relationships between the loads applied to a nonrigid body and the intemal forces
and deformations induced in the body. Ever since the time ofGalileo Galilei (1564-
l642), scientists and engineers have studied the problem of the load-carrying
capacity of structural members and machine components, and have developed
mathematical and experimental methods of analysis for determining the internal
forces and the deformations induced by the applied loads. The experiences and
observations of these scientists and engineers of the last three centuries are the
heritage of the engineer of today. The fundamental knowledge gained over the
last three centuries, together with the theories and analysis techniques developed,
permit the modern engineer to design, with complete competence and assurance,
structures and machines of unprecedented size and complexity.
The subject matter of this book forms the basis for the solution of three
general types of problems:
1. Given a certain function to perform (transporting traffic over a river by means
of a bridge, conveying scientific instruments to Mars in a space vehicle, con-
ve1'ing water power into electric power), of what materials should the machine
or structure be constructed, and what should be the sizes and proportions of the
various elements? This is the designers task, and obviously there is no single
solution to any given problem.
2. Given the completed design, is it adequate? That is, does it perform the function
economically and without excessive deformation? This is the checker’s problem.
3. Given a completed structure or machine, what is its actual load-carrying capac-
ity? The structure may have been designed for some purpose other than the one
for which it is now to be used. Is it adequate for the proposed use? For example,
a building may have been designed as an office building out is later found to be
desirable for use as a warehouse. In such a case, what maximum loading may
the floor safely support? This is the rating problem.
Because the complete scope of these problems is obviously too comprehensive

for mastery in a single course, this book is restricted to a study of individual
members and very simple structures or machines. The design courses that follow
will consider the entire structure or machine, and will provide essential background
for the complete analysis of the three problems.
2 CH.AP'I'ER 1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF STATICS
The principles and methods used to meet the objective stated at the beginning
of this chapter depend to a great extent on prerequisite courses in mathematics
and mechanics, supplemented by additional concepts fi'om the theory of elasticity
and the properties of engineering materials. The equations of equilibrium from
statics are used extensively, with one major change in the free-body diagrams;
namely, most free bodies are isolated by cutting through a member instead of
simply removing a pin or some other connection. The internal force on the cut
section is related to the stresses (force per unit area) generated by the cohesive
forces holding the member together. The size and shape of the member must be
adjusted to keep the stress below the limiting value for the type of material from
which the member is constructed.
In some instances, the specified maximum deformation, not the specified
maximum stress, will govem the maximum load that a member may carry. In
other instances, it may be found that the equations of equilibrium (or motion) are
not sufiicient to determine all of the unknown loads or reactions acting on a body.
In such cases it is necessary to consider the geometry (the change in size or shape)
of the body after the loads are applied. The deformation per unit length in any
direction or dimension is called strain.
Some knowledge of the physical and mechanical properties of materials is
required in order to create a design, to properly evaluate a given design, or even to
write the correct relation between an applied load and the resulting deformation
of a loaded member. Essential information will be introduced as required, and
more complete information can be obtained fi"om textbooks and handbooks on
properties of materials.
1-2 CLASSIFICATION OF FORCES

Force is one of the most important of the basic concepts in the study of mechanics
of materials (or the mechanics of deformable bodies). Force is the action of one
body on another; forces always exist in equal magnitude, opposite direction pairs.
Forces may result fiom direct physical contact between two bodies or from two
bodies that are not in direct contact. For example, consider a person standing on a
sidewalk. The person exerts a force on the sidewalk through direct physical contact
between the soles of his or her shoes and the sidewalk; the sidewalk in turn exerts
an equal magnitude, opposite direction force on the soles of the person's shoes. If
the person were to jump, the contact force would vanish but there would still be a
gravitational attraction (force between two bodies not in direct contact) between
the person and the earth. The gravitational attraction force exerted on the person by
the earth is called the weight of the person; an equal magnitude, opposite direction,
attraction force is exerted on the earth by the person. Another type of force that
exists without direct physical contact is an electromagnetic force.
rt, F
u
~
F fir 4
4
Contact forces are called surface forces, since they exist at surfaces of
contact between two bodies. If the area of contact is small compared to the size of
the body, the force is called a concentrated force; this type of force is assumed to
act at a point. For example, the force applied by a car wheel to the pavement on
1,-‘
I 1‘ Concentrated
loads
<'|_"
a bridge (see Fig. 1-1) is often modeled as a concentrated force. Also, a contact
force may be distributed over a narrow region in a uniform or nonuniform manner.
This situation would exist where floor decking contacts a floor joist, as shown in
Fig. 1-2a. Here, the fioor decking exerts a uniformly distributed load (force) on
the joist, as shown in Fig. 1-2b. The intensity of the distributed load is w and has
Figure 1-1 dimensions of force per unit length.
1-2 cussmcmon or roncss 3
/..--— Floor decking

If 7 - W
4" 5 4?»
in pf _,/ J
Joisr Joisr &'
(I1) (5)
Figure 1-2
Other common types of forces are external, internal, applied, and reaction.
To illustrate, consider the beam loaded and supported, as shown in Fig. I-3a. A
free-body diagram of the beam is shown in Fig. 1-3b. All forces acting on the free-
body diagram are external forces; that is, they represent the interaction between
the beam (the object shown in the free-body diagram) and the external world
(every'thing else that has been discarded). Force F is a concentrated force, whereas
w is a uniformly distributed load with dimensions of force/length. The forces F
and w are called applied forces or loads. They are the forces that the beam is
designed to carry. Forces Ax, Ay, and B are necessary to prevent movement of the
beam. Such supporting forces are called reactions. Force distributions at supports
are complicated, and reactions are usually modeled as concentrated forces.
Once again, all the forces shown in Figure I-3 are extemal forces. At every
section along the beam, there also exists a system of equal magnitude, opposite
direction pairs of internal forces between the atoms on either side of the section.
The study ofmechanics ofmaterials or mechanics ofdeformable bodies depends on
the calculation of these internal forces at various sections ofa structure or machine
element and how these forces are distributed over the sections. The determination
of internal forces is discussed in Section 1-5.
In our previous discussion of loads (forces), we saw that the loads might be
concentrated forces or distributed forces. F11l'Tl1€l'II10l'€, we assumed that the forces
did not vary with time, that is, they were static loads. In many situations, loads
may be a function of time. For example, a sustained load is a load that is constant
over a long period of time, such as the weight of a structure (called dead load).
This type of load is treated in the same marmer as a static load; however, for some
materials and conditions of temperature and stress, the resistance to failure may
A / is
(<1)
F
x Axl T
Ar (b) B
Figure 1-3
4 CH.AP'I'ER 1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF STATICS
be different under short-time loading and sustained loading. An impact load is a

rapidly applied load which transfers a large amormt of energy ir1 a short period
of time. Vibration normally results fi"om an impact load, and equilibrium is not
established rmtil the vibration is eliminated, usually by natural damping forces.
A repeated load is a load that is applied and removed many thousands of times.
The helical springs that close the valves on an automobile engine are subjected to
repeated loading.
1-3 EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY

A rigid body (a body that does not deform under the action of applied loads) is in
equilibrium when the resultant of the system of forces acting on the body is zero.
This condition is satisfied if
an =0 (1-1)
EMQ = 0 (1-2)
Equation 1-1 states that the vector sum of all external forces acting on the body
is zero, whereas Eq. 1-2 states that the vector sum of the moments of the extemal
forces about any point O (on or offthe body) is zero. Equations 1-1 and 1-2 are the
necessary and the suflicient conditions for equilibrium of a rigid body. The two
vector equations of equilibrium may be written as six scalar equations. Selecting
a right-handed, xyz-rectangular coordinate system, the equations of equilibrium
may be written
EF, =0 EF}. =0 EF, =0 (1-3)
EM, =0 EMy =0 EM, =0 (1-4)
Equation 1-3 states that the sum of all extemal forces acting on the body in the x-,
y-, and z-directions is zero. Equation 1-4 states that the sum of the moments of all
of the extemal forces acting on a body about the x-, y-, and z-axes is zero. Many
problems encountered in mechanics of materials are two-dimensional in nature.
Selecting the x- and y-axes in the plane of the forces and the z-axis perpendicular
to the plane, the equations of equilibrium reduce to
sF,=0 2F,=0 2M,=0 (1-5)

These equations of equilibrium would be applicable for the force system shown
in Fig. 1-3b, which is coplanar and noncurrent. If the force system acting on the
body is coplanar and concurrent, as in the light suspended fi'om the ceiling by two
wires shown ir1 Fig. 1-4, Eqs. 1-3 and 1-4 reduce to
2F, =0 >:F,,=0 (1-6)

Other types offorce systems exist for problems encoimtered in the study ofmechan-
ics of materials. Students should not try to memorize the equations of equilibrium
that apply for each of the various force systems. Rather, Eqs. 1-3 and 1-4 should
be reduced to equations appropriate for the particular problem at hand. This will
be illustrated in the example problems presented at the end of this section.
1-5 EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY 5
J? » ,_
I: :
I
M-
Figure 1-4
Note from previous discussions that the equations of equilibrium are applied
to a system of forces. The system of forces may act on a single body or on a system
of connected bodies. A free-body diagram is a carefully prepared drawing that
shows a “body of interest" separated from all other interacting bodies and that
shows all external forces, both lcnown and unknown, that are applied to the body.
The word “free” in the name “free-body diagram” emphasizes the idea that all
bodies exerting forces on the body of interest are removed or withdrawn and are
replaced by the forces that they exert. At each position on the fi'ee-body diagram
where other bodies have been removed, the equal magnitude, opposite direction
pairs of forces have been broken, and the forces which act on the free-body diagram
must be shown. These forces may be either surface forces or body forces, or both.
An important body force is the gravitational attraction of the earth, that is, the
weight of the body.
The following examples illustrate the use of fi"ee-body diagrams together
with the equations of equilibrium to determine unknown forces acting on rigid
bodies. The importance ofdrawing a correctflee-body diagram cannot be overem-
phasized. The free-body diagram clearly establishes which body or portion of the
body is being studied. A correct fiee-body diagram clearly identifies all forces
(both known and unlcnown) that must be included in the equations of equilibrium.
The methods commonly used to find the ll]1lG1OW'l'l forces which act on rigid bodies
must be thoroughly mastered, since these methods, as well as an extension ofthese
methods to deformable bodies, are used throughout this book.
1 EXHIIIPIB PIOIJIBIII I-I The rigid structure showninFig. 1-5a is sub-

jected to a 5000-lb force P. The connections at joints A, B, and C are frictionless
pins. Determine the forces at A and B on member AB.
SOLUTION
We first draw a free-body diagram of member AB, as shown ir1Fig. 1-Sb. Member
AB is “freed” from interacting bodies: the bracket and pin at A and member BC.
At the places where AB is separated fi'om interacting bodies, we show external
forces acting on AB. Since member BC is a straight two-force member, the force
T must lie along the member. The force at pin A has an unknown magnitude and
direction. We show this force as two components,A,, and Ay, where the directions
have been assumed. The weight of member/IB is assumed to be small compared
to the applied force P and is not shown on the free-body diagram. The free-body
diagram contains three unknowns, A,,, Ay, and T. These unknowns, together with
6 CH.AP'I'ER 1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF S'I'r\TICS
’ C
4fi
A B
~i 4ft P
(H)
T
J’
45°
41 Ax
A» 5000 lb
(5)
Figure 1-5
the 5000-lb applied load, constitute a coplanar, nonconcurrent force system. The
equations of equilibrium 1-3 and I-4 for this system of forces reduce to
zF,,=0 21-",.=0 >:M,.=0 (=1)

where EM, = 0 has been replaced with EMA = 0 (pointA is the intersection of
P Point/4 was chosen for the moment equa- the z-axis and the plane ofthe two-dimensional structure). Poir1tA was selected for
tion since two of the unknown forces (A, and the moment equation; any other point on or offbody AB could have been selected.
A_,.) intersect at point A. Therefore, the mo-
There is no particular order ir1 which we write the equations of equilibrium;
ment equation relative to point A contains
only one unknown (T) and can be solved mathematical convenience usually dictates the order. In this example, we use the
immediately for the value of T. Two of the order given in Eq. (a).
unknown forces also intersect at points B
(forces A, and T) and C (forces A_,. and T), +->21-",=0 A,-r cos45°=0 (b)
and these would also be good points to use
for the moment equation. +¢ )3F,, =0 Ay+Tsin 45°-5000=0 (C)
+l EM, = 0; (T sin 45=>)(4) — 5000(4) = 0 (d)
Equation (d) is solved for T, which is then substituted into Eqs. (b) and (c) to
find the components of the pin forces at A. The results are
A, = 5000 lb Ay = 0.04795 lb T = 7071 lb (6)

Before proceeding further, we examine the results. Why were the forces written
with the number of significant figures shown in Eq. (e)? For example, consider
the solution of Eq. (d):
T= = 7071.067812lb (f)
S111 45
Although results should always be reported as accurately as possible, the numbers

to the right of the decimal point in Eq. (f ) have meaning only if the original data
(dimensions and applied load) are lcnown to the same relative accuracy as the
solution for the force T. One of the tasks in all engineering work is to determine
the accuracy of the given data and the expected accuracy of the final answer.
Results should always reflect the accuracy of the given data.
It is not possible, however, for students to examine or question the accuracy
of the given data in a textbook. It is also impractical in an introductory course
to give error bounds on every nmnber. Therefore, since an accuracy greater than
about 0.2 percent is seldom possible for practical engineering problems, all given
data in Example Problems and Homework Problems, regardless of the number
of figures shown, will be assumed sufliciently accurate to justify rounding off the
final answer to approximately this degree of accuracy (three to four significant
figures). One commonly used rounding scheme uses the leading digit to determine
how many significant figures to keep in the final answer. If the first nonzero digit
of the result is a 1, then the answer is reported with four significant figures;
otherwise the answer is reported with three significant figures.
Of course, all intermediate steps in the solution must maintain more sig-
nificant figures than are used to represent the final results so as to reduce the
effect of roundoff errors on the final results. Using the value of T from Eq. (f )
in Eq. (c) would yield A, =0 instead of the value shown in Eq. (e). The point of
this discussion is: Don’t report final results with more accuracy than is justified
by the data and don‘t rormd off numbers too much too soon. For this example
problem, then, the answer is
A, = 5000 lb A,. = 0 lb T = 7070 lb A55-
Bm
1 Example Problem 1-2 A 900-kg mass is supported by a roller that 3 m _,
can move along a beam, as shown in Fig. 1-6a. The beam is supported by a pin
at A and a roller at B.
(a) Neglect the mass of the beam and determine the reactions at A and B.
(b) If the mass of the beam is 8.5 kg/m, determine the reactions at A and B.
J’ I ""
SOLUTION
The beam can be modeled as a rigid member with frictionless pin and roller
supports atA and B. A fiee-body diagram for the beam is constructed by “freeing”
X 01)
the beam from its supports atA and B and fiom the roller that supports the 900-kg Figure 1-6(a)
mass, as shown ir1 Fig. 1-6b.
(a) As in Example Problem 1- 1, the components A, and A,. of the pin reaction at
A are shown. Rollers exert forces on the beam that are perpendicular to the
8 CHAPIER 1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF 5'l'ATICS
I;-"= mg = (9o0)(9.s1) N beam. The masses of the bar and roller connecting the 900-kg mass to the
beam a.re neglected. The force F in Fig. l-6b is the weight of the 900-kg mass,
A, i F = mg = 8829 N. There are three unknown forces (Ax, Ay, and B) shown
on the free-body diagram (Fig. l-6b) for the beam. The three equations of
fizmfiksmi equilibrium available to solve for the unknowns are
A}, 3
(5)
F=3329N w=83.39 Nfm EF, =0 EIFy=0 EMA =0

+—>EF,=0: A,=0
AR
+1‘EF_,=0: Ay+B—8829=0
3 m#Sm B
A_,. +LZMA =0: B(8)—8829(3)=0
(C)
Solving for AJ, and B gives
sszs N 667.1 N
Ay=55l8N B=33llN
AX Thus, the reactions at supports A and B are

I 3m4\i-—%4n1
A’. lm B A, =0N Ay=5520N B=331UN Alls-
(4)
Figum l-6(b-cl) (bJ For a beam mass of 8.5 kg/m, the uniformly distributed force on the beam
resulting from its weight is w = mg = (8.5)(9.Sl) = 83.39 N/m. A free-body
diagram for this beam is shown in Fig. 1-6c. In the equilibrium equations,
the distributed force is statically equivalent to a single force whose magni-
tude is equal to the area under the load diagram (the area of a rectangle,
8 m x 83.39 N/m = 667.1 N) and which acts through the centroid of the load
diagram (which is 4 m to the right ofA). The free-body diagram of Fig. 1-6d
and the equations of equilibrium give
P The maximum difference in the results + —> EF, = Q A, = 0

from parts (a) and (b) is less than 10 percent.
In many problems in engineering, we ne- +1‘ EF,=0: Ay+B—8829—8(B3.39)=0
glect the weight of members as being small + 5 EMA = 0: B(8) — 8829(3) — 8(83.39)(4) = 0
when compared to the applied loads. As you
gain experience in solving problems, you
will be able to judge when you can safely ne- Solving gives
glect and when youmust include the weights
of members of a structure or machine. Of Ay=5852N B=3644N
course, if you have any doubts, the safest
approach is to include these weights. Thus, the reactions atA and B are
A, = 0 N Ay = 5850 N B = 3640 N Alls-
EXHIIIPIB Pfflblfilll 1 3 The truss shown m Fig l-"la supports one

side of a bridge; an identical truss supports the other side. ‘Floor beams carry
vehicle loads to the truss joints. A 3400-lb car is stopped on the bridge. Assume
that the weight ofthe car is evenly distributed among the wheels and that the center
1-5 EQUILIBRIUM or A mom sour 9
of gravity of the car is 16 Pt from support A. Calculate the support reactions and
the forces in members BD, DE, and CE of the truss.
B§'13fifl3fi1'D
::»
_,,p,,,;
i: lfifiwi
32fi 32f’(?>
(<1)
Figure l-7(a)
SOLUTION
We model an actual truss by making four assumptions:
1. Truss members are connected only at their ends.
2. Truss members are connected by frictionless pins.
3. The truss is loaded only at the joints.
4. The weights of the members may be neglected.
These assumptions are idealizations of actual structures, but real trusses behave
according to the idealizations to a high degree of approximation. As a result
of the assumptions, each member of a truss is a two-force member. Since truss
members are also usually straight, the force is along the member, and a member
is subjected to either tension or compression.
According to assumption 3, we must proportion the weight of the car be-
tween the joints ofthe truss. Half of the car’s weight, 34-OOIZ = 1700 lb, is carried
by the truss shown and the other half is carried by the truss on the other side of
the bridge. Since the weight is evenly distributed to each wheel and the center of
gravity of the car is midway between A and C, 850 lb will be applied to joint A
and 850 lb will be applied to joint C. A fi'ee-body diagram of the entire truss is
shown in Fig. 1-7b. The equations of equilibrium yield
+—>EF,,—O: A,,=O
+1‘EF,,=0: Ay+E—850—850=0
+LEMA =(k E(64)—850(32)=0
850 lb
L...
A, sso lb E
(11)
Figure l-7(b)
10 CI-LllP'l‘ER 1 INTRODUCTION AND lulvrsw or srmcs
Thus, the support reactions a.re
A, = 0 lb A}. = 1275 lb E = 425 lb ABS-
The forces in the various members of the truss can be found using either
the method ofjoints or the method of sections. We choose the method ofjoints
to calculate the forces in members CE and DE. A fiee-body diagram of pin E is
shown in Fig. l-7c. The force system is concurrent, and there are two equations
of equilibrium
—T¢-5—TD5cos6=O
+1‘ZFy=0: E+TD£Sil'19=4Z5+TD5SiI19=0
P By Newton’s third law (action-reaction), a

force that points away from (pulls on) a joint
also points away from (pulls on) a mem- T05
ber. That is, the corresponding member is 9 :~ E
Tcz
in tension. If all member forces are shown
in tension (pointing away from the joints)
E
on free-body diagrams, then a positive sign
for a force will indicate that the correspond- (C)
ing member is in tension (as assumed on the Figure l-7(c)
free-body diagram), while a negative sign
for a force will indicate that the correspond- Since 9 = tan"(l6/19) = 40.10“, the forces in members CE and DE are
ing member is in compression.
Tm, = -659.3 lb TC, = 504.7 lb
The minus sign for Tpg indicates that the direction of the force on Fig. l-7c
should be reversed. Figure 1-7d shows the correct directions for TCE and TDE,
along with the directions of the forces in members CE and DE. Clearly, member
CE is in tension (T) and member DE is in compression (C). The final results are
r,;,,- = 505 lb (T) TM = 660 lb (C) Ans-
660 lb
660 lb D
\E
sos lb 47 E
425 lb 660 lb
505 lb 505 lb
(10
Figure 1-1(a)
The force in member BD could be found using the method ofjoints (joint
D) since T95 is now known. However, as a review of the method of sections,
we select this method to calculate T50. We “section” through members BD, BC,
and AC and draw the free-body diagram shown in Fig. l-7e. The force system is
EQUILIBRIUM or ll RIGID sour 11
Tan D
T .
B‘ 16ft
I-IC LL
3211
850 lb 425 lb
(B)
Figure l-7(e)
coplanar and noncurrent, and there are three equations ofequilibrium. Summing
moments about point C eliminates all unknowns except the desired force in BD.
+ L EMC = 0; T3006) + 42502) = 0

T5,, = -sso lb = sso lb (c) Ans.
1 Example Problem 1-4 A bag Clfpfltfltflfls is sitting 011 the chair bf

Fig. 1-Ba. The force exerted by the potatoes on the frame at one side of the chair
is equivalent to horizontal and vertical forces of24 N and 84 N, respectively, at E
and a force of28 N perpendicular to member BH at G (as shown in the free-body
diagram of Fig. 1-8b). Find the forces acting on member EH.
H -._ "](x>:j\ {ll T-/<

gilw. . 28$ Mm
c_‘:i‘~."‘} " —*—"9 A ii/V

<’0-3 Q
0 it»:me."-be
I
,»/F * D ___ .
|: C . . B 0 éfi
(LL14
es B
Lifi
0.1 m ,1__/ 0.2 m 0.2 rn A B
(4) (5)
Figure l-8
SOLUTION
The equations of equilibrium for the entire chair (Fig. 1-8b) are
+—>EF,=0: 24—28cos9=0
+TEFy=0: A+B—84—28sin6=0
0.5
+ L EM; = 0: 0.2(84) — 0.5(24) — 0.4.4 + (0.3 + C S 6) (28) = 0
o
12 clllmzll 1 INTRODUCTION AND ltsvlsw or STATICS
0.1 rn D‘
‘ ‘ 0-4 F“ ' J’ -. 2s N
'34 N X Q, 1),, e
24 N _ .» "*:~
-C
F. ‘
D. .-.-=-‘"5" F X
I I A
"I-"'5'" Cy 0.3 111_} " C
F} D} I Fy 9' 0.2777 In
OH
E.
r\ 1-‘ U‘ -v
0.2223 m
l
mg
1 B
(—_-aw,_-
0-1667 m "‘~ 0.1333 m

(C)
Figure 1-9
where 6 = tan“(3/5) = 30.96“. The first equation is satisfied identically. The

remaining two equations give
A = 73.82 N B = 24.58 N
Next the chair is disassembled and fi'ee-body diagrams are drawn for each
part (Fig. 1-9). For member DF, the equilibrium equations can be written
+—>EF,=0: .0.-F,.+24=0
+TZF,=0: F,-l-D,,—S4=0
+t>:M,, =0; 0.4034)-0.sF, =0
which gives
Fy=67.2N D_,,=l6.80N D, =F,,—24N
Now the equations of equilibrium for member BH are
+—>EF,=0: F,+C,—28cosl9=0
+'I‘EFy=0: 24.58+Cy—67.2—28sin6=0
0.1667
+ L ZMC = (I (0.3 + _ )(28) + 0.l333(24.58)
sm 9
+ 0.1667(67.2) — 0.27"/7F, = 0
which have only three unknowns remaining and can be solved to get
F, = l15.1N C; =—9l.0N C,,=57.0N

1-5 EQUILIBRIUM or A RIGID sour 13
Then the forces acting on member BH are

-._k 28 N
B = 24.6 jN Ans.
C = -91.0 i+57.0 jN Ans.
115.1 N
F= 115.1 i—67.2jN Ans.
plus the applied force of 28 N perpendicular to the bar at G. These forces are 67-3 N 91.0 N
shown on the “report diagram“ of Fig. 1-10.
The “report diagram,” though not necessary, may be used to check the results.
For example, 57.0 N
+ —> E15; = (k -28 cos 30.96‘ +l15.1— 91.0 = 0.08925 E 0 24.6 N I

Figure 1-10
+ 1‘ BF), = O: -28 sin3U.96° — 67.2 + 57.0 + 2.4.6 = —4.307 X 10-3 '5 O
+ L EMF = ll 28(0.3) + 57.0 (0.1667) — 91.0 (0.2777) + 24.6(0.3)

= 0.0112 E 0 75113
' '-;sln. 4in.—#
The force and moment equations of equilibrium do not exactly equate to zero - A
due to roundoff error. 'F'~ --1'
ii
C..
1 Example Problem 1-5 The weight OfbO01(S OI1 a shelf bracket is
equivalent to a vertical force of 75 lb as shown on Fig. 1-1 la. All members are
made of 195-T6 cast aluminum and all pins have 114-in. diameters. Determine all (I1)
forces acting on all three members of this frame.
SOLUTION
75 lb
First draw the free-body diagram of the entire shelfbracket as in Fig. 1-1 lb. Here
A?
the “body of interest” is the frame ABC. The pins atA, B, and C remain attached 8 in.
to the frame, and thus the forces that would result from removal of the pins are A, i 1 B
not shown on the free-body diagram. The bracket at A has been removed from
the frame, and the forces that the bracket exerts at A are shown as A, and A, 5 in. y
(directions assumed). Similarly, the rocker at C has been removed, and the force
of the rocker on the flame is shown as C. The equations of equilibrium are 2L. I
(b)
+LzM,l=0= sc-s(75)=0 Figure 1-11
+->ZF,=0: A,,+C=0
+1‘EF,.— 0- A, -75 =0 TM]
A
which are solved to get the support reactions
A, = —120.0 lb Ay = 75.0 lb C = 120.0 lb A115-

C
Next, dismember the bracket and draw separate fiee-body diagrams of each Tac 1
member (Fig. 1-12). Members AC and BC are straight two-force members, and
thus the forces in these members must act along the members. PinA connects a (0)
Figure 1-12(a)
14 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF STATICS
1"’ B
7511!
E 8111. 1 4111 -|
TAG
(b)
TAC B
see
C
i
C
(C)
Figure l-l2(b, c)
support and two members. Since memberAC is a two-force member, pinA will be
left attached to member AB. The forces that act on pin A are the support reactions
A, and A, and a vertical force due to the two-force member AC. Similarly, pin
B connects two members, one of which is a two-force member. Therefore, pin
B is left attached to member AB, and the only force on pin B is along the two-
force member BC. Pin C connects a support and two members. Since both of the
members are two-force members, pin C is arbitrarily left attached to memberBC,
and thus the force on pin C due to memberAC is vertical. Then the equations of
equilibrium can be written for member AB (Fig. 1-12b)
+1/EM); = 0; 4(75)+12r,,¢ —12(75.0)= 0

+ L EMA = 0: l2[(5/13)B] - 8(75) = 0
fi'om which
Tm; = 50.0 lb B = 130.0 lb A115-
50. D
ip
E-
'*~
” lb 130.011:
75.0 lb 4%
130.0 lb B
120.0 lb A AI 50.0 lb
C fi 12
in
E3 P 0 l—| 1:-
jg.
-mvi .0Q .- 1:" l50.0 lb C
(H1 lb) (Cl
Figure 1-13
It is easily verified that these values also satisfy the equations of equilibrium for
the other free-body diagrams. These forces are all shown on the “report diagrams“
of Fig. 1-13.
1 Example Problem 1-6 Determine the reaction at support A of the

pipe system shown in Fig. 1- 1 4a. The 200-N force is parallel to the z-axis. Neglect
the weights of the pipe and the wrench.
Z 200 N
l80mii1
1*’! '~__
“-~—- -J
15 *7 230mm _
250 _3,_.
x _""'350mm ___*
@l ‘ \y
(H)
Figure l-l4(a)
SOLUTION
A free-body diagram of the pipe system is shown in Fig. l-14b. The support at
A is modeled as a rigid support that does not translate or rotate. There are three
forces A,,A,,, and A, to prevent translation and three couples Mx, M,., and M, to
prevent rotation. Couple M, lies in the yz-plane, couple My lies in the xz-plane,
and couple M, lies in thexy-plane. Since there are six equations ofequilibrium for P The summation EM, is the net tendency
a three-dimensional force system, all six unlcnowns can be found. Using Eqs. 1-3 of all forces and moments to rotate the pipe
about the x-axis through point A. For the
and 1-4 yields
200-N force, this is just the magnitude of
21-", = =O the force times the perpendicular distance
between the line of action of the force and
ax, = =0 the x-axis through point A. For a more com-
BF, = . - 200 = 0 plicated force system, the tendency to rotate
the body about the x-axis would be com-
slug. = - 200(0.ss0 + 0.230) = 0 puted using the x-component of the vector
EM, = - 200(0.1s0) = 0 product r >< F.
EM, = 9:~>s =>:~>s § §3‘*~E“.?* 0
=
Z ZUUN
130
*——_ _ _..;\
‘x~—-. -_
A2 230 mm M‘
.1, |
LT-‘TM, 250mm
1
st-es.
My , -
- M
I/J41 +_T"'- 350 mm __
(5)
Figure l-14(1))
16 CHAPTER 1 IN'TRODUC'T'ION AND REVIEW OF STATICS
Thus, the reaction at A is
A,,=0N A,.=0N A,=200N Ans-

M,=116.0N-m M,=36.0N-m M,=0N-m ABS-
Since all the reactions are positive, they act in the directions shown on the fi'ee-
body diagram of Fig. 1-14b.
i Example Problem 1-7 A 1000-lb load is securely fastened to a

hoisting cable as shown in Fig. 1-15a. The tension in the flexible cable does not
change as it passes arolmd the small frictionless pulley at the right support. The
weight of the cable may be neglected. Plot the tensions in the two cables (L13 and
P) as a function of the sag distance d (0 5 d 5 10 ft). Determine the minimum
sag d for which P is less than
(a) Twice the weight of the load.
(b) Four tinles the weight of the load.
(c) Eight times the weight of the load.
j 3011 1‘
b
1‘. 4 v , l_ ' ' '.E:
J
10ft . L
(Q)
l
Figure 1-15(2)
SOLUTION
The ring B holds the wires together, and it will be isolated to generate the
fi'ee-body diagram shown in Fig. 1-15b. The tension forces in the cables and the
weight of the load are concurrent at the ring B. Writing the x- and y-components
of the equilibrium equation for the fi'ee-body diagram of Fig. 1-15b results in
+—>-EF,,=0: T3ccos6;;—T,u,-cos6,;=0 (11)

+1‘ ZF,,=0: T43 sir19,,+T,,¢;-sin6¢—l000=0 (lb)
Solving Eq. (a) for TA3 gives
r - 9
T-B = A <6)
and substituting Eq. (c) into Eq. (b) gives
'0
TBC 0 =1Q[)0
*0 0. (d)
Before we can solve Eq. (d) for Tac, we need to know how the angles 9;-
and 9,, are related to the sag distance d. From the geometry of the triangles in TAB Trrc
Fig. 1-15c Q
..
sin 9,, = d/10
tr = 10 cos 9,)
b = 30 - a (6)
tan 61¢ = a’/b 1000 lb
All that remains is to choose some values for d and to solve Eqs. (c)—(e) for the (5)
tensions. For example, when d = 6 ft, Eqs. (e) give
, _ 6
0,. = sin ‘E = 36.8699"
a = 10 cos 36.8699‘ = 8ft
‘°
b= 30—8=22ft (C)
5 Fig rel-15(b c)
Bc = tan“'fi =15.2s51= u ’
Then, Eqs. (d) and (c) give
THC — 1013.49 lb
r,,,. = 1222.22 lb
where THC = P because the tension irl the hoisting cable does not change as the
cable goes around the small pulley. Figure 1-15d shows the results of repeating
this process for various values of the sag distance d and graphing the results.
Resultant force
8 l
7 """ T.-IB
i P
6
LII
[kBip]
-l>
foree
Ln-I
Cab
1 """L-.L— - - - _ __
00 1 2 3 4 s 6 1 s 9*"'\10
Sag, cl (ft)
(4')
Figure l-l5(d)
18 CI-1.AP'l'ER 1 INTRODUCTION AND ruivrsw or srsrrcs
When d = 10 ft, the load hangs directly below the support A, cable AB
carries the entire load, and the hoisting cable is slack, P = 0 lb. As the load is
raised (d gets smaller), the force in both cables increases. At d = 3 .28 ft, the force
in the hoisting cable is twice the load; at d = 1.66 ft, the force in the hoisting
cable is four times the load; and at a’ = 0.833 fi, the force in the hoisting cable
is eight times the weight of the load being lifted. As d goes to zero, the forces in
the two cables both go to infinity.
1 PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems 1-3 An 800-lh homogeneous cylinder is supported by two rollers
_ _ _ _ _ as shown in Fig. Pl-3. Determine the forces exerted by the
1-1* A person ls holding a 20-lb object as shown in Fig. P1-1. rollers on the Cy finder. All surfaces are smooth (frictionless).
Determine the force T in the biceps muscle and the force F of
the humerus ag ai nst the ulna, in terms of the weight W of the
forearm, which acts through G . For th e position shown, both T
and F act vertically.
T
., 0 ..
I /I 7 ‘ \\
/ \
_
t
, x60"
11‘
_'.
60%”. .' I
F
.G Figure P1-3
1.5 in. *1
5.5 in.
1-4* A clrrved slender bar is loaded and supported as shown in
__,__ , Fig. P1-4. Determine the reactions at supports A and B.
11.5 in.
Figure P1-1
C
1-2* A worker is using a hoist and cable to lift a 175-kg engine '\. \ B ':_r______-—
fromacar as showninFig . Pl-2 . D etermrne

' the forces in the \
three cables attached to the ring. 300 N
r ,
. ¢ .'= 1 .- If ‘
I A . l' 5 5 '1-5 mil
», 10.0"
‘I‘
l
Figure Pl-4
Ring =1-'_-______ 1-5 A curved slender bar is loaded and supported as shown in
;;| 80.0“ "“'-~—--____ K Fig. Pl-5 . Determine the reaction at support A.
\ .1;§cnl._-.4 ‘\\\l B
. 1..-J4 '____
_.'_' T _____*\ I '
.3 1 I _ ~ Ir |—rw
3 fl " 3 fi\ 250 lb
G ' A Iit \
-1-*,r_.",r,n "!,n_.,!,-_.-'c:',n_.',! * 1 1 . 1 I .. +
Figure P1-2 - P1-5

Figure
1-5 squnmsrurr or ll rucru sour 19
1-6 Determine the fore es m' members BC, CD, and DE of the J
truss shown in Fig. P1-6. M
I>—\_ -7))‘, \
1
ll‘ L
'\:
37mm
.1’ 16mm
_ _ _‘_ --xx‘
l A B C
.. 1
I
3m
E F _
1 I|_
D I
3m -» 3m - 3m '
9_.>. _ . ;| i\
-' \
10 rs ls kN 1-" I ]
Figure Pl-6 \~._/'-,__/"
+C
Figure Pl-8
1-7* The lawn mower shown 1.11 ' Fig. Pl-7 weighs 35 lb. Deter-
mine the force P required to move the mower at a constant
velocity and the forces exerted on the front and rear wheels by 1'97 Determine 1-he forces in members CD, CF, and FG of the
the inclined surface. bridge truss shown rn
' Fig.
' P1-9.
C
3'
’“_“' B ' D
P
" _ 1%; ' 1 1 1 1' . 1 0 e . 1 1 I‘
\|»\ :°j 15° 39¢ 611 Qt) . _. 30° E
l
G i F B‘
o
"l_ LII‘
_
nI T .
l _ .m_ ..4 '- 15 fl ls ft ~- ls ii
. : '
l, l
l.\‘ .
I f_’__\,r ,3 ,3. 4*" . is 10 kip. 20 kip
Figure P1-9
‘I'll P..- .~—"“" mi ‘-77
Figure Pl-7
1-10* The coal wagon shown in Fig. Pl -10 is used to haul coal
fro .
mamme. Ifthemass ofthe coal and wagon is 2000 kg, de-
1-8 A human femur is modeled as shown in ' Fig.
' Pl-8 . The ah - termine the force P required
' to move the wagon at a constant
ductor muscle force is M _
— 4060 N, and the femoral load rs' velocity and the forces exerted on the fi'ont and rear wheel sby
J = 5210 N. Der ermine
' the force P and the couple C. the inclined surface.
20 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW or srsrrcs
Vt“ 1-13 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P1-13

P Deterlnine the reactions at supports A and B.
'
Hg _
‘E
Ci
1,9 ,0
.
30;» 5001b
. 1 l 1 1 .
800 lb
311-L3hl—3l-ilsli-it-311
700 lb 400 lb
Figure P1-10 FigureP1-13
1-11 A 30-lb force P is applied to the brake pedal of an automo-

bile as shown in Fig. P1-11. Determine the force Q applied to _ _ _ _
the brake cylinder and the reaction at support A 1-14 Pulleys A and B ofthe chain horst shown m Fig. P1-14 are
connected and rotate as a umt. The chain rs continuous, and
each of the pulleys contains slots that prevent the chain from
slipping. Determine the force F required to hold a 450-kg block
W in equilibrium if the radii of pulleys A and B are 90 mm and
100 mm, respectively.
.1 "*//
1 . I.|
5 2 m‘ - ,
L.,
P‘~;
4 in.—ll j .
Figure P1-ll f V I
1 Ein
Q,1
l
:0}.
‘-
1-12* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P1-12. P

Determine the reaction at support A. .
Jlr’ 3 kjq Figure P1-14

3 kN-m
A
B
1-15* A bracket of negligible weight is used to support the dis-

2m 2m tributed load shown in Fig. Pl-15. Determine the reactions at
Figure P1-12 the supports A and B.
1-3 EQUILIBRIUM or A mam BODY Z1
10 lhlin. 1-18* Apairofvise grip pliers is shown in Fig. Pl-18. Determine

the force F exerted on the block by the jaws of the pliers when
a force P = 100 N is applied to the handles.
4-. :-. -
.= A
.
.
tsm. '
n
4
.5-
1:
5Omr|1i='E—2S1:n1n
1 9 _
T‘-*-\
I
~ 12 in. ~ » @‘Efl 35%
T-I-"'“~.\__ l
Figure Pl-15 t 1 mm
L
sommihessmmfl
P 15mm
l-l6 The wood plane shown in Fig. P1-16 moves wit.h a constant
velocity when subjected to the forces shown. Determine Figure Pl-18
a. The shearing force of the wood on the plane.
b. The normal force, and its location, ofthe wood on the plane.
40N
70 N
101‘ 15°
60 mm ,,,4”
, 75 mm
'1
'\\ 1-19 The Gambrel truss shown in Fig. Pl-19 supports one side
of a bridge; an identical truss supports the other side. Floor
L 601-nrnl 60:1-m1 l 160mm l beams carry vehicle loads to the truss joints. Calculate the
forces in members BC, BG, and CG when a truck weighing
Figure Pl-16
7500 lb is stopped in the middle of the bridge as shown. The
center of gravity of the truck is midway between the fiunt and
Intermediate Problems rear wheels.
l-17* Forces of 25 lb are applied to the handles of the pipe pliers

shown in Fig. Pl-17. Determine the force exerted on the pipe
at D and the force exerted on handle DAB by the pin at A.
1.25 in. ‘*1 I as [Sm /gt L-_

%UI —f
‘V
E H G F s
- ' <——6fi 6fl—i -
25 lb —sn~»:¢71on —1on sn-

Figure Pl-17 Figure Pl-19
22 cuamtan 1 INTRODUCTION AND navraw or STATICS
1-20* A transmission line truss supports a 5-kN load, as shown l 40m

in Fig. P1-20. Determine the forces in members FG and CD.
9
-‘.3
[>3 m+3 m—v|
- T
" 6 rn 1
C.’
. 4m
v D F I
\ 4m
L C
30°51»: _ ‘ " Figure P1-22
l 6m
1-23* The wrecker truck of Fig. P1-23 has a weight of 15,000 lb

A "?‘ . 01.3?“- and a center ofgravity at G. The force exerted onthe rear (drive)
u| -
wheels by the ground consists of both a normal component By
and a tangential component B, while the force exerted on the
3 m—»|<—3 m 3m
front wheels consists of a normal force A, only. Determine the
Figure P1-20 maximum pull P that the wrecker can exert when 6 = 30° if
Bx cannot exceed 0.8B,. (because of friction considerations)
and the wrecker does not tip over backwards (the front wheels
1-21 Three smooth homogeneous cylinders A, B, and C are remain in contact with the ground).
stacked in a V-shaped trough as shown in Fig. Pl-21. Cylin-
derA weighs 100 lb; cylinders B and C each weigh 200 lb. All
cylinders have a 5-in diameter. Determine the minimum angle
6 for equilibrium.
. /I-_. i
- .¢r
_/I% LP ton
t7%='=*’~|iir' P
4fi -¢')::1T°‘ B
-~s.sn-- -~ an--r—sn~
>
Figure P1-23
" 1-24 A drum ofoil with a mass of200 kg is supported by a pair of

‘YA frames (the second frame is behind the one shown] as shown
\ in Fig. P1-24. Determine all forces acting on member ACE.
6 I
. .
lite O
y m
Figure P1-21 I. D E.
45°, ‘
1-22 The mass of block A in Fig. Pl-22 is 250 kg. Block A is

supported by a small wheel that is free to roll on the continu-
ous cable between supports B and C. The length of the cable is
42 n1. Determine the distance x and the tension T in the cable
yr /H
. -gas‘? 'J'(: . i';',=;ii~'<'»;'.\| tier
when the system is in equilibrium. Figure P1-24

15 squumnrumonmcmsonv 23
1-15" The hot air balloon shown inFig. Pl 25 is tethered with 1 27 A force of 20 lb 1s required to pull the stopper DE in
three mooring cables. If the net lifi of the balloon is 9001b, F1g Pl 27 Determine all forces acnng on member BCD
determine the force exerted on the balloon by each of the three
cables.
Figure Pl-25 1 28 The front wheel suspension of an automobile 1s shown in

Fig Pl-28 The pavement exerts a vertical force of 2700N on
the t1re Determine the force 111 the spring and the forces atA,
l-26" A 100-kg traflic light is supported by a system of cables

as shown in Fig. Pl -26. Determine the tensions in each of the
three cables.
av -1'E5>U N
,/
,.t
\4» "‘ -.
r 11ri
Kg‘ Ir
/’___‘-___
I
F-_
\\E\ \
"'1n5t1\ \I1°"IE1
II IIII1 III
\rI‘I\I\
1I
I It ‘I
’/
I
@s B
_ \.
its 8m \:
III
~~ "' 2100 N
Figure P1-26 Figure Pl 28
24 crunun 1 rmrtonucrron mo imvnzw or srrrrrcs
1 29* Determine all forces acting on memberABCD of the frame

ofFig. Pl -29.
W, =2o0 lb
W2= 1501b 90--
12in.
-x—
B
6in. F
-u~—
C E
611:1. Figure Pl-31
1001b <a1e.o
I-32* The homogeneous door shown in Fig. Pl-32 has a mass
f—6in. Gin. of 60 kg and is held in the position shown by the rod AB. The
Figure P1-29 rod is held in place by smooth horizontal pins at A and B. The
hingesatCandDaresmooth,andthehingeatCcan support
thrust along its axis. Determine all forces that act on the door.
1 30 The fiat roof of a building is supportedby a series ofparallel
plane trusses spaced 2 m apart (only one such truss is shovm in
Fig. P1-30). Calculate the forces in all the members ofa typical
truss when water collects to a depth of 0.2 m as shown. The
density of water is 1000 kg/m3.
300 mm
* -)_ _;— 2;-r-_T_ 3. _
950 mm 950 mm
Figure P1-32
. m .2 1.2m
Figure P1-30
1 31 Twobodies W, and W2 weighing 200 lb and 150 lb, respec-

1-33 A farmer is using the hand winch shown in Fig. P1-33 to
tively, rest on a cylinder and are connected by a rope as shown
slowly raise a 40-lb bucket of water from a well. In the posi-
in Fig. Pl-31. Ifall surfaces are smooth, determine
tion shown, force P is vertical. The bearings at C and D exert
a. The reactions of the cylinder on the bodies. only force reactions on the shalt. Bearing C can support thrust
b. The tension in the rope. loading; bearing D cannot. Determine the magnitude of force
c. The angle 6. P and the components of the bearing reactions.
C
is!
\- ~41
Figure Pl-33
Z4!)»
l gm \3in.l3in.
FigureP1-35
1-34* A scissors jack for an automobile is shown in Fig. P1-34.
The screw threads exert a force F on the blocks at joints A and
B. Determine the force P exerted on the automobile if F = 1-36 A frame is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. Pl-36.
800N and6 = 15°. Repeat for6 = 30° and6 =-45°. Determine the reactions at supports A and C and all forces
acting on member ADE.
P we F
900 N
/
750 N
0 - c 3m S00 Nfm
E
“F
A
/4\
' 9
.
tr . .-11., . .
B
*
15m
ed
D
B c
3m
Figure Pl-34 Figure P1-36
1-37 Forces of S0lb are applied to the handles of the bolt cutter
of Fig.
' P1 -3'7. Determine
1-35* The fold-down chair of Fig. Pl- 35 weighs 25 lb and has 1'tS
center of gravity at G. Determine all forces acting on member a . All forces ac ting on the l18.l'id1Bt1BC.
ABC. b. The force exerted on the bolt at E.
50113 lfi
1 1.1'lfi31n.T
.'\| . 2 in.
E min.
/\
L_ O" '.
‘AA ‘ B ~U Iv 10°- 1"’

141!’
- -+-A-f- _ I .2‘ _ E J
1111 ~
I 7 4'11
C D
lalfig 253" 30°
I—.
I _ I '
5°“
Figure P1-37 © © 6“ O
6ft 9ft
Figure P1-39
Challenging Problems
1-40 Figure Pl-40 is a simplified sketch of the mechanism used
1-38* The garage doorABCD shown in Fig. P1-38 is being raised
to raise the bucket of a bulldozer. The bucket and its contents
by a cable DE. The one-piece door is a homogeneous rectan-
weigh 10 kN and have a center of gravity at H. Arm ABCD
gular slab which has a mass of 100 kg. Frictionless rollers B
has a weight of2 kN and a center ofgravity at B; arm DEFG
and C rim in tracks at each side of the door as shown. Deter-
has a weight ofl kN and a center ofgravity at E. The weight
mine the tension T in the cable and the forces B and C on the
of the hydraulic cylinders can be ignored. Calculate the force
frictionless rollers when d = 1.875 m.
in the horizontal cylinders CI and EI and all forces acting on
arm DEFG for the position shown.
301’ if //$6 m
1' ~ d r
E
----- 1300mm
'I c
‘| 150 mm
750mm
</
A
’ B
1200 mm
2500 mm
2250mm
/0») "
0.3 m
Figure P1-38
Figure P1-40
1-39* The crane and boom shown in Fig. Pl-39 weigh 12,000 lb
1-41 The mechanism of Fig. Pl-41 is designed to keep its load
and 600 lb, respectively. When the boom is in the position
level while raising it. A pin on the rim of the 4-ft-diameter
shown, determine
pulley fits in a slot on arm ABC. Arms ABC and DE are each
a. The maximum load that can be liiied by the crane. 4 it long, and the package being lifted weighs 80 lb. The mech-
b. The tension in the cable used to raise and lower the boom anism is raised by pulling on the rope that is wrapped arotmd
when the load being lifted is 3600 lb. the pulley. Determine the force P applied to the rope and all
c. The pin reaction at boom support A when the load being forces acting on the armABC when the package has been lifted
lifted is 3600 lb. 4 ft, as shown.
1-3 squumsrutt or 11 mom sour Z7
Computer Problems
Zfi
1-44 A pair of steel pipes is stacked in a box as shown in Fig.
Pl-44. The masses and diameters of the smooth pipes are
4°” "IA =5kg,m,,=20kg,d,, =100mm,anddB=200mm.
Plot the two forces exerted on pipe A (bypipe B and by the side
wall) as a fimction of the distance b between the walls of the
box (2001nm 5 b 5 300mm). Determine the range ofb for
an b wfidu
a. The force at the side wall is less than M, the weight ofpipe
: -b 21* A.
I
‘PP
/,1
’/'1 b. Neither of the two forces exceeds 2M.
'1'1 ’c c. Neither of the two forces exceeds 4%.
___~ I/__ _ _.' r-— — — —~./ *“‘fi'|'|'|'|'|'|F__ _ I
Figure P1-41 J) _ 4 a
1-42* Bar AB of Fig. Pl-42 has a uniform cross section, a mass '1
I
|
of 25 kg, and a length of 1 m. Determine the angle 6 for \._
1. rffféi B
equflibfluml
A
-I--I’
3/
-91' J
‘Fm b
Figure P1-44
30° 45°
1-45 A worker positions a 250-lb crate by pulling on the rope BD
as shown in Fig. Pl-45. The 3-it long rope BD is horizontal
Figure P1-42 (6 = 0) when the 5-it long rope AB is vertical (¢ = 0).
a. What is the maximum distance bm that the crate can be
1-43 The homogeneous door shown in Fig. P1-43 has a mass of pulled to the side using this arrangement?
25 kg and is supported in a horizontal position by two hinges b. Calculate and plot the forces in ropes AB and BD as a func-
and a bar. The hinges have been properly aligned; therefore, tion ofthe distance b for 0 5 b 5 b,,,,,,,.
they exert only force reactions on the door. Assume that the c. How could the worker pull the crate to the side more than
hinge at B resists any force along the axis of the hinge pins. the bm calculated in part a‘?
Determine the reactions at supports A, B, and D.
.. - __ é
0.4m
1m____7
ti
0.4 ei H
a__ D
I 1
.' Y C
‘Sm
. _ 0.95 rn
at 5_
_ —___
Figure Pl-43 Figure P1-45

28 CHAP'l'E.R 1 INTRODUCTION AND rmvraw or STATICS
1-46 A 50-kg load is suspended from a pulley as shown in Fig. 1-48 The wrecker truck shown in Fig. Pl-48 has a mass of6800
Pl-46. Pulleys B and C are both frictionless and free to rotate, kg and a center of gravity at G. The force exerted on the rear
and the weight of the cable may be neglected. Plot the force (drive) wheels by the groimd consists of both a normal compo-
P required for equilibrium as a function of the sag distance nent B, and a tangential component Bx, while the force exerted
d(0 5 d 5 1 m). Determine the minimum sag d,,,,,, for which on the front wheels consists of a normal force A, only.
P is less than
a. Plot P, the maximum pull that the wrecker can exert, as a
a. Twice the weight of the load. fimction of 6 (0° 5 6 5 90°) if B, cannot exceed 0.8B,. (be-
b. Four times the weight of the load. cause of friction considerations) and the wrecker does not
c. Eight times the weight of the load. tip over backward (the front wheels remain in contact with
the groimd).
b. On the same graph, plot Ay, Bx, and By as functions of the
angle 6.
t i
==(i
/Q - /1"’ 9
~rr=I='-.::.-‘l':—,- ix 3"“
‘-2'“ ‘
Figure P1-46
We50118
"' _ -—n.‘lY Figure P1-48
2m 2.4 m —#-1.5 n1
1-47 A 75-lb stop light is suspended between two poles as shown

1-49 An overhead crane consists of an I-beam supported by a
in Fig Pl-47. Neglect the weight of the flexible cables and plot simple truss as shown in Fig. P1-49. If the uniform I-beam
the tension in both cables as a fimction of the sag distance
weighs 400 lb, plot the force in members BC, CF, and EF as a
d(0 5 d5 8 it). Determine the minimum sag d,,,,,, for which firnction of the position d ( 0 5 d 5 8 ii).
both tensions are less than
a. 100 lb.
b. 250 lb.
c. 500 lb.
U3 fiT3 fi{3 111
'-9
,
, .5: .
'-1;, _ -1-—
3 it
ll.
c
d
L-‘L 5 r-U‘
L-@*_~I_- woo lb
Figure P1-47 Figure P1-49
1-3 squumnrutt or A room sour Z9
1 50 A light pole is braced using a lightweight flexible cable .,..1 a

DGH as shown in Fig. P1-50. The uniform pole ABCD weighs _/~/’>‘\ -\\‘ \
4200 N; the combined weight of the light fixture and arm CEF I12 rt \\
is 7500N and acts at E; and the weight ofthe arm BG can be -++’/ X ‘E
neglected. Assume that the arms EC and BG are braced to re- 12_§r, /" \ \ 1“,
40'7-
main perpendicular to the pole ABCD and that the connection , ‘-\ 1&7’
E -_ , , if1,‘ (A77
rot in Gr
at A cannot provide any significant moment. Plot Tm and T6,, ' ‘i
(the tensions in the two parts of the cable) and FM (the force
in the brace BG) as functions of b, the length of the brace, for 1,5‘ r 14"
12a g -‘-2--'1" '
0.5 m 5 b 5 3 m. via A
an -"--'
an-a-_91r
'
D
Figure Pl-51
El)
i lxm
F BI G_ 5,9-75 m 1-s2 A group of workers propose to raise a uniform 250-kg post
I AB to a vertical position using the rope and brace arrangement
shown in Fig. Pl-52a. Assmne that the weight of the brace can
be neglected and that end A acts as a frictionless pin for both
5m the 6-m-long post AB and the 6-m-long brace AC.
a. Plot the rope force P and the force E41" in the brace AC as
functions ofthe angle 6 (0° 5 6 5 90° ).
A H b. Repeat the problem if two braces are used as shown in Fig.
P1-52b. Plot the rope force P and the brace forces E4; and
L-A-2 ru—>lr—2.rs ru-I FAD as functions of the angle 6 (0° 5 B 5 90° ). Assume that
0.5 tn when the force in brace AD becomes zero, the brace falls
Figure P1-50 out of the way and from that point on the rope is attached to
C instead ofD.
, c
B
.§0°t<“
1 51 The crane and boom shown in Fig. P1-51 weigh 12,000 lb
€~'._ \ 1.5
and 600 lb, respectively. The pulleys at D and E are small, and
the cables attached to them are essentially parallel.
-‘ribs —“
» '3' m
a. Plot d, the location of the resultant force of the groimd on
the crane relative to point C, as a fimction of the boom (H)
angle 6 (0° 5 6 5 80°) when the crane is lifting a 3600-lb
load.
b. Plot A/3600 and T5,;/3600 as functions of the boom angle
6 (0° 5 6 5 80° ) when the crane is lifting a 3600-lb load (in
which A is the magnitude of the reaction force on the pin
at A, TED is the tension in the cable raising the boom, and
3600 lb is the weight of the load being lifted.)
c. It is desired that the resultant force on the tread always be at
least 1 ft behind C to ensure that the crane is never in dan-
ger of tipping over. Plot Wm, the maximum load that may
be lifted, as a fimction of the boom angle 6 (0° 5 6 5 80° ).
(Don't forget to check the tension in cable BD.) Figure P1-52
30 taxman 1 nmronucnos AND ssvrsw or srmcs
1-53 The hydraulic cylinder BC is used to tip the box ofthe dump »"
M.
truck shown in Fig. Pl-53. If the combined weight of the box -*_ ,~”
and the load is 22,000 lb and acts through the center of gravity I
G, plot 05. fl 6 ft
a. C1‘22,000, the force in the hydraulic cylinder divided by 8.5 fr‘
the weight of the truck box, as a function of the angle R
6(0"56580°). Mm,
b. A/22,000, the magnitude of the reaction force on the pinA 3;} 7
divided by the weight of the truck box, as a fimction of the
angle 6 (0° 5 6 5 80" ).
0.5 ft
‘F71
2 ft
Figure P1-53
1-4 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE BODY

All of the equilibrium problems considered thus far have assumed that the bodies
are rigid. That is, the shape of the body and its orientation relative to its surround-
ings were assumcd to be independent of the loads applied to the body. However,
no body is perfectly rigid. Wires subjected to tension forces will stretch. Beams
carrying loads will bend. Shafts subjected to torques will twist. In fact, one of the
primary objectives ofa course in mechanics ofmaterials is to develop relationships
between the loads applied to a nonrigid body and the deformation of the body.
Ifthe wire or beam or shaft is very stifl, the amotmt of deformation will be
very small and the deformation will have a negligible efi'ect on the solution of the
equilibrium equations. If the wire or beam or shaft is not very stiff, however, the
deformation can affect the geometry of the problem used to write the equilibrium
equations, which will in turn affect the solution of the equilibrium equations.
The interaction between the loads acting on a body, the deformation of the body,
and the geometry ofthe fi'ce-body diagram makes the solution ofdeformable body
problems much more complex than the solution ofrigid body problems. Frequently
the solution ofdeformable body problems requires either a trial-and-error solution
or a numerical solution or an iterative solution method.
Fortunately, most engineering structures and machines are designed “stiff,”
that is, they do not deform very much. For such problems, the solution of the
equilibrium equations often ignores the deformation and treats the structure as
though it were rigid. Example Problem l-8 illustrates the diflicultics encountered
in the solution of deformable body problems and the errors that may result from
neglecting the deformation in the solution of the equilibrium equations.
Example Problem 1-8 A 5000-lb weight W is to be supported by

a very stiff (rigid) bar AB and a deformable (nonrigid) wire BC, as shown in Fig.
l-16a. The connections at A, B, and C are frictionless pins, the brackets at A
and C are rigid, and the weights of the bar and the wire may be ncglcctcd. The
1-4 EQUILIBRIUM or A nsronsunm sour 3 1
4ft
A B
p
-5 53>
(I1) lg
Figure l-16(2)
relationship between the tension in the wire TBC and the deformation (stretch)
of the wire 5 is given by TBC = k8 where k depends on the cross-sectional
area of the wire and the type of material from which the wire is made, and 8 =
Lf — L,-, the difierence between the final (deformed) length of the wire and the
initial (undeformed) length of the wire. If Fig. 1-16a represents the unloaded
configuration of the structure (6 = 0), determine the tension in the wire after
the load is applied for k = 50001h/in. Repeat for k = 2500 lb./in. and for k =
1000 lbfin.
SOLUTION
Since bar AB is rigid and the support bracket at A is fixed to the wall, bar AB
must pivot about pin A due to the load W. Wire BC will increase in length by
an amount 5 since it is deformable. The loaded configuration of the structure is
shown in Fig. 1-16b. The rotation of the bar can be described by the angle 9, and
the defomiation 8 of the wire can be written as 5 = 14- L,-.
A free-body diagram of the bar in the deformed configuration is shown in
Fig. l-16c. The equations of equilibrium give
+—>ZF,=0: A,,—Tcos(45+6/2)=0 (4)
+¢2F,=o= Ay+Tsin(45+6/2)—W=0 (I1)

+ L 2M4 = 0; [T sin (45 + 0/2)](4 cos 9)
—[T cos (45 + 0/2)](4 sin 9) (a)
—W (4 cos e) = 0
Using the trigonometric relation
sin (A — B) = sinAoos B — cosA sinB

32 cuwnzn 1 INTRODUCTION AND nsvmw or srmcs
4
C
1
+____-
[s=4s*=-g
;v
ix
. A '9
. 5/
.L_
(5)
Figure 1-1601)
Eq. (c') may be written
4-Tsin(45—9/2)—4Weos6=0 (C)
Equations (:1), (b), and (c) contain four unknownsA,,,A,., T, and 6. Thus, there
are four unknowns and three equations of equilibrium. We need an additional
independent equation to solve the problem. The equations of equilibrium (a),
(b), and (c) are necessary for equilibrium, but they are not suflicient to solve
the problem. The additional equation comes from the relationship between the
force in the wire and the deformation of the wire. Such a relationship will be
developed in Chapter 4; we merely state the result here to complete this example.
40050 i
Ax fix T
f
Av B,’ 4 sinfi
A TA
W
(C)
Figure l-l6(c)
1-4 EQUILIBRIUM or A DE!-‘ORMABLE sour 33
The force-deformation relation depends on the type of material from which the
wire is made, and the relationship may be linear or nonlinear. Herein we limit T
our discussion to a linear relationship between force and deformation. Thus, we
assume the behavior shown in Fig. 1-16d.
_ It
T=k8 (d)
where k is a material constant (the slope of a T — 8 curve) that depends on the
type of material from which the wire is made. For the wire, (4) 5
Figure 1-16(d)
L, = ,/(4)2 + (4)5 = 5.65111 = 57.38 ill. P In Chapter 3 it will be shown that the
constant of proportionality k = % where
Since 8 — Lf — L; = Lf — 67.88 in., we need to determine the deformed length E is the modulus ofelasticity of the material
of the wire in order to find T. Using Fig. 1-16b and the law of cosines, and L and A are the length and the cross-
sectional area of the wire. For a steel wire 5
(B’C)2 = L? = (4B)2 + (4B)2 — (2)(48)(48) cos (90“ + 9) in. in diameter, k = 5420 lbfin. or for a steel
tie rod in. in diameter, k = 21,690 lbJin.,
from which little error is introduced by treating the struc-
ture as rigid. For an aluminum alloy wire 1/8
in. in diameter, however, k = 1808 lblin., and
Lf = 67.884/1+ sin 6 in. the error introduced by treating the structure
as rigid is about 6 percent. For more “stretch-
The deformation 8 of the wire is able” support materials, the error would be
even greater.
8 = L; — L; = 67.884/1+ sin9 — 67.88 (6)
= 67.88[4/l + sin 6 — l]in.
The relationship between the applied load and the deformation of the structure
is found by substituting Eq. (e) into Eq. (d ). The result is then used in Eq. (c) to
give
67.ssk(4/1+eiiia-1)eiii(45-0/2)= Wcos6 (f)

Ifk=50001b/in., nieii Eq. (f) gives 9 = 2.4650; Eq. (c) gives
r = 7221 lb Ans.
Eq. (:1) gives A, = 4995 lb, and Eq. (b) gives A, = -215 lb. This compares to
the solution of Example Problem l-l (in which this structure was assumed to be
rigid), which had T = 7071 lb, AX = 5000 lb, and Ay = 0 lb. For this very stiff
wire, the sag ofthe beam (9 — 2.465“) would barely be noticeable and the error in
the value of T from treating the structure as rigid would be only about 2 percent.
Ifk = 2500 lb/in., then Eq. (f) gives I9 — 5.097“; Eq. (c) gives
T = 7379 lb Ans.
Eq. (a) gives A, = 4890 lb; and Eq. (b) gives A, = -444 lb.
Ifk = 1000 lbi'in., then Eq. (f) gives 6 = 14.246”; Eq. (c) gives
T = 7893 lb Ans.
Eq. (a) gives A, = 4846 lb, and Eq. (b) gives A, = —l230 lb. For this less stiff
wire, the sag of the beam is definitely noticeable and the error in the value of T
fi'om treating the structure as rigid would be over 10 percent.
The process illustrated in this example is typical of the solution of de-
formable body problems. Regardless of the type of structure or machine compo-
nent or the type of loading, the solution process generally consists of these three
steps
1. Equations of equilibrium, (a), (b), and (c)
2. Force-deforrnation relationship, Eq. (ti )
3. Geometry of deformation, Eq. (e)
Since the equations of equilibrium must be applied to the forces acting on the
deformed structure, the three sets of equations are often interdependent. It is
this interdependence that makes the solution of deformable body problems more
complex than the solution of rigid-body problems.
Planea-a
F3
\ f4
4 1 3 /
| 1-5 INTERNAL FORCES
In the study of mechanics of materials, it is necessary that we examine the internal
F1 forces that exist throughout the interior ofa body. We consider an arbitrary body in
equilibrium, as shown in Fig. l-17a. The forces F1, F2, F3, F4, and F5 are applied
(H)
loads and support reactions (found using the equations of equilibrium). We pass
an imaginary “cutting plane" a—a (henceforth called a section) through the body,
F‘\ and separate the body into two parts A and B. Considering a free-body diagram of
part A (Fig. 1-17b) we note that, in addition to the applied forces F, and F2, the
material of part B exerts forces on the material of part A over the section. These
_l* forces are internal to the body as a whole but are extemal for part A. The forces
on the section are distributed over the surface in an unknown fashion. However,
we can replace the distributed force system by a resultant force R and a resultant
..\y couple C. In general, the couple C depends on where we place the force R. In
mechanics of materials we place R at the centroid C of the section, as shown in
Fig. 1-17c. We use a double arrowhead to distinguish the couple C (vector) from
the force R (vector). On the section, the distributed force system of Fig. I-17b, is
statically equivalent to the force system R and C ofFig. 1- 17c. The force system R
.2-§<. F3
and C will be referred to as an internal force system. We recognize that the internal
force system depends on the orientation of the section.
Instead of part A, we could have considered part B, as shown in Fig. 1-17d.
By applying New'ton’s third law to every pair of particles on the section for parts
A and B of the body, we have that the distributed force systems over the section of
parts A and B are equal in magnitude but opposite in sense, and thus the resultant
C -\ force R and the resultant couple C on the two parts of the body are equal in
magnitude but opposite in sense.
.-
Because the body as a whole is in equilibrium, any portion of the body is
I B / F4
_.. - also in equilibrium. Thus, using the equations of equilibrium and the force system
shown ir1 Fig. 1-17c,
R
F
(li) 5 EF—[E F1-|—F3+R:0
Figure I-17 EMC=0: M|+M2+C=0
1-5 INTERNAL FORCES 55
where M| and M; are the moments of forces F1 and F2, respectively, about the
centroid of the section. We would find the same result using the free-body diagram
of part B shown in Fig. 1-17d. Thus, we find the resultant of the internal force
system using the equations of equilibrium. However, we cannot find the exact
distribution of the internal forces until we learn how to determine the deformation
of the body.
Experience indicates that materials behave differently to forces trying to
pull atoms apart than to forces trying to slide atoms past each other. Therefore, it Y
is standard practice to resolve the resultants R and C into components along and
perpendicular to the section, as shown in Fig. 1-18. For convenience we select an “\
Z3/TLTF“
xyz-coordinate system in which x is perpendicular to the section and y and z lie
V).
in the section. The component of R which is perpendicular to the section, Rx, is A yz P
called a normal force; this force tends either to pull the body apart or to compress
the body (Fig. 1-18a). The symbol P is often used to denote the normal force. The
components of R that lie in the section are called shear forces; these forces tend
to slide part A of the body relative to part B. The symbol V is often used to denote
(4)
shear forces; hence, the forces and K in Fig. 1-18a. y
Ft
The component T of couple C shown in Fig. 1-18b tends to twist the body
and is called a twisting couple (or twisting moment, or torque). The components
M_,, and M, tend to bend the body and are called bending couples (or bending
'. ‘ All
moments). Throughout this book we will examine the effects on a deformable
i A Mg?
body of the components of R and C. P
The section shown in Figures 1-18a and b is called a positive section since
the outward normal to the section points in a positive coordinate direction. The
section shown in Figures 1-180 and d is called a negative section since the outward
Z <1»)
normal to the section points in a negative coordinate direction.
A resultant force or couple component is defined as positive ifthe component J?
is in a positive coordinate direction when acting on a positive section. Thus, all of
the force and couple components shown i.r1 Figures 1-18a and b are positive. If the Fa
internal forces exerted on part A of the body by part B are called positive, then the
other half of the internal forces (exerted on part B of the body by part A) should :\ F4
also be called positive. Therefore, a force or couple component will also be defined ‘DJ-l_ -
as positive if the component is in the negative coordinate direction when acting Z ‘,4-._
on a negative section. Hence, all of the force and moment components shown in
Figures 1-18c and d a.re also positive.
The components ofthe internal force system can be found using the equations
of equilibrium (Eqs. 1-3 and 1-4). (B)
Y
2F,,=0 EF,,=0 21-",=0 (1-3)
b
F3
EM, =0 EM, = 0 EM, = 0 (1-4)
2" ,'_\',_ -_~.___£__‘_‘__\_‘_F‘
The equations of equilibrium should be applied to the body (or portion of I
Z \-._
the body) in its deformed state. However, as we saw in Example Problem 1-8, the
support reactions (or, in this case internal forces) cannot be found until we know
the relationship between the forces applied to the body and the deformation of
the body. As we shall see in later chapters of this book, we can determine support
(=1)
reactions and internal forces using the undefonned configuration of a body. We
Figure 1-18
accept this statement for now and illustrate the determination of internal forces
with the following examples.
1 EXHIIIPIB 1-9 A post and bracket are used to support a

pulley, as shown in Fig. 1-19a. A cable passing over the pulley supports a 2200-
N force. Determine the intemal forces on a section at the support at A.
3°°"‘1'"--; 2200N
l /'
500_mm
.;-'.':.A_: _ l
. -~ _. - . -, __.;-
(11)
Figure l-l9(a)
300 mm ___, SOLUTION

A section (perpendicular to the post) is passed through the post at a distance of
2200 N 30 mrri above the support at A. A free-body diagram of the part of the structure
above the section is shown in Fig. 1- 1 9b. The xyz-coordinate axes were arbitrarily
selected, but the origin ofthe coordinate system is at the centroid of the section.
Coordinate x is perpendicular to the section, whereas coordinates y and 2 lie in
2200 N the section. Thus, the section on which the force and couple components act is a
500 mm positive section, and the force and couple components shown in Figure 1-19b are
positive. The couples T, My, and M, are represented by ctuved arrows instead of
vectors, as was done in Fig. 1-18b. The twisting couple T (torque) lies in the yz-
plane; the bending couples ,. and MZ lie in the xz- and xy-planes, respectively.
The equations of equilibrium (Eqs. 1-3 and 1-4) yield
Z /V
BF; = P + 2200 = O
Mi
EF}, — Vy = 0
(11) ZFZ = V, — 2200 = 0
Figure l-19(b)
EM, = T — ZZO0(O.300) = 0
EM}. — My — 2200(0.500) = 0
EM, = °Q§9Q?I M, — 2200(0.300) = U
Solving for the internal force system gives
P = —2200N = 0N V, = 2200N A115-

T=660N-m M,.=1100N-m M,=660N-m A55-
1-5 nnrinimroscss 37
The negative sign for P indicates that the force is opposite to that shown in Fig.
1-19b, therefore, P is a compressive force.
1 Example Problem 1-10 The cantilever beam shown in Fig. 1-20a

is subjected to both concentrated and distributed loads. Determine (a) the support
reactions and (b) the intemal forces on a section 4 m to the right of the support
at A.
T 5kN
.| 1 2kNfm
,4 —x
3m il 2m i
(Q)
Figure l-20(a)
SOLUTION
(a) A free-body diagram of the complete beam is shown in Fig. 1-20b. The
support at A does not translate or rotate; thus, forces A, and A, and couple
MA may exist. The distributed load has been replaced by its resultant, R =
w1= 2 kN/m(5 m) = 10 kN, acting 2.5 m to the right ofA. The equations of
equilfbriumgive
+->EF§=0: A,=0
+¢2F,.=(r A,,—l0~5=0
+5-EMA =0: MA —10(2.5)—5(3)=0
5kN
L
Ax I
M-1
A,
2.5 In L"? "- 0.5 rn
(5)
Figure 1-zn(|i)
Solving gives the support reactions
A, =0kN A, =15.00kN MA =40.0kN-In A118-

38 cuirmirt 1 INTRODUC'I'ION AND ruivrsw or snrrrcs
(b) A vertical section is passed through the beam 4 m to the right of A. A fi'ee-
body diagram of the part of the beam to the left of the section is shown in
Fig. 1-20c. The section as well as the force and couple components shown
in Fig. 1-20c are positive. The distributed load is shown to illustrate that
the forces acting on that part of the beam must be shown on the free-body
diagram. The 10-kN resultant force on the free-body diagram of Fig. 1-20b
cannot be used for the free-body diagram of the part of the beam shown in
Fig. l-20c. The free-body diagram of Fig. 1-20c is redrawn in Fig. 1-20d,
where the distributed load on this part of the beam has been replaced by its
resultant. The equations of equilibrium give
+->>:F,,=c P=0
+1‘EF,,—0: 15.00-s-5+1/,=0
+1 EM, =0: 40.0- i5.00(4)+s(2)+5(1)+M, =0
l5kN J"
2 kN."m
M,
V» ‘P
4-0.0kN-rn _e
5- 4 rn
15.00 kN
(C)
Figure l-20(c)
The intemal forces on the section are
P=0kN Vy =—2.00kN i\f,=—l.000l-LN-m A115-
The negative signs indicate that the directions of shear force K. and bending
couple M, are opposite to those shown in Fig. 1-20d.
J’
am 5kN
‘QM,
P The internal force system acting on the P
portion of the beam to the right of the 4-0.0kN-rn( (la->—e
section is equal in magnitude and opposite
in sense to the internal force system acting I 2m IF lm I-< lrn >
on the portion of the beam to the left of the l5.00kN
section. Either portion of the beam can be
(4')
used to determine the internal force system. Figure 1-20(0)
Using the lefl portion of the beam, however,
required that we first determine the forces A more convenient way to solve pa.rt (b) is to use the free-body diagram of
and moments exerted on the beam by the Fig. 1-20e, which shows the part ofthe beam to the right ofthe section, (a negative
wall. Generally speaking, the portion which section for the positive coordinate axes shown in Fig. l-20d). The distributed load
is acted on by the fewest applied forces will for this part of the beam has been replaced by its resultant; we note that the 5-kN
be the easiest to use. concentrated load is not shown on the fi-ee-body diagram as it does not act on
1-5 lN'I'lillNAL FORCES 39
this part of the beam. Consistent with Newton’s third law, the internal forces and 2W
moments in Fig. 1-20e are opposite in sense to the internal forces and moments
in Fig. 1-20d. The forces P and K, as well as the moment M, in Fig. l-20e are Ms
positive for this negative section. The equations of equilibrium give P
+—>E.F,,=0: —P=0
+'r>:F,.=0= —V,.—2=0 ""*°5m
(e)
+ L EM, — 0: —M, — 2(0.5) = 0
2 kN
The internal forces on the section are 2 KN 1
P=0l(N Vy=—2.0Ul(N Mg=—l.O00kN-m A|15- 1kN-m(IE
which are the same as the previously calculated intemal forces. The intemal U)
forces are shown in Fig. 1-20f. Figure 1-20(e, f)
1 EXHIIIPIB Pl'ObI€lIl 1 -1 1 A bag of potatoes is sitting on the chair in

Fig. 1-21a. The force exerted by the potatoes on the frame at one side ofthe chair
is equivalent to horizontal and vertical forces of 24 N and 84 N, respectively, at
E and a force of 28 N perpendicular to member BH at G. Determine the intemal
forces on a section perpendicular to and midway between pins D and F.
0- J“!.- we
b.
0.5 rri
€..:':.'-'3».
B‘*1?’
zs E".l‘
-1'-e, . . '~
_.
0.1m '5—"'/ 0.2 m 0'2 m
(H)
Figure l-21(a) °§ Z
..l_24N 911N
SOLUTION
The forces acting on member DEF were found in Example Problem 1-4 and are 672 N (b) I6 so N
shown in Fig. 1-2 lb. A section is passed midway between D and F. A free-body
diagram of the portion of the member to the right of the section is shown in Figllre 1-3101)
Fig. 1-21c. Positive axes and internal forces are shown on the free-body diagram.
The equations of equilibrium yield
+<—EF,=0: P—91.1=0 (a)

+,l EF,,=0: V,,—16.80=0 (b)
+1 EM, = ll. M, + l6.80(0.25) = 0 (c)
M:
x
P -~:::=i Iii. N
Vy 0.25 m
16.80 N
.3’
(v)
Figure l-21(c)
The internal forces on the section are
P = 91.1 N Vy =16.80N M, = —4.20N - m A115-
Students are encouraged to solve the problem using a free-body diagram of a

portion of the member to the lefi of the section.
1 PROBLEMS J
M
Introductory Problems I
1-54* Three forces are applied along the centerline of a steel _ _ I i
bar as shown in Fig. P1-54. Determine the internal forces on j _ . -'
transverse cross sections in intervals AB, BC, and CD of the
ban 1'. Il|"2 in.
5.58 in. : _‘
~ ' .*—*iis.
75kN room
—> sum l
B C D I l
I ',
Figure P1-54 -' '
1-55* A human femur is modeled in Fig. P1-55. The abductor ¢

muscle force is M = 90 lb, and the femoral load is J = 120 lb. I
Determine the internal forces on section a—a. Figure P1-55
1-5 nrmnimroncss 41
l-56 The man shown in Fig. P1-56 has a mass of 75 kg; the
beam has a mass of40 kg. The beam is in equilibrium with the
man standing at the end and pulling on the cable. Determine
the internal forces on a section perpendicular to and midway
between
3. A t!IlCIB. if 75mm
ll. B and c. A _A
p
‘ 1112111114
25 mm
Section A-A
Figure Pl-58
3 C Intermediate Problems
A
L (G 1-59* Four sets of flexible cables, spaced at 120° intervals, are
used to stabilize a 400-ft communications tower. The tower and
1.5 m »~ 1.5 m one cable from each set are shown in Fig. P1-59. The weight
Figure Pl-56 of the tower is 401b/it, and the communications equipment
at the top weighs 2000 lb. Determine the axial forces (normal
forces acting along the centerline) on transverse cross sections
at points A, B, C, and D ofthe tower.
l-57* Determine the internal forces on section a-a in the angle
bracket shown in Fig. P1-57.
-re—Qr
Stilfilq
31$!
500 lb 1000 “ 1500115

|-—1o in. 5111.1‘ es
100 fl V
8g 1250 lb
OU
0 1
45~ l 7in. _l_¢ 10.pr>1o7m:..e:.
l Sin.
100 it
in
'50°1ooo11=
I A so ft -' 600
Ii _s|.i
4!'*
#31923‘
=xvx-#X¢Z$x-A
Figure Pl-57
Figure Pl-59
1-58 Determine the internal forces acting at the centroid of sec»

tion A—A of the C-clamp shown in Fig. Pl-58. The force P has 1-60* Determine the internal forces acting on section a—a in the
a magnitude of 2000 N. bar rack shown in Fig. P1-60 if each bar has a mass of 50 kg.
42 CHAFIER 1 lN'1'RODUC'l'lON AND REVIEW OF STATICS
/-100mm lfilgm
200mm
120mm ‘A 2"
I25 mm
>/r I 220 mm
:' _ AISOM
Figure P1-60 250 mm 250 mm
2700 N
1-61 The reaction between a crutch and the ground is 35 lb, as Figure P1-62
shown in Fig. Pl-61. Determine the internal forces acting on
section a-a.
1-63 Apin-connected systemoflevers and bars is used as a toggle
for a press as shown in Fig. P1-63. Three members are joined
by pin D, as shown in the insert. Determine the internal forces
on a section perpendicular to and midway between D and E
when P = 1000 lb.
.\
' \
\\ C I-'5 co
or
./
Pin D
BD P
‘\
\
33° DE
His
fl/
F=35lb
25° 2“
45?
ta:
H U 30 in.
1-64* A steel shafi 120 mm in diameter is supported in flexible
1-62 The finnt-wheel suspension of an automobile is shown in bearings at its ends. Two pulleys, each S00 mm in diameter,
Fig. Pl -62. The pavement exerts a vertical force of 2700 N on are keyed to the shaft. The pulleys carry belts that produce the
the tire. Determine the internal forces on a section perpendic- forces shown in Fig. Pl~64. Determine the internal forces on a
ular to and midway between C and D. vertical section through point A.
1-S ]N'l'li]lNAL FORCES 43
800mm /\
1270mm
_ - 400mm /K ‘ C
- - 900mm O .
Q 800mm 530 mun/' ‘_ 16
. _ F .1 gs I
30.101 " ‘ mm ml; g / 2;;
5 in MN 380 mm - 1930 mm '

Figure Pl-64 510 mm
Figure Pl-66
l-65* A device for lifiing rectangular objects such as bricks and

concrete blocks is shown in Fig. Pl-65. The coeflicients of fric- 1-67 Determine the internal forces on section a—a of the pipe
tion at all vertical contact surfaces are it, = 0.4 and it, = 0.3. system shown in Fig. Pl-67.
The device is to liit two blocks, each weighing 15 lb. Deter-
mine the internal forces on a vertical section 4 in. to the left of
pin B. Z 50 lb
7in.
P 10 in.
"U!
;
111
3
. G
in-i
4in. 4in. Sin.
Lit.
Ty.
I
X B
14 in.
J’
B
Figure Pl-67
legs 1-68" Determine the internal forces on section a—a in bar ABC
of the three-bar lrarne shown in Fig. Pl-68.
O 1' A
W 3 kN
Figure Pl-65
/' _'|‘_
-i-ii.-j
l-66 An automobile engine with amass of360 kg is supported by _--

an engine hoist, as shown in Fig. Pl -66. Determine the internal l00mm 100mm 100mm 100mm
forces on section a-a. Figure Pl-68
44 crnmzn 1 INTRODUCTION rum nsvrsw or srmcs
Computer Problems 1-71 A 4000-lb cart rolls along a beam as shown in Fig. Pl-71.
1-69 The hook shown in Fig. Pl-69 supports a 10-kip load. Plot 6- Sbflw 11131 the 11111K1lT1l1l‘I1 bending 11101116111 111 the beam 06'
P, V, and M, the intemal fgfggg and moment mmgmimgd by 3 curs at the wheel that is closer to the middle of the beam
section ofthe hook, as a function ofthe angle 6 (0° 5 6 5 150°). ll P101 lM|mul the l'1111Xi1'f1111T1 bending 11101116111 111 I116 1363111, 35
a function of the cart’s position x (0 ft 5 x 5 15 it).
x—*I
1 4000 lb total
I
i}
I‘ V_
A I s
3
/\\ s= 10in.
l- 2011 l
Figure P1-71
10 kip
(<1) 1-72 A group of workers propose to raise a uniform 250-kg post
Figurg P1459 AB to a vertical position using the rope and brace arrangement
shown in Fig. Pl-72. Assume that the weight of the brace can
1-70 Forces of 100 N are being applied to the handles of the vise be neglected and fi11ltendA acts as 3 316110111655 P111 for both 1113
grip pliers shown in Fig. P1-70. Plot P, V, and M, the internal 6-m-l011s1m1AB and the 6-I11-Ionsbra¢e-4C- Plot P, V, and M.
forces and mommy |1-angmjned by section a_a of the handle, the internal forces moment transmitted by section a-a of
as a funqion ofme dismnm d(2() mm 5 d 5 30 mm)_ the post, as a function of the distance from A (Om 5 b 5 6 m).
“JON 20mm 18mm

'\ /’
re '4Un1rn T 1 5 ' C
‘@213-
--1:-. '1 1- B
IF’:
_
\\ G
‘K l
.i§_.
_¢f____ 0 _
H6110 6&9
19 b/x\
X“
J
E L
100 N ls
Figure P140
90 mm 35 rnm M‘
Figure P1-72
A "'7'
SUMMARY
Review Problems Force is the action ofone body on another. The primary objective
of a course in mechanics of materials is the development of relationships between
the forces applied to a body and the internal forces and deformations induced in
the body.
Forces always exist in equal magnitude, opposite direction pairs. in order to
study these forces, it is necessary to isolate the body fi'om its surroundings or from
other parts ofthe body at each point where forces are to be determined. The resultant
of the internal force system is then found using the equations of equilibrium. The
ruivrsw PROBLEMS 45
importance of drawing a correct free-body diagram carmot be overemphasized.

The free-body diagram clearly establishes which body or portion of the body is
being studied. A correct fi‘ee-body diagram clearly identifies all forces (both known
and unknown) that must be included in the equations of equilibrium.
A rigid body (a body that does not deform under the action of applied loads)
is in equilibrium when the resultant of the system of forces acting on the body
is zero. This condition is satisfied if the vector sum of all external forces acting
on the body is zero and the vector sum of the moments of the external forces
about any point O (on or off the body) is zero. Although no body is perfectly rigid,
most engineering structures and machines are designed “stiff,” that is, they do not
deform very much. For such problems, the solution of the equilibrium equations
often ignores the deformation and treats the structure as though it were rigid.
However, we cannot find the exact distribution ofthe intemal forces rmtil we learn
how to determine the deformation of the body.
The subject matter of this book forms the basis for the solution of three
general types of problems encormtered by engineers in the design and analysis of
structures and machines:
0 Design: Given a certain firnction to perform, of what materials should the ma-
chine or structure be constructed, and what should be the sizes and proportions
of the various elements?
0 Checking: Given the completed design, is it adequate—does it perform the
function economically and without excessive deformation?
I Rating: Given a completed structure or machine, what is its actual load-carrying
capacity?
Some knowledge of the physical and mechanical properties ofmaterials is required

in order to create a design, to properly evaluate a given design, or even to write the
correct relation between an applied load and the resulting deformation of a loaded
member. Essential information will be introduced as required.
Don‘t report final results with more accuracy than is justified by the data
and don’t round off numbers too much too soon. Although results should always
be reported as accurately as possible, the final answer should not be more pre-
cise than the data fi'om which it was derived. One of the tasks in all engineering
work is to determine the accuracy of the given data and the expected accuracy
of the final answer. Results should always reflect the accuracy of the given data.
All data in Example Problems and Homework Problems will be assumed suffr-
ciently accurate to justify rounding off the final answer to three or four significant
figures.
1 REVIEW PROBLEMS c -_
1-73* The collar A shown in Fig. Pl-73 is free to slide on the i -7"’
srnooth rod BC. Determine the forces exerted on the collar by Ir--. _ I ". 30° I I
the cable and by the rod when the force F = 900 lb is applied ' ‘ 1'. 20° ..
to the collar. ‘ cable V,_\, _
D.
F=900 lb
Figure P1-73
46 CHAP'l'ER 1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF STATICS
1-74* A 500-kg mass is supported by a four-bar truss as shown in J’ so-::-0 lb

Fig. Pl-74. Determine the force in each member of the truss. soo nun
1 1800 lb-fi
A B
1 x
B
c.-
Y . |‘esn—-L3nr|e3n~l-ran?-‘
A '
| -
2 60"
I x
FigureP1-77
45°
1-78 The jaws and bolts of the wood clamp in Fig. Pl-78 are
n
I
parallel. The bolts pass through swivel mounts so that no mo-
ments act on them. The clamp exerts forces of 300 N on each
side of the board. Treat the forces on the boards as imiformly
' 4m l'2m> distributed over the contact areas and determine the forces in
Figure P1-74 each of the bolts. Show on a sketch all forces acting on the
upper jaw of the clamp.
1-75 The electric motor shown in Fig. P1-75 weighs 25 lb. Due to
friction between the belt and pulley, the belt forces have mag- ;
nitudes of T1 = 21 lb and T; = llb. Determine the support
reactions at A and B.
M
Z (e it
150
¥
~
T
"e.
E
§ E22=‘52E5TE£E5;E£EEE!E::I==¢II=1=
‘T4 B
V-4100
WTtt'uu'\ Lv1 mml>75 rn1nl~l00 mm
Figure P1-78
Figure P1-75 1-79* A three-bar fiame is loaded and supported as shown in Fig.
1-76" Determine the force P required to push the 135-kg cylinder Pl-79. Determine the internal forces transmitted by
over the small block shown in Fig. Pl-76. a. Section a-a in bar BEF.
b. Section b—b in bar ABCD.
F
400 lb * [
P iv; ,-¢75n1.rn
220mm 1000 lb 4fl
/*\-‘Y
2 s rt -'=-
_ - - '20"
Figure P1-76
1-77 For the beam shown in Fig. P1-77, determine
‘-2
~12!
<-"
I
a. The reactions at supports A and B.
b. The internal forces on a transverse cross section 10 it to the 2 ft 3 n-L»; n 2n
right of support A. Figure P1-79
REVIEW Pltoaums 47
1-81] Forces of 5 N are applied to the handles of the paper punch 1-83 The clamp of Fig. Pl-83 is used to hold two boards. If the
of Fig. P1-80. Determine the force exerted on the paper at D clamping force is 300 N, determine the internal forces on sec-
and the force exerted on the pin at B by handle ABC. tion a—a.
SN
3in.
—’-D ‘ D
. I __ / ' \
t ' tr:-=
4 '
::::ll-".'\|l$\\|\ "='>'.-5.-=:;==|_-___-__ :53: :~-,r;.-.~.»:.',==-:.
su 7°“ 4°“ _
. 1.
Figure P1-so 2 ‘"-
l-81* A shafl is loaded through a pulley and a lever (Fig. P1-81)
that are fixed to the shaft. Friction between the belt and pulley
prevents slipping ofthe belt. Determine the force P required for '
equilibrium and the reactions at supports A and B. The support
at A is a ball bearing, and the support at B is a thrust bearing.
The bearings exert only force reactions on the shaft.
‘Mt
TT‘NM
_> Ll
500 lb
/' Figure P1-83
150 lb
12 in. K {-
i "1-F
‘L—- - L 1-84 Two bars, a pulley, and a cable are used to support a block
as shown in Fig. P1-84. The two bars have negligible weight.
L12 in. _ /
:_—- | lb
200 The mass of the pulley is 50 kg, and the mass of the block is
'18 in. -__ __ ._ 100 kg. Determine the internal forces on cross section a-a in
14in. _A bm,A_B_
P |/14 1.11
' .
Figune Pl-81
l-82* The masses of cartons 1, 2, and 3, which rest on the plat- ' I
form shown in Fig. Pl-82, are 300 kg, 100 kg, and 200 kg, "
respectively. The mass of the platform is 500 kg. Determine \ 12 300 mm
the tensions in the three cables A, B, and C that support the . . , H7
pla-tfO1'1I1. B 300 mm
A .' fli ii, * Z-L-
B C —ss0uuui—,l
,_sso mm N 300 mm 300 mm
1m » 1 rn
1m“*'1m+L_lm I lm
m
Figure P1-82 Figure Pl-84
Chapter 2
Analysis of Stress: Concepts
and Definitions
2-1 INTRODUCTION
Application of the equations of equilibrium is usually just the first step in the so-
lution of engineering problems. Using these equations, an engineer can determine
the forces exerted on a structure by its supports, the forces on bolts and rivets
that connect parts of a machine, or the internal forces in cables or rods that either
support the structure or are a part of the structure. A second and equally important
step is determining the intenal effect ofthe forces on the structure or machine. It is
important, therefore, that all engineers understand the behavior of materials imder
the action of forces.
Safety and economy in a design are two considerations for which an engineer
must accept responsibility. He or she must be able to calculate the intensity of the
internal forces to which each part of a machine or structure is subjected and the
deformation that each part experiences during the performance of its intended
function. Then, by knowing the properties of the material from which the parts
will be made, the engineer establishes the most effective size and shape of the
individual parts and the appropriate means of connecting them.
In every subject area there a.re certain fundamental concepts of paramount
importance to a satisfactory comprehension of the subject matter. For the subject
mechanics of materials, a thorough mastery of the physical significance of stress
and strain is paramoimt. The discussion of stress will be undertaken first; the study
of strain will be taken up in Chapter 3.
P
2-2 NORMAL STRESS UNDER AXIAL LOADING

In the simplest qualitative terms, stress is the intensity of force. A body must be
able to withstand the intensity of an internal force; if not, the body may rupture or
deform excessively. Force intensity (stress) is force divided by the area over which
0- — -0
the force is distributed. Thus,
Stress = E
F (2-1)
K/“m:/ N
The forces shown in Fig. 2-1 are collinear with the centroidal axis of the eyebar
((';“c4i®
,*/Zr: and produce a tensile loading of the bar. These forces are called axial forces.
Figure 2-l When the eyebar is cut by a transverse plane, such as plane a—a of Fig. 2-l, a
48
2-3 SHEARING STRESS IN CONNECTIONS
free-body diagram of the bottom half of the bar can be drawn as shown in Fig. 2-2. F
Equilibrium of this portion of the bar is obtained with a distribution of internal
force that develops on the exposed cross section. This distribution of internal force
has a resultant F that is normal to the exposed surface, is equal in magnitude to P,
and has a line of action that is collinear with the line of action of P. An average Hi ‘U
intensity of internal force, which is also known as the average normal stress owg
on the cross section, can be computed as
F
Uavg = Z (2-2'2)
where F is the magnitude of the intemal force F and A is the cross-sectional area
of the eyebar. P
The Greek letter sigma (0) is used to denote a normal stress ir1 this book. Figure 2-2
A positive sign is used to indicate a tensile normal stress (member in tension),
and a negative sign is used to indicate a compressive normal stress (member in
compression). This sign convention is independent of the selection of a coordinate
system.
Consider now a small area AA on the exposed cross section of the bar and AF
g
let AF represent the magnitude of the resultant of the intemal forces transmitted
by this small area, as shown in Fig. 2-3. The average intensity of internal force u/1 ..\
being transmitted by area AA is obtained by dividing AF by AA. If the internal
forces transmitted across the section are assumed to be continuously distributed,
the area AA can be made smaller and smaller and will approach a point on the
exposed surface in the limit. The corresponding force AF also becomes smaller
and smaller. The stress at the point on the cross section to which AA converges is
defined as
<1 = AA—vU AF
lirn — (2-3)
P
In general, the stress or at a given point on a transverse cross section of
Figure 2-3
an axially loaded bar will not be the same as the average stress computed by
dividing the force F by the cross-sectional area A. For long, slender, axially loaded
members such as those found in trusses and similar structures, however, it is
generally assumed that the normal stresses are uniformly distributed except in the
vicinity of the points of application of the loads. The subject of nonuniform stress
distributions under axial loading will be discussed in a later chapter of this book.
2-5 SHEARING STRESS IN CONNECTIONS

Loads applied to a structure or machine are generally transmitted to the individual
members through connections which use rivets, bolts, pins, nails, or welds. In all of
these connections, one of the most significant stresses induced is a shearing stress.
The bolted and pinned connection shown in Fig. 2-4 will be used to introduce the
concept of a shearing stress.
The method by which loads are transferred from one member of the con-
nection to another is by means of a distribution of (intemal) shearing force on
a transverse cross section of the bolt or pin used to effect the connection. A
fi"ee-body diagram of the left member of the connection of Fig. 2-4 is shown in
SO taxman 2 uuursrs or snuzss= concerts mo nsrrsrnous
/"_"‘-.
/ \
-\
Pb Q r‘ >1:-£111}
’ |tt|| tu P
I \
/ \I
_‘\ 1 \
-"-1'-1 "=71
Ag! __E__
Figure 2-4
Fig. 2-5. In this diagram, a transverse cut has been made through the bolt, and the
Figure 2-5 lower portion ofthe bolt remains in contact with the lefi member. The distribution of
shearing force on the transverse cross section of the bolt has been replaced by a
resultant shear force V. Since only one cross section of the bolt is used to effect
load transfer between the members, the bolt is said to be in single shear; therefore,
equilibrium requires that the resultant shear force V equal the applied load P. A
2.1 free-body diagram for the threaded eyebar at the right end of the connection of
Fig. 2-4 is shown in Fig. 2-6. In this diagram, two transverse cuts have been made
through the bolt, and the middle portion of the bolt remains in contact with the
eyebar. In this case, two transverse cross sections of the pin are used to effect load
Illllillllllllllllllil
P transfer between members of the connection and the pin is said to be in double
V shear. As a result, equilibrium requires that the resultant shear force V on each
Figure 2-6 cross section of the pin equals one-half of the applied load P.
From the definition of stress given by Eq. 2-1, an average shearing stress
on the transverse cross section of the bolt or pin can be computed as
2.2
rt. =§ <2-4)
where V is the magnitude of the shear force V and A is the cross-sectional area of
the bolt or pin.
The Greek letter tau (r) is used to denote shearing stress in this book. A sign
convention for shearing stress is presented in a later section of the book.
The stress at a point on the transverse cross section of the bolt or pin can be
obtained by using the same type of limit process that was used to obtain Eq. 2-3
for the normal stress at a point. Thus,
r = lim LV (2-5)
an-to AA
Unlike the normal stress in long, slender members, it can be shown that
the shear stress r cannot be uniformly distributed over the a.rea. Therefore, the
actual shear stress at any particular point and the maximum shear stress on a cross
section will generally be different from the average shear stress calculated using
Eq. 2-4. However, the design of simple connections is usually based on average
stress considerations and this procedure is followed in this book.
2.3
Another type of shear loading is termed punching shear. Examples of this
type of loading include the action of a punch in forming rivet holes in a metal plate,
the tendency ofbuilding columns to punch through footings, and the tendency ofa
2-s usrrsorsnuass S1
,./'
F5 .1 =|v1td1
Figure 2-7
tensile axial load on a bolt to pull the shank of the bolt through the head (Fig. 2-7a).
Under a punching shear load, the significant stress is the average shear stress on
the surface described by the periphery of the punching member and the thickness
of the punched member, for example, the shaded cylindrical area A = ndt shown
extending through the head of the bolt in Fig. 2-7b.
2-4 BEARING STRESS

Bearing stresses (compressive normal stresses) occur on the surface of contact
between two interacting members. Actually, there are only two types of stress,
normal and shear. Bearing stress is a just a name given to normal stress resulting
from contact between two different bodies. f---A = H402 _
For the case of the connection shown ir1 Fig. 2-4, bearing stresses occur on
the surfaces of contact between the head of the bolt and the top plate and between
the nut and the bottom plate. The force producing the stress is the axial tensile df do
__.a
internal force F developed in the shank of the bolt as the nut is tightened. The
+5
area of interest for bearing stress calculations is the annular area A = §(d§ — df)
of the bolt head or nut (see Fig. 2-8a) that is in contact with the plate. Thus, the (I1)
average bearing stress 01, is expressed as
F
.1 I
l,
(Tb = I (2'6)
I /'~ \
A='d1
Bearing stresses also develop on stnfaces of contact where the shanks of bolts and
pins are pressed against the sides of the hole through which they pass. Since the
(5)
distribution of these forces is quite complicated, an average bearing stress 0;, is Figure 2-8
often used for design purposes. This stress is computed by dividing the force F
transmitted across the surface of contact by the projected area A = dt shown in
Fig. 2-8b, instead of the actual contact area.
2-5 UNITS OF STRESS

Stress, being the intensity of internal force, has the dimensions of force per unit
area (FL'2). Until recently, the commonly used unit for stress in the United States
was the pound per square inch (psi). Since metals can sustain stresses of several
thousand pounds per square inch, the unit ksi (kip per square inch) is also fiequently
used (1 ksi= 1000 psi). With the advent of the Intemational System of Units
S2 cnwrrn 2 mursrs or STRESS concarrs AND narrsrrroms
(SI units), units of stress based on the international system are sometimes used
in the United States and will undoubtedly come into wider use in the future.
During the transition, both systems will be encountered by engineers; therefore,
approximately one-half of the example problems and homework problems in this
book are given using the U.S. customary system (pounds and inches) and the other
half are given in SI units (newtons and meters). For problems with S1 units, forces
will be given in newtons (N) or kilonewtons (kN), dimensions in meters (m) or
millimeters (nmi), and masses in kilograms (kg). The SI unit for stress is a newton
per square meter (N/m2), also known as a pascal (Pa). Stress magnitudes normally
encountered in engineering applications are expressed in meganewtons per square
meter (MN/mg) or megapascals (MPa).
1 Example Problem 2—1 A flat steelbarhas axial loads (forces along

the eentroidal axis of the bar) applied at points A, B, C, and D, as shown in
Fig. 2-9a. If the bar has a cross-sectional area of 3.00 in.2, determine the normal
stress in the bar
(a) On a cross section 20 in. to the right of point A.
(b) On a cross section 20 in. to the right of point B.
(c) On a cross section 20 in. to the right of point C.
,301n._ 45m. , 40m.

.
81 kip 45 kip
4iOA BO—b 4—OC 00:0»
LJ
s4 kip 1a kip
(H)
Figure 2-9(a)
SOLUTION
The sections on which the axial forces act are perpendicular to the axis of the bar
and are located by the outward normal to the section. Since the applied forces
are axial, the only intemal forces acting on the sections are also axial; there are
no shear forces or couples acting on the sections. The internal axial forces are
assumed in the positive sense, as shown in the free-body diagrams of Fig. 2-9b.
20in.
s1 kip
ii»! 1'15
30 in. 20in
s1 kip
<io.4 so—r Fan‘
54 kip
. vs in. 20in
s1 kip ,
410,4 50-» 4-0 c FED
54 kip 18 kip
(bl
Figure 2-90»)
2-5 UNI‘l‘SOFS'l'RBSS S3
The internal forces transmitted by cross sections in intervals AB, BC, and
CD of the bar shown in Fig. 2-9a are obtained by using the fi'ee-body diagrams
shown in Fig. 2-9b. Summing forces along the axis of the bar yields
;%1°° st kip
+->>:F=F,,,,-s1=0 F45-=+8lkip=8lkip(T) 3 so 45 kip
+—>EF=Fb-g+54—8l=0 F35-=+27kip=27kip(T) 21 kip
+-»zF=FC,,+s4-is-s1=0 Fg;;=+45kip=4-5kip(T) for
Axial 0 A B C D
Position
where (T) denotes a tensile force. (C)
A pictorial representation of the distribution of internal force in bar ABCD Figure 2-9(c)
is shown in Fig. 2-9c. This type of representation is known as an axialforce
diagram and has been shown to be useful in solving problems involving axial-
force distributions. At the points where concentrated forces act, there a.re abrupt P Since the force FAB is the same every-
changes in the axial-force diagram. The forces in an axial-force diagram are where in the 30-in. segment AB, the stress
internal forces. The required stresses (from Eq. 2-2) are 0,15 will be the same everywhere in the
FAB +81 segment AB. The stress is also assumed
(a) 0,43 = 7 = 100 = +210 ksi = 21.0 ksi (T) Ans. to be uniform across the member except
near the points where the loads are ap-
(b) F = +21
U33 = %‘ % = +9.00 l(S1. — 9.00 l(S1. (T) Ans. plied. Determining how the stress changes
from O'_.(g=27.0 ksi just to the left of B
(c) F. = W
aw = f +45 = +1s.00 l(S1=
, 15.00 RS1. (T) Ans. to aB¢~=9.00 ksi just to the right of B
is a very complicated problem which de-
pends on many things, including the cross-
sectional shape and the manner in which the
54-kip load is applied.
1 Example Problem 2-2 The rotmd bar shown in Fig. 2-10¢ has steel,
brass, and aluminum sections. Axial loads are applied at cross sections A, B, C,
and D. If the allowable axial stresses are 125 l\([Pa in the steel, 70 MPa in the
brass, and 85 MPa in the aluminum, determine the diameters required for each P An allowable stress is the maximum per-
missible stress allowed in the design of a
of the sections. Assume that the allowable stresses are the same for tension (T)
member. This will be discussed in more de-
and compression (C).
tail in Chapter 4.
Steel Brass C Aluminum D

A -\
210 m--225 J. kN
l- -O.5m-- J“
"‘5“—k -0.5m-~ 0.5m --
(Q)
Figure 2-ll](a)
SOLUTION
The intemal forces transmitted by cross sections in intervals AB, BC, and CD of
the bar shown in Fig. 2-10a are obtained by using the free-body diagrams shown
in Fig. 2-10b. Summing forces along the axis of the bar yields
+—>EF=F}+270=0 F}=—270kN=270kN(C)
+—t>EF=Fg,+270—245=O F;,=—25kN=25kN(C)
+—>EF=Fn+270—245+200=0 Fn=—225kN=225kN(C)
54 CHAPTER 2 ANALYSIS OF STRESS: CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
270 kN
-C
270 kN F,
270 kN 15 mnirlfim-'
J“kea)
0- | :1
\___)
Figure 2-l0(h)
An axial-force diagram for bar ABCD is shown in Fig. 2-10c. The cross-
sectional areas of the bar required to limit the stresses to the specified values are
P The analysis of this example ignores the
obtained fi'om Eq. 2-2. Thus,
problem of how the three different materials
are to be fastened together. The actual stress
in the vicinity of the concentrated loads may
be considerably different than the average Tension
stress computed here. In addition, it can be 400
shown that near abrupt changes in diameter
or near holes through the section, the actual 200
Position
stress can be two to three times greater than as B C D
0 | | |
the average stress at that section. This ef-
fect is called stress concentration and will “ 25 kN
be covered in later sections of this book and Axiaforce,-200
kN
in structural design courses. 270 kN 225 kN
-400
Compression
(C)
Figure 2-l|](c)
F = -270 103
(a) A, = Edf = -*1
4 0, -12s(10) d, = s2.44(10-3)m 2 52.4mm Ans.
n
A =-n'1=-=iF1, -2s(10’) 4=21.3210‘
_ 221.3 An.
lb) ” 4 b 0;, -10(10°) ” l )m mm S
n F, -22s(103)
(c) A. = Haj = Z = Y6) d,, = 5B.05(l0'3)m 2 ss.1 mm Ans.
-I EXHIIIPIB P1'0lIIl8lIl 2-3 A brass tube with an outside diameter of

2.00 in. and a wall thickness of 0.375 in. is connected to a steel tube with an
inside diameter of 2.00 in. and a wall thickness of 0.250 in. by using a 0.750-in-
diameter pin as shown in Fig. 2-1 la. Determine
(a) The shearing stress in the pin when thejoint is carrying an axial load P of 10
kip.
(b) The length of joint required if the pin is replaced by a glued joint and the
shearing stress in the glue must be limited to 250 psi.
2-5 uxrrs or srrrsss SS
V-ii
P
V ‘Ii
(4) (ll)
Figure 2-l1(a-b)
SOLUTION
(a) A free-body diagram of the brass tube and pin is shown in Fig. 2-1 lb.
Since the pin is in double shear, A = 2(’{)(0.750)2 = 0.8836 in.2 Thus, from
Eq. 2-4, P The maximum shear stress in the pin is
about 50 percent greater than the average
V 10 W
-r=Z:0_8836=ll.3l7ks1_ll.32ksr, Ans. shear stress calculated here (r = 1 1.32 ksi).
To compensate for this known underestima-
tion ofthe shear stress, design engineers will
make sure that the pin will be able to with-
L stand shear stresses at least twice as great
(a factor of safety of2) as the average shear
-1--1-4- 10 kip stress computed. Factors of safety will be
2.00111. Tl Tl it
4-,— <— 4—
discussed in Chapter 4 and in structural de-
sign courses.
\- 1 = 250 psi
(6)
Figure 2-ll(e)
(b) A free-body diagram of the brass tube and joint is shown in Fig. 2-llc.
The shear stress acts over a length L of the outside circumference of the
brass tube. Forthe gluedjoint/1 = TrdL = :r(2.00)L = 2.00 Jrl. in.2 Thus, from
Eq. 2-4,
V 10,000 = 250 psi
I = I = 2.00J'rL
Timber beam
fi'om which
L = 6.366 in. E 6.37 in. Ans.

Bem,in_g/i
plate ~
1 Example Problem 2-4 The steel pipe column shown in Fig. 2-12
has an outside diameter of 150 mm and a wall thickness of 15 rnm. The load
imposed on the column by the timber beam is 150 kN. Determine
(a) The average bea.ring stress at the smface between the colurrm and the steel
bearing plate.
(b) The diameter ofa circular bearing plate ifthe average bearing stress between
the steel plate and the mod beam is not to exceed 3.25 MPa. Figure 2-12
SOLUTION
(a) The annular area between the steel column and the bearing plate is
A = %(d§ - df) = %[(150)2 - (120)1] = 6562 mrnz = 6362(10-6) H12
Thus, from Eq. 2-6,
3
<1, = 5 = ll) = 23.58(lO6)N/II12 2 23.6 MPa Ans.
A 6s62(10 °)
P Bearing stress is just the normal stress (b) The circular area between the bearing plate and the timber beam is
exerted on the surfaces of contact between
two parts ofa structure or machine element. JT
A = —d2
Like the normal stress within the member 4
itself, bearing stresses are usually assumed
constant over the cross section of contact. Thus, from Eq. 2-6,
However, if the bearing plate is not rigid,
the stresses exerted on the beam by the outer
03
edges of the bearing plate will likely be con- (I5 = 5 = = 3.25006)
siderably smaller than the stresses exerted on
the beam by the center of the bearing plate.
fi'om which
d = 242.4-(10-3) m '5 242 mm Ans.
1 Example Problem 2-5 A vertical shaft is supportedbyathrust collar

and bearing plate as shown ir1 Fig. 2-13a. The force imposed on the bea.ring plate
by the collar is 50 kip. Ifthe bearing stress between the collar and the bearing
plate must not exceed 10 ksi, determine the minimum diameter collar that must
be used. Assume that the bearing stress is tmiformly distributed over the surface
of the collar.
If the collar is not rigid, the stress between the collar and the bearing plate
will notbe uniform. Ifthe stress varies as shown in Fig. 2-13b (decreasing linearly
fi'om am, at the edge of the shaft to am,/2 at r= 3 in.), calculate and plot om“
1 in. omax
Collar--.._
I‘ 9
0-max
v
T
I I I ,,
I in. 2 in. 3 in.
,_. _ »- S
Figure 2-l3(a, b)
2-5 usrrsorsrnsss S7
versus the diameter dc of the collar (2.5 in. 5 dc 5 5.0 in.). Now what minimum
diameter collar must be used if the bearing stress must not exceed 10 ksi? What
is the percent decrease in am,“ for a 3-in.-diameter collar compared to a 2.5-
in.-diameter collar‘? For a 4.0-in.-diameter collar compared to a 3-in.-diameter
collar?
tit tF=t-M
SOLUTION
A fi"ee-body diagram of the shaft is shown in Fig. 2-13c. Summing forces in the
vertical direction gives
P
+'tEF,,=0: F—P=0 F=P ((1) (C)
Figure 2-13(c)
where the force on the collar is the sum of the bearing stresses F = fdF = f crdA.
COII31‘. Ifthebearing stresses are uniformly distributedoverthe annular

ring of the collar, then P The term F = f er dA accounts fora nor-
mal stress that may vary over the contact area
between the collar and bearing plate. If the
P=afdA=aA=a%(d§—22) collar is rigid, the stress 0 is constant, and
F = fa a'A reduces to Eq. (2-2).
Therefore, with P = 50 kip and 0 = 10 ksi, the smallest diameter collar that can
be used is
i4(50) _
dc — -l" 4 III. ADS.
FIEXIIJIO COII31‘. The equation for the linearly varying stress of Fig. 2-13b
is
Umax
0 = T(5 — F) (5)
Integrating the stresses of Eq. (b) over the annular ring of the collar gives
P =fcrdA =1” °T“”“"(5 - r)(2:rr dr)

new 2 2 3
= i 54 [(2. 1 ,(-. 1]
— l — — — l
Therefore, with P = 50 kip, the maximum stress on the collar is given by
200
am = (0)
For example, when r, = 1.25 in. (and dc = 2.5 in.)
200 _
s,,.,,. = 2 = 29.242 l(Sl
rrI:5 (1.252 -1)- 5 (1.253 -1)]
S8 cnirrrn 2 ANALYSIS or s'nrsss= coxcsrrs AND rmrrsrrrons
Maximum Bearing Stress
30
25 l
Stress(ksi)
ls)(DUhQ
.--1
0 ml‘ ll\_|_|_|t_t_t_| l_|_|_ll_|_|_Jl‘ ‘mm

2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Diameter, d (1n.)
(4)
Figure 2-13(0)
Calculating Eq. (c) for values of dc between 2.5 in. and 5.0 in. results in the graph
of Fig. 2-13d.
From the graph of Fig. 2-13d, the smallest flexible collar for which
am“ 5 10 ksi is
dc = 3.32 in. Ans.
winch is only 3.1% larger than the diameter of the smallest rigid collar. From
Eq. (c) or from the graph of Fig. 2-13d, when dc = 3 in., the maximum stress is
am =13.642 ksi and the percent decrease from when dc =2.5 in. is
29.242 — 13.642
29.242
(100) = 53.4% Ans.
The percent decrease in the maximum stress between dc=3.0 in., where the
maximum stress is emu = 13.642 ksi, and dc =4.0 in., where the maximum
stress is am, = 6.161 ksi, is
13.642 -6.161
(100) = 54.8% Ans.
13.642
1 PROBLEMS
MecMovie Activities and Problems MM2.3 Shear stress-basic problems. Concept Checkpoints. Use
, shear stress concepts for four introductory problems.
MM2.1 Normal, shear, and bearing stress. Example; Try One.
Simple pin connections used to illustrate various types ofstress. -“M2-4 l-"ad capacity °f tW°'ba1‘ a$5°I11lJl)/- Example; TI7 One-
Determine load capacity of two-bar structure given areas and
.\[M2.2 Normal stress-basic problems. Concept Checkpoints. allowable Stresses for the two membem
Use normal stress concepts for four introductory problems.
2-5 uurrs or srasss S9
MM2.5 Shear stress in pin support. Example: Concept Check- 2-4* In order to hold a 130-kg crate in a stationary position, a
points. Determine shear stress in support. worker exerts a force P at an angle 9 on a rope as shown in
Fig. P2-4. Detennine the normal stress in the 15-mm diameter
MM2.6 Shear strms in bolted flanges. Example; Try One. Deter-
rope AB when 6 = 20°.
mine shear stress in bolted connection
A .!'1|
Introductory Problems
2-l"' An aluminum tube with an outside diameter of 1.000 in. —I _8n
will be used to support a 10-kip load. If the axial stress in the

member must he limited to 30 ksi (T) or (C), determine the
wall thickness required for the tube. El_ B
2-2* Three steel bars with 25 x 15 -mm cross sections are welded D \
to a gusset plate as shown in Fig. P2-2. Determine the normal

stresses in the bars when the forces shown are being applied to
the plate.
Y
El».
‘SURN Flgtue P2-4
40kN
2-5 A device for determining the shearing strength of wood is
shown in Fig. P2-5. The dimensions of the wood specimen are
60° A B 20 kN
6 in. wide by 8 in. high by 2 in. thick. If a load of 16,800 lb is
w C |4s° required to fail the specimen, determine the shearing strength
m i ii; (the shear stress at the failure load) of the wood.
ex - $.-_.
1»--um.‘- i Wood
7: .
. r"
I
blOck \\\
__________ _ _ ,
E‘
Figure P2-2 S 111.
2-3 Loads are applied with rigid bearing plates to a system of

steel bars, as shown in Fig. P2-3. The cross-sectional areas are
V
16 in’ for bar AB, 4 in.’ for bar BC, and 12 in.’ for bar CD.
int
Determine the normal stress on a typical cross section in each
of the bars. Figure P2-5
90 kip
2-6 A lever is attached to the shaft of a steel gate valve with
a square key, as shown in Fig. P2-6. If the shearing stress in
\ the key must not exceed 125 MPa, determine the minimum
dimension a that must be used if the key is 20 mm long.
75 kip 75 kip ‘ti
‘If plates 600mm
so kip ‘ so RV |
‘ ‘fl50mm
125 kip 12s kip

l_l
r 1 kN
A G
Figure P2-3 Flgtue P2-6

2 7* A coupling is used to connect a 2-in.~diarneter plastic rod 2-10* The weight W in the traction device shown in Fig. P2-10
to a 1.5-in-diameter rod, as shown in Fig. P2-7. If the average has a mass of 45 kg. The continuous cord from A to W has a
shearing stress in the adhesive must be limited to 500 psi, de- diameter of 10 mm. Determine the normal stress in segment
termine the minimum lengths L] and L; required for the joint BC of the cord.
when the applied axial load P is 8000 lb.
‘I-1i ‘I-zl
—~ P
A
B
Figure P2-7
2-8 A vertical shaft is supported by a thrust collar and bearing

30°,-'
_+|<i
plate as shown in Fig. P2-8. Determine the maximum axial 30° c
load that can be applied to the shaft if the average punching
shear stress in the collar and the average bearing sn-ess between
the collar and the plate are limited to 75 MPa and 100 MPa. -’0
respectively.
O W
100mm
150 mm Figure P2-10
Collar -~ fim
—T‘_ 2-11 The l25—lh girl shown in Fig. P2-ll is doing a chin-up.
For the position shown, the humerus is modeled as an axially
loaded member. Determine the normal stress at section a—a if
O the section is modeled as
d i ij
Figure P2-8
2 9* A 100-ton hydraulic punch press is used to punch holes in

a 0.50-in.-thick steel plate, as illustrated schematically in Fig.
P2-9. If the average punching shear resistance of the steel plate
is 40 ksi, determine the maximum diameter hole that can be
punched.
leg
P = l00Tons
Hydraulic '-—-~_~_\ Q11 I5‘-

ram ~e
/----Plate
’ ta) (b)
Figure P2-1 1
a. A solid circular cross section of l-in. diameter.

b. A hollow cylinder of outside diameter l-in. and inside di-
Figure P2-9 ameter 0.6 in.
2-5 uurrs or srasss 61
2-12 Pulleys l and 2 of the rope and pulley system shown in Fig. 2-14* Member AD of the timber truss shown in Fig. P2-14 is
P2-12 are connected and rotate as a unit. The radii ofpulleys l framed into the 100 x 150 -mm bottom chord ABC as shown
and 2 are 100 mm and 300 mm, respectively. RopeA is wrapped in the insert. Determine the dimension a that must be used if
around pulley 1 and is fastened to pulley 1 at point A’. Rope the average shearing stress parallel to the grain at the ends of
B is wrapped around pulley 2 and is fastened to pulley 2 at chord ABC is not to exceed 2.25 MPa.
point B’. Rope C is continuous over pulleys 3 and 4. Each rope
has a diameter of 15 mm. Determine the normal stress in each
segment of rope C if the weight W has a mass of 225 kg.
50 mm ’ in 1‘
‘ i . H1
_ C 1'“ H _l._ *‘2m Zmli

18kN
Figure P2-14
2-15 The inclined member AB of a timber truss is framed into

a 4 x6 -in. bottom chord, as shown in Fig. P2-l5. Determine
A the axial compressive force in member AB when the average
shearing stress parallel to the grain at the end of the bottom
chord is 225 psi.
T
Ii .
12 .. /P
—T— " _ _ -Iii

3 in. 1~-A i:_f_; 1;.
Figure P2-12
lfi 3 ' _ Ti-__'—1 —é*— _
is i _
L—5in.
Figure P2-15
Intermediate Problems
2-16* A scissors jack for an automobile is shown in Fig. P2-16.
2-13* Two flower pots, shown in Fig. P2-13, are supported with The screw threads exert a force F on the blocks atj ointsA and B.
steel wires of equal diameter. Pot A weighs 10 lb and pot B
weighs 8 lb. Determine the minimum required diameter of the P
wires if the normal stress in the wires must not exceed 18 ksi.
‘lr€ _ — _ — _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — _ —_D__l
'
45° or -=.;I-
45° '-
.;:._'.
/R /6
I If fl t ..|u, I ”
,.¢,'¢,.¢,

If F = 700 N, determine the shearing stress on a cross section of cross section of the 3/8-in.-diameterpin at B, which is in single
the 10-mm-diameter pin at C, which is in single shear when shear.
= 1 5“ .
= 30°.
99'.” name: = 45° .
2-17 Forces of 25 lb are applied to the handles of the pipe pliers
shown in Fig. P2-17. Determine the shearing stress on a cross |,~'
section of the 0.25-in.-diameter pin at A. Ii’
|" 12 in.
I
ass . ;25lb l
1.25 in. ‘ 9 "“' B -.
gin.
’
D
Q‘ ‘ l C _
pi
>:< Jr—7_—*t7i _ 7 -- I -' C 0 E - lln
D "~ so "- 1-
25 lb '
Figure P2-17 - 3111. 3in.
Figure P2-19
2-18 A pin-connected truss is loaded and supported as shown in

Fig. P2-18. Determine
2-2|] A pin-connected truss is loaded and supported as shown in
a. The normal stress m ' memher DE if it has a cross-sectional Fig P2_20_ Dem-mine
area of 750 mm. 2
b. The minimum cross-sectional area for memher BC if the a- The normal stress in member CD if it has a cross-sectional
normal stress is limited to 30 MPa. area of 624 mm?
b. The minimum
' cross- sectional area for member DF if the
normal stress is limited to 25 MPa.
J’
'__A B _ x 12 kN lOkN
l
D ' Hy’ f l 2m
3m 3m ' 3m l B l 2m
tom l5kN _ .
Figure P2-18
~ 3 Ill —:e—Q DJ 5 _,i_i 3m mi

2-19* The fold-down chair of Fig. P2- 19 weighs 30 lb and has
its center of gravity at G. Determine the shearing stress on a Figure P2-20
2-5 uurrs or sntsss 65
2-21 A force of 20 lb is required to pull the stopper DE in a. The normal stress onasectionperpendicular toandmidway
Fig. P2-21. Determine the shearing stress on the cross section between D and E. The cross-sectional area of member DE
of the 118-in.-diameter pin at B, which is in single shear. is 1.25 in?
b. The shearing stress on the cross section of the 0.25-in.-
diameter pin at E, which is in double shear.
l\J Q
,/1.-'2 in.
1-’- ;
Q 1n.—T—*—1+
_ + il- |- 2 11
i 1 in. :___
'.~ '.~ W t 9 ':.--"'3 5' \\
-h
2 in. '| /_h

_ l 1
__
T P 3 rr \ If
-w kV ,/' —‘
C._
- .2111
0- -B ::n
T=1» .-_
O1~.n
/
' ___\
//II /_______:
w/ 1 ./|___I
Q re"1l,—1"’!Q
——————\ 1 '1'1'1:
1 I____1
I -rt) /
Figure P2-23
Figure P2-21
Challenging Problems 2-24 Figure P2-24 is a simplified sketch of the mechanism used
2-22* A pair of vise grip pliers is shown in Fig. P2-22. When a to raise the bucket of a bulldozer. The bucket and its contents
force P= 100 N is being applied to the handles, determine weigh 10 kN and have a center of gravity at H. ArmABCD has
a weight of 2 kN and a center of gravity at B; arm DEFG has
a. The average shaming stress in the pin at A if it has a 4-mm a weight of l kN and a center of gravity at E. The weight of
diameter and is in double shear. the hydraulic cylinders can be ignored. Determine the required
b. The average shaming stress in the pin at B if it has a 5-mm diameter of the pin at D if the shearing stress cannot exceed
diameter and is in double shear. I20 lv[Pa. The pin is in double shear.
50nm1i_'_T-23mm
Q
A
I -
311° 19° A
1;’ — 7"\ 1 n1
_ ~ 5:1- --*1,
351:n.1:n
=.=
up Ir - \\ g /CE ..
r ._\.,
L
...i - — — ‘ » '
l5r11r11
.../\ tit i’I%}%§1

Pm
—— m 4351-um’
Figure P2-22 f]\eX

2-23* The mechanism of Fig. P2-23 is designed to keep its load
level while raising it. A pin on the rim of the 4—ft-diameter
pulley fits in a slot on arm ABC. Arms ABC and DE are each \.h___;‘
4 ft long, and the package being lifted weighs 80 lb. The mech-
anism is raised by pulling on the rope that is wrapped around
the pulley. Determine for the position shown Figure P2-24
2-25* For the pin-connected structure of Fig. P2-25, determine 2-28 The steel pipe column shown in Fig. P2-28a has an out-
the minimum diameter for the pin at joint D if the average side diameter of 150 mm and a wall thickness of 15 mm. The
shearing stress in the pin must be limited to 7500 psi. load imposed on the column by the timber beam is 150 kN.
If the bearing stress between the circular steel bearing plate
and the wood beam is not to exceed 3.25 it/[Pa, determine the
F - minimum diameter bearing plate that must be used between
1000 lb
Smooth \ C E the column and the beam. Assume that the bearing stress is
uniformly distributed over the surface of the plate.
Q U toto -'?D_+_-'39
ca
as-sis £1/I sit-E __ Timber beam

t;-=;;::i---:1; : :3;--::-:-..1...-..:3--.-'51.. .....:11- '-;_-_-,-e .;;;:
:::=---:::'..»
____...-:..- 1-1--F:-11-711111;"9---::i£:‘47J§$£“H-1?J::rNmr::...-:;E::3::-
-- _‘-'Ilw\4'
g__-;-
;.' -"-:::::-.1'>1:vt1f{;g;,=,..--........J;7:;-..-r-r-..-.----------------~
#1::-:1;--...._,3;--......“"-._._,,_._.....r-..-......-.-r,-;;;g-
"-""“'s,::-:.e..;'~»-..;;~_..-.................-.-------:
. - .. ..,,...;--;--:1121..1....,-,......,.........-IZ;~r~---...,._..,..
.....~--~ ___,.. '- ' - ---
;{;;-------- - _ _ ............-. ._ >_;..............
s
lit ' Bearing plate —/
Figure P2-25
2-26 The fi-out-wheel suspension of an automobile is shown in

')
Fig. P2-26. The pavement exerts a vertical force of 2700 N on
the tire. Determine the minimum diameters of the pins at A, B,
C, and D if all pins are in double shear and the shear stress in ilfl
any pin cannot exceed 125 MPa. .
(Q)
250 mm
0'
Ufllflilt
i
i
i
2001111-11
0-ITIEX
125 mm __ T
: g 3,1150 mm
1 I r
—-=1 75 mm rp
mm ‘
(bl
Figure P2-28
2-mo N
Figure P2-26 If the bearing plate is not rigid, the stress between the
bearing plate and the wood beam will not be uniform. If the
stress varies as shown in Fig. P2-28b (a rmiform value of am“
Computer Problems above the colmnn and decreasing linearly to om,,f5 at the out-
side edge rp ofthe bearing plate), calculate and plot am, versus
2-27 A steel pipe will be used to support a 9000-lb load. If the the radius 1-,, of the bearing plate (75 mm 5 1-,, 5 500 mm). Now
wall thickness of the pipe is 10 percent of the pipe’s outside what minimum diameter bearing plate must be used if the bear-
diameter d,,, calculate and plot the normal stress in the pipe cr ing stress must not exceed 3.25 MPa? What is the percent de-
as a ftmction of the diameter do (0.75 in. 5 do 5 3 in.). If the crease in om for a 400-mm-diameter bearing plate compared
axial stress in the pipe must be limited to 12 ksi, what is the to a 150-rm-n-diameter bearing plate‘? For a 600-mm-diameter
smallest size standard steel pipe (see Appendix B) that could bearing plate compared to a 150-mm-diameter bearing a
be used? plate?
2-6 STRESSES ON AN INCLINED PLANE [NAN AXIALLY LOADED MEMBER
2-29 A vertical shaft is supported by a thrust collar and bearing 2-30 The tie rod shown in Fig. P2-30a has a diameter of 40 mm
plate as shown in Fig. P2-29a. The force imposed on the bear- and is used to resist the lateral pressure against the walls of a
ing plate by the collar is 50 kip. I.fthe bearing stress between grain bin. The force imposed on the wall by the rod is 80 kN.
the collar and the bearing plate must not exceed 10 ksi, deter- If the bearing stress between the washer and the wall must not
mine the minimum diameter collar that must be used. Assume exceed 2.8 MPa, determine the minimum diameter washer that
that the bearing stress is uniformly distributed over the surface must be used between the head of the bolt and the grain bin
of the collar. wall. Assume that the bearing stress is tmiformly distributed
over the surface of the washer.
- = EU
as
.0-‘iqygt .-
, "'-- _-‘~.<.,f sail’-raise...

.-';
"'J_"'-1.. Q
.-sjhfigg!-gvzqrl
(30113; .. ‘" §<|3Tl.O:-f§!-!"'-*'l-
‘ -=‘-.<' \£e.1.%S.\-'.,l‘(-"'{-.8.
—..-
111\ 1111111\1»===-' r-
'1" “?‘fl\="'
I|na' 1- -or 10-10

€tt?.-53::{:§.'-¢?-
!_ig§I.'o'5rJ.ss'§$*""
...~ -n (cg-U?
-*1-t‘ - ..
P 9
(G) (
<1)
O’
CF
“max
Gmax
co|Tl5.x-
“max
?
I l l
1 in. 2 in. 3 in. ’ 1 1 l
20 30 r,, '
m.m m.m
(5)
(5)
If the collar is not rigid, the stress between the collar If the washer is not rigid, the stress between the washer
and the bearing plate will not be uniform. Ifthe stress varies as and the wall will not be uniform. If the stress varies as shown
shown in Fig. P2-29b (decreasing linearly ii-om om, at the edge in Fig. P2-30b (a uniform value of aw under the 60-mm-
of the shalt to am,/2 at r = 3 in.), calculate and plot om“ ver- diameter restraining nut and decreasing as l/r to the outside
sus the radius r, of the collar (1 in. 5 1-, 5 2.5 in.). Now what edge rw of the washer), calculate and plot o,,,,,, versus the ra-
minimum diameter collar must be used if the bearing stress dius 1-,, of the washer (30 mm 5 1-,, 5 200 mn1).Now what min-
must not exceed 10 ksi? What is the percent decrease in om, imum diameter washer must be used if the bearing stress must
for a 3.2-in.-diameter collar compared to a 2.4-in.-diameter not exceed 2.8 MPa'? What is the percent decrease in om
collar? For a 4.0-in.-diameter collar‘? For a 5.0-in.-diameter for a 200-mm-diameter washer compared to no washer? For a
collar? 300-mm-diameter washer’?
2-6 STRESSES ON AN INCLINED PLANE IN AN

AXIALLY LOADED MEMBER
In Sections 2-2, 2-3, and 2-4, norrnal, shear, and bearing stresses for axially loaded
members were introduced. Stresses on planes inclined to the axis of an axially
F loaded bar will now be considered. When the eyebar shown in Fig. 2-1 is cut by an
! inclined plane, a free-body diagram of the upper portion of the bar would appear
as shown in Fig. 2-14. Equilibrium of the upper portion of the bar is established
T 2. by placing a distribution of intemal force on the cut section, as shown in Fig.

2-15. The resultant F of this distribution of internal force is equal in magnitude
to the applied load P and has a line of action that is coincident with the axis of
the bar, as shown in Fig. 2-l5. An average total stress Savg on the inclined surface
can be computed by using Eq. 2-2. This total stress conveys little information
that is useful for design purposes, however, because experimental studies indicate
that materials respond differently to forces that tend to pull surfaces apart than
to forces that tend to slide surfaces relative to each other. Therefore, the resultant
F, is usually resolved into normal and tangential (shear) components N and V, as
0
Figure 2-14
H11“ /'
shown in Fig. 2-16. It is these components that are used to compute the normal
and shear stresses on the inclined surface using Eqs. 2-2 and 2-4. The axes and
forces shown in Fig. 2-16 are all positive. The x-axis is the outward normal to a
section perpendicular to the axis of the bar, and the rz-axis is the outward normal
to the inclined section. The angle 6 is measured from a positive x-axis to a positive
n-axis; a counterclockwise angle is positive. Positive y- and t-axes are located
P using the right-hand rule and a positive angle. The forces N and V shown in
Fig. 2-16 are both positive (see Section 1-5). Also, the intemal force on the x-
section is positive.
From equilibrium, the normal and shear forces are given by N =P cos 6
and V = —P sin 6. The area on which these forces act is the area A,, ofthe inclined
surface which is given by A,, = A/cos 0, where A is the cross-sectional area of the
axially loaded member. Therefore,
c __. ‘\._*,.
itom
"mm N P 0 P P
a,,=—=i=—cos26=—(l+oos219) (2-7)
A,, A/cos 6' A 2A
F
Figure 2-15 V —P ' 6 —P —P
t,,=—=i=—sin6cos9=—sin29 (2-8)
A, A/cost? A 2A
Q In the preceding discussion, the assumption was made that the stresses were tini-
P ~51 formly distributed over the inclinded surface.
Both the area of the inclined surface A, and the values for the normal and
shear forces N and V on the surface depend on the angle 9 of the inclined plane
with respect to the applied load; therefore, the normal and shear stresses 0,, and
17,, on the inclined plane also depend on the angle 9. This dependence of stress
on both force and area means that stress is not a vector quantity; therefore, the
laws of vector addition do not apply to stresses that act on different planes. This
_‘,r. need not be cause for concem if, in the application of the equations of equilibrium
(or motion), one always replaces a stress with a total force (stress multiplied by
9 the appropriate area), thus reducing the problem to one involving ordinary force
'-,,...
C ,. vectors. However, stresses that act on a single particular plane can be treated as
._N
'1 vectors, since they all are associated with the same area.
__-V1
_ 9 n A graph showing the magnitudes of 0,, and 1:, as a function of 6 is shown
x in Fig. 2-17. These results indicate that 0,, is maximum when 6 is 0“ or 180°, that
Figure 2-16 '17,, is maximum when 9 is 45° or 135°, and also that ‘rm, =c,,,,,x1'2. Therefore,
2-6 STRESSES ON AN INCLINBD PLANE [NAN AXIALLY LOADED NIEMBER
_ Stress U" .
h)-— >.~t=we
0'//I" 45 Hi“ 90~~_ 13s * Ang°’

,/130 | at
Figure 2-17
the magnitudes of the maximum normal and shearing stresses for axial tensile or
compressive loading are
am“ = P/A (2-9)

rm = P/2A (2-10)
Note that the normal stress is either maximum or minimum on planes for which
the shearing stress is zero. It can be shown that the shearing stress is always zero
on the planes of maximum or minimum normal stress. The concepts of maximum
and minimum normal stress and maximum shearing stress for more general cases
will be treated in Sections 2-10, 2-ll and 2-12 of this chapter.
Laboratory experiments indicate that both normal and shearing stresses un-
der axial loading are important because a brittle material loaded in tension will
fail ir1 tension on a transverse plane, whereas a ductile material loaded in tension
will fail in shear on a 4-5“ plane. B1
The plot ofthe magnitudes ofthe normal and shear stresses for axial loading, L
90°
shown in Fig. 2- 17, indicates that the sign of the shearing stress changes when 9 is
greater than 90". The magnitude of the shearing stress for any angle 9, however, is ‘I
the same as that for 90” + 9. The sign change merely indicates that the shear force .----“e, = 90 + e,
V changes sense when 9 > 90”. Nomial and shearing stresses on planes having Figure 2-18
aspects 6| and 90° + 91 are shown in Fig. 2-18.
The equality of shearing stresses on orthogonal planes can be demonstrated y
by applying the equations of equilibrium to the free-body diagram of a small
rectangular block of thickness dz, shown in Fig. 2-19. If only a shearing force'
V, ='r,,,,¢ixdz is applied to the top surface of the block, the equation SF, = 0 VI = Ifldx dz
will dictate the application of an oppositely directed force V, to the bottom of the
block, thus leaving the block subjected to a clockwise couple; this couple must be
balanced by a counterclockwise couple composed of the oppositely directed forces j dy V_,, = 1,_,.¢y dz
V}. applied to the vertical faces of the block. Finally, application of the equation 4; we
EM, = 0 yields the following:
Figure 2-19
Ty; (dx dz)dy = 1',,.(dy dz)dx
fi'om which
ry, = 13,. (2-1 l)
1The double subscript on the shearing stress is used to designate both the plane on which thestress acts
and the direction of the stress. The first subscript indicates the plane (or rather thenormal to the plane),
and the second subscript indicates the direction of the stress. This will bediscussed in more detail in
Section 2-7.
Therefore, if a shearing stress exists at a point on any plane, there must also exist
at this point a shearing stress of the same magnitude on an orthogonal plane. This
statement is also valid when normal stresses are acting on the planes, because the
normal str'esses occur in collinear but oppositely directed pairs and thus have zero
moment with respect to any axis.
_(1
K 57° 1 Example Problem 2-6 A plastic bar with a circular cross section
I000 lb IUUU lb
i of diameter 1.25 in. will be used to support an axial load of 1000 lb, as shown in
fir,
Fig. 2-20a. Determine the normal and shearing stresses on section a—a.
H
ta) ', SOLUTION

J’
V The positive coordinate axes (x—y and n—t) are shown in Fig. 2-20b. Since a
“:1 positive angle 6 is measured counterclockwise from positive x to positive n, the
.~/-
1000 lb i angle 6 shown in Fig. 2-20b is negative (6 = -33“). Using Eqs. 2-7 and 2-8,
H
33° y.
._ *_U‘.
N ,-‘ Q
It
I
N P +1000 U
ti») "H 0'" — '1?" — E
Figure 2-20
= 573 psi Ans.
P Equations 2-7 and 2-8 give the normal

and shear stresses on inclined surfaces in V =—
17,, = - —P sin29 = - (ii
1000 sin 2(-33")
uniaxially loaded bars such as in this exam- A. 2A 2[rr(l.25)2/4]
ple. These equations must not be used for
other, more general loading situations. = +372 psi Ans.
Alternatively, a positive angle of +327“ could have been used:
P +1000 5
U" = 27 (l -i-(210526) = -i-CO5 2[-F327
= 5'73 psi Ans.
—P - 1000
r,=—sm2e=?(+ 2) sin2(—l-327”)
2A 2[rr(l.25) /4]
= +3 72 psi Ans.
1 Example Problem 2-7 The block shown in Fig. 2-21¢ has a

200 x 100-mm rectangular cross section. The normal stress on plane a—a is 12.00
MPa (C) when the load P is applied. If angle ¢ is 36°, determine
(a) The load P.
(b) The shearing stress on plane a—a.
(c) The magnitudes of the maximum normal and shearing stresses ir1 the block.
2-6 STRESSES ON AN INCLINED PLANE [NAN AXIALLY LOADED MEMBER
P P
. /
A H
36° 54
ii’ "
(H) (b)
Figure 2-21
SOLUTION
(a) Positive values ofcoordinate axes and internal forces are shown in Fig. 2-2 lb
Using Eq. 2-7,
N P
0,, — In — -l-COS 29)
P :2
P = —694.7(l03)N 2 695 rot (c) Ans
(b) Using Eq. 2-3,
T“ __ I
V __ fislll
—P . 29 __ i00)(100)(l0_6)sm
-(-694.7)(10’) . 2(+s4 , )
N
= + 16.52 t 10°Jm,
—
r,, = 16.52 MPa Ans.

P In uniaxial loading problems, the max-
(c) From Eqs. 2-9 and 2-10, imurn normal stress always occurs on the
transverse cross section (6=0") and the
rnaxirnurn shear stress (rm, = cr,,,,,J2) oe-
P 694 mo’)
om, = — = m = 34.74(l05) — E 34.7 l\r[Pa
N Ans. curs on a plane oriented at 45" to the axial
A (200)(100)(10-6) m2 direction. Like Eqs. 2-7 through 2-10, these
results apply only to uniaxially loaded bars
such as in this example; they must not be
P figullos) 173710‘ N 17 31 MP used for other, more general loading situa-
Tm“ _ 2.4 _ 2(200)(100)(10-6) _ ' ( )m1 _ ' a tions.
Ans.
1 PROBLEMS
MecM0vie Activities and Problems 2-34 A concrete cylinder 75 mm in diameter and 150 mm high
failed along a plane making an angle of 57° with the horizontal
MM2.7 Stresses on inclined plane. Example; Try One. Calculat- when subjected to an axial vertical compressive load ol'80 kN.
ing normal and shear stresses acting on an inclined plane in an Determine the normal and shear stresses on the failure plane.
axial member.
N[M2.8 Forces based on inclined plane stresses. Example; Try Intermediate Problems
One. Given allowable normal and shear stresses and a specified
2-35* A steel bar with a 4 x l-in. rectangular cross section
inclined plane surface, determine the maximum axial load that
is being used to transmit an axial tensile load, as shown in
can be applied.
Fig. P2-35. Normal and shear stresses on plane a—a of the bar
Introductory Problems are 12 ksi tension and 9 ksi shear. Determine the angle 9 and
the applied load P.
2-31* An axial load P is applied to a timber block with a
4 x 4 -in. square cross section, as shown in Fig. P2-31. De-
termine the normal and shear stresses on the planes of the
grain if P = 5000 lb.
P
Figure P2-35
2-36* A steel bar with a butt-welded joint, as shown in Fig. P2-
2/
.214"
4' ‘
36, will be used to carry an axial tensile load of 400 kN. If the
normal and shear stresses on the plane of the butt weld must
2
be limited to 70 MPa and 45 MPa, respectively, determine the
minimum thiclcness t required for the bar.
Rigid “"- Grain
plates
ll
57°
l
\ 100 mm
.,__\
Figure P2-36
Figure P2-31 2-37 The shearing stress on plane a—a of the 4 x8-in. rectangular
block shown in Fig. P2-37 is 2 ksi when the axial load P is
2-32* The steel bar shown in Fig. P2-32 will be used to carry applied. If the angle ¢ is 35°, determine
an axial tensile load of 400 kN. If the thickness of the bar is a. The load P.
45 mm, determine the normal and shaming stresses on plane b. The normal stress on plane a—a.
a—a. c. The maximum normal and shearing stresses in the block.
P
32?.
Y,
__rL
\
a |_._
P '75 nun P
~ l I
Figure P2-32
2-33 A structural steel bar with a 2 >< 6-in. rectangular cross sec-
GV
tion is subjected to an axial tensile load of 270 kip. Determine
the maximum normal and shear stresses in the bar. Figure P2-37
2-6 STRIISSESONANINCLINIIDPLANE INANAXIALLYLOADED MEMBER
2-38 Determine the maximum axial load P that can be applied 2-4l The two parts of the eyebar shown in Fig. P2-41 are con-
to the wood compression block shown in Fig. P2-38 if speci- nected with two 1/2-in.-diameterbolts (one on each side). Spec-
fications require that the shear stress parallel to the grain not ifications for the bolts require that the axial tensile stress not
exceed 5.25 MPa, the compressive stress perpendicular to the exceed 12.0 ksi and that the shearing stress not exceed 8.0
grain not exceed 13.60 MPa, and the maximum shear stress in ksi. Determine the maximum load P that can be applied to the
the block not exceed 8.75 MPa. eyebar without exceeding either specification.
Direction - ~-._ p60”

of grain l
100 mm
Width P P F55.
100 rmrr
Q
Length = 320 mm
Depth = 120 mm ' ‘\.>‘¢
Figure P2-38
Challenging Problems Figure P2-41

2-39* A steel eyebar 4 >< l-in. rectangular cross section has been
designed to transmit an axial tensile load. The length of the 2-42 A tension member with a 50 x 100-mm rectangular cross
eyebar must be increased by welding a new center section in section will be fabricated with an inclined glued joint
the bar (45° 5 ¢ 5 90") as shown in Fig. P2-39. The stresses in (45° 5 qb 5 90°) at its midsection, as shown in Fig. P2-42. If
the weld material must be limited to 12 ksi in tension and 9 ksi the allowable stresses for the glue are 5 MPa in tension and
in shear. Determine 3 MPa in shear, determine
a. The optimum angle qb for the joint.
a. The optimum angle qb for the joint.
b. The maximum safe load P for the member.
b. The maximum safe load P for the redesigned member.
P
"'*"'l» P
W
2-40* The bar shown in Fig. P2-40 has a 200 x 100-mm rectan- Computer Problems
gular cross section. Determine
2-43 Specifications for the 3x 3 x21-in. rectangular block
a. The normal and shearing stresses on plane a-a. shown in Fig. P2-43 require that the normal and shearing
b. The maximum normal and shearing stresses in the bar.
P
. /' 3 in. /,1'
lm I 250kN ./
3m.
/
‘ A J
2m 1";-1-3_0: 4 21in.
1
'1 a
200 kN
a
_ n . l
2m __w.
"° ¢-
2|
| 0
¢.|.|
_ .n ,,
_o._o._»
'.-P
|
'-
-
300 kN
Figure P2-41] Figure P2-43
stresses on plane a-a not exceed 800 psi and 500 psi, respec- late and plot the normal stress 0,, and the shear stress r,, in the
tively. If the plane a—a makes an angle 9 = 37“ with the hor- weld material for weld angles ¢ (3 0" 5 qt 5 90°). If the stresses
izontal, calculate and plot the ratios ofaw and r/rm as a in the weld material must be limited to 80 MPa in tension and
firnction of the load P(0 5 P 5 13 kip). What is the maximum 60 MPa in shear, what ranges of ¢ would be acceptable for
load Pm“ that can be applied to the block‘? Which condition the joint? Repeat for P= 305 kN and for P= 350 kN. Are weld
controls what the maximum load can be? Repeat for B =25". angles ¢ < 30° reasonable‘? Why or why not?
For what angle 9 will the normal stress and the shear stress
both reach their limiting values at the same time?
it _
2-44 A steel eyebar with a 100 x 25-mm rectangular cross sec-
tion has been designed to transmit an axial tensile load P. The
length of the eyebar must be increased by welding a new center
P-50 4 4
section in the bar, as shown in Fig. P2-44. IfP = 250 kN, calcu- Figure P2-44
2-7 STRESS AT A GENERAL POINT IN AN ARBITRARILY

LOADED MEMBER
In Sections 2-2 through 2-6 the concept of stress was introduced by considering
the internal force distribution required to satisfy equilibrium in a portion of a bar
under an axial load. The nature ofthe force distribution led to uniformly distributed
normal and shearing stresses on transverse planes through the bar. In more com-
plicated structural members or machine components, the stress distributions will
not be uniform on arbitrary internal planes; therefore, a more general concept of
the state of stress at a point is needed.
A
:= The nature of the internal force distribution at an arbitrary interior point O
of a body of arbitrary shape, that is in equilibrium rmder the action of a system of
-~\
‘|
~__~. “n,w,‘,,
.:-1 applied forces and support reactions F1, F2, F3, . . . F,,, can be studied by exposing
l
AA AF» I an interior plane through O, as shown in Fig. 2-22a. The force distribution required
n ,' on such an interior plane to maintain equilibrium of the isolated part of the body
I
0 E :“t‘Ir will not be uniform, in general; however, any distributed force acting on a small
area AA surrounding a point of interest O can be replaced by a statically equiva-
/ ‘§‘ lent resultant force AF, through O and a couple AM,,. The subscript n indicates
F
-
F2 H that the resultant force and couple are associated with a particular plane through
("1' O—r1an1e1y, the one having an outward normal in the n-direction at O. For any
Figure 2-22(2) other plane through O the values of AF and AM could be different. Note that the
line of action of AF, or AM" may not coincide with the direction of n. Ifthe resul-
tant force AF, is divided by the area AA, an average force per unit area (average
resultant stress) is obtained. As the area AA is made smaller and smaller, the force
FL \
distribution becomes more and more uniform and the couple AM, vanishes. In
I nt
the limit AA—>O, a quantity known as the stress vector: or resultant stress, S,,, is
__ ___ .\AF,, obtained. Thus,
§'_\ ‘-
. I-I-I‘ n
Apart . AF»
S" _ Al/I120 AA
/’
In Section 2-6 it was pointed out that materials respond differently to
F2 components of the stress vector. In particular, components normal (n) and tan-
Figure 2-22(1)) gent (t) to the internal plane are important. As shown in Fig. 2-22b, the resultant
2The component of a tensor on s plane is a vector; therefore, on a particular plane, the stressescan be
treated as vectors.
2-1 srrmsssracrmrmr POINT [NAN Arrrrr'r'rrArtnr' LOADED rrrrsrurrrrrr 73
force AF, can be resolved into components AF", normal to the plane and
AF," tangent to the plane. A normal stress 0,, and a shearing stress 17,, are then
defined as
, AF
0,, = hm in
AA—0U AA F1 \ ,,
HI! d Irv
_ _ Q” 5}
.
r:,, = I]II1 T
AF,” _l‘
II_I—‘_-*-—i
AA->0 AA I
6
or
F\
ilk
Z
For purposes of analysis it is convenient to reference stresses to some I

coordinate system. In a Cartesian coordinate system, the stresses on planes having F2
outward normals in the x-, y-, and z-directions are usually chosen. Consider the (C)
plane having an outward normal in the x-direction (see Fig. 2-22c). In this case Figure 2-22(c)
the normal and shear stresses on the plane will be 0, and rx, respectively. Since
rx, in general, will not coincide with the y- or z-axes, it must be resolved into the
components 1: ,_,. and 1:“, as shown in Fig. 2-22c.
Unfortunately, the state of stress at a point in a material is not completely
defined by these three components of the stress vector, since the stress vector itself I11!
depends on the orientation of the plane with which it is associated. An infinite
number of planes can be passed through the point, resulting in an infinite number Z /‘no “Fr
of stress vectors being associated with the point. Fortrmately it can be shown (see
Section 2-12) that the specification of stresses on three mutually perpendicular
planes is suflicient to completely describe the state of stress at the point. The
rectangular components of the stress vectors on planes (through point O) having (H)
outward normals in the positive coordinate directions are shown in Fig 2-23.
It is customary to show the stresses on positive and negative surfaces y
through a point using a small “element” such as is shown in Fig. 2-24. The six
faces of the small element are denoted by the directions of their outward normals,
so that the positive x-face is the one whose outward normal is in the direction of Cy
the positive x-axis. The coordinate axes x, y, and z are arranged as a right-hand
system. Ty!
O X
, <1»)
ct}, y
'' /
--_.
T
3.?
1Q ‘Ir
-!-id
H Sm 0
' or Ix: X
)_
__
o. -
/' h‘"‘*—-- z
G1
‘ X
t,,.=-r.yr
Z -[F2 = ‘IIzv (6)
in = Tr:
Figure 2-23
Figure 2-24
74 CHAPTER 2 ANALYSIS OF STRESS CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
The sign convention for stresses is as follows:
I Normal stresses are indicated by the symbol cr and a single subscript to indicate
the plane (actually the outward normal to the plane) on which the stress acts.
Normal stresses are positive if they point in the direction of the outward normal.
Thus, normal stresses are positive if tensile and negative if compressive.
9 Shearing stresses are denoted by the symbol r followed by two subscripts; the
first subscript designates the normal to the plane on which the stress acts and
the second designates the coordinate axis to which the stress is parallel. Thus,
1:X, is the shearing stress on a plane with outward normal in the x-direction. The
stress acts parallel to the z-axis. A positive shearing stress points in the positive
direction of the coordinate axis of the second subscript if it acts on a surface with
an outward normal in the positive direction. Conversely, ifthe outward normal of
the surface is in the negative direction, then the positive shearing stress points in
the negative direction ofthe coordinate axis of the second subscript. The stresses
shown on the element in Fig. 2-24 are all positive.
Summarizing, the resultant stress vector S,, is the result of the action of one
part of the body on another part of the body, and it is a measure of the force
intensity over a section of the body. The components of the stress vector, 0 and
r, depend on the location of the point O as well as the orientation of the plane
through the point. Of the nine components of stress, 0,, 0,, U3, Txy, ryx, ryz, rzy,
rm and 17,2, only six are independent because moment equilibrium requires that
r,_,, = r.'_,.,, r_,,, = r.',,., and r.',_, = rm (see Section 2-6).
2-8 TWO-DIMENSIONAL OR PLANE STRESS

Considerable insight into the nature of stress distributions can be gained by con-
sidering a state of stress lcnown as two-dirnerrsional or plane stress. For this case,
two parallel faces of the small element shown in Fig. 2-24 are assumed to be free
of stress. For purposes of analysis, let these faces be perpendicular to the z-axis.
Thus,
U; =r:,, = Tzy =0
From Eq. 2-l 1, however, this also implies that
tr, = r,-Z = O
A state of plane stress occurs naturally at points on the outside surface of a body
where the z-components of force are zero. A state of plane stress also occurs
at points within thin plates where the z-dimension of the body is small and the
z-components of force are zero.
For plane stress analysis, then, the only components of stress present are
ox, oy, and 13,,-= 1:yx. A plane stress element is shown in Fig. 2-25. The stresses
shown on the positive and negative faces of the element are shown as positive.
For convenience, this state of stress is represented by the two-dimensional sketch
shown in Fig. 2-26. However, the three-dimensional element of which the two-
dimensional sketch is a plane projection should be kept in mind at all times.
2-9 TH]! STRESS TRANSFORIIIATION EQUATIONS FOR PLANE STRESS
.3’
ID}.
"T*- -____'[yx
“Q
Y
-LI‘
11>’ )_______ r I kg
.- / 1:1,, 0,.1
’ —_'—l'I_
x
T15!
Z
\fl
\ {Try
0,. \
\ i
O‘x
Figure 2-25 O-I 1;xy | e \\ a
yr
Normal and shearing stresses on an arbitrary plane, such as plane a—a Tl

Ov
in Fig. 2-26, can be obtained by using a fi'ee-body diagram and the equations of Figure 2-26
equilibrium as discussed in Section 2-9.
2-9 TIIE STRESS TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS FOR

PLANE STRESS
Equations relating the normal and shearing stresses 0,, and rm on an arbitrary
plane (whose normal is oriented at an angle 49 with respect to a reference x-axis)
0
through a point and the known stresses ax, cry, and 1:X), = 1:y, on the reference planes
can be developed using the free-body diagram and the equations of equilibrium.
#4
Consider the plane stress situation indicated in Fig. 2-27a (all stresses are positive),
where the dotted line a—a represents any plane through the point (all planes are
perpendicular to the plane of zero stress—the plane of the paper). Recall that a
counterclockwise angle 9 is positive, where 6 is measured from the positive x-axis
to the positive n-axis.
Figure 2-27b is a flee-body diagram of a wedge-shaped element in which
the areas of the faces are dz! for the inclined face (plane a—a), dA cos 0 for the 2.7
0,. r\ Y
\
\ 4-”
‘ Tu: \\ 1" ‘"9
I
\a
\\ tn. 0,, dA
‘ {fi qx o,d.4 cos Bl H , 9
e \‘ ,3 1,, dA cos 6 rt" ‘M

1:11‘
1),, dA sin 9
0,.
0,, dA sin 6
(K1) (1?)
Figure 2-27
76 CHAPTER 2 ANALYSIS OF STRESS CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
vertical face, and dA sin 6 for the horizontal face. The n-axis is perpendicular to the
inclined face; the t-axis is parallel to the inclined face. The positive direction for
the n-axis is outward from the surface (it is the outward normal), and the positive
direction for the t-axis is 90" cormterclockwise from the n-axis. The 132- and nt-axes
shown in Fig. 2-27 are positive. The stresses shown in Fig. 2-27a are multiplied
by the areas over which they act, resulting in the fi'ee-body diagram shown in Fig.
2-27b. Summing forces in the rt-direction gives
+/EF _0_ a,,dA—a,(dAcos6)cos6—0_,,(dAsin6)sin6

H —r).,,(dA sin 6) cos 6 — r,_,,(dA cos 6) sin 6 = 0
fi'om which, since r:_,,, = rxy,
0,, = 0, cos: 6 + 0,, sin; 6 + 2r,,,. sin6 cos 6 (2-12a)
or, in tenns of the double angle,
an=a,,( 1 +2cos 26 )+a,(.l—2cos 26 )+ 2 r,,,(:1rr

. ' 26 )
0' +0 0' 0 (2-12b)

= % + cos26-l-tr, sin26
Srrmrrring forces in the t-direction gives
+\ BF _0 _ r.',,,dA+0,,(dA cos6)sin6—oy(dA sin6)cos6

,- .
-r,,,,(dA cos 6) cos 6 + r,.,,(dA sin 6) sin 6 = 0
from which
rm = —(a, — cry) sin 6 cos 6 + r:,,,,(cos2 6 — sinz 6) (2-13a)
or, in terms of the double angle,
r,,, = - sin 29 + an cos 29 (2-131;)
Equations 2-12 and 2-13 provide a means for determining normal and
shear stresses for plane stress on any plane whose outward normal is perpen-
dicular to the z-axis and is oriented at an angle 6 with respect to the refer-
ence x-axis. When these equations are used, the sign conventions used in their
development must be rigorously followed; otherwise, erroneous results will be
obtained.
These sign conventions can be summarized as follows:
1. Tensile normal stresses are positive; compressive normal stresses are negative.
All of the normal stresses shown on Fig. 2-27 are positive. The sign ofa normal
stress is independent of the coordinate system being used.
2. A shearing stress is positive if it points in the positive direction of the coordinate
axis of the second subscript when it is acting on a surface whose outward
2-9 TH]! STRESS rrmrvsrorrirriirroiv EQUATIONS rorr PLANE snrsss 77
normal is in a positive direction of the coordinate axis of the first subscript.

Sirriilarly, if the outward normal of the surface is in a negative direction, then
a positive shearing stress points in the negative direction of the coordinate
axis of the second subscript. All of the shearing stresses shown on Fig. 2-27
are positive. Shearing stresses pointing in the opposite directions would be
negative. The sign of a shearing stress depends on the coordinate system being
used.
. An angle measured counterclockwise fi'om the reference positive x-axis is posi-
tive. Conversely, angles measined clockwise from the reference Jr-axis are neg-
ative.
. The (n, t, 2) axes have the same order as the (x, y, z) axes. Both sets of axes form
a right-hand coordinate system.
1 Example Problem 2-8 At apoint in a structural member subjected

to plane stress there are normal and shearing stresses on horizontal and vertical
planes through the point, as shown in Fig. 2-28:1. Use the stress transformation
equations to determine:
(a) The normal and shearing stresses on plane a—b.
(b) The normal and shearing stresses on plane c—a', which is perpendicular to
plane a—b.
(c) Show the stresses on planes a—b and c—a‘ using a small element.
' 29
SOLUTION
First define the x—y and n—t (ifneeded) directions if they have not been specified.
On the basis ofthe axes shown in Fig. 2-2 8b and the established sign conventions,
0, is positive, whereas 0,, and rxy are negative. Thus, the given values for use in
Eqs. 2-12 and 2-13 are
0,, = +80MPa 0,, = -100 MPa

Txy Z Ty; Z MP8
100 MP3
Q 480 d I y
n
4— so MPa
60 MPa
c b 9
X
(=1) (b)
Figure 2-28(rr-b)
r / r1 1 /n
\,, \ 60.3 MPa
Tm‘ on 9
_r_
42° \_m
"i.4z<= x
‘ 95.2 MPa
0 b
(6) (Ii)
Figure 2-28(c-d)
(a) The angle 6 for plane a—b is +42“, as shown in Fig. 2-28c. Thus, from Eqs.
2-12 and 2-13,
0,, = 0, cos: 6 + 0,. sing 6 + 2r,,_,, sin 6 cos 6

= so cos2(+ 42*") + (-100) sin2(+ 42=)
+ 2(-60) sin (+ 42=) cos (+ 42")
= -60.26 MPa 2 60.3 MPa (c) Ans.
I r,,, = —(0, — 0,.) sin 6 cos 6 + 1:,y(cos2 6 — sin2 6)
“/ = -[so - (- 100)] sin (+ 42“) cos (+ 42=)
an
mi, + (- 60)[cos2(+ 42=) - sin2(+ 42=)1
43° = -95.78 It/[Pa E -95.8 MPa Ans
C
5" \ ,, The results are shown in Fig. 2-28d’.

(2) (b) The angle 6 for plane c—d is -48” (or +132”), as shown in Fig. 2-28¢ Thus,
Figure 2-28(e) fi'om Eqs. 2-12 and 2-13,
0,, = 0, cosz 6 + 0,, sinz 6 + 2r,y sin6 cos6

= so 005%-43°) + (- 100) sin2(—-48“)
+ 2(—60) sin (—48°) cos (--43°)
= +4-11.26 MPa '5 40.3 l\/[Pa (T) Ans.
/r
13,, = —(0, — 0,.) sin6 cos6 + 1',,.(cos2 6 — sinz 6)
95.8 M.Pa
Jlix = -[s0 - (-100)] sin(—48°)cos(—48°)
4s"
403 MP8 + (—60)[cos2(—-1-8“). - s1n2(—48
. ,,
)1
\ = +95.78 It/[Pa E +95.8 MPa Ans.
fl
Figure 2-28(1) The results are shown in Fig. 2-28f.

Since planes a—b and c—d are orthogonal, the shearing stresses on the
two planes must be equal in magnitude to satisfy Eq. 2-ll. Also, one of
the stresses must tend to produce a clockwise rotation of the element while
the other tends to produce a counterclockwise rotation. With the coordinate
systems shown ir1 Figs. 2-28d and 2-28f, this means that the shearing stresses
calculated using Eq. 2-13 will have opposite signs on the two planes.
2-9 TH]! STRESS 'TRANSFORl\'IA'I'lON EQUATIONS Fort PLANE snuzss 79
40.3 MPa 0 60.3 MPa
953 Mipa 95.3 MP3
b wt?
l
953 MPa _ 95.8 MPa
40.3 MPa /'1

60.3 MPa
(3)
Figure 2-28(g)
(c) Tire stresses acting on x—y planes through the point are shown in Fig. 2-28a.
Since planes a—b and c—d through the point are perpendicular, the stresses
on these planes, using the results of part (b), may be drawn on an element as
shown in Fig. 2-2 8g.
1 EXHIIIPIB 2-9 At a point on the outside surface of a thin-

walled pressure vessel (see Fig. 2-290), stresses are 8000 psi (T) and zero shear
on a horizontal plane and 4000 psi (C) and zero shear on a vertical plane, as
shown in Figs. 2-29b and c. Determine the stresses at this point on plane b—b
having a slope of 3 vertical to 4 horizontal.
SOLUTION
A small “element” is shown in Fig. 2-29b. There are no loads (or stresses) on the
z-surface, and thus a state of plane stress exists. This state of stress is depicted
in Fig. 2-29c. Figure 2-29d shows the x—y stresses, the n—t stresses on plane
b—b (assumed positive), the positive coordinate axes, and the angle between the
positive x- and n-axes (6 = -53.13”). The given values of stresses for use in the
stress transformation equations are
0, = -4000 psi, 0,. = +8000 psi, and rm, = 0 psi
P 1: P
r 8000 psi
Z
(<1) 4000 psi —> it-it

3|’ y on \/"$3.13
l
3000 P51 8000 psi PI
,3, (vi)
fil 4000 '
_._‘____\1:0 I 40005;- Ll-3
\
Figure 2 _29(0)
Z 0
\
eh.
(5) (6)
Figure 2-30(a-c)
80 caumzn 2 ANALYSIS or s'msss= coscsrrs AND omsrrrows
Thus, fi"om Eqs. 2-12a and 2-13a,
I 0,, = cr, cosz 6 + U}; sinz 9 +21:,,_,, sin 9 cos 9

/ = [— 4000) COS2[— 53.13:‘)-1-(+ 8000) S1112 (— 53.13“) + 0
‘TX = +3680 psi = 3680 psi (T) A115.
5759 Psi /£53130 tn, = —(0,, — ay)sin 9 cos 9 + r,,_,,(cos2 8 — sinz 9)

<58" PS1 = -[(-4000) - (+s000)] sin (-53.13“) cos (-53.13") + 0
" = -5760 psi Ans.
(8)
Fiflllffi 2-39$) These results are shown in Fig. 2-29e.
1 Example Problem 2-10 The block shown in Fig. 2-30¢ has a

200 x 100-mm rectangular cross section. Determine the normal and shearing
stresses on plane a—a when ¢ = 36° and P= 600 kN.
SOLUTION
Since the block is subjected to an axial load, the problem could be solved using
Eqs. 2-'7 and 2-B. Instead, the normal and shearing stresses on plane a—a will
be found using the stress transformation equations, Eqs. 2-12a and 2-13a. The
stress transformation equations are valid for any type of loading, if the state of
stress is plane stress.
First, the x—y stresses are found. The block is sectioned as shown in Fig.
2-30b, and the positive axes are drawn. The normal stress 0, is found using Eq.
2-2 as
_ 3
ax = 5 = = _3()(10¢=)l
A (200)(l0O)(10_6) m2
= -30 l\/[Pa
ml
30 MP8 g
./’
54° ‘:1
|' 200 mml '

(R) (5')
Figure 2-30(a-b)
2-9 not sntsss ntsssromusnou EQUATIONS rott PLANE sntsss 81
The stresses 0,. and tn, are zero, as there are no loads to produce these stresses.
The x—y stresses for use in the stress transformation equations are 0,, = -30 MPa,
0,. =0 MPa, and rxy = 0 MPa. The stresses on plane a—a (assumed positive), the
x—y stresses, positive coordinate axes, and the angle 6 = +54“ are shown in Fig. t
2.3021. Equations 2-12a and 2-13a give /
%14.27MPa
0,, = 0,, cos: 6 + ay sinz 6 + 2r,,_,, sin 6 cos 6
= (— 30) cos: (+ 54°) + 0 + 0 X036 MPa
= -10.36 MPa = 10.36 MPa (C) Ans. 54 \n
r,,, = —(a,, — cr,.)sin 6 cos 6 + tn, (cosz 6 — sin: 6)
I
= —[(—30) — 0] sin (+54-“) cos (+54-") + 0
= +l4.27 MPa Ans. (6 )
Figure 2-30(c)
These results are shown in Fig. 2-30c.
1 PROBLEMS
MecMovie Activities and Problems 2-46* At a point in a stressed body, there are normal stresses of
95 MPa (T) on a vertical plane and 125 MPa (T) on a horizontal
MM2.9 Correct angle for stress transformations. Theory; Con- plane, as shown in Fig. P2-46. Determine the normal and shear
cept checkpoints. Easy method for finding the proper value of stresses at this point on the inclined plane a—b shown in the
6 for use in the stress transformation equations. figure.
M.\tl2.l0 Sign, sign, everywhere a sign. Game. Game focused on
the correct sign conventions needed for the stress transforma-
125 MPa
tion equations.
b #__,-»1f"20o
2-45* At a point in a thin plate, there are normal stresses of /”' 95 MPa
Ia
20 mi (T) on a vertical plane and 10 ksi (C) on a horizontal
plane, as shown in Fig. P2-45. Determine the normal and shear
stresses at this point on the inclined plane a—b shown in the
figure.
Figure P2-46
F4 2-47 The stresses shown in Fig. P2-47 act at a point on the stmface
of a circular shaft that is subjected to a twisting moment M as
\ /F1 shown. Determine the normal and shear stresses at this point
on the inclined plane a-b shown in the figure.
10 ksi
U ,,, 1:= 15 ksi

,1 20 ksi
F3
Figure P2-45
\
F3
' I
»3'i“°
Figure P2-47
' TM ll
82 CHAPTER 2 smursrs or sntsss= coscsrrs mo nsrnrnoss
2-48* The stresses shown in Fig. P2-48 act at a point in a stressed Intermediate Problems
body. Determine the normal and shear stresses at this point on
the inclined plane a—b shown in the figure. 2-51* An axial load P is applied to a timber block with a 4 x
4 -in. square cross section, as shown in Fig. P2-51. Determine
the normal and shear stresses on the planes of the grain if
P = 5000 lb. Use the stress transformation equations.
125 MPa
P
_ 1
rs MPa
i II i //’ 4
;l4 CI
J [E50 55 iVlP8 r =,
x |t
r
G 1,
If
Rigid "' Grain
platels
Figure P2-4s
\
\
2-49 The stresses shown in Fig. P2-49 act at a point on the surface
of a thin-walled pressure vessel that is subjected to an internal
pressure, an axial load P, and a torque T. Determine the normal Figure P2-51
and shear stresses at this point on the inclined plane a—b shown
in the figure. 2-52* A steel bar with abutt-welded joint, as shownin Fig. P2-52,
will be used to carry an axial tensile load of 400 kN. If the
thickness of the bar is 40 mm, determine the normal and shear
stress on the plane of the weld. Use the stress transformation
,_ - , eta equatiorm.
.»"\_ °
P P , b 15 ksi mots lmrm ‘S7 /6/\\ 400104

U id?’ ~ 18 ksi
T G If, Figure P2-52
T 2-53 Specifications for the 3 x3 ><21-in. block shown in

Figure P2-49 Fig. P2-53 require that the normal and shear stresses on plane
a-a not exceed 800 psi and 500 psi, respectively. Determine
the maximum load P that can be applied without exceeding the
specifications. Use the stress transformation equations.
2-50 The stresses shown in Fig. P2-50 act at a point on the sur-
face of a cantilever beam. Determine the normal and shear P
stresses at this point on the inclined plane a—b shown in the
figure. _,__; in.
3_.¢1
iu._,.>-- --\4'' 1:?-
__. '_ _ _
* —-____ ___.-' ‘er.
P \ a
l 2| in.
'-' ' ' 1»

I 1
.
_ —+ 535° 170 MPa _ .
. ' a /I
70 MPa

z-9 nut sntsss tnsnsrourttnou sournoss Fort mass sntsss 83
2-54 The shearing stress on plane a-b of the 100 x 200 -mm rect- exceed 5.25 MPa and the compressive stress perpendicular to
angular block shown in Fig. P2-54 is 15 MPa when the axial the grain not exceed 13.60 MPa. Use the stress transformation
load P is applied. If the angle mp is 35°, determine equations.
a. The load P.
b. The normal stress on plane a-b.
Direction ——-~ \60°
of grain 41
T-
P 100 mm
Width P P
100 mm
J._
Length = 320 mm
b Depth = 120 mm
'ill Figure P2-56
2-57* At a point in a machine component, the normal and shear
Q V filo-:2
stresses on an inclined plane are 4800 psi (T) and 1500 psi,
respectively, as shown in Fig. P2-57. The normal stress on a
Figure P2-54 vertical plane through the point is zero. Determine
a. The shear stresses on horizontal and vertical planes.
b. The normal stress on a horizontal plane.
2-55* A timber block with a square cross section will be used to
support a compressive load of 32 kip, as shown in Fig. P2-55.
Determine the size of the block required ifthe shear stress par- ,3
allel to the grain is not to exceed 800 psi and the compressive 4
stress perpendicular to the grain is not to exceed 3500 psi. Use ‘I.’
the stress transformation equations.
CF
Figure P2-57
32 kip
2-58* The stresses on horizontal and vertical planes at a point

on the outside surface of a solid circular bar subjected to an
axial load P and a torsional load T are shown in Fig. P2-58.
20° _. The normal stress on the inclined plane a-b is 15 MPa (T).
Determine
a. The normal stress 0, on the vertical plane.
Grain l
b. The magnitude and direction of the shear stress on the in-
clined plane a—b.
- 25 MPa
Figure P2-55 . ~._______ T b
l u W .-2 As <1.
2-56 Determine the maximum axial load P that can be applied
J"? 1 ' “ '
to the wood compression block shown in Fig. P2-56 if speci-
fications require that the shear stress parallel to the grain not Figure P2-58
84 CH.AP'l'ER 2 ANALYSIS OF STRESS: CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
2-59 The stresses shown in Fig. P2-59a act at a point on the free 2-62 The stresses on horizontal and vertical planes at a point are
surface of a stressed body. Determine shown in Fig. P2-62. The normal stress on the plane a—.b is 15
MPa (T). Determine
a. The normal and shear stresses at this point on the inclined
plane a—b shown in the figiue. a. The normal stress 0,, on the vertical plane.
b. The normal stresses 0,, and 0, and the shear stress r,,, ifthey h. The magnitude and direction of the shearing stress on the
act on the stress element shown in Fig. P2-59b. inclined plane a—b.
l3 ksi . or 25 MPa
Tm
_ -5 Gksi '/ 0 "In
‘Q vi‘? *0
a__ .-\|~.>\ ——v
xi
Figure P2-62
(Q) (3!)
2-63* The thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel shown in Fig.
Figure P2-59 P2-63 was constructed by wrapping a thin steel plate into a
helix that forms an angle of 6 = 35° with respect to a trans-
2-60* At a point in a stressed body, the stresses on two perpen- verse plane through the cylinder and butt-welding the resulting
dicular planes are as shown in Fig. P2-60. Determine seam. In a thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel, the normal
a. The stresses on plane a—a. stress 0,. on a horizontal plane through a point on the surface
b. The stresses on horizontal and vertical planes at the point. of the vessel is twice as large as the normal stress 0, on a
vertical plane through the point, and the shear stresses on both
. ‘\/’ 200 MPa

the horizontal and vertical planes are zero. If the stresses in the
weld material on the plane of the weld must be limited to 10 ksi
in tension and 7 ksi in shear, determine the maximrnn normal
stress 0,, permitted in the vessel.
/ H
//
A so MPa '1
,,.
G)"
“X 't
Figure P2-60 _.;9
Figure P2-63
2-61 The stresses on horizontal and vertical planes at a point on
the outside surface of a solid circular shaft subjected to an ax-
ial load P and a torque T are shown in Fig. P2-61. The normal 2-64 Known stresses at point A in a structural member (see Fig.
stress on plane a—a at this point is 8000 psi (T). Determine P2-64) are 125-MPa tension and zero shear on plane b-b and
a. The magnitude of the shearing stresses r,, and r,,. 225-MPa compression on plane c—c. Determine
b. The magnitude and direction of the shearing stress on the a. The stresses on a vertical plane through the point.
inclined plane a—a. h. The suesses on a horizontal plane through the point.
c \
\
R \\ /43»
b
\ n
U P T3, _'\-F \ "—‘
\\ \ ’ 4
\L>I
J R ,, 8000 psi
\
A ,_<
\ fl
r /' ,1 \\
I
/ 1:‘. /’ \
\
\
,I I I
i- \ -B-—v
U“
rz / ti‘ MIL!
1
G

2-10 PRINCIPAL sntsssss AND MAXIMUM SHEARING srttas-rmsr smsss 85
2-65 A steel bar with a 4 x l-in. rectangular cross section is being 13 ksi
used to transmit an axial tensile load, as shown in Fig. P2-65.
Normal and shear stresses on plane a—b of the bar are 12-ksi
tension and 9-ksi shear. Determine the angle 6 and the applied
load P. ll
I rfiksi
Q‘
£1
Figure P2-67
b
Figure P2-65
a. Calculate and graph the normal stress 0,, and the shearing
stress rm on the inclined plane a-b as a function ofthe angle
Computer Problems 6 (0" 5 6 5180").
b. For what angle 6 is the normal stress a maximum? A mini-
2-66 The stresses on horizontal and vertical planes at a point on mum? What is the value of the shear stress on these planes?
the outside surface of a solid circular shaft subjected to an axial c. For what angle 6 is the shear stress a maximum? A mini-
load P and a torque T are shown in Fig. P2-66. mum? What is the value ofthe normal stress on these planes?
a. Calculate and graph the normal stress 0,, and the shearing
stress r,,, on the inclined plane a—b as a fimction of the angle
6 (0" 5 6 5 180°).
10 MPa
b. For what angle 6 is the normal stress a rnaximmn? A mini-
minn? What is the value of the shear stress on these planes?
c. For what angle 6 is the shear stress a maximum? A mini- —l 40 MPa
minn? What is the value ofthe normal stress on these planes?
I T
Figure P2-68
I-1 P 41
-->
I so MPa
T j 2-68 The stresses shown in Fig. P2-68 act at a point on the free
stu-face of a stressed body. Calculate the normal stress 0,, and
- 40 MPa the shearing stress r,,, on the inclined plane a-b as a function
1* 40 MPa
of the angle 6 (0° 5 6 5 180"). For each angle 6, graph the neg-
Figure P2-66 ative of the shearing stress (—r,,,, vertical axis) as a fimction of
the normal stress (Um horizontal axis). On your graph, clearly
2-67 The stresses shown in Fig. P2-67 act at a point on the free identify the points associated with the angles 6 = 0", 30°, 45°,
s|.u~face of a stressed body. 60°‘, 90°, 120°, 135", I50“, and 180".
2-10 PRINCIPAL STRESSES AND MAXIMUM SHEARING

STRESS—PLANE STRESS
The transformation equations for plane stress (0, = r,,, = r,,, = 1:2,, = try, = 0),
Eqs. 2.12 and 2-13, provide a means for determining the normal stress 0,, and
the shearing stress rm on different planes through a point in a stressed body.
As an example, consider the state of stress shown on the stress element in Fig.
2-3 la, which acts at a point on the free surface of a machine component or struc-
tural member. As the angle 6 varies (0° 5 6 5 360°), the normal stress 0,, and the
7 ksi
12 ksi
I —>2s ksi
(0)
40
.._ 30 /-' on
-:20
-o_
a.’ “Q
I0 ~'sQ /Int rt’ .0.‘
\./' I
\ 1
l I l |
0 3U°‘\ 60° 90° ,1 120° 150° 180°

Sl1:,
ks0,,
orress
_[() \ \ ‘I . _ _ ‘ _ ’ av /' Angle B
-20
(B)
Figure 2-31
shearing stress rm on the different planes vary as shown in Fig. 2-31b. Note that,
for9 = 0°, an = 0,, and tn, = 1:,_,.; and for6 = 90°, 0,, = 0,, and rm = —'r},, = —r,_v.
For design purposes, critical stresses at the point are usually the maximum
tensile stress and the maximum shea.ring stress.
For a bar under axial load, the planes on which maximum normal stresses
and maximum shearing stresses act are lcnown from the results of Section 2-6.
For more complicated forms of loading, these stresses can be determined by plot-
ting curves similar to those shown in Fig. 2-31b for each different state of stress
encountered, but this process is time—consuming and inefiicient. Therefore, more
general methods for finding the critical stresses have been developed.
The transformation equations for plane stress developed previously are as
follows:
For normal stress an,
6,, = w + 2 cos 29 + 1,, sin 29 (2-121»)

For shear stress 1r,,,,
0, — 0
r,,, = - T’ sin 20 + In cos 29 (2-131»)
Maximum and minimum values of 0,, occur at values of 9 for which da,,1'd6 is
equal to zero. Differentiation of 0,, with respect to 6 yields
do _
T9” = —(cr,, — 0,.) S111 29 + 21,), cos 29 (a)
Z-10 PRINCIPAL STIIESSBS AND MAXIMUM SHEARING STRESS—PLANE STRESS
Setting Eq. (a) equal to zero and solving gives
21: .
an 29,, = ” (2-14)
ax — 0,,
Note that the expression for dc"/d9 fi'om Eq. (a) is numerically twice the value
of the expression for tn, from Eq. 2- 1 3b. Consequently, the shearing stress is zero
on planes experiencing maximum and minimum values of normal stress. Planes
fi'ee of shear stress are known as principal planes. Normal stresses occurring on
principal planes are known as principal stresses. The values of 6;, from Eq. 2-14
give the orientations of two principal planes. A third principal plane for the plane
stress state has an outward normal in the z-direction. For a given set of values of
0,, 0),, and r,,_,,, there are two values of 26,, differing by 180” and, consequently,
two values of9,, that are 90‘ apart. This proves that the principal planes are normal
to each other.
When 1:,_,, and (0, — 0,.) have the same sign, tan 26,, is positive and one
value of 9,, is between 0" and 90°, with the other value 180“ greater, as shown in
Fig. 2-32. Consequently, one value of 6,, is between 0° and 45“, and the other one
is 90° greater. In the first case, both sin 26,, and cos 26;, are positive, and in the
second case both are negative. When these fimctions of 29,, are substituted into
Eq. 2-12b, two in-plane principal stresses cpl and op; are foimd to be
0 +0 0 —cr. 2
¢,,_,,,= *2 yzb‘/(%) +1}, (2-15)
Equation 2-15 gives the two principal stresses in the xy-plane, and the third one is
op; = U2 = 0. Equation 2-14 gives the angles 49;, and 6P + 90° between the x- (ory-)
plane and the mutually perpendicular planes on which the principal stresses act. In
order to determine which of the principal stresses (found using Eq. 2-15) acts on
which of the principal planes (found using Eq. 2-14), substitute one of the values
of Op into the stress transformation equation Eq. 2- 12a (or Eq. 2-12b). Since Hp is
used, the calculated value of 0 ,, must be one of the principal stresses given by Eq.
2-15, and it acts on the surface whose normal points in the direction Bp. Because
principal planes are perpendicular, the other principal stress given by Eq. 2-15 acts
on the surface whose normal points in the direction Sp zt 90“. This procedure is
illustrated in Example Problem 2-11.
~l(‘*e.-P*'i1’+ r<~>2
, __.' \‘
1
\
.-- my
'~
-iQ
‘\'~"\.
29;, + lBO°,." ., 1,29,,
,+_ »
__,9.i . __o
Figure 2-32
88 crrsrrrn 2 ANALYSIS or STRESS: concsrrs AND rmrrsrrroms
Note that ifone or both ofthe principal stresses from Eq. 2- 15 is negative, the
algebraic maximum stress can have a smaller absolute value than the “minimum”
stress.
The maximum in-plane shearing stress rp occurs on planes located by values
of 6 where a'r,,,/d6 is equal to zero. Differentiation of Eq. 2-13b yields
dr“
de _ —(a, — a_,.)c0s 29 — 2 tn. sin
' 29
When dr,,,1’d6 is equated to zero, the value of 6, is given by the expression
131129, = _@*;-V) (2-16)

2r,,y
3»
where 61- locates the planes of maximum in-plane shearing stress. Comparison of
Eqs. 2- 1 6 and 2- 1 4 reveals that the two tangents are negative reciprocals. Therefore,
the two angles 26p and 26, differ by 90°, and 6,, and 6, are 45° apart. This means
that the planes on which the maximum in-plane shearing stresses occur are 45°
2.10 from the principal planes. The maximum in-plane shearing stresses are found
by substituting values of angle fiinctions obtained from Eq. 2-16 in Eq. 2-13b.
The results are
0, — cry 2 2
Tp = i T + Txy
Equation 2-17 has the same magnitude as the second term of Eq. 2-15. Equation
2-16 gives tvm perpendicular planes of maximum ir1-plane shearing stress. The
shearing stresses on these two planes have the same magnitude but opposite signs
(Eq. 2-17). To determine which sign in Eq. 2-17 corresponds to each ofthe surfaces
found using Eq. 2-16, substitute one value of 6, into the stress transformation
equation for shearing stress (Eq. 2-13a or 2-13b). Since 6, is used, the calculated
value of 1:," must be one of the shear stresses given by Eq. 2-17, and it acts on the
surface whose normal points in the direction 6,. This procedure is illustrated in
Example Problem 2-1 1.
A useful relation between the principal stresses and the maximum ir1-plane
shearing stress is obtained from Eqs. 2-15 and 2-17 by subtracting the values for
the two in-plane principal stresses and substituting the value of the radical from
Eq. 2-17. The result is
-L-P = 7-'3) (248)
or, in words, the maximum value of rm (rp) is equal in magnitude to one-half the
difference between the two in-plane principal stresses.
In general, when stresses act ir1 three directions it can be shown (see Section
2-12 that there are three orthogonal planes on which the shearing stress is zero.
These planes are known as the principal planes, and the stresses acting on them
(the principal stresses) will have three values: one maximum, one minimum, and
a third stress between the other two. The maximum shearing stress, rm, on any
plane that could be passed through the point, is one-half the difference between
Z-10 PRINCIPAL STIIESSBS AND MAXIMUM SHEARING STRESS—PLANE STRESS
Upl fllld 63,2 Up] fllld GP;

op, and op; same signs same signs
opposlm slgns ispli > iOp2i Io-pli < l0p2i
P2 P2 P2
Gpl U312 cpl
B‘ B‘ B
A . C A iC A 7C
as as
__‘ pl \_\ pl \_ "‘""§opl
}_____. }___-_.-
p3 D E
F P
1 P3
I
D E
F P
1 P3
I
D E
F P
1
(Q) (I5)
Figure 2-33
the maximum and minimum principal stresses and acts on planes that bisect the
angles between the planes of the maximum and minimum normal stresses.
rm, _ Umax
g _ Umin
(2-19)
When a state ofplane stress exists, one of the principal stresses is zero. If the
values of 0,1 and op; from Eq. 2-15 have the same sign, then the third principal
stress, op; equals zero, will be either the maximum or the minimum normal stress.
Thus, the maximum shearing stress may be
(Up — <1pz)/Z (Q11 — 9)/2 Or (0 — vpz)/2

depending on the relative magnitudes and signs of the principal stresses. These
three possibilities a.re illustrated in Fig. 2-33, in which one of the two orthogonal
planes on which the maximum shearing stress acts is shaded for each example.
The direction of the maximum shearing stress can be determined by drawing
a wedge-shaped block with two sides parallel to the planes having the maximimr
and minimum principal stresses, and with the third side at an angle 45“ with the
other two sides. The direction of the maximum shearing stress must oppose the
larger of the two principal stresses.
Another useful relation between the principal stresses and the normal stresses
on the orthogonal planes shown in Fig. 2-34 is obtained by adding the values for
the two principal stresses, as given by Eq. 2- 15. Thus,
Up] + up; = er, + a'_,, (2-20)
or, in words, for plane stress, the sum ofthe normal stresses on any two orthogonal
planes through a point in a body is a constant or invariant.
In the preceding discussion, “maximum” and “minimum” stresses were
considered algebraic quantities, and it has already been pointed out that the
minimum algebraic stress may have a larger magnitude than the maximum
stress.
However, in the application to engineering problems (which includes the
problems ir1 this book), the term “maximum” will always refer to the largest abso-
lute value (largest magnitude).
90 crruvrrrr 2 xnmsrs or s'mnss= concnrrs AND rmrrsrrrons
op,
°.»~
cpl
fl
tn.
‘Ci 0'1, __ _.
T >- . 2
_- 1
re,
I X
Figure 2-34
Application of the formulas and procedures developed in this section are

illustrated by the following examples.
J’ 8000 psi -I EXEIIIIPIE PTODICIII 2 - I I At a point in a structural member subjected

planes through the point, as shown on the element in Fig. 2-35.
4000 psi (a) Determine the principal stresses and the maximum shearing stress at the point.
iii 10,000 psi (b) Locate the planes on which these stresses act and show the stresses on the
planes on which they act.
_I,_. (c) Sketch a triangular stress element showing the principal stresses and the
maximum shearing stress (and the associated normal stress).
Figure 2-as SOLUTION

(a) On the basis of the axes shown in Fig. 2-35 and the established sign conven-
tions, 03, is positive, whereas 0,, and r,,, are negative. For use in Eqs. 2-14 and
2- 15, the given values are
0,, = +10,000 psi 0,. = -8000 psi 1:,y = -4000 psi
When these values are substituted in Eq. 2- l 5, the principal stresses are found
to be
%*i(%)
0 +0 0 -0 2
=10,0001:-8000)i\/(10,000;(-s000))’+F4000),
= 1000 :1: 9849

0,1 = 1000 + 9849 = 10,249 psi 2 10,250 psi (r) Ans.
s-,2 = 1000 - 9349 = -8349 psi 2 ssso psi (c) Ans-
UP3 = 0, = 0 A115.
2-10 PRINCIPAL STRESSES AND MAXIMUM SHEARING STRESS—PLANE STRESS
The maximum in-plane shearing stress is given by Eq. 2-17, which is simply
the last term in Eq. 2-15, and is rp = 9850 psi. The maximum shearing stress
is given by 2_ 1 9 as P The sum ofthe normal stresses on any two
orthogonal planes is a constant for planes
aw _ cmin stress; oj, + :5. = 10,000 + (—8000) =q,1 +
1,-mm, = m :52 = 10,850 + (—8850)=2000 psi. Also,
the normal stress on the planes of maxi»
10.349 _ (_3g49) v N _ mum shear is equal to the average ofthe nor-
= g = 9849 psi = 9850 psi Ans. ma) stresses 0,1: 1()()0=(¢x + gy),=2=(gp,
+ q,,)r2.
Since 0;,| and 0),; have opposite signs, the values of the maximum in-
plane shearing stress (rp) and the maximum shearing stress (rm) are
equal.
(b) Vlfhen the given data are substituted in Eq. 2-14, the results are
tan 29 - 2”-" — 0 4444

"_ s,-9, _10,000-(-3000)‘ '
from which
26,, = -23.96“, 180” + (—23.96°) = -1-156.04", - - -
and
6;, = —l1.98°, +7802”, -~ ~

E 1l.98° J and 78.0” '1 Ans.
Vlfhich principal stress is associated with which angle (6,, = -11.98“ or =

+ 78.02“) is determined by substituting the angles into the stress transforma-
tion equations. When 6 = 6,, = —11.98°, Eq. 2-12a gives ___ __ X
~ - _.__ .11.98°
2 _ 2 _ ‘*' 7 - ~. .0 10,350 psi
0,,=0, cos 6+0, S111 6+2r,y s1.n6cos6 _____n
= 10,000 cos2(—l1.98°) + (-8000) sin2(—1l.98°)
+ 2(—4000) sin (—l1.98°) cos (—11.98°) (H)
= 0P1 = 10,849 psi '5 10,850 psi (T) Figum 246(8)
The result is shown in Fig. 2-36a. /n
When 9 = 9,, = +7s.02 , Eq. 2-129 gives fipsi
0,, = 0, cos 2 6 + 0,, sin 2 6 +2-tn. sin 6 cos 6 _.

= 10,000 cos2(+78.02°) + (-8000) sin2[+78.02”)
+2(-4000) sin(+78.02“) cos(+78.02°) .
= 0,, = -3849 psi 2 ss50 psi (c) .
“‘~-78-°°
\.|
I |‘
‘
The result is shown in Fig. 2-36b. I
The principal stresses shown on the principal planes ir1 Figs. 2-36a and (5)
b are shown on a stress element in Fig. 2-36c. The maximum in-plane shear Figure 2-36(h)
92 crrrrrrrr 2 xnnrsrs or s'mnss= concnrvrs AND nrrrrsrrrons
8850 psi
10,850 psi
mm,
111.93“
(9)
Figure 2-36(c)
stress occ1n's on a surface oriented at 45° to the principal directions. When 6

= -11.98” + 45° = +33.02°, Eqs. 2-12a and 2-13a give
0,, = 0,, cosz 6 + 0,, sinz 6 +213, sin6 cos 6

= 10.000 cos2(-1-33.02”) + (-3000) sin2(+33.02°)
+ 2(—4000) S111 [+33.02°) COS (+33.02°)
= +999.5 psi 2 1000 psi (T)
and
/_ n rm = —(0, — 0,) sir16 cos 6 + r,,,,[cos2 6 — sing 6]
‘°°° PS‘ = -[10,000 - (-9000)] sin (+33.02=) cos (+33.029)
9850 psi + (-4-000)[cos2(+33.02‘) - sin2(+33.O2°)]
3- C
= -9349 psi 2 -9350 psi
_ .- ’ "ll 33.0“
These results are shown in Fig. 2-37.
Figure 2-37 Substituting 6 = -+-33.02" + 90° =123.02° into Eqs. 2-12a and 2-13a
gives
0,, = +1000 psi rm = +9850 psi
That is, the nonnal stresses on the perpendicularplanes ofmaximum shearing

stresses are equal both in magnitude and sign, whereas the shearing stresses
have equal magnitude but opposite sign. These results are shown on the stress
element in Fig. 2-38.
fl
,.
1000 psi /
I000 psi \‘-._‘ 31020
985° P51 9250 psi tit
Figure 2-as
--._,,._11.9s" A
I‘" 45° 1000 psi
10,350 psi "
9850 psi
45°
8850 psi
Figure 2-39
(c) All of these results can be combined into the triangular stress element shown
in Fig. 2-39.
Note that all planes represented in this problem pass through a single point,
and all of the stresses calculated act at that point. Sometimes the planes and
stresses are represented individually (as in Figs. 2-36a and b or Fig. 2-37) for
clarity. Other times the planes and stresses are combined on a single sketch (as
in Figs. 2-36c, 2-38, and 2-39) for brevity.
1 EXHIIIPIB PTODIBIII 2-I2 At a point on the outside surface of a

thin-walled pressure vessel there are normal and shearing stresses on horizontal
and vertical planes through the point, as shown in Fig. 2-40a and b.
(a) Determine the principal stresses and the maximum shearing stress at the point.
(b) Locate the planes on which these stresses act and show the stresses on a stress
element.
SOLUTION
(a) On the basis of the axes shown in Fig. 2-4-0b and the established sign conven-
tions, 0X is positive, 0,, is positive, and 11,, is negative. For use in Eqs. 2-14
and 2-15, the given values are
0, = +100 MPa 0,, = +80 MPa r,,- = -40 MIPa
When these values are substituted in Eq. 2-15, the principal stresses are found
tobe
100+30 100-30 2 2
=5 7 +(-40)
= 90:l:4-1.23
0,,1= 90+4l.23 = +13l.23 MPa E 131.2M1’a (T) Ans.
0,2 = 90 — 41.23 = +48.77 MPa E 48.8MPa (T) Ans.
0,03 = 0, = 0 Ans.
94 CH.AP'l'ER 2 ANALYSIS OF STRESS: CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
y 80MIPa
_L0 MPa >
65.6 MPa
<— 100 MPa 4-1‘
65.6 MIPa _
i, mix
\ *1!\33°
1 48.3 MP3 1
1 1.-/, 131.2 MPa
\\ '1
I
11>) . _ ’’ '.\ (J)
\\\ Face A -X
131.2 MPa ,1
T
P iP ( )
Q -,\ C 4s.s MPa
T 65.6 MPa 5
(Q)
65.6 M1‘a W
131.2 MPa
(e)
Figure 2-40
Since cpl and op; have the same sign, the maximum shearing stress is given
b)/Eq. 2-l9as
- - 151.23 -0
Tmax = NW = e = 65.61 MPa 2 65.6 MPa Ans.
(b) When the given data are substituted in Eq. 2-14, the results are
26 211,. 2(-40)
=i=-i=-4.000
ta“ P 6,-6, 100-so
fi'0m which
26,, = —75.96°,+104.04°, ...
and
9,, = -37.93", + 52.02", . ..

E 38.05 J and 52.001
2-10 PRINCIPAL snuzssss AND MAXIMUM sunuunc STRESS—PLANE smsss 95
“Then 8 = -37.98“, Eq. 2-12a gives
0,, = ax cosz 0 + 0}. sinz 8 + 21:” sin 9 cos 6

= 100 666%-37.98") + so 616%-37.92“)
+ 2(-40) 6&6 (-31.93“) 666 (-31.93“)
= 6,,1= +131.23 MP6 2151.2 MPa(T)
Vifhen 8 = +52.02°, Eq. 2-12a gives P The maximum shear stress in the xy-plane
(the 12-plane) is r,,=(a,,1 — c;,;)f2=41.2
MPa and occurs on the plane midway be-
an = 0,, cos: 6 + 0). sinz 9 + Zr”, sin9 cos 9 tween the principal planes l and 2. The nor-
= 100 6661(+52.02°) + so sin2(+52.02“) mal stress on this surface is the average of
the normal stresses 0,, = (061 + cr,,2)1'2 = 90
+2(-40) 616 (+52.02<=) 666 (+52.02°) MPa. However, the difierence between the
= 6,2 = +4311 MPa 2 4s.s MPa (T) principal stresses cpl and op; is bigger than
the difference between the principal stresses
The in-plane principal stresses are Shown in Fig. 2-40c. Upl and o,,;. Therefore, the maximum shear
The maximum shearing stress occurs on the plane making an angle stress occurs on the surface midway be-
of 45° with the planes of maximum and minimum normal stress—in this tween the principal planes l and 3 and has
case, 131.2 MPa and zero. The complete sketch is given in Figs. 2-40c and the magnitude rm, =(o‘,,1 —- o‘p;)1'2 = 65.6
d, where the upper wedge-shaped element (Figs. 2-40d) is the orthographic MPa. The normal stress on this surface is
0,, = (opt + 0;,3)."2 = 65.6 MPa.
projection of the lower element (Fig. 2-40c). The three-dirnensional element
(Fig. 2-40e) is presented as an aid to the visualization of Figs. 2-4-Or: and d.
I PROBLEMS
MecMovie Activities and Problems 2-70* Normal and shear stresses on horizontal and vertical
planes through a point in a machine component are shown in
MM2.ll Sketching stress transformation results. Learning tool. Fig. P2-70.
Constructing appropriate sketches showing orientation ofprin-
cipal and maximum shear stresses. a. Determine the principal stresses, the maximum in-plane
shearing stress, and the maximum shearing stress.
Introductory Problems b. Locate the planes on which these stresses act and show the
stresses on a sketch
2-69* Normal and shear stresses on horizontal and vertical
planes through a point in a machine component are shown in
Fig. P2-69.
a. Determine the principal stresses, the maximum in-plane
h. Locate the planes on which these stresses act and show the 20 MPa
stresses on a sketch.
10 ksi
_‘ I F0 MP3
3 ksi 50 MPH
Al % 15 ksi i i
.‘._m

96 CH.AP'I'ER 2 ANALYSIS OF STRESS: CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
2-71 At a point on the outside surface of a thin-walled pressure 2-74 At a point on the free surface of a plate there are normal
vessel there are normal and shearing stresses on horizontal and and shear stresses on horizontal and vertical planes, as shown
vertical planes through the point, as shown in Fig. P2-71. in Fig. P2-74.
a. Determine the principal stresses, the maximum in-plane a. Determine the principal stresses, the maximum in-plane
shearing stress, and the maximum shearing stress. shaming stress, and the maximum shearing stress.
b. Locate the planes on which these stresses act and show the b. Locate the planes on which these stresses act and show the
stresses on a sketch. stresses on a sketch.
10 ksi
T
P P
i_-.
.
F1
my Sk
U % r S1 15ksi
\ /F’
r ___ 25 MP8.
Figure P2-71
U
} It 75 .\/[Pa
35 MPa
2-72 The stresses on horizontal and vertical planes at a point on
the outside stnface of a solid circular bar subjected to an axial
load P and a torsional load T are shown in Fig. P2-72.
/
F3
\ F2
a. Determine the principal stresses, the maximum in-plane Figure P2-74

b. Locate the planes on which these stresses act and show the
2-75* At a point on the outside surface of a thin-walled pressure
25 MPa
vessel there are stresses on horizontal and vertical planes, as
T
shown in Fig. P2-75.
I L1 I r 200MPa
"—; J I a. Determine the principal stresses, the maximum in-plane
b. Show the principal stresses and the maximum shear stress
Figure P2-72 (and associated normal stress) on a three-dimensional trian-
gular stress element.
2-73* Normal and shear stresses on horizontal and vertical planes
at a point in a structural member are shown in Fig. P2-73.
a. Determine the principal stresses, the maximum in-plane
shearing stress, and the maximum shearing stress. 12ksi
b. Locate the planes on which these stresses act and show the T Ail
4 ksi
P ‘ J 1 |25ksi
I M666
T i—r
1 | 121161 Figure P2-1'5

|'6ksi
2-76* Normal and shear stresses at a point on the iree surface of

Figure P2-73 a machine component are shown in Fig. P2-76.
26 MPa 2-79 The stresses shown in Fig. P2-79 act on horizontal and ver-
tical planes at a point on the free surface of a circular member
m_;
that is subjected to a twisting moment (torque) M. Determine,
and show on a triangular stress element, the principal stresses
I 12 MPa
and the maximum shearing stress at the point.
36 MPa
1 I
M 15 166i
Figure P2-76
Figure P2-79
a. Determine the principal stresses and the maximum shearing
stress at the point.
h. Show the stresses ofpart a on a three-dimensional triangular
stress element. 2-80* The stresses on the outside surface of a thin-walled pres-
2-77 Normal and shear stresses on horizontal and vertical planes sure vessel are shown in Fig. P2-80. The vessel is constructed
through a point on the free surface of a structural member are by wrapping a steel plate into a spiral and butt-welding the
shown in Fig. P2-77. Determine, and show on a triangular stress mating edges of the plate. If the butt-welded seams form an
element, the principal stresses and maximum shear stress at the angle of 33° with the longitudinal axis of the vessel,
point. a. Determine the normal stress perpendicular to the weld a-b
and the shear stress parallel to the weld and show the results
on a sketch.
14 ksi h. Determine the principal st:resses and the maximtnn shearing
stress at the point.
c. Show the results of part b on a triangular stress element.
45 MP5
1 2 ksi
Pi P
I 8 ksi
b
/T’
,__-133° 21 !t'1Pa
1
1
|G
Figure P2-77
Figure P2-80
2-78 The stnesses shown in Fig. P2-78 act on horizontal and
vertical planes at a point on the free surface of a cantilever 2-81* The stresses shown in Fig. P2-81 act at a point on the tree
beam. Determine, and show on a triangular stress element, stu-face cf a stressed body. The principal stresses at the point
the principal stresses and the maximum shearing stress at the are 20 ksi (C) and 12 ksi (T). Determine the unknown normal
stresses on the horizontal and vertical planes and the angle 6,,
between thex-axis and the maximum tensile stress at the point.
“y
‘
1} —|1I
4i
no MPa
t
|
_L
3"}
“'*r
__I_
Sksi
°‘
' g 70 MPa
Flam P2-78 Figure P2-81

98 CHAPTER 2 .u\1.u.rs1s or s'1nsss= concarrs mo urrrsrnoss
2-82 At a point on the free surface of a stressed body, a normal or
stress of 75 MPa (T) and an unknown negative shear stress

exist on a horizontal plane, as shown in Fig. P2-82. One prin-
cipal stress at the point is 200 MPa (T). The maximum in-
plane shear stress at the point has a magnitude of 85 MPa. d * 46¢
Determine the unknown stresses on the vertical plane, the un-
lcnown principal stress, and the maximum shear stress at the
point. _f
/"I I
.4-.__
30°
75 ma Figure
2-84* The stresses shown in Fig. P2-84 act at a point on the free
‘— — surface of a stressed body.
a. Determine the normal and shear stresses at this point on
I the inclined plane a—b shown in the figure and show these
b. Determine the principal stresses and the maximum shear-
ing stress at the point and show these stresses on a triangular
stress element.
Figure P2-82 70 MPa
2-83 The principal compressive stress on a vertical plane through 40 MPa

a point in a wooden block is equal to four times the prin-
cipal compressive stress on a horizontal plane, as shown in
Fig. P2-83. The plane of the grain is 30" clockwise from the
vertical plane. If the normal and shear stresses on the plane
of the grain must not exceed 300 psi (C) and 125 psi shear,
mi
1 10 MPa
determine the maximum allowable compressive stress on the

horizontal plane Figure P2-84
2-11 MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRESS

The German engineer Otto Mohr (1835-1918) developed a useful pictorial or
graphic interpretation of the transformation equations for plane stress. This repre-
sentation, commonly called Mohr’s circle, involves the construction of a circle in
such a manner that the coordinates of each point on the circle represent the normal
and shearing stresses on one plane through the stressed point, and the angular
position of the radius to the point gives the orientation of the plane. The proof that
normal and shearing components of stress on an arbitrary plane through a point
can be represented as points on a circle follows from Eqs. 2-12 and 2-13. Recall
Eqs. 2-12b and 2-13b,
+ ‘ _
an — ax 2 U" = ax 2 ay cos 29 +r,,- sin 29
r,,, = 1% sin2t9 +r,,,, cos 28
Squaring both equations, adding, and simplifying yields
2 2
(0,, — w) +173, = (W +173),
2-11 Morurs crruzuz FOR PLANE snrsss 99
This is the equation of a circle in terms of the variables 0,, and r,,,. The circle is
centered on the a-axis at a distance (0, + a,,)f2 from the 1:-axis, and the radius of
the circle is given by
I 2
R : + ‘iffy
Normal stresses are plotted as horizontal coordinates, with tensile stresses

(positive) plotted to the right of the origin and compressive stresses (negative)
plotted to the left. Shearing stresses are plotted as vertical coordinates, with those
tending to produce a clockwise rotation of the stress element plotted above the
0-axis and those tending to produce a counterclockwise rotation of the stress
element plotted below the o-axis. The method for interpreting the sign to be
associated with aparticular shear stress value obtained from a Mol1r‘s circle analysis
will be illustrated in the discussion and example problems that follow.
Mohr’s circle for any point subjected to plane stress can be drawn when
stresses on two mutually perpendicular planes through the point are known. Con-
sider, for example, the stress element of Fig. 2-41a with cr, greater than 0,, and plot
on Fig. 2-4 lb the points representing the given stresses. The coordinates ofpoint V
ofFig. 2-4-lb are the stresses on the vertical plane through the stressed point of Fig.
2-41a and point H is determined by the stresses on the horizontal plane through
the point. Because ry, = rxy, point C, the center of the circle, is on the on-axis.
6, .\ J’ 1;?-
\
\ *1 B 5)
\
.111 \ , 1 ’ "‘Q
‘ Ti
I o
\\n P2 ..
\\ Try A
ii 0 X . ~.,H<<=.-. 1...)
‘av 6 \ \
\ a \
T -I T} I -\\
1 1
0,, __0_ E _ _ _ Pip. ,. if’ F.'.11> _..
C \ Q29‘, i
(H)
mm?‘
B Gr Ix
ox +0,
2
ox
on
i
op,
1
=1
Figure 2-41
100 CHAPTER 2 tuwxsrs or snusss coscstrrs AND nrrmnoss
Line CV on Mohr’s circle represents the plane (the vertical plane of Fig. 2-41a)
through the stressed point from which the angle 6 is measured. The coordinates
of each point on the circle represent on and r,,, for one particular plane through
the stressed point, the abscissa representing 0,, and the ordinate representing 1:,,,.
To demonstrate this statement, draw any radius CF in Fig. 2-41b at an angle 26
counterclockwise from radius CV. From the figure, it is apparent that
OF’ = OC + CF cos (26,, — 29)
and since CF equals CV, the above equation reduces to
OF’ = OC+CVcos28,, cos2t9 +CVsin26_,, sin2t9
Referring to Fig. 2-41b, note that
CV cos 26,, = CV’ = (0, —oy)/2

CV sin26,, = VV' = 17,),
OC = (ax + ay)/2 = oavg
Therefore,
OF’: OC+CV’cos 29+ VV’sin26
= ax-gay +(%cos2t9—l—r,_,-sin29
This expression is identical to Eq. 2-12b. Therefore, OF’ is equal to on. in a similar
manner,
F’F = CF sin (29,, — 29)

= CVsin29,, cos29 — CVcos29,, sin26
= V'V cos 26 — CV’ sin 29
= 6,, 665 20 - 6%
3°" 616 29
This expression is identical to Eq. 2-13b. Therefore, F‘F is equal to r,,,.

Since the horizontal coordinate of each point on the circle represents the
normal stress 0,, on some plane through the point, the maximum normal stress at
the point is represented by OD, and its value is
0',,|= OD=OC+CD=OC+CV
- , ./(T
_a,+o'y o,,—o'y2
which agrees with Eq. 2-15.

Likewise, the vertical coordinate of each point on the circle represents the
shearing stress 1:,,, (called the in-plane shearing stress) on some plane through the
point, which means that the maximum in-plane shearing stresses at the point are
2-11 nouns CIRCLE FOR PLANE srnsss 101
represented by CA and CB, and their value is
2
"r_,,=CA=CB=‘i(%) +175},
which agrees with Eq. 2-17. If the two nonzero principal stresses have the same
sign, the maximum shearing stress at the point will not be in the plane of the
applied stresses.
The angle 29,, from CV to CD is counterclockwise orpositive, and its tangent
is
1'1}.
29 = -ii
ta“ '° (GI —<:,->/2
which is Eq. 2-14. From the derivation of Eq. 2- 15, the angle between the vertical
plane and one of the principal planes was 9p. In obtaining the same equation fi'om
Mohr’s circle, the angle between the radii representing these same two planes is
29),. In other words, all angles on Mohr’s circle are twice the corresponding angles
for the actual stressed body. The angle from the vertical plane to the horizontal
plane in Fig. 2-41a is 90°, but in Fig. 2-41b, the angle between line CV (which
represents the vertical plane) and line CH (which represents the horizontal plane)
on Mohrs circle is 180”.
The results obtained from Mohr’s circle have been shown to be identical
with the equations derived fi"om the free-body diagram of Fig. 2-27. Thus, Mohr’s
circle provides an extremely useful aid for both the visualization ofand the solution
of stresses on various planes through a point in a stressed body in terms of the
stresses on two mutually perpendicular planes through the point. Although Mohr’s
circle can be drawn to scale and used to obtain values of stresses and angles by
direct measurements on the figure, it is probably more useful as a pictorial aid
to the analyst who is performing analytical determinations of stresses and their
directions at the point.
When the state of stress at a point is specified by means ofa sketch ofa small
element, the procedure for drawing and using Mohr’s circle to obtain specific stress
information can be briefly summarized as follows:
1. Choose a set ofx—y reference axes.
2. Identify the stresses ax, oy and 1:,_,l= -5,, and list them with the proper sign.
3. Draw a set of o,,—1:,,, coordinate axes with an and 1:", positive to the right and
upward, respectively.
4. Plot the point (0,, —r,,.) and label it point V (vertical plane).
5. Plot the point ((5., 1:,.,) and label it point H (horizontal plane).
6. Draw a line between V and H. This establishes the center C and the radius R of
Mohr‘s circle.
7. Draw the circle.
8. An extension of the radius between C and V can be identified as the x-axis or
the reference line for angle measurements (i.e., 9 = 0°).
By plotting points V and H as (0,, —1r,y) and (ay, ryx), respectively, shear
stresses that tend to rotate the stress element clockwise will plot above the 0,,-axis,
while those tending to rotate the element counterclockwise will plot below the
0,,-axis. The use of a negative sign with one of the shearing stresses (Ix); or ryx)
102 crnrrsn 2 ANALYSIS or snrsss= coucsrrs rum mzrrrrrrross
is required for plotting purposes, since for a given state of stress, the shearing
stresses (try = r_,,,,) have only one sign (both are positive or both are negative). The
use of the negative sign at point V on Mohr’s circle brings the direction of angular
measurements 28 on Mohr’s circle into agreement with the direction of angular
measurements 6 on the stress element.
Once the circle has been drawn, the normal and shearing stresses on an
arbitrary inclined plane a—a having an outward normal n that is oriented at an
angle 9 with respect to the reference x-axis (see Fig. 2-4-la) can be obtained from
the coordinates of point F (see Fig. 2-41b) on the circle that is located at angular
position 26 fi'om the reference axis through point V. The coordinates of point F
must be interpreted as stresses 0,, and —r,,,. Other points on Mohr’s circle that
provide stresses of interest are
l. Point D, which provides the principal stress cpl.
2. Point E, which provides the principal stress 05,2.
.V 3. Point A, which provides the maximum in-plane shearing stress —r,, and the
accompanying normal stress aavg that acts on the plane.
6 ksi
iii ksi
A negative sign must be used when interpreting shearing stresses r,,, and 1:], obtained
fi'om the circle since a shearing stress tending to produce a clockwise rotation of
\\\
\
\ eP
the stress element is a negative shearing stress when a right-hand n—t coordinate
\ system is used.
Problems of the type presented in Section 2-10 can readily be solved by
| ..\ t\
\
this semigraphic method, as illustrated in the following examples.
-I Example Pfflblfifll 2 - 13 Atapoint in a structural member subjected

(H)
Figure 2-42(2)
planes through the point, as shown on the stress element in Fig. 2-42a. Determine
and show on a sketch:
P The point V on Mohr‘s circle represents (a) The principal and maximum shearing stresses at the point.
the state of stress on the vertical surface of (b) The normal and shearing stresses on plane a—a through the point.
the stress element and can appear in any
quadrant of the circle. If the shear stress on
SOLUTION
the vertical surface tends to rotate the stress
element counterclockwise (as in this exam- Mohr‘s circle (see Fig. 2-42b) is constructed fi'om the given data by plotting point
ple), then the point V is plotted below the V (representing the stresses on the vertical plane) at (8, -4) because the stresses
0,,-axis. If the shear stress on the vertical on the vertical plane are 8 ksi (T) and 4 ksi (counterclockwise) shear. Likewise,
surface tends to rotate the stress element point H (representing the stresses on the horizontal plane) has the coordinates
clockwise, then the point V would be plotted (-6, 4). Draw line HV, which is a diameter of Mohr’s circle, and note that the
above the 0,,-axis. Ifthe normal stress on the center of the circle is at (1, 0). The radius of the circle is
vertical surface is positive, then the point V
is plotted to the right ofthe rm-axis (as in this 2
example); if the normal stress is negative, it
_ I ( 51-01‘
CV_ 2 2
)+1:”,
would be plotted to the left of the rm-axis. If
the normal stress on the vertical surface is = '\/72 +42 = 8.062 ksi
more positive than the normal stress on the
horizontal surface, then the point V is plot- (a) The principal stresses and the maximum shearing stress at the point are
ted to the right of the point H. If the normal
stress on the vertical surface is less positive a,,1 = OD = 1+ 8.062 = +9.062 ksi E 9.06 ksi (T) Ans.
than the nonnal stress on the horizontal sur- op; = OE = 1 — 8.062 = -7.062 ksi E 7.06 ksi (T) Ans.
face, then the point V would be plotted to
the left of the point H. 0'_,,3 = 0', = 0 Ans.
2-11 rrornrs cntcu: rorr PLANE snrsss 103
A .
'
Ir I
H(-6, 4) ei-
-- . r I
0
I1": Q QVI, D on ksi
P-3
"+.-.
Q»' ‘,3
\“‘-2‘~O
...‘-FD
,:__
__/'1 ",;3~
- _£‘__
v65 ,,(8’_4)
9-t.W
C/'
(5)
Figure 2-42(0)
Since op; and op; have opposite signs, the maximum shearing stress is
1:,, = rm, = CA = CB — 8.062 ksi 2 8.06 ksi Ans.
The principal planes are represented by lines CD and CE, where
tan 26,, = 4/7 — 0.5714
which gives
7.06 ksi
20, = +2914“ or 0, = 14.s7= "l 9.06 ksi
Since the angle 26,, is counterclockwise, the principal planes are counter-
9.06 in
clockwise from the vertical and horizontal planes of the stress block, as
shown in Fig. 2-42c. Actually, the angle 9,, is measured from the x-axis to
the outward normal to one of the principal planes. Since the outward normal _ , _- -- -- 1.06 kn
and the plane are perpendicular, the angle between the x-plane and one of the __ __ ,. .- _._e,,= r4.sr<>
I
principal planes is also 9p. To determine which principal stress acts on which
plane, note that as the radius ofthe circle rotates counterclockwise, the end of (6)
the radius CV moves from V to D, indicating that as the initially vertical plane Figure 2-42(2)
rotates through 14.87”, the stresses change to 9.06 ksi (T) (normal) and 0 ksi
(shear). Note also that the end H or radius CH moves to E, indicating that
as the initially horizontal plane rotates through 14.87‘, the stresses change
to 7.06 ksi (C) (normal) and 0 ksi (shear). These stresses are shown on the P Positive 6 is measured counterclockwise
sketch of Fig. 2-42c, in which the surfaces D and E are the principal planes from the positive x-axis, whether on the
represented by points D and E on Mohr’s circle. stress element or on Mohr's circle. On a
Point A on Mohr’s circle represents the state of stress on a surface plane ofthe stress element a shear stress that
rotated 45“ counterclockwise fi'om the surface represented by point D on rotates the element counterclockwise is plot-
the circle. On this surface, the shear stress is the maximum it can be (in ted below the 0,,-axis on Mohr’s circle, and
the xy-plane), r,,, = rp = rm, =8.06 ksi, and the normal stress is the average a shear stress that rotates the element clock-
value 0,, = (0, + o_,.)r'2 = ac = 1.000 ksi (the normal stress at the center of the wise is plotted above the 0,,-axis of Mohr’s
circle). Likewise, point B represents the state of stress on a surface rotated circle.
104 crnrrrzrr 2 ANALYSIS or s'nrsss= coucsrrrs rum nsrrrvrrross
1.000 ksi 45° counterclockwise from the surface represented by point E. The stresses
1.000 ksi on this surface are also 0,, = (Tc — 1.000 ksi and rm = rp — 8.06 ksi. These
' s.o6 ksi stresses are shown on the sketch of Fig. 2-42d. Planes A and B in Fig. 2-42d
s.06 ksi are the surfaces represented by points A and B on Mohr’s circle, Fig. 2-4-2b.
Note that any two orthogonal surfaces of Fig. 2-42c are sufficient to
completely specify the principal stresses. Also, only one of the surfaces of
1 _ 1.000 ksi Fig. 2-42d is required to completely specify the maximum shear stress. There-
f. fore, these two separate sketches can be combined as shown on the triangular
1.000 ksi
stress element in Fig. 2-422.
4‘~\_v4s 0
f. x
THTH
__-3, _. __ - * ' ‘ B,,— 14-87° 1.000 ksi 9.06 ksi ‘\\ O x
I y D \ ‘Jr’ I n
B “ i‘ -\
an 8.06 ksi \/
Figum 2_42(d) 45°
E 5.00 ksi
_ ‘_ _- ~' = F
(B) <1)
Figure 2-42(e-1')
(b) Plane a—a is 45° cormterclockwise from the vertical plane; therefore, the
corresponding radius of Mohr‘s circle is 26 = 90“ counterclockwise fiom the
line CV and is shown as CF on Fig. 2-42b. The coordinates of point F are
seen to be (5, 7), which means that the stresses on plane a—a are 5.00 ksi
(T) and 7.00 ksi shear in a direction to produce a clockwise rotation on a
stress element having plane a—a as one of its faces. This shear stress would
be defined as a negative shear stress because to produce a clockwise rotation,
it must be directed in the negative t-direction associated with plane a—a
(see Fig. 2-42f).
i Example Problem 2-14 Atapointina structural member subjected

planes through the point, as shown in Fig. 2-43a. Determine, and show on a
sketch, the principal stresses and the maximum shearing stress at the point.
SOLUTION
Mohr‘s circle (see Fig. 2-43b) is constructed fi"om the given data by plotting
point V (representing the stresses on the vertical plane) at (72, 24) and point H
(representing the stresses on the horizontal plane) at (3 6, -24). Line HV between
the two points is a diameter of Mohr‘s circle. The circle is centered at point C
(54, 0) and has a radius CV equal to 30 MPa. The principal stresses at the point
are
0,,1 = OD = 54 + 30 = 84.0 MPa (T) Ans.

Up2 = OE = 54 — 30 = 24.0 MPa (T) Ans.
0,93 = 0, = 0 Ans.
2-11 rrornrs cntcu: son PLANE snrsss 105
36 MPa
12 MPa
/_\< 24 MPa
1,, MP6 x 54.0 MPa
. /--" --K ~_r26.6<>
/ " .. 30.0 M1=_X/
\\
V(72, 24) ~ 3
\ la) I» 4
\ S‘ -.
\.
__\\ \\
I’:
\1 t3 Q-
0’ ' -4 I s4.0 MPa
0
\ 1/
M_
- in
Q :¥_- _5,/- 1- - D -_ A .'
a_ — ———4 Q.\\ on MPa Z ' (C)
~. \.
\
24.0 MPa "'
I \\ \
'/"/'”.“‘ t“Y'_—.§
\
~._.
:____ \
/L
1’ __\.___ \-ts 42.0 MPa
' \‘i"'(36"24) II B , , X’
~ g -. __ 4'1 A’
42.0 MPa J
. r, >.,_ __,_ _.
.1
\/" (b)
84.0 MPa
6: = 0
Section A-A
(4)
Figure 2-43¢»-tr)
The principal planes are represented by lines CD and CE, where
tan26l,, = -24/18 = —1.3333
which gives
2 9,, = -s3.13= = 53.13%
0,, = -26.5"/= = 26.5"/"J
Since 0,,| and 0],; have the sanre sign, the maximum in-plane shearing stress 17,, is
not the maximum shearing stress r,,,,,,, at the point. The maximum shearing stress
at the point is represented on Mohr’s circle by drawing an additional circle (shown
dashed in Fig. 2-43b) which has line OD as a diameter. This circle is centered
at point F (42, 0) and has a radius FG equal to 42 MPa. This circle represents
the combinations of normal and shearing stresses existing on planes obtained by
rotating the element about the principal axis associated with the principal stress
0_,,g. A third Mohr’s circle (shown dotted in Fig. 2-43b) has line OE as a diameter.
This circle is centered at point J (12, 0) and has a radius JK equal to 12 MPa.
This circle represents the combinations of normal and shearing stresses existing
on planes obtained by rotating the element about the principal axis associated
with the principal stress 0,,|. Thus,
1,, = ca = 30.0 MPa
1...... = FG = 42.0 MPa Ans.
106 CHAPI'Elt 2 ANALYSIS or s'rrrsss= coucsrrs AND nsrrnrrross
The principal stresses 0,1, 0,2, and 0, = 0,3 = 0, the maximum in-plane shearing
stress rp, and the maximum shearing stress rm, at the point are all shown on
Figs. 2-43c and 2-43d.
1 PROBLEMS
MecMovie Activities and Problems the nonnal and shear stresses at this point on plane a—a, and
show these stresses on a sketch.
MM2.12 Sketching stress transformation results. Learning tool.
Constructing appropriate sketches showing orientation ofprin-
cipal and maximum shear stresses.
MM2.13 Coach Mohr’s Circle of Stress. Theory; Interactive ex-
ample; Game. Learn to construct and use Mohr‘s circle to de-
terrnine principal stresses including the proper orientation of T
a
the principal stress planes.
/
/
.\‘[M2.14 Absolute maximum shear stress. Example; Try one. I
I
{I iX
Investigate a three-dimensional stress state at a point.
I
MIM2.15 Mohr‘s circle game—plane stress. Game. Recognize /45"

a L
correctly constructed Mohr's circles.
Figure P2-86
.\‘[M2.16 Mohr’s circle garne—principalfmax shear. Game. Given
a Mohr’s circle, recognize the corresponding stress element for
the principal stress state and the rnaximurn in-plane shear stress
state.
2-87 The stresses shown in Fig. P2-87 act at a point on the
Introductory Problems free surface of a stressed body. Use Mohr‘s circle to deter-
mine the normal and shear stresses at this point on the in-
2-85* The stresses shown in Fig. P2-85 act at a point on the free clined plane a-b shown in the figure. Show these stresses on a
surface ofa stressed body. Using Mohr’s circle, determine, and sketch.
show on a sketch, the normal and shear stresses at this point
on plane a—a.
i
16 ksi
Y
a 1 _.' b
\\ 1
U
l2ksi—x
45°\\\ x {IE4
\\ l0 ksi 4
\
a
2-86* At a point in a structural member subjected to plane stress 2-88 The stresses shown in Fig. P2-88 act at a point on the
there are stresses on horizontal and vertical planes through the free surface of a stressed body. Use Mohr’s circle to de-
point, as shown in Fig. P2-86. Use Mohr's circle to determine termine the norrnal and shear stresses at this point on the
2-11 MOHR’S cntcu: ron PLANE snusss 107
inclined plane a—b shownin the figure. Show these stresses on a 2-91 At a point in a structural member subjected to plane stress
sketch. there are stresses on horizontal and vertical planes through the
point, as shown in Fig. P2-91. Use Mohr’s circle to determine
the principal stresses and the maximum shear stress at the point.
Ii’ Show these stresses on the planes on which they act.
45 MPa
l0k.si
b
If
1, jay 27 MPa —x T 3 ksi
; l 15 ksi
Ii
Figure P2-88
Figure P2-91
2-89* At a point in a structural member subjected to plane stress
there are stresses on horizontal and vertical planes through the 2-92* The stresses shown in Fig. P2-92 act at a point on the free
point, as shown in Fig. P2-S9. Use Mohr's circle to determine smface of a machine component. Use M0hr’s circle to deter-
the principal stresses andthemaximum shear stress at thepoint. mine the principal stresses and the maximum shear stress at
Show these stresses on the planes on which they aet_ the point. Show these stresses on the planes on which they
act.
7 ksi
25 MPa
_ 12 ksi
I T 25 ksi I I 50 MP5
-vi-Z ‘
Figure P2-92
Figure P2-89
2-93 The stresses shown in Fig. P2-93 act at a point on the free
2-90* At a point in a structural member subjected to plane stress surface of a thin-walled pressure vessel. Use Mohr's circle to
there are stresses on horizontal and vertical planes through the determine the principal stresses and the maximum shear stress
point’ as shown in Fig‘ P2‘90' Use Mamas circle to detmnme at the point. Show these stresses on the planes on which they
the principal stressa and the maximum shear stress at the point. act
Show these stresses on the planes on which they act.
20 MPa
12 ksi
L ih. T L
| I40 MPa P P 1 I 25 k l
1; s1
SO MP3 U
| | L 10 ksi
T i
108 CHAPTER 2 ANALYSIS or s'nu:ss= coucsrrs AND nsrnwrross
Challenging Problems 2-96 At a point in a structural member subjected to plane stress

there are normal and shear stresses on horizontal and vertical
2-94* At a point in a structural member subjected to plane stress planes through the point, as shown in Fig. P2-96. Using Mohr's
there are stresses on horizontal and vertical planes through the circle
point, as shown in Fig. P2-94. Using Mohr’s circle,
a. Determine the principal stresses and the maximum shear
a. Determine the principal stresses and the maximum shear stress at the point. Show these stresses on a triangular stress
stress at the point. Show these stresses on a triangular stress element.
element. b. Determine the normal and shear stresses on the inclined
b. Determine the normal and shear stresses on the inclined plane a—b shown in the figure. Show the results on a sketch
plane a-b shown in the figure. Show the results on a sketch of the plane on which these stresses act.
of the plane on which these stresses act.
100 MPa 120 MPa
_u E \e|- 20 MPa
\
‘t7
b\ 60 MPa a 80 MPa
iv
2-95* The stresses on horizontal and vertical planes at a point on

the outside surface ofa solid circular shaft subjected to an axial 2-97 At a point in a machine component subjected to plane stress
load P and a torque T are shown in Fig. P2-95. Using Mohr's there are normal and shear stresses on horizontal and vertical
circle, planes through the point, as shown in Fig. P2-97. Using Mohr's
circle.
a. Determine the principal stresses and the maximum shear
stress at the point. Show these stresses on a triangular stress a. Determine the principal stresses and the maximum shear
element. stress at the point. Show these stresses on a triangular stress
b. Determine the normal and shear stresses on the inclined element.
plane a—b shown in the figure. Show the results on a sketch b. Determine the normal and shear stresses on the inclined
of the plane on which these stresses act. plane a—b shown in the figure. Show the results on a sketch
of the plane on which these stresses act.
6000 psi
‘MR
\ D-
E “tr \\;,__ I I, b r10,o00 psi
\\w,
\
\ 8000 psi
_-. \
\ /iL60° | 12,000 psi
“-3 \
\ a I
\\
, /I iv
ll
/
5000 psi
2-12 GENERAL STATE OF STRESS AT A POINT

The general state of stress at a point was previously illustrated in Fig. 2-24. Expres-
sions for the stresses on any oblique plane through the point in terms of stresses
on the reference planes can be developed with the aid of the free-body diagram
of Fig. 2-4-4, where the rt-axis is normal to the oblique (shaded) face. The areas of
2-12 csmnttl. srars or sntnss AT A ronrr 109
F = SJA
5:411:
cxdA.r
‘__§“wA5
3 - 1qdAz
‘"“*
dz ,
%\"P
-H ----
. _
,"
__.a“-~__
_
//' Fadfly % ‘Y=‘“y ‘""r~,,~
/Z
1 o}dAy
Figure 2-44
the faces of the element are dA for the oblique face and dA cos 6,, dA cos By, and
dA cos 9; for the x-, y-, and z-faces, respectively.3
The resultant force F on the oblique face is S dA, whcre S is thc resultant
stress (stress vcctor—see Section 2-7) on the area and is equal to ‘/03 + 1:3,. The
forccs on the x-, y-, and z-faces are shown as three components, the magnitude of
each being the product of the arca and the appropriate stress. If we use I, m, and n
for cos 6,, cos 6)., and cos 9,, respectively; the three force equations of equilibrium
in the x-, y-, and z-directions are
F, = S,dA = axd/11+ tyxdAm + r,xdAn

F} = SydA = aydAm +r,ydAn + r,,ydAl
F, = S,dA = o,dAn + TXgdA.l + Tygd/1H1
where I, m, and rt arc direction cosincs. Thus, the thrcc orthogonal components of
the resultant stress arc
S, = 0,1 + ryxm + run

S). = 1:,,1 + crym + Tzyn ('1)
S, = r,,l + tyzm + czn
The normal component 0,, ofthe resultant stress S equals Sxl + Sym + S,n; therefore,
fi"om Eq. (a), the following equation for the normal stress on any oblique plane
through thc point is obtained:
0,, = 0,12 + aymz + 02:12 + 21.',_,,lm + Zryzmn + 21;, nl (2-21)
3 These relationships can be established by considering the volume of the tetrahedron shown
in Fig. 2-44. Thus, V = %dn c|'A = %dxd.»-1, = §r1ya.4_..=§¢1zr1,4,.sur.r» = at cos6‘, =
dy cos 6,. = dz cos6,; therefore, a’/ix = r1A cos 6;, d/1). = dA cos9_,., dA, = u'A cos 9,.
11O CHAPTER 2 ANALYSIS or smass concarrs AND rmrmrrross
'The shearing stress tn, on the oblique plane can be obtained fi'om the relation
SQ = 0,? + rip For a given problem the values of S and 0,, will be obtained from
Eqs. (a) and 2-21.
A principal plane was previously defined as a plane on which the shear
stress rm is zero. The normal stress 0,, on such a plane was defined as a principal
stress 0p. If the oblique plane of Fig. 2-44 is a principal plane, then S = 0,, and
S, = 0,,l, Sy = 0pm, S, = apn. VVhen these components are substituted into
Eq. (0), the equations can be rewritten to produce the following homogeneous
linear equations in l, m, and n:
(0,, — 0,)! — rpm — run = 0

(0,, — 0,.)m — ray" — try! = O (b)
(0,, — 0,)n — tn! — tyzm = 0
This set of equations has a nontrivial solution only if the determinant of the coef-
ficients of 1, m, and n is equal to zero. Thus,
(Up _ ax) —Tyx —Tzx
-710‘ (UP _ Gr) —T=.v =0

-1,; —1:,., (0,, — 0,)
Expansion of the determinant yields the following cubic equation for determining
the principal stresses:
03 — (0, + 0,. + 0,)0,§ + (010,, + 0y0, + 0,0,, — rfy — 1'3, — rf,)0;, (L22)
2 — 0,-ta
—(0,,0y0, — 0,17,, 2 — 0311,,
2 + 21:,,-r,-,1“) = 0
For given values of 0,, 0,-,. . ., rm Eq. 2-22 gives three values for the principal
stresses 0P| , 0P2, 0P3. By substituting these values for 0p, in turn, into Eq. (b) and
using the relation
I2+m2+n2=l (C)
three sets of direction cosines may be determined for the normals to the three
principal planes. The foregoing discussion verifies the existence of three mutually
perpendicular principal planes for the most general state of stress.
In developing equations for maximum and minimum normal stresses, the
special case will be considered in which 1:,_,. = ry, = -cu = 0. No loss in generality
is introduced by considering this special case since it involves only a reorientation
of the reference x-, y-, z-axes to coincide with the principal directions. Since the
1-, y-, z-planes are now principal planes, the stresses 0,, 0),, 0, becomes 0],] , 0P2,
and 0P3. Solving Eq. (a) for the direction cosines yields
I: Sx/apl m = Sy/Gp2 n = S2/ap3
By substituting these values into Eq. (c), the following equation is obtained:
52 s? s?
—3‘ + —§
01,1 0102 + 0p3
5 =1 Id)
2-12 GENERAL srsrs or smass AT A Ponrr 111
Sy
op;
tr’ “'1
'0
(-5'» 5;» 51)
§‘~
¢-T
\:
_-‘T '-—_
Tm
\ \ '1 I /$_"""-~_ -____________

\\ r_J____.\ 0P1 Sr
ftp;
S
Z cpl > op; > 0P3
Figure 2-45
The plot of Eq. (d) is the ellipsoid shown in Fig. 2-45. It can be observed that the
magnitude of 0,, is everywhere less than that of S (since S2 = 0,? + 1:3,) except at
the intercepts, where S is 0P1, 0'02, or 0P3. Therefore, it can be concluded that two
of the principal stresses (0p1 and 0p; of Fig. 2-45) are the maximum and minimum
normal stresses at the point. The third principal stress is intermediate in value
and has no particular significance. The discussion above demonstrates that the set
of principal stresses includes the maximum and minimum normal stresses at the
point.
Continuing with the special case where the given stresses 0,, 0y, and 0, are
principal stresses, we can develop equations for the maximum shearing stress at
the point. The resultant stress on the oblique plane is given by the expression
§=$+$+$
Substitution of values for S,,, Sy and S, from Eq. (a), with zero shearing stresses,
yields the expression
S2 = 0312 + 031112 + 0,3512 (e)
Also, from Eq. 2-21,
03 = (axlz + aymz + 0,n2)2 (f)
Since S2 = 0,? + 1'3” an expression for the shearing stress rm on the oblique plane
is obtained from Eqs. (e) and (f) as
rm = ‘/0312 + afmz + 0,2112 — (0112 + 0_,,m2 + 0,,n2)2 (2-23)
The planes on which maximum and minimum shearing stresses occur can be
obtained from Eq. 2-23 by differentiating with respect to the direction cosines I,
m, and n. One ofthe direction cosines in Eq. 2-23 (rz, for example) canbe eliminated
1 12 crnrrsn 2 ANALYSIS or STRESS CONCEPTS AND nnrnvrrross
by solving Eq. (0) for n2 and substituting into Eq. 2-23. Thus,
13,, = {(03 — 0,2)I2 + (0,? — 0,2]m2 (g)

+03 — [(0, — 0,)l2 + (0,, — 0,]m2 + 0,]2}1/2
By taking the partial derivatives of Eq. (g), first with respect to I and then with re-
spect to m and equating to zero, the following equations are obtained for determin-
ing the direction cosines associated with planes having maximum and minimum
shearing stresses:
Z[%(ax — 52) _ (51: _ U2)l2 _ (Uy _ o'z)m2:| : 0 (I1)
m [%(a_v _ U2) _ (ax _ Ur)-Z2 _ (Uy _ cz)-'52:] = 0
One solution of these equations is obviously l= m = 0. Then from Eq. (c), n = :i:
1. But this is just the principal surface whose normal is in the z-direction, and on
which the shear stresses are their minimum values, 17,, = tzy — 0.
Solutions different from zero are also possible for this set ofequations. Con-
sider first that m = 0; then from Eq. (11),! = :t,,/W and from Eq. (c), n = zt,/l/i2.
This is the surface whose normal is 45° relative to both the x- and z-axes and perpen-
dicular to the y-axis. This surface has the largest shear stress of all surfaces having
a normal perpendicular to the y-axis. Also if I = O, then from Eq. (i), m = :l:,/U2
and fi'om Eq. (c), n = :l:.,/lfi. This is the smface whose normal is 45° relative
to both the y- and z-axes and perpendicular to the x-axis. This surface has the
largest shear stress of all surfaces having a normal perpendicular to the x-axis.
Repeating the above procedure by eliminating I and m in tlnn from Eq. (g) yields
other values for the direction cosines that make the shearing stresses maximum
or minimum. All the possible solutions are listed in Table 2-1. In the last line of
the table the planes corresponding to the direction cosines in the column above
are shown shaded. Note that in each case only one of the two possible planes is
shown.
Table 2 1 Direction Conslnes for Shearing Stresses

Mmimum Maximum
l 2 3 4 5 6
1 ;l:l 0 0 1./—1/2 i./—1/2 0
m 0 11 0 1./—1/2 0 1,/—1/2
i~/T73 i~/T71
Lenin
2-12 csmzrtu. srxrs or STRESS AT A Ponrr 1 13
Substituting values for the direction cosines from column 4 of Table 2-1
into Eq. 2-23, with 0,, 0y, 0, replaced with 0P1, Upz, 0P3, yields
1 2 1 2 1 1 2
Tmax = Z0,“ + ZGP; — £0,111 + 551:2
_ Up1—Up;_
_ 2
Similarly, using the values of the cosines from columns 5 and 6 gives
01—03 and rmax=%

rw=LEi 0;—03
Of these three possible results, the largest magnitude will be the maximum stress;
hence, the expression for the maximum shearing stress is
1-max = ( (244)
which verifies the statement in Section 2-10 regarding maximum shearing

stress.
1 EXHIIIIPIB Pfflblfilll 2- 15 At a point in a stressed body, the known

stresses are
0, = 14 ksi (T) 0,. = 12 ksi (T) 0, = 10 ksi (T)

Ix, = 8 ksi 1:_,.z = —10 ksi ru = 6 ksi
Determine
(a) The normal and shearing stresses on a plane whose outward nonnal is ori-
ented at angles of 61.3“, 53.1“, and 50.2“ with the x-, y-, and z-axes, respec-
tively.
(b) The principal stresses and the maximum shearing stress at the point.
SOLUTION
(a) The direction cosines for a plane whose outward normal is oriented at angles
of 61 .3”, 53.1”, and 50.2” with the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively, are
I = cos 61.3“ = 0.4802

m = cos 53.1“ = 0.6004
n = cos 50.2“ = 0.6401
1 14 crrtrrtn 2 ANALYSIS or s'nu1ss= coscnrrrs AND nnrnvrrross
The three orthogonal components of the resultant stress S on the plane

are
S, = 0,1 + r,.,,m -1- run

= 14(0.4-802) + 8(0.6004) + 6(0.64-01) = 15.367 ksi
S, = rxyl +0_,,m + Tzyn
= 8(0.-4802) + 12(0.6004) — l0(0.64-01) = 4.645 ksi
S, = 1:”! + rum + 0,21
= 6(0.4802) — l0(0.6004) + 10(0.64-01) = 3.278 ksi
P Stresses are not vectors and generally can-

not be manipulated as vectors. However, the Once the three orthogonal components of the resultant stress S on the plane
total force on the surface having area dA are known, the resultant stress S, the normal stress 0,, and the shear stress 1,,
and normal in the n-direction has a n1ag- on the plane can be determined by using the equations
nitude of S dA. The magnitudes of the nor-
mal and tangential components of this force
are 0,, a'A and r,,, dA, respectively. There- >56 -i" ~33+ =53
fore, dividing the relationship between the
force vector components, (S dA)2 = (0,, dA)2 = \/(15.367)2 + 14.645)’ +(3.27s)1 = 16.335 ksi
+ (r,,, dA),Z by dA2 and rearranging gives the
relationship between the stress components
0,, = Sxl + S,.m + Szn
If, = S2 — 0: or rm = ,/S2 —’0f-
= l5.367(0.4802) + 4-.645(0.6004) + 3.278(0.6401) A115-
= 12.266 ksi E 12.27 ksi (T)
6,, = ,/6'2 - 6,; = ,/(16.3s5)2 - (12.266? Ans.

= 10.863 ksi E l0.86ksi (T)
(b) The three principal stresses and the maximum shearing stress at the point
are determined by using Eqs. 2-22 and 2-24. Substituting the given values of
stress at the point into Eq. 2-22 yields
6; - 366; +2286, +1"/52 = 0
which has the solution
6,1 = 6,,,,, = 22.03 ksi 2 22.1 ksi (T) Ans.

6,, = 6,, = 13.263 ksi = 18.26 ksi (T) Ans-
6,,3 = am, = -4.344 1641 2 4.34 ksi (c) Ans.
Finally, Eq. 2-24 yields
am, - 6,1,, 22.08 -1- 4.344)

rm = 2 = 2
= 13.212101; 13.211151 Ans.
2-12 csmntu. srxrs or STRESS AT A ronrr 1 15
I Example Problem 2-16

stresses are
At @6161 in a stressed body, the known
0,, = 60 MPa (T) 0,. = 40 MPa (T) 0, = 20 MPa (T)

txy = +40 MPa ry, = +20 l\/IPa I“ = +30 MPa
Determine
(a) The principal stresses and the maximum shearing stress at the point.
(b) The orientation of the plane on which the maximum tensile stress acts.
SOLUTION
(a) The three principal stresses and the maximum shearing stress at the point
are determined by using Eqs. 2-22 and 2-24. Substituting the given values of
stress at the point into Eq. 2-22 yeilds
aj - 1200; + 15006, - 4000 = 0

6,1 = 6,,,,, = 106.23 MPa 2 106.2 MPa (T) Ans.

0p; = 0m = 10.000 MPa E 10.00 MPa (T) An
6,3 = am, = 3.365 l‘vIPa 2 3."/7 MPa (T) Ans.
Equation 2-24 yields
_ am, - 6,,-m _ 106.23 - 3.165

Tmax
_ 2 — 2
=51.23 MIPaE5l.2MPa Ans
(b) The orientation of the plane on which the maximum tensile stress acts
obtained by substituting the stress value 0'01 = 0 max = 106.23 MPa into Eqs.
(b) and solving for I, m, and n after noting that F + m2 + n2 = 1. Thus,
(46.23)1- 40m - 30» = 0 (1) P These three homogeneous equations are

not independent because the determinate of
(66.23)m - 20» - 401 = 0 (2) their coeflicients is zero (by construction).
(86.23)n - 301- 20m = 0 (3) Therefore, these three equations cannot give
unique values for the three direction con-
sines, 1, m, and n; they can only give re-
From Eqs. 1 and 2 lationships between the direction cosines.
The fourth equation, 12 + mi + :11 = 1, must
m = 0.76231’ be used along with these three equations in
order to get values for the three direction
From Eqs. 2 and 3 cosines.
n = 0.52471
1 1 6 CHAPTER 2 ANALYSIS or STRESS: coscarrrs AND narnvrrross
Therefore,
1* + (0.76231)” +(0.s24v1)1 = 1
which yields
1 = 0.7339 0,, = 42.793 2 42.88 Ans.

m = 0.5595 0,, = 55.988 2 56.08 Ans-
” = 0.3850 0,, = 67.368 2 67.48 Ans.
1 PROBIEMS
Introductory Problems 2-104* At a point in a stressed body, the known stresses are
0, = 40 MPa (T), c5, = 20 MPa (C), ca = 20 MPa (T), Txy = +40
2-98* At a point in a stressed body, the known stresses are 0, = 40 MPa, 1,, = 0 M1-"a, and ta = +30 MPa. Determine the principal
It/[Pa (T), 0,. =20 MPa (C), 0, = 20 It/[Pa (T), tn. = +40 MPa, stresses and the maximum shearing stress at the point.
r,., =0 MPa, and r,, = +30 MPa. Determine the nonnal and
shear stresses on a plane whose outward normal is oriented at 2-105 At a point in a stressed body the known stresses are 05, = 14
angles of 40°, 75°, and 54* with the x-, y-, and z-axes, respec- ksi (T), 0,. = 12 ksi (T), 0, =10 ksi (T), r_,, = +4 ksi, r_,, = -4
tively. ksi, and rz, = 0 ksi. Determine the principal stresses and the
maximum shearing stress at the point.
2-99* At a point in a stressed body, the known stresses are
q,= 14 ksi (T), 0,=12 ksi (T), Q: 10 ksi (T), r,, = +4 ksi, 2-106* At a point in a stressed body, the known stresses are
r_,., = -4 ksi, and r,, =0 ksi. Determine the normal and shear 0, = 60 MPa (T),o_1, = 90 MPa (T), 0;. = 60 MPa(T), rm. = +120
stresses on a plane whose outward normal is oriented at an- MPa, ry, = +75 MPa, and ru = +90 MPa. Determine the prin-
gles of 403, 60", and 66.2"’ with the x-, y-, and z-axes, res- cipal stresses and the maximum shearing stress at the point.
pectively. 2-107 At a point in a stressed body, the known stresses are 0, = 0
2-100 At a point in a stressed body, the known stresses are 0, = 60 ksi, 0,=0 ksi, 0,=0 ksi, r,,,=+6 ksi, r,._,=+10 ksi, and
It/[Pa (T),0_,=90 l\/[Pa (T),0,= 60 MPa (T), r,, =+120 MPa, tn = +8 ksi. Determine the principal stresses and the maxi-
1:,-Z = +75 MPa, and ti, = +90 MPa. Determine the normal and mum shearing stress at the point.
shear stresses on a plane whose outward normal is oriented at 2-108 At a point in a stressed body, the known stresses are 05, = 72
angles of 60°, 70°, and 37.3“ with the x-, y-, and z-axes, respec- MPa(T), 0, = 32 MPa (C),0, = 0 MPa,1:,,,.= +21 MPa, r,._, =0
tively.
MPa, and T11» = +21 MPa. Determine the principal stresses and
2-101* At a point in a stressed body, the known stresses are the maximum shearing stress at the point.
o5,=0 ksi, 0,.=0 ksi, 0,=0 ksi, r_,,,= +6 ksi, r,,,= +10 ksi,
and ta = +8 ksi. Determine the normal and shear stresses on
a plane whose outward normal makes equal angles with the x-, Challenging Problems
y-, and z-axes. 2-109* At a point in a stressed body, the known stresses are
2-102 At a point in a stressed body, the known stresses are 0, = 72 0,, =18 ksi (C), 05,- =15 ksi (C), 0, =12 ksi (C), Ix), = -15 ksi,
It/[Pa('I‘),0,.= 32 MPa(C),0,= 0MPa,r,,.= +21 MPa,r,,,=0 ryz = +12 ksi, and tn = -9 ksi. Determine
MPa, and ta = +21 MPa. Determine the normal and shear a. The principal stresses and the maximum shearing stress at
stresses on a plane whose outward normal makes equal angles the point.
with the x-, y-, and z-axes. b. The orientation of the plane on which the maximum com-
pressive stress acts.
Intermediate Problems 2-110* At a point in a stressed body, the known stresses are
0, = 75 MPa (T), :5. = 35 MPa (T), 0, = 55 MPa (T), r,_,. = +45
2-103* At a point in a stressed body, the known stresses are
MPa, r_,, = +28 MPa, and rm, = +36 MPa. Determine
q,= 12 ksi (T), o_r,= 10 ksi (C), 0,=8 ksi (T), r,_,=+8 ksi,
i:_,,=-10 ksi, and r,,=+12 ksi. Determine the principal a. The principal stresses and the maximum shearing stress at
stresses and the maximum shearing stress at the point. the point.
SUMMARY 117
b. The orientation of the plane on which the maximum tensile 2-112 At a point in a stressed body, the known stresses are
stress acts. 0,-=100 MPa (T), 05. = 100 MPa (C), 0,=80 MPa (T),
r,,. = +50 MPa, r_,., = -70 MPa, and ta = -64 MPa. Deter-
2-111 At a point in a stressed body, the known stresses are cg, = 18
mine
ksi (T), 05. = 12 ksi (T), 0, = 6 ksi (T), 1:,,. = +12 ksi, r,., = -6
ksi, and 1:1, = +9 ksi. Determine a. The principal stresses and the maximum shaming stress at
the point.
a. The principal stresses and the maximum shearing stress at
b. The orientation of the plane on which the maximum com-
the point.
pressive stress acts.
b. The orientation of the plane on which the maximum tensile
SITBSS 3615.
SUMMARY
Application of the equations of equilibrium is usually just the first step in the so-
lution of engineering problems. Using these equations, an engineer can determine
the forces exerted on a structure by its supports, the forces on bolts and rivets
that connect parts of a machine, or the intemal forces in cables or rods that either
support the structure or are a part of the structure. A second and equally important
step is detennining the internal effect of the forces on the structure or machine.
In the simplest qualitative terms, stress is the intensity of internal force. A
body must be able to withstand the intensity of intemal force; if not, the body may
rupture or deform excessively. Force intensity (stress) is force divided by the area
over which the force is distributed
F
Stress = E (2-1)
Experimental studies indicate that materials respond differently to forces
that tend to pull surfaces apart than to forces that tend to slide surfaces relative to
each other. Therefore, the resultant intemal force is usually resolved into normal
and tangential (shear) components. These are the components that are used to
compute the stresses on an intemal surface. The ratio of the normal force N and
the area on which it acts is the normal stress 0. Positive normal stresses are tensile
normal stresses—they tend to stretch the material. The ratio of the tangential
(shear) component of force V and the area on which it acts is the shear stress 1:.
The positive direction for shear stress is in a direction 90’ counterclockwise fiom
the outward normal direction to the surface.
In general, the stress at a given point on a transverse cross section of an
axially loaded bar will not be the same as the average stress computed by dividing
the total force F by the total cross-sectional area A. For long, slender, axially
loaded members such as those found in trusses and similar structures, however, it
is generally assumed that the normal stresses are uniformly distributed except in
the vicinity of the points of application of the loads.
It can be shown that the shear stress camrot be uniformly distributed over the
area. Therefore, the actual shear stress at any particular point and the maximum
shear stress on a cross section will generally be different than the average shear
stress. However, the design of simple comrections is usually based on average stress
considerations.
The stress at a point depends on the orientation of the surface (the area A)
used to compute it. For example, in an axially loaded member the normal stress
and the shear stress on a surface oriented at an angle 9 to the axis are given by
1 18 crntrrsa 2 ANALYSIS or STRESS coscarrs AND narmrrross
0,, = §(1 + cos 29) and r,, = ;—: sin 26, respectively. That is, the normal stress
is a maximum (0 mu = P/A) and the shear stress is zero on a transverse surface
(6 = 0"), and the shear stress is a maximum (rm = Pf2A = 0m,,J2) on a surface
oriented at an angle of 6 = 45" to the axial direction.
Although the normal stress and the shear stress at a point both depend on
the orientation of the surface on which they act, the state of stress at a point is
completely determined by the normal stress and shear stress on three mutually or-
thogonal smfaces through the point. For two-dimensional or plane stress (for which
0, = 1'2, = 13,, = rm = r_,, = 0), the normal and shear stresses on a plane oriented at
an angle 9 relative to the x-axis are given by
,, + . + %os
6,, = ? — .
29 + 17,, 511129 (2-126)
1:,,, = - %i sin 20 + 1,, 665 26 (2-136)
respectively.
For design purposes, the critical stresses at a point are usually the maximum
normal stress and the maximum shearing stress. The maximum (and minimum)
values of normal stress are called the principal stresses and always occur on planes
free of shear stress, which are called principal planes. At every point in a stressed
body, there exist three principal stresses acting on mutually orthogonal planes. In
plane stress situations, two principal stresses are in the xy-plane
2
6,,1.p1 = U‘ :0’ 1 ,/ + 1}, (2-15)
and the third principal stress is 0,3 = 0, = 0. The principal directions are oriented
at an angle 6P given by
tan26,, =
2 T" (2-14)
0, — 0,,
relative to the x-axis.

The maximum in-plane shearing stress can be found from the principal
stresses
tp = (248)
The maximum shear stress at the point may be (0),) — 0,,2)f2, (0,,1 — 0)f2, or
(0 — 0,,2)f2, depending on the relative magnitudes and signs ofthe principal stresses.
The planes associated with the maximum shear stress bisect the angles between
the planes experiencing maximum and minimum normal stresses.
The transformation equations for plane stress have a simple graphical repre-
sentation called Mohr’s circle. Normal stresses are plotted on the horizontal axis,
with tensile stresses (positive) plotted to the right of the origin and compressive
stresses (negative) plotted to the left of the origin. Shearing stresses are plotted on
the vertical axis with those tending to produce a clockwise rotation of the stress
element plotted above the 0-axis and those tending to produce a counterclockwise
rotation of the stress element plotted below the 0-axis. Each point on Mohr’s circle
REVIEWPROBLEMS 119
represents the state of stress on some surface through the given point. The angular
separation of two points on Mohr‘s circle is ir1 the same direction but twice as
large as the physical angular separation of the two surfaces represented by the
points.
Since Mohr‘s circle is simply a graphical representation ofthe transformation
equations, every problem that can be solved using Mohr‘s circle can also be solved
using the stress transformation equations. Mohr's circle is simply an alternative
(graphical) method of representing and working with the stress transformation
equations. Although Mohr's circle can be drawn to scale and used to obtain values
of stresses and angles by direct measurements on the figure, it is more useful as a
pictorial aid to the analyst who is performing analytical determinations of stresses
and their directions at the point.
1 REVIEW PROBLEMS
2-113* A farmer is extracting a post fi'om the ground using the
structure shown in Fig. P2-1 13. Ifthe force required to remove
the post is 2000 lb, determine the normal stresses in the 0.25-
in.-diameter cables CE and AB.
A E . \|60°
,@ 4*,
|.'.| . k ~ .. .\
_. ' it E
" L '75 kN
._ 15.
Q V _ i FlgureP2-114
_. ..
=2 _,
15' B A. 2-115 A pin-connected truss is loaded and supported as shown in
I ' C Fig. P2-115. Determine
I
I/if’ D a. The normal stress in member AC if it has a cross-sectional
area of 1.477 in?
b. The minimum cross-sectional area for member CD if the
L axial stress must he limited to 3500 psi.
Figure P2-113 A
2-114* Two tie rods are used to support a 75-kN load as shown 5' ' - 5 Pl
in Fig. P2-l l4. Determine
a. The minimum cross-sectional area required for each of the Ci __
rods if the normal stress in each rod must be limited to 7500 lb as
75 MPa. D '
b. The minimum diameters required for the pins at A and C 9000 lb
if the shear stress in each pin must be limited to 100 MPa.
Both pins are in single shear. Figure P2415
120 cmwrnx 2 xnursrs or s'nu:ss= coscnvrs xrrn DEFINITIONS
2-116* Determine the maximum axial load P that can be applied 45 MPa
to the 150 x 180-mm wood compression block shown in Fig.
P2-116 if the shear stress parallel to the grain must not exceed
1.40 MPa and the normal stress perpendicular to the grain must
not exceed l2 MPa.
1 35 MPa
i L18 MPa
ii,
P
/= Rigid
Ir plate Figure P2-1 18
25° 7 - _
' .\ .- 2-119* At a point in a structural member subjected to plane stress
.- _ there are normal and shear stresses on horizontal and vertical
_- .' . planes through the point, as shown in Fig. P2-1 19. Using Mohr's
Grain 180 nun circle
— _ ‘ a. Determine the principal stresses and the maximum shear
e - . stress at the point. Show these stresses on a triangular stress
- element.
‘ b. Determine the normal and shear stresses on the inclined
plane a-b shown in the figure. Show these stresses on a
Figure P2416 sketch of the plane on which they act.
2-111 The stresses shown in Fig. P2-117 act at a point on the free 7 ks‘
surface of a stressed body. Determine the normal and shear
stresses at this point on the inclined plane a-b shown in the
figure. Show these stresses on a sketch of the plane on which “ \\
they act. | mg‘ l 13 ksi
\b 4 ksi
28 ksi
Figure P2-1 19
a\ 7 ksi
I 6:2 i 12 ksi 2-120 At a point in a stressed body, the known stresses are 05, = 53
I \ MPa (T), qr, = 28 MPa (C), at = 36 MPa (T), r,,, = +24 MPa,
\b r_,,,=-18 MPa, and rg=+46MPaDetermine
'_ a. The normal and shear stresses on a plane whose outward
normal is oriented at angles of40°, 75°, and 54° with the x-,
F1211" P2417 y-, and z-axes, respectively.
b. The principal stresses and the maximum shear stress at the
point.
c. The orientation of the plane on which the maximinn tensile
stress acts.
surface of a stressed body. Determine the principal stresses and
the maximum shear stress at the point. Show these stresses on 2-121 Demonstrate that Eq. 2-22 reduces to Eq. 2-15 for the state
a triangular stress element. of plane stress.
Chapter 3
Analysis of Strain: Concepts
and Definitions
3-1 INTRODUCTION
Relationships were developed in Chapter 2 between forces and stresses and
between stresses on planes having different orientations at a point using equi-
lib1'ium considerations. No assumptions involving deformations or materials used
in fabricating the body were made; therefore, the results are valid for an idealized
rigid body or for a real deformable body. In the design of structural elements or
machine components, the deformations experienced by the body, as a result of the
applied loads, ofien represent as important a design consideration as the stresses.
For this reason, the nature of the deformations experienced by a real deformable
body as a result of internal force or stress distributions will be studied, and methods
to measure or compute deformations will be established.
3-2 DISPLACEMENT, DEFORMATION, AND STRAIN

3-2-1 DiSpl2lC€I1l€1lt When a system of loads is applied to a machine
component or structural element, individual points of the body generally move.
This movement of a point with respect to some convenient reference system
of axes is a vector quantity known as a displacement. For example, consider a
body where displacements are restricted to the x—y plane. In Fig. 3-1 the solid
lines represent a body before loads are applied, and the dashed lines represent
the body after loads are applied and the body has deformed. Line AB of initial
length L; has deformed into a line of final length Ly. Point A is displaced to point
A’. The vector from A to A’ is called the displacement of point A. For this two-
dimensional example, the scalar components of the displacement vector are 14,;
in the x-direction and v,, in the y-direction. If L,» = Ly, the body is rigid; and if
L; qé Lf, the body has deformed. In some instances, displacements are associated
with a translation andfor a rotation of the body as a whole and neither the size
nor the shape of the body is changed. A study of displacements in which neither
the size nor the shape of the body is changed is the concern of courses in rigid-
body mechanics. When displacements induced by applied loads cause the size
and/or shape of a body to be altered, individual points of the body move relative
to one another. The change in any dimension associated with these relative dis-
placements is known as a deformation and will be designated by the Greek letter
delta (5).
122 crrsrrra 5 ANALYSIS or S'l’llAlN CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
___
/’ __\\
~. \
\
1’ \
/ \
,1 ' _£f__ __ _. OB. ,
A
5?" \\
</"_‘
H \
E=-I-it N
__....--- I
\\
-\
Figure 3-1
3-2 -2 DBf0l'll]ilti0ll Deformation may be related to force or stress or to a

change intemperature. The deformation (8A5») oflineAB in Fig. 3-1 is 8,43 =L; — L,~.
Two rods of identical material and identical cross-sectional area subjected to differ-
ent loads (Fig. 3-2a) can have the same deformation ifthe second rod is halfas long
as the first. Similarly, if two rods of identical material and identical cross-sectional
area are subjected to identical loads (Fig. 3-2.5), the deformation in a 2-L-long rod
will be twice as large as the deformation in a l-L-long rod. Therefore, a quantita-
tive measure of the intensity of the deformation is needed, just as stress is used to
measure the intensity of an intemal force (force per unit area).
3-2-3 Strain Strain (deformation per unit length) is the quantity used to
measure the intensity of a deformation just as stress (force per unit area) is used to
measure the intensity of an internal force. In Chapter 2, two types of stresses were
defined: normal stresses and shearing stresses. This same classification is used for
strains. Normal strain, designated by the Greek letter epsilon (6), measures the
change in size (elongation or contraction of an arbitrary line segment) of a body
during deformation. Shearing strain, designated by the Greek letter gamma (y),
measures the change in shape (change in angle between two lines that are orthog-
onal in the undeformed state) of a body during a deformation. The deformation or
strain may be the result of a stress, of a change in temperature, or of other physical
phenomena such as grain growth or shrinkage. In this book only strains resulting
fi"om changes in temperature or stress are considered.
‘~—>23
L L
2L l
L_ ,J '
I
*8 2L
fig»I- I
'
8
2P P
- _¢,-
1;‘ 7 ".1 - -~ 5
J—>"=§ 25
i 1
P
(<1) (b)
Figure 3-2
3-2 nrsrmcanmNr.nsronrnnos,xNnsmus 123
3-2-4 Average Axial Strain The change inlength (or width) ofa simple
bar under an axial load (see Fig. 3-3a) can be used to illustrate the idea ofa normal
strain. The average axial strain (a normal strain, hereafter called axial strain) ewg
over the length of the bar is obtained by dividing the axial deformation 5,, by the Original _r ‘ L ' 5»
original length of the bar (the length L) outline Q-_ _ _ _ _ _ __
5»
savg : Z 6'1)
(I1)
That is, the axial strain is the deformation 5,, in the direction of the length divided J’
by the length L. ‘~ gj ts-
Original
5-2-5 Strain at 11 POIIII In those cases in which the deformation is outline
nonuniform along the length ofthe bar (a long bar hanging under its own weight, for
example), the average axial strain given by Eq. 3-1 may be significantly different
fi"om the axial strain at an arbitrary point P along the bar. The axial strain at a
L
_. A
P ii
point can be determined by making the length over which the axial deformation (5)
is measured smaller and smaller. In the limit as AL—>0, a quantity defined as the Figure 3-3
axial strain at the point, e(P), is obtained. This limit process is indicated by the
expression
_ A6,, d5,,
£11’) = 3251.5 = a 6'2)
3-2-6 Shearing Stfflill In a similar manner a deformation involving a
change in shape can be used to illustrate a shearing strain. The average shearing
strain ]/avg is obtained by dividing the deformation 6, in a direction normal to the
length L by the length (Fig. 3-3b)
5s
1/avg = I = I3-11¢ (33)
Since 5,/L is usually very small (typically 8,/L < 0.001), sin ¢ E tan ¢ '5 ¢ where
¢ is measured in radians. Therefore, 1/avg = ¢ = 5,/L is the decrease in the angle
between two reference lines that are orthogonal in the undeformed state. Again,
for those cases in which the deformation is nonuniform, the shearing strain at a
point, 3/,,y(P), associated with two orthogonal reference lines x and y is obtained
by measuring the shearing deformation as the size of the element is made smaller
and smaller. In the lirriit as AL—>0
. A5 d5
<3-is
The angle yr, is difficult to observe and even more difficult to measure. An equiv-
alent expression for shearing strain that is sometimes useful for calculations is
1/.s»(P) = ‘,1 — 9’ <3-41»)

In this expression, 8' is the angle in the deformed state between the two initially
orthogonal reference lines.
1 24 crnrrsn 5 ANALYSIS or 5'l’llAlN: coscnrvrs AND nsnnmoss
3-2-7 UIlit5 Of Strain Equations 3-1 through 3-4 indicate that both nor-
mal and shearing strains are dimensionless quantities; however, normal strains
are fiequently expressed in units of inch per inch [inJin.) or micro-inch per inch
(;2in.fin.), while shearing strains are expressed ir1 radians or microradians. [The
symbol ,u. is frequently used to indicate miero- (l0'6).]
5-2-8 Sign Convention for Strains From the definition of normal

strain given by Eq. 3-1 or 3-2 it is evident that normal strain is positive when a
line elongates and negative when the line contracts. In general, if the axial stress
is tensile, the axial deformation will be an elongation. Therefore, positive normal
strains are referred to as tensile strains. The reverse will be true for compressive
axial stresses; therefore, negative nonnal strains are referred to as compressive
strains. From Eq. 3-4 it is evident that shearing strains will be positive if the
angle between reference lines decreases. If the angle increases, the shearing strain
is negative. Positive and negative shearing strains are not given special names.
Normal and shearing strains for most engineering materials in the elastic range
(see Section 4-2) seldom exceed values of 0.2 percent (0.002 mm./mm or 0.002
in./in. or 0.002 rad or just 0.002).
i Example Problem 3-1 A 1.00-in.-diameter steel bar is s a long.

The diameter is reduced to l/2 ir1. ir1 a 2-ft central portion of the bar. “Then an
axial load is applied to the ends of the bar, the axial strain ir1 the central portion
of the bar is 960 ].LlI1./lIl., the total elongation of the bar is 0.04032 in., and the
diameter of the central portion shrinks to 0.49986 in. Determine
(a) The elongation of the central portion of the ba.r.
(b) The axial strain in the end portions of the ba.r.
(c) The diametral strain in the central portion of the bar.
P The central portion of the bar has an un- SOLUTION

defonned length of 2 fi. The end portions (a) The elongation of the central portion of the bar is obtained by using Eq. 3- l.
have an undeformed length of8 ft — 2 ft = Thus,
6 ft.
ac = our = 96000-‘=)(2)(12)
= 0.02304 in. '1 0.0230 in. Ans.
(b) The elongation of the end portions of the bar is
5, = am - ac 0.04032 - 0.02304 0.01723 in.

The axial strain in the end portions of the bar is obtained by using Eq. 3-l as
follows:
5- 0.01728 . .
6;; = -L5 = ~E(E)- = 240(10"°) = 24-i]_|.L1I1./111. Ans.
(c) The strain in the diametral direction is given by Eq. 3- l. Thus, ifD represents
the diameter of the bar in the central portion,
5-2 nrsr1Ac1mmvr,nsr0nmnos,Asns'mAnr 125
6,, = 5T” =g
0.49986 - 0.5 = -2s0(r0-6) = -230 ,u.1n./in.
. . Ans.
The negative sign for an indicates that the diameter decreases in length.
T iV,,,g
1 EXHIIIPIB P1‘0bl€I]l s-2 The shear force V shown in Fig. 3-4a pro-
duces an average shearing strain yavg of 1000 pirad in the block of material.
10mm
A X
Determine the horizontal movement of point A (Fig. 3-4b) resulting from appli-
cation of the shear force V. (H)
SOLUTION zs, 5,,

The horizontal movement of point A is obtained by using Eq. 3-3. Thus,
If _____ __ ii
5,, = ;-ML = 1000(10"@)(10) r , 10mm
*' r
= 0.0100 mm = 10.i]0[.LII1 Ans.
(5)
I Example Problem 3-5 A rigid bar FEBC is supported by two steel

deformable bars AB and DE, as shown ir1 Fig. 3-5a. There is no strain in the
Figure 3-4
vertical bars before the load P is applied. Afier the load P is applied, the axial
strain in bar DE is 0.0006 in.fin. Determine
(a) The axial strain in bar AB. n
(b) The axial strain in bar AB if there is a 0.001-in. clearance in the cormection
at B before the load is applied.
SOLUTION
D 30
A
T
4fi
Since the bar FEBC is rigid, it pivots about the pir1 at F. The initial and final
configurations ofbar FEBC are shown in Fig. 3-Sb (greatly exaggerated). End B
F-_- nL-_-_. LC
of barAB moves along a circular arc of radius BF. The displacement of B (the E Rigid B
*—3ft '- Sfl 1'20
vector BB’) has components —u5 and —\-'3, both being negative as they are in the
negative coordinate directions. The strain in member AB is given by Eq. 3-1, in
6" = 6,13, 6,“; = — Li, Li = AB, alld = Thfi deforlnation (H)
inbarA.Bis
5,“, = ,/(L + vB)2 + ng - L "13 nil
is
it x
I
whichmaybewritten ~_c\___ r ‘B
2 B‘
53,, + 25,,nL + L2 = L2 + 21:5-L +n_,,
For small displacements, the terms involving the squares of the displacements (11)
(8245, v23, and 1:23) may be neglected compared to the remaining nonsquared Figure 3'5("’b)
terms (28%-L and 2v;,-L). Therefore
5.45 '5 Vs
In a similar manner
505 5 Us
1 26 crnrrsrr 5 ANALYSIS or STIIAIN: coscnrrrs AND DEFINITIONS
50.1: 5.4a Thus, for small displacements, the axial deformation in either bar is equal to the
component of the displacement of one end of the bar (relative to the other end)
all 511 1 taken ir1 the direction of the undeformed orientation of the bar.
The change in length ofbar DE is given by Eq. 3-1 as
855 = €DELDE =
= 0.0018 ft = 0.0216 in.
50.»: The relationship between the deformations in bars AB and DE is controlledby the
5.4.2
clearance rigid bar FEBC because it does not defonn but simply rotates about the support,
3 ft 5 fl as shown in Figs. 3-5c and 3-5d. Sketches of the type shown ir1 Figs. 3-Sc and
3-5d are referred to as deformation diagrams.
(a) From the geometry of Fig. 3-5c, the change in length of bar AB is
8 8
Figure 3-5(c,d)
The strain in barAB is given by Eq. 3-1 as

P By similar triangles, the vertical displace-
ment of the engs of bars AB and DE are re- 543 0.0576 _ _ , _
645 = T = = 0.001200 1n./in = 1200 run./1n. Ans.
latedbyg = 5 whereb=8;,E anda=¢S,w L45 4(l2)
5 clearance. Therefore, 8,49 + clearance =
(b) From the geometry of Fig. 3-5d, the relationship between the deformations
350,-. ir1 bars AB and DE is
B
8,43 + clearance = 5695
Thus
8 8
5,15 = 5595 — clearance = §(0.02l6) — 0.001 = 0.0566 ir1.
The strain in barAB is given by Eq. 3-1 as
5,“, 0.0566 = 0.001179 in./in. = 1179 ,u.in./in. Ans.

“B = Tn = 402)
1 PROBLEMS
MeeMovie Activities and Problems Introductory Problems
N[M3.l Normal strain in rod assembly. Example; Try One. De- 3-1* A 25-ft length of steel wire is subjected to a tensile load that
termine axial strain. produces a change in length of 0.625 in. Determine the axial
strain in the wire.
MM3.2 Normal strain in pinned rod assembly. Example; Try One,
Determine axial strain. 3-2* Compression tests of concrete indicate that concrete fails
when the axial compressive strain is 1200 nmfm. Determine
N[M3.3 Normal strain - basic problems. Concept checkpoints.
the maximum change in length that a 200-mm-diameter x
Use normal strain concepts for four introductory problems.
400-mm-long concrete test specimen can tolerate before fail-
ure occurs.
3-2 nrsrr.-\cr:rrs1vr,nar0n1wrrrorv,rnrn srrunr 127
3 3 A l/'2-in.-diameter structural steel rod was loaded in tension 3-8 A thin rectangular plate ABCD is uniformly deformed into
to fracture. The 8.00-in. gage length of the rod was marked the dashed line shown in Fig. P3 -S. Determine
off in 1.00-in. lengths before loading. After the rod broke, the
a. The average normal strain of side AB of the plate.
strain in the 2.00-in. length containing the fracture was found
b. The average shearing strain y,,,.
to be 0.450 in./in., and the total elongation of the other 6 in.
was found to be 1.50 in. Determine the average strain for the
8.00-in. gage length.
e it
3 4 A structural steel bar was loaded in tension to fracture.
The 200-rmn gage length of the bar was marked off in Ali
§
s
25-mm lengths before loading. After the rod broke, the
25-mm segments were found to have lengthened to 30.0,
.3;:5-
200mm]!
30.5, 31.5, 34.0, 44.5, 32.0, 31.0, and 30.0 mm, consecutively. . B C x
Determine
a. The average strain over the 200-mm gage length. 1 or 250 mm '
b. The maximum average strain over any 50-mm length Figure P3-8
3 5* The 0.5 x 2 x 4-in. rubber mounts shown in Fig. P3-5 are
used to isolate the vibrational motion of a machine from its 3-9* A rigid steel plate A is supported by three rods as shown in
supports. Determine the average shearing strain in the rubber Fig. P3-9. There is no strain in the rods before the load P is
mounts if the rigid frame displaces 0.01 in. vertically relative applied. Afler load P is applied, the axial strain in rod DE is
to the support. 800 niri/in. Determine
a. The axial strain in rods BC.
P
b. The axial strain in rods BC if there is a 0.006-in. clearance
in the connections between plate A and rod BC before the
load is applied.
'2tn. |n
D (Q -
i 0.5 in.
Figure P3-5
'5 70 in.
ip
3 6* A thin rectangular plate is uniformly deformed as shown in l 40in.
Fig. P3-6. Determine the shearing strain ya at P.
:9 E i Q
T 0.200 mm 5
-|—i—"<
zsoonnfl-380mm l
P
l _______ , Figure P3-9
Pie —500nun- -i
Figune P3-6
3-10* The load P produces an axial strain in the steel postD of
Fig. P3-10 of 0.0075 m/m. Determine
3 7 Mutually perpendicular axes in an unstressed member were
formd to be oriented at 89.92° when the member was stressed. a. The axial strain in the aluminum rod CE.
Determine the shearing strain associated with these axes in the b. The axial strain in the aluminum rod CE if there is a
stressed member. 0.10-mm clearance in the connection at E in addition to the
128 cmwrsn 3 ANALYSIS or s'num~|= concerts mo DEFINITIONS
0.09-mm clearance between B and D before the load P is

A ii 50in. ii
applied.
Rigid J I . .
5 1n. D
P7 .1
P 5 in.
50 mm -\ ,7 I00 mm C .
0.09 mm
B E A
unloaded Unloaded
IH 0.009 in. ~ .
~ 15 tn.
efi *Ried B
lsoim‘ 300 mm
V 6in.
Figure P3-13
3-14 A steel sleeve is connected to a steel shaft with a flexible

rubber insert, as shown in Fig. P3-14. The insert has an in-
Figure P3-10 side diameter of 85 mm and an outside diameter of 110 mm.
When the unit is subjected to a torque T, the shaft rotates 1.5”
3-ll The sanding-drum mandrel shown in Fig. P3-1 l is made for with respect to the sleeve. Assume that radial lines in the un-
use with a hand drill. The mandrel is made from a rubber-like stressed state remain straight as the rubber deforms. Determine
material that expands when the nut is tightened to secure the the shearing strain ]/,9 in the rubber insert
sanding drum placed over the outside surface. If the diameter a. At the inside surface.
D of the mandrel increases from 2.00 in. to 2.15 in. as the nut h. At the outside surface.
is tightened, determine
a. The average normal strain along a diameter of the mandrel.
b. The circumferential strain at the outside surface of the .--— Rubber insert
mandrel.
‘"- Shah
\.
‘*— Sleeve
A Figure P3-14
F181-"'9 P3-11 3-15* A thin triangular plate is uniformly deformed as shown

in Fig. P3-15. Determine the shearing strain at P associated
with the two edges (PQ and PR) that were orthogonal in the
3-12* A steel rod is subjected to a nonuniform heating that pro- undeformed plate.
duces an extensional (axial) strain that is proportional to the
square of the distance from the unheated end (e = ha). If the
strain is 1250 umfm at the midpoint of a 3.00-m-long rod, (Q R
determine \>
\ \ 45° 45° I
1
\ \ I,
a. The change in length of the rod. 20 tn. \ \ /
b. The average axial strain over the length L of the rod. \ /
I
\ I
c. The maximum axial strain in the rod. \ \
\/ /
3-13 The load P produces an axial strain in the brass post B of \, T0.-4 in.
Fig. P3-13 of 0.0014 in./in. Determine the axial strain in the P
aluminum alloy rod AD. Figure P3-15
5-5 run stars or snuus ATA ronrr 129
3-3 THE STATE OF STRAIN AT A POINT

The material ofSection 3-2 serves to convey the concept ofstrain as a unit deforma-
tion, but it is inadequate for other than one-directional loading. The extension ofthe
concept to biaxial loading is essential because ofthe important role played by strain
in experimental methods of stress evaluation. In many practical engineering prob-
lems involving the design of structural or machine elements, the configuration and
loading a.re too complicated to permit stress determination solely by mathematical
analysis; hence, this technique is supplemented by laboratory measurements.
Strains can be measured by several methods, but, except for the simplest
cases, stresses cannot be obtained directly. Therefore, the usual procedure used
in experimental stress analysis is to measure the strains and calculate the state of
stress by using the stress-strain equations presented later in Section 4-3.
The complete state of strain at an arbitrary point P in a body tmder load
can be determined by considering the deformation associated with a small vol-
ume of material surrounding the point. For convenience, the volume is normally
assumed to have the shape of a rectangular parallelepiped with its faces oriented
perpendicular to the reference axes x, y, and z in the undeformed state, as shown in
Fig. 3-6a. Since the element of volume is very small, deformations are assumed to
be tmiform; therefore, parallel planes remain plane and palallel and straight lines
remain straight in the deformed element, as shown in Fig. 3-6b. The final size of
the deformed element is determined by the lengths of the three edges dz’, dy’, and
dz’. The distorted shape of the element is determined by the angles 919., 61,, and
EV“ between faces.
The Cartesian components of strain at the point can be expressed in terms of
the deformations by using the definitions of normal and shearing strain presented
in Section 3-2. These are the strain components associated with the Cartesian
components of stress discussed in Section 2-7 and shown in Fig. 2-24. Thus,
dx’—dx dd, rr »
‘~=T= 3 Y~=5-"-
d '—d dd .
€y = % = T; yy, = 2 _9yz (3-5a)
dz’ —dz d6, 21' t

€z:T:d7 yzx:E_6“
t-——"dx,'A__*|
y ti .
van as
T
ts t.
7?’ at
ae__ _‘ "
l V d= to
(H)
x
Figure 3-6
1 30 cmrrss 5 ANALYSIS or srrutnv CONCEP'l'S AND nsrnvmoss
In a similar marmer, the normal strain component associated with a line ori-
ented in an arbitrary n direction and the shearing strain component associated with
two arbitra.ry orthogonal lines oriented in the n and t directions in the undeformed
element are given by
d’—d d5 .
‘~ = = 71’ *'~ = Ti -6»! 6'5”)
Alternative forms of Eqs. 3-5 that will be useful in later developments are
dx' = (1 + ex) dx 9;}, = — — y,,_,.

NH
dy’ = (1 + e_»~)¢iy 9,; = — — we
(3-'5)
dz’ =(1+ 6,) dz 62, = — — 1/H
to-‘=t|u=l
dn’ = (1 + en) dn 9"" = -— — y,,,
N-‘=1
3-4 THE STRAIN TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS FOR

PLANE STRAIN
The method of relating the components of strain associated with a Cartesian coor-
clinate system to the normal and shearing strains associated with other orthogonal
directions will be illustrated by considering the two-dimensional or plane strain
dy=dn
9MI!
case. If the x—y plane is taken as the reference plane, then for conditions of plane
strain 6, = ya = 1/2,. = 0.1
Consider Fig. 3-7a in which the shaded rectangle represents a small un-
strained element of material having the configuration of a rectangular paral-
lelepiped. The sides of the rectangle are along directions for which the strains
ex, ey, and yxy are known. The proportion of the rectangle is chosen so that the di-
Jdv
agonal OB points ir1 the direction n for which the strain en is to be determined. The
(H angle 9 is considered positive when measured counterclockwise fiom the positive
x-axis to the positive n-axis as shown in Fig. 3-7a. This definition ofpositive angle
6 is consistent with the definition of positive angle 6 for stress transformation.
“Then the body is subjected to a system of loads, the element assumes the shape
indicated in Fig. 3-7b. The dimensions of the deformed element are given in terms
of strains obtained from Eqs. 3-6, as shown in Fig. 3-7b.
3-4-1 NOPIIIHI SIIl"3.iIl 6,, An expression for the normal strain 6,, ir1 the
n-direction can be obtained by applying the law of cosines to the triangle OC’B’
shown ir1 Fig. 3-7b. Thus,
(03/)2 = (0c')2 + (C’B’)2 - 2(OC’)(C’B’) COS(:% + 14,.)

or ir1 terms of strains
[(1 + c.)dr=]’ = [(1 + eodxiz + [(1 + G,-)dy12

—2[(1 + e)dx1[(1 + e)dy1[—sin 1».. -1 (=1)
1Note that although there is no strain in the z-direction, 62 = 0, there rnust be a stress in the z-direction,
0, gé 0. That is, a stress is required in the z-direction to prevent deformation in the z-direction.
5-4 THE srrmn TRANSFORMATION squarrorrs FOR PLANE srmrs 151
Substituting dx = dn cos 6 and dy = dn sin 6 (see Fig. 3-7a) into Eq. (a) yields
(1 + 6,,)2(dn)2 = (1 + 6x)2(dn)2(cos2 9) + (1 + 6y)2(dn)2[sin2 9)

+ 2(dn)2(sin 6)(cos a)(1 + 6,,)(1 + 6y)(sin y,,,.) (b)
Since the strains are small, it follows that 62 << 6, sin y E 1/, and so forth; hence,
all second-degree temis such as 62, y6, and the like can be neglected as Eq. (b) is
expanded to become
1+26,, = (1 +26,) cosz 6 + (1 +26y) sing 6 +2]/X), sin6 cos6
which reduces to
6,, = 6, cosz 6 + 6,, sinz 6 + yxy sin6 cos 6 (3-7a)
or in terms of the double angle
+ + Q?”
5., = w — cos 29 + % 511120
. (3-7b)
Equations 3-Ta and 3-7b are called the strain transformation equations for normal
strain when the state of strain is two-dirnensional orplane strain. Note the similarity
between the normal strain transformation equations (Eqs. 3-Ta and 3-7b) and the
normal stress transformation equations (Eqs. 2-12a and 2-12b).
3-4—2 SI'lB31'Il1g Stfilill '1"; The shearing strain y,,, measrnes the amount
by which the right angle between the n- and I-directions decreases as the material
deforms. As the material deforms, the 11-direction rotates counterclockwise through
an angle r;b,,, as shown in Fig. 3-8. Applying the law of sines to triangle OC’B’,
OB’ _ B’C’
sin LOC’B’ sin £B’OC'
which gives
B"C'sin AOC’B' = OB’sin rB’0c’

or in terms of the strains,
I N 1
(1 + 6,.)dy srn + }/1,.) = (1 + 6,) dn sm [6 + ((0,, — 16)] (c)
r_ ',_
\
Y n)
IA-.
|\\.- A’ __ --~ _. ~ — -73,“
-- _,» 1-;
T
.‘.;:|v:\ I‘, _:___>_._->-;'___..-»"' B I ‘(lg
“it 1' _,,-.-;;;..::11»4""' __ _ __ _ -In C" k'

r_____~— \|J X
0 c
Figure 3-8
1 52 cmrr'r"s1r 5 ANALYSIS or srrrsnr coscarvrs AND rmrrrvmoss
Since the strains (6,, 6,, yxy, and 6,,) and the angles ¢,, and 1,6 are all small [but
the angle 6 is not necessarily small),
. 71' ,._,
sm(5 + 3/U) = cos yxy = l
sin[6 + (Q5, — 111)] = sin 6 cos(¢,, — 1,0‘) + cos 6 sin(¢,, — 1,0)

E sin6+(¢., -1,//) cos6
and Eq. (c) can be written
(1 +6y)dy E (1 + 6,,)dn [sin 6 + (¢,, — tit) cos 6] (d)
where dy = dn sin 6 [see Fig. 3-7a). Therefore, Eq. (d) can be reduced to
(éy — 6,.) @1119 E (¢,. — tit) cos 9 +€n(¢n — 11¢) W5 9

E’ (¢,. — W) COS 9 (Q)
since 6,,, Q5“, and all are all small. Substituting Eq. (3-7a) into Eq. (e) and solving
for 45,, yields
¢,, = —(6,, — 6,.) sin 6 cos 6 — y,,. sin: 6 + 1,0 (f)
Equation gives the counterclockwise rotation of a line which makes an

angle of 6 with the x-axis initially. Thinking of ¢,, as 45(6), the cormterclockwise
rotation of the t-axis can be written
a -w + a
= —(6, -6,) sin(6 + cos(6 + — yxy sing (6 + +16
=(6,,—6,.)cos6 sin6—y,,).cos26+1,b (g)
Finally, the shearing strain y,,, is the decrease in the right angle between the
orthogonal n- and t-directions or the difference between the rotations ¢,, and 4),.
Therefore,
]/m = 65:1 — ¢r
= —2(6, — 6y) sin 6 cos 6 + J/,_,,(cos2 6 — sin: 6) (3-Ba)
or in terms of the double angle
y,,, = —(6,, — 6,.) sin 26 + 31,}. cos 26 (3-Sb)
Equations 3-8a and 3-Sb are the strain transformation equations for shearing strain
when the state of strain is two-dimensional or plane strain. Note the similarity
between the shear strain transformation equations (Eqs. 3-Ba and 3-Sb) and the
shear stress transformation equations (Eqs. 2-13a and 2-13b).
Equations 3-7 and 3-8 provide a means for determining the normal strain
6,, associated with a line oriented in an arbitrary rt-direction in the x—y plane and
5-4 ms STRAIN TRANSFORMATION squsnoss sort PLANE snnrs 153
the shearing strain y,,, associated with any two orthogonal lines oriented in the
11- and t-directions in the x—y plane when the strains 6,, 6,, and y,,. associated
with the coordinate directions are known. When these equations a.re used, the
sign conventions used in their development must be rigorously followed. The sign
conventions used are as follows:
1. Tensile strains are positive; compressive strains are negative.
2. Shearing strains that decrease the angle between the two lines at the origin of
coordinates are positive.
3. Angles measured counterclockwise fi'om the reference x-axis are positive.
4. The (n, I, 2) axes have the same order as the (x, y, 2) axes. Both sets of axes form
a right-hand coordinate system.
J1’
I
1 EXHIIIPIB PTOIJIBIII 5-4 The strain components at a point are

If-.\
6,, = +300;r, 6,. = —l000;.t, and y,,_,, = —600,rt. Determine the strain com- 1 \~\
I \
ponents 6,,, 6,, and y,,, if the xy- and nt-axes are oriented as shown in 1 -\
Fig. 3-9. .. _.1_z
\~ \»'e=30°1 /'
\--i
\ tvr
SOLUTION \n
The rt-axis is located at an angle 6,, = —30° with respect to the x-axis; therefore,
the strain 6,, is given by Eq. 3-Ta as Figure 3-9
6,, = 6,, cosz 6,, + 6,, sinz 6,, + 11,), sin 6,, cos 6,,
= 800 cos2(—30"') + (-1000) sin2(—30°) + (-600) sin(—30°) cos(—30“)
= 609.8_|.t E 6l0_r.t Ans.
3.1
The t-axis is located at an angle 6, = +60“ with respect to the x-axis;
therefore, the strain 6, is given by Eq. 3-7a as
6, = 6,, cos2 6, +6, sing 6, + y,,,, sin 6, cos 6,

= 800 cos2(+60°) + (-1000) sin2(+60") + (—e00) sin(+60°) cos(+60”)
'3»
3.2
= -809.8,, E -srou Ans.
P As a check of the small angle assump-
In a similar manner, the shearing strain Ym is given by Eq. 3-Ba as tions, note that when y,,, = 0.0012588 rad,
sin y,,, = 0.00l25900 2 y,,, and cos y,, =
0.9999992 Z 1.
y,,, = -2(€, - 6,) sin 6,, cos 0.. + y,_.. (cosz 0,, - sin: 0,)
= -2[s00 - (-1000)] sin(—30") cos(—30")
+(—600)[cos2(—30‘) - sin2(—30°)]
= 1250.8 ,u.rad 2 1259 _u.rad Ans.
Therefore, a line element in the n-direction has increased in length, a line element
in the t-direction has decreased in length, and the angle at the origin of the nt-axes 3.3
is now less than 90°.
134 CHAPTER 5 anuvsrs or s'r'ruu1r= coscsrrrs urn nsnrvrrross
1 PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems Intermediate Problems
3-16* The thin rectangular plate shown in Fig. P3-16 is uniformly 3-19* A thin square plate 30 in. on a side is unifonnly de-
deformed such that 6, = -2000 um/rn, 6, = -1500 um/m, formed into the rectangle indicated by the dashed lines shown in
and y,,- = + 1250 rtrad. Determine the normal strain 6,, in the Fig. P3-19. Determine
I
plate.
a. The normal strains 6,, and 6, and the shearing strain yg.
b. The normal strain 6,,.
i
i as" J’
150mm
n\
\\
I
0.03 in.
1t_
Figure P3-16
3-17* The thin rectangular plate shown in Fig. P3-17 is uniformly

deformed such that 6,, = +880 /.1.in./in., 6, = +960 ;.r.infin.,
and yg. = -750 nrad. Determine
a. The normal strain 6,,¢ along diagonal AC of the plate. hi 30 0.06 in.
b. The normal strain 63,; along diagonal BD of the plate.
Figure P3-19
J"
Di C 3-20* A plate undergoing plane strain is deformed into the dashed

\\‘ III
-.__ ,/ shape shown in Fig. P3-20. Determine the strains 6,, 6,., and
I Ir
I 2in. Yo‘ -
\
I \I I\ '~.
A /, \\\ I
ii 4 mi» B J-’
Figure P3-17
6 100mm ' I‘
3-18 The thin square plate shown in Fig. P3-18 is uniformly de- L l-0.02mm
formed such that 6,, = +1750 p.n1/m, 6,. = -2200 um/m, and
yg = -800 rrrad. Determine 7 0.0lmml
T r---- ““-- _
a. The normal strains 6,, and 6, in the plate. 50mm
b. The shearing strain y,,, in the plate.
-_.___ — x
J" __________ _l___Q--__,0.lrmn
I
0.05 mm
Figure P3-20
I
3-21 The strain components at a point in a body rmdergoing plane

-— 300 mm —i ,, strain are 6, = -800 rein/‘in., 6, = +640 ,uin./in., and y,,, =
-960 ,urad. Determine the strain components 6,, 6,, and y,,,
Figure P3-18
5-5 PRINCIPAL srrmns AND MAXIMUM srraur STRAIN 155
when the nt-axes are oriented at 6 = 42"‘ counterclockwise y

from the any-axes as shown in Fig. P3-21.
5|
Y /
A \
/1 \\ n 240 mm
1/ \\
I // \ /
\/
\\ /1 A C D x
\ /
\ , 8 -200mm--200rrr1n '
\\ /' Figure P3-24
ix
Figure P3-21
3-25* The thin rectangular plate shown in Fig. P3-25 is unifonnly
deformed such that6, = + 1575 ,uin./in., 6, = + 1350 ,uin./in.,
and 6, = + 1250 ,u.in.!in.. Determine
3-22 The strain components at a point in a body undergoing plane
strain are 6, = + 720 rrmfm, 6,. = -480 um/rn, and y,,. = a. The shearing strain y,,, in the plate.
+360 rtrad. Determine the strain components 6,, 6,, and 1.-,, b. The normal strain 6J, in the plate.
when the nt-axes are oriented at 6 = 30" clockwise from the
xy-axes as shown in Fig. P3-22. t\ /n
Q R
45° 45°
30 in.
x
P
r~
I xx‘
I \\ Figure P3-25
I
7 '~ Pk
I
I
\‘)
3-26 The thin rectangular plate shown in Fig. P3-26 is unifonnly
-\ |' _r‘x deformed such that 6,, = +1950 rtmfm, 6,. = -1625 umlni,
'~. -., , ,-B 1'
‘n
\\\ , I and 6,, = - 1275 urn/m. Determine
\\ 1 a. The shearing strain ya in the plate.
\\‘,,
b. The normal strain 69,, along the diagonal QR of the plate.
ll
Figure P3 -22 J‘
, l ms /"
. I
Challenging Problems If
//
/
3-23 Using the small strain approximation, show that Eq. (b) of / 300 mm
Section 3-4 reduces to Eq. 3-7a of Section 3-4. /I ‘
I’,
3-24* The thinrectangularplate shown in Fig. P3-24 is uniformly

P ' —-— x
deformed such that 6A, = -1200 ,um/rn, 6 3,, = +750 ,u.m./rn,
i 400 rnrn iQ
and 6,,,, = -600 nmfm. Determine the nonnal strain 6,. and
the shearing strain yg. in the plate. Figure P3-26
3-5 PRINCIPAL STRAINS AND MAXIMUM SHEAR STRAIN

The similarity between Eqs. 3-7 and 3-8 for plane strain and Eqs. 2-12 and 2-13
for plane stress indicates that all the equations developed for plane stress can be
applied to plane strain by substituting 6, for 0,, 6y for cry, and y,,,/2 for 1:xy. Thus,
136 CHAPTER 5 ANALYSIS or STIIAIN: c ONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
fi'om Eqs. 2-14, 2-15, and 2-17, expressions are obtained for determining in-plane
principal directions, in-plane principal strains, and the maximum in-plane shear
strain. Thus,
yxy (3_9)
tt1l'126p =
6, — 6,
+ — 2 1
6,1-as = ex 2 Q iv (ex 2 Q) + (1/ii) (3-101
”»~--2 "‘_"
T 2 1%?)
V” 2
<3" 11 1
In the previous equations, normal strains that are tensile and shear strains
that decrease the angle between the faces ofthe element at the origin ofcoordinates
(see Fig. 3-7) are positive.
When a state of plane strain exists, Eq. 3-10 gives the two in-plane prin-
cipal strains while the third principal strain is 6,3 = 6, = 0.2 An examination
of Eqs. 3-10 and 3-ll indicates that the maximum in-plane shear strain is the
difference between the in-plane principal strains, but this may not be the max-
imum shear strain at the point. The maximum shear strain at the point may be
(6,, — 6,3), (6,, — 0), or (0 — 6,2), depending on the relative magnitudes and
signs of the principal strains. The lines associated with the maximum shear strain
bisect the angles between lines experiencing maximum and minimum normal
strains. The three possibilities are illustrated in Fig. 3-10.
§a3=§=0 €p3=£z:0
it F 1
I _ Ymait --|,__
F-‘S
€p] I
£151 | l\J
‘.1 T-6“
Figure 3-10
iii“;
_.-l
to7l|___ T1-rum
I
g T 1/max
r__ |.__
EXZIIIIPIC PPOIIIGIII 3-5 The strain components at a point in a body

undera state ofplane strain are 6, = +l200,u., 6,, = —600p., and y,_,, = +900,tt.
Determine the principal strains and the maximum shear strain at the point. Show
the principal strain deformations and the maximum shear strain distortion on a
sketch.
2Note that although there is no strain in the z-direction, 6,3 = 6, = 0, there must be a stress in the
z-direction, 0-p3 = cr, gs 0. That is, a stress is required in the z-direction to prevent deformation in the
z-direction.
5-5 PRINCIPAL srrtarns turn rurrxnwru srraur srmrn 157
SOLUTION
The in-plane principal strains 6,,1 and 6,; are given by Eq. 3-10 as
6,,+6, 6,—6, 2 1/X, 2

“"6"”: 2 i 2 + 2
.1 >-./< .1 1) -(6)
1200+ -600
= 300 :1: 1006.2

1200- -600 2 900 2
6,,| = (300 + l006.2)(10_6) = l306.2(l0_°) E 13061.1. Ans.

6,; = (300 — l006.2)(l0_E’) = -706.2(l0_°) '5 -706_u. Ans.
€,,3 = E2 = 0 ADS.
The in-plane principal strain directions are given by Eq. 3-9 as
,1. 2,, = 6,, 1/—->1E, = i

(1200) — (-600)
from which 26,, = 26.57” and 26,, = 26.57“ + 180° = 206.57‘ or
6,, = 13.285” and 6,, = 103.285”
Which of the angles 6,, is associated with which of the in-plane principal strains
is found by substituting one of the values of 6,, into the strain transformation
equation (Eq. 3-7a). Using 6 = 6,, = 13.285‘ gives
6,, = 6, cos2 6 +6}, sinz 6 +3/,,. sir16 cos6

= (1200 rt) cos2(l3.285‘) + (-600p.) sin2(l3.285°) J’
+ (900 Jr) sin (l3.285°) cos (l3.285°)
= 1506.2 it = 6,, 1.
--'1
_-' 15060
The principal strains 6,1 and 6,2 are perpendicular. There is no shearing strain
associated with the principal strain directions. A sketch showing the principal -13_gg<> 706“ X
strains is shown in Fig. 3-1 la. (Q)
The maximum in-plane shear strain y_,, is given by Eq. 3-ll as
2 2 Y n
Ex 5 yr '\_
*’P=2\/(Ty) +(7’) 1\/ ‘/
yp(](]6) =
1200- (-600) 2 + 900 2 = 2012 “*%+1°1°#
yp = 2012(10“‘) E 2010,u. Ans. ‘-.._vss.3°

Since 6,,| and 6,,; have opposite signs,
(b)
ynm = yp = 2010,; An5_ Figure 3-11
138 CHAPTER 5 ANALYSIS or s'nm;u= concnrrs AND DEFINITIONS
The angle 6? associated with the nt-axes of yum can be found using Eq.
2-16 and substituting s for 0' and y/2 for 1', which results ir1
_ —(5x _ Ey) : _(1200)_ (_600)

tan 28.
’ y,,, 900
fi'om which
6,, = —3l.715° and 9,, = 58.285“
Substituting 9 = 9, = 58.285“ into the shear strain transformation equation

(Eq. 3-Ba) gives
14,, = —2(e, — 6,.) sin 6 cos 9 + 1/xy(cos2 6 — sin: 6)

= —2[(l200,u.) — (—6001.r)] sin (58.285°) cos (58.285°)
+ (900;z)[cos2 (58.2B5°) — sinz (5B.285°)]
= -2012.5“ ; -2010,). = ymax

Figure 3-11b is a sketch showing }/max. Since yum is negative, the 90° angle
between the n- and t-directions increases.
1 EXHIIIPIE 3-6 The strain components at apoint in a body

under a state ofplane strain are 6,, = +720/1., 6,, = +520;.r, and my = +480,u..
Determine the principal strains and the maximum shear strain at the point. Show
the principal strain deformations and the maximum shear strain distortion on a
sketch.
SOLUTION
The in-plane principal strains e_,,| and 6P; are given by Eq. 3-10 as
120+520
Jr?>> o)
e —e.
I 720-520 2
2
+
y .
2
430 2
(epl-€p2)(106)= 2 It ( 2 ) +( 2 )
= 620 :|: 260
em = (620 + 260)(lO"’) = 8S0(10_E')= 880;; Ans.

ep; = (620 — 260)(l0_°) = 360(l0_°) = 360;; Ans.
6P3 = €z = 0 Ans.
5-5 PRINCIPAL snmns AND MAXIMUM snnut s'nms 159
The maximum in-plane shear strain yp is given by Eq. 3-11 as
_ 2 5* — E)’ 2 + yX}' 2
Y» " T 7
6 720- 520 2 400 2
yp = 520(10-6) = 520a An
Since em and €p2 have the same signs,
yum = e_,,1— epg, = 880p. — 0 = 880,11. Ans.
The in-plane principal strain directions are given by Eq. 3-9 as P The sides of the small dotted square
inside the larger dashed square are rotated
45 “ relative to the principal directions. These
t8.n29p =
e, ”"'
-G, —_ i480
720-520 _- 2 ' 4000 directions experience the maximum shear-
ing strain possible in the x—y plane. As the
26;, = 67.38“ 9,, = 33.69” E 33.7” Ans. material deforms, the small dotted square
deforms into a diamond in which two of the
angles are smaller than 90*‘ by 11,, and the
The required sketch is given in Fig. 3-12.
other two are larger than 90° by yp. Since the
difference e ,1 — e,,3 is larger than the differ-
ence epl - Epz, the maximum shear defor-
I/\
mation in the 13-plane (shown in the lower
, \ part of Fig. 3-12) is greater than the maxi-
/ \
’ \ mum in-plane shear strain yp.
/
/
/
/ \
< \
\ \
\\ ;
Y Epz \ ,’I .
\ /
GP] \\ I/I
\v ,
/\
/I \
// \
/ // h 5 ‘I 1 \
(/ I \
- ’ ‘--. __1 I
\. / MI
.7/i . ' i \ M /
, | I . ' i epl ‘\ T 1 l
I,
v’
GP3 =0
Figure 3-12
140 CHAPTER 5 ANALYSIS or S'l’llAlN: coscsrrs AND DEFINITIONS
1 PROBLEMS
In Problems 3-27 through 3-38 the strain components ex, Eyq Intermediate Problems
and yn. are given for a point in a body subjected to plane strain.
Determine the principal strains and the maximum shearing
strain at the point. Show the principal strain deformations Problem i ex i e_,. i y,_-,.
and the maximum shearing strain distortion on a sketch 3-33* |+720n |+s20n | +4s0n
3-34* | -540,0 | -9s0n | +5600
3-as l +36-at l +432n l +2230
Introductory Problems 3-36* l +900n l +650... l +3000
3-37 | -3250 | -6250 | +6300
Problem 6x fh Ie Yxv 3-33 | -900“ | -650a | -600,0
3-27‘ +600 "E -200 ‘F: -430,1
3-28‘ +960 ‘ii -320 ‘F +500“ In Problem 3-39 through 3-46 certain strains and angles are
3-29 +900 ‘if -300 ‘F +4s0n given for a point in a body subjected to plane strain. Determine
3-30 -900 "F; + 600,0 -420n the unknown quantities for each problem and prepare a sketch
showing the principal strain deformations and the maximum
3-31‘ +750 "E -1000.0‘ +360n shearing strain distortions. ln some problems there may be
3-32 -150;. + 2 0 ‘it l -2501; more than one possible value of 6P depending on the sign of y,¢,..
Problem ex e,. 1/,3. ep, GP} ym 9,,

3-39‘ +480,u -1200.. -1400..
3-40‘ +300,u —800;.t +l500pt
3-41 +800,u. + 1280p; ~+-2400;;
3-42 --4501.: -~780;.t ~l-960,11.
3-43‘ —l800pt +2251; —30°
3-44 +8401; +1 100;; +20“
3-45 -vson -750” -15000.
3-46‘ +7501; —750;.t +l000y.
3-6 MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRAIN

The pictorial or graphic representation of Eqs. 2-12 and 2-13, known as Mohr‘s
circle for stress, can be used with Eqs. 3-7 and 3-3 to yield a Mohr’s circle for
strain. The equation for the strain circle obtained from the equation for the stress
circle by using a change in variables 6 for 0 and y/2 for 17 is
En _
‘X +5»
2
2 +
V»:
2
2 =
51 —
2
5» 2 +
Fry
2
2
5-6 srornrs cnrcu: ron PLANE srasnt 141
/at
+:
Y
rt Q :1 +
1'
_,+ 7
Li‘.-
T: 510°) HL "
. \ 7
i'.. I \\
_ ~.
2 I ‘\ ye E
O c \ ___ 7 +z
(-600, 450) 300 §=1006
‘\__-' Z9 |
\
\
| — 900 -
\ .
rt-5"-0-—
ii *-126.6" E006)
(1200,-450$ '..\
J ‘x
»~ (P2 - '1
€ +6 E,-5. .
€p]=1306
2 T 2 1
-- epl - gpz = —706
\_)‘
kl Figure 3-14
Figure 3-13
The variables in this equation are 6,, and y ,,,/2. The circle is centered on the e axis
at a distance (ex + ey)/2 fi"om the origin and has a radius
R=./(%)’+(al
Mohr‘s circle for the strains of Fig. 3-7 (with 5, > 6,.) is shown in Fig. 3-13. It is
apparent that the sign convention for shear strain needs to be extended to cover
the construction of Mohr’s circle. Observe for a positive shear strain (indicated
in Fig. 3-7) that the edge of the element parallel to the x-axis tends to rotate
counterclockwise while the edge parallel to the y-axis tends to rotate clockwise.
For Mohrs circle construction, the clockwise rotation will be designated positive
and the counterclockwise rotation will be designated negative. This is consistent
with the sign convention for shear stresses given in Section 2-7. A Mohr's circle
solution for Example Problem 3-5 is shown in Fig. 3-14.
1 PROBLEMS
In Problems 3-47 through 3-58 certain strains and angles are MecMovie Activities and Problems
given for a point in a body subjected to plane strain. Use Mohr‘s
circle to determine the unknown quantities for each problem MM3.4 Coach Mohr‘s Circle of Strain. Theory; Interactive Ex-
and prepare a sketch showing the angle 8,, the principal strain ample; Game. Learn to construct and use Mohr’s circle to de-
deformations, and the maximum shearing strain distortions. termine principal strains including the proper orientation of the
In some problems there may be more than one possible value principal strain planes.
of HP, depending on the sign of y,,..
142 cnsrrss 5 ANALYSIS or sraxne coscsrrs AND DEFINITIONS
Problem 6, -e
_fl'\ PS'1 l'l\
"U 5,02 i Vp Vrnax use
3-47* +40011 -600... l + 1s.43'=
3-48* + 945pt -7ssn| -1-16.85"
3-49 + 703,1 -104n| -34.10“
3-50 -114;. -903.“ +19.2s@
Problem l"f\ in m ‘< *2‘Q m E. m E F-J R3 ymax cs ‘m

3-51* '1"\O Ur @ ‘F -225 1; - M -.1Ul ‘R
3-52‘ + too0 7; -333 ‘F m -1"u:onM Ti ii.
3-53 'i'“-Jut @ ‘P +Lu 8 ‘P

3-54 +600,u. +480,u, is 38 1:‘:
Problem l'f\ is
m
I'h
'< i< 1’-\'.v mE
*- GP? VP yrnax m hm
3-55" -680 '2 -i-320 R + ii -rt‘R
3-56" '1"J5- Ur @ 1; -1"Go ‘F + -I@ o ‘R
3-57 *1"Lu @ @ 1; -1"-r{II o F + 120;.
3-ss -300.. +ox S 1‘ —-450p.
3-7 STRAIN MEASUREMENT AND ROSETTE ANALYSIS

In most experimental work involving strain measurement, the strains are measured
on a free surface of a member where a state of plane stress exists. If the outward
normal to the surface is taken as the z-axis, then 0, = 1'2, = 1:2,, = 0. Since this
state of stress offers no restraint to out-of-plane deformation, a normal strain 6,
develops in addition to the in-plane strains 6,, 6}|, and yxy. The shear strains 1/,1 and
11,}. remain zero; therefore, the normal strain 6, is aprincipal strain. In Section 3-5,
J’ ,.+\ expressions were developed for the plane strain case relating the in-plane principal
J 3' strains (6_,,| and 6_,,;) and their orientations to the in-plane strains 6,, 6_,,, and y,,_,,.
For the plane stress case, which involves the normal strain 6, in addition to the
1'" in-plane strains, similar expressions are needed.
iv + 3-
r—|—Li- As an illustration of the effects of an out-of-plane displacement on the de-
A | be formation (change in length) ofa line segment originally located in the x—y plane,
“V I wflfie’ consider line AB of Fig. 3-15. As a result of the loads imposed on the member, the
H /_____ _ _ _ ;_ _
u+du line AB is displaced and extended into the line A’B' . The displacements associated
X
with point A‘ are u in the x-direction, v ir1 the y-direction, and win the z-direction.
Point B’ displaces u + du in the x-direction, v + dv in the y-direction, and w + dw
z in the z-direction. The deformation 8,“; is obtained from the original length of the
Figure 3-15 line, and the displacements du, dv, and dw of point B’ with respect to A’. Thus,
3-1 srruus MEASUREMEl\T no aossrrs ANALYSIS 143
(A’B')2 = (L + 5,18? = (L + du)2 + (mi + (dw)2

and afier squaring the terms on both sides, the result is
L2 + 2La,,,. + sf”, = L2 + 2L(du) + (du)2 + (dv)2 + (dw)2
If the deformations are small, the second-degree terms can be neglected; hence,
5,13 = du
This indicates that the normal strain along AB (3.45 divided by L) is not affected by
the presence ofthe out-of-plane displacements. In fact, none ofthe in-plane strains
is affected; therefore, Eqs. 3-7 and 3-8 are valid not only for the plane strain case
but also for the plane stress case present when strain measurements are made on a
free surface.
Electrical resistance strain gages have been developed to provide accurate
measurements ofnormal strain. The gage may be an etched foil conductor mounted
on epoxy or polyimide backing (see Fig. 3-16). The foil gage is cemented to
the material for which the strain is to be determined. As the material is strained,
the wires are lengthened or shortened; this changes the electrical resistance of the
gage. The change in resistance is measured by means of a Wheatstone bridge,
which may be calibrated to directly read strain.
Shear strains are more difficult to measure directly than normal strains. The
electrical resistance strain gages are sensitive only to normal strains and cannot
respond to shear strains. Instead, shear strains are often obtained by measuring
nonnal strains in two or three different directions. The shearing strain yxy can be
computed from the normal strain data by using Eq. 3-7a. For example, consider
the most general case of three arbitrary normal strain measurements, as shown in
5".
to
l'-'
I.
E.
K.
I
;,_: - .1‘.
*"h\.-1",
Figure 3-16
/
E I
144 CHAPTER 3 ANALYSIS OF STRAIN: CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
C Y Fig. 3-17. From Eq. 3-7a,

b
6,, = 6, cos: 9,, + 6,, sing 9,, + )/1,. sin 9, cos 9,,
. Q 6,, = 6, cosz 9;, + 6,, sinz 9;, + 7/xy sin 9;, cos 6;, (3-12)
\
ix 6, = 6, cosz 9,, + 6,, sinz 19¢ + J/,,. sin 9,, cos 9,,
\\ '\
, \K 9
\|v|ec l||6b ll II
From the measured values of60, 6,5, and 6,, and a knowledge ofthe gage orientations
I
6,, 9,, and 6, with respect to the reference x-axis, the values of 6,, 6,, and y,_,, can
Figure 3-17 be determined by simultaneous solution of the three equations. In practice the
angles 6,, 95, and 9,, are selected to simplify the calculations. Multiple-element
strain gages used for this type of measurement are known as strain rosettes. Two
rosette configurations that are marketed conmrercially are shown in Fig. 3-18.
It should be noted that the strain rosettes shown in Fig. 3- 1 9 are all equivalent.
\ ~ ‘tr The choice of which to use is often determined by the geometry of the machine
part and the point at which the strains are to be determined. The rosettes shown
v
in Figs. 3-19a and 3-19b could be used to determine strains at a point on the fi'ee
surface of a shaft, pressure vessel, or other type of machine component. The point
1 of interest would be located at the center of the triangular arrangement ofgages for
'
the rosette shown in Fig. 3-19a or at the intersection of the three gage lines for the
F /‘1’\ -1 rosette shown ir1 Fig. 3-19b. Neither of these rosettes could be used to determine
the strains at a point near the edge ofa hole or other type of boundary in a machine
component. Since the intersections of the gage lines for the rosettes shown in Figs.
3-19c and 3-19d are outside the regions occupied by the gages, they can be used to
‘ - determine the strains at a point near the edge of a hole or other type of boundary
L‘ i in ir1 a machine component.
In this book the angles used to identify the normal strain directions of the
various elements of a rosette will always be measured cotmterclockwise from the
Figure 3-18 reference x-axis. Once 6,, 6_,,, and y,,,. have been determined, Eqs. 3-9, 3-10, and
3-1 1 can be used to determine the in-plane principal strains, their orientations, and
the maximum ir1-plane shear strain at the point.
In Section 4-3 , it will be shown that for plane stress
v
6, = 6p; = —:(61 + 6,.) (3-13)
where v is Poisson‘s ratio (a property of the material used in fabricating the mem-
ber), which is defined in Section 4-2. For the case of plane stress, this out-of-plane
W
_
0&3 g 0%
@
(a ) (b) (v) (4)
Figure 3-19
3-1 STRAIN MEASUREMENI‘ AND noserrs mursrs 145
principal strain is important because the maximum shear strain at the point may
be (epl — Gpg), (e_,,1 — Epg), or (€p3 — 6P3), depending on the relative magnitudes
and signs of the principal strains at the point.
Strain-measuring transducers such as electrical resistance strain gages mea-
sure the average normal strain under the sensing foil element of the gage (along
some gage length) and not the strain at a point. So long as the gage length is kept
small, errors associated with such measurements can be kept within acceptable
liniits. The following example illustrates the application of Eqs. 3-12 to principal
strain and maximum shear strain determinations under conditions of plane stress.
666
1 Example Problem 3-7 A mmrosette, composed ofthree electrical Gage 1. Gage
b
resistance strain gages making angles of 0°, 60°, and 120° with the x-axis (see
Fig. 3-20) was mounted on the free surface of a material for which Poisson’s ratio
is 1/3. Under load, the following strains were measured: ../
"0-t
o0 60f/
LI
6,, = +l000,u Eb = +750,tz sf = —650,u C‘)Hm-HCD a

Figure 3-20
Determine the principal strains and the maximum shear strain. Show the direc-
tions of the in-plane principal strains on a sketch.
P Note that gage b could be considered ori-
SOLUTION
ented 120"‘ above the x-axis or 60“ below the
The given data are substituted in Eqs. 3-12 to yield x-axis because cos: 120“ = cos2(—60°), sinz
120" = sin2(—60°), and cos 120" sin 120° =
ea = so = ex = +l000p. (measured)
cos(—60°‘) sin(—60"’). Similarly, gage c
6,, = 660 = —650;1. = 1000,11. cosl 60° + ey sin: 60° + yxy sin 60° cos 60° could be considered oriented 60" above the
eb = em] = +750p. = l000,u. cos: 120° + 6}. sing 120° + yn, sin 120° cosl20° x-axis or 120"" below the x-axis.
from which
6), = —266.7,u. and y,,_,, = —l6l6.61.t
The in-plane principal strains em and ep; are given by Eq. 3-10 as
6,, +6 6, — e 2 11,. 2
= 2 ’ it/(Ty) *
1000 — 266.7 1000 + 266.7 2 —l616.6 2
(e,.1.e,.2>(10°) = —
2
1 —
2
+ —
2
= 366.7 5: 1026.9
6p| = (366.7 + l026.9)[10_6) = l393.6(l0"’) E 13941.1. Ans.
s_,,;; = (366.7 — l026.9)(l0‘°) = —660.2(l0“°) E —660,u. Ans.
The third principal strain 6P3 = ez is given by Eq. 3-13 as
t. = = H,»
= - i(l000,u. — 266.7,u)
1 - (1 /3)
= -366.1“ 2 -36'/it Ans.
CHAPTER 3 ANALYSIS OF S'I'IUiIN: CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
Since em is less compressive than the in-plane principal strain GP], the
maximum shear strain at the point is the maximum in-plane shear strain yp.
Thus,
Ymax = VP =€.v1 —€P2

= l393.6,u. + 660.2u = 2053.8,u. "5 2050_u. Ans.
.1’
550“ The in-plane principal strain directions are given by Eq. 3-9 as
.- 26.0” , ”
1I8Il29p=
y,,. = -1616.6 =_ 1.2763
e,-6, 10o0+26e."/
Imp 29,, = -51.92“ 9,, = -25.960 E -2e.0= Ans.
Figure 3-21 The required sketch is given in Fig. 3-21.
1 PROBLEMS
MecMovie Activities and Problems a. The strain components ex, ey, and yr, at the point.
b. The principal strains and the maximum shearing strain at
MM3.5 Strain measurement with rosettes. Example; Try One. the point. A sketch is not required.
Calculating strain states with rosette strain data.
3-59* At a point on the free surface of a steel (v = 0.30) machine
part, the strain rosette shown in Fig. P3-59 was used to obtain
the following normal strain data: ea = +750 pin./in., ab =
Gageb
—125 uin.fin., and st = —250 _u.in.;'in. Determine
a. The strain components ex, e_.., and ya. at the point.
b. The principal strains and the maximum shearing strain at
it ___lY__120'~=
the point. A sketch is not required.
izosii I X
.-.__\_- L './‘.' G
J’
" “ 120° age G
Gage c
iGagec
@
45° Gage b
Figure P3-60
Gage a
Figure P3-59
3-60* At a point on the free surface of a steel (v — 0.30) machine 3-61 The strain rosette shown in Fig. P3-61 is attached to a point
part, the strain rosette shown in Fig. P3-60 was used to obtain on the free siuface ofan aluminum (v = 0.33) machine part. The
the following normal strain data: ea = —555 um/m, 6;, = +925 following normal strain data were taken: ea = +800 p.in..-‘in.,
urn/m, and ec = +740 ,um/m. Determine ei, = +950 uin./in., and ec = +600 ,u.in.,/in. Determine
3-7 STIIAIN MEASUREMENT‘ AND ROSEITE ANALYSIS
a. The strain components ex, e,., and y,,. at the point. J’

h. The principal strains and the maximum shearing strain at
the point. A sketch is not required.
Gages
\ W / as Gags @-
y Rx
r _4§@ G flaw
' I
Gage c 3
é 4 _ (11) (bu
Figure P3 63
Gage b
Gage a
» 3-64 The strain rosette shown in Fig. P3-64 was used to obtain
normal strain data at a point on the free surface of a 2024-
T4 aluminum alloy (v = 0.30) machine part. The gage read-
Figure P3-61 ings were ea = +525 um/rn, e.-, = +450 uni/rn, and efi =
+1425 ,um/m. Determine the principal strains at this point,
and show the principal strain deformations on a sketch.
3 62* At a point on the free surface of an aluminum al- Gagec T Gageb
loy (v = 0.33) machine part, the strain rosette shown in
Fig. P3-62 was used to obtain the following normal strain 2°?
data: e.-i = +780 um/m, ab = +345 urnlm, and er = .-" I "~t_ ‘E45 O
-332 um/in.
l x
a. Determine the strain components e,,, ey, and yg at the point.
b. Determine the principal strains and the maximtun shearing Gage a
strain at the point. A sketch is not required. Figure P3-64
3-65* At a point on the free surface ofa steel (v = 0.30) machine
G55 part, the strain rosette shown in Fig. P3-65 was used to obtain
the following normal strain data: ea = +875 ,uin./in., 6,, =
Gage Gage
b
+700 ,uinJin., and e, = +350 ;.tin.fin.
J’
a. Determine the principal strains and the maximum shearing
strain at the point. Prepare a sketch showing all of these
it is ~x
.60“ I 60°./’
strains.
Gagea b. Determine the normal strain in the n-direction at the point.
Figure P3-62
y
4
3-63* At a point on the outside surface of a steel (v = H Gage c 3
0.30) thin-walled pressure vessel the strain rosette shown in
Fig. P3-63 indicates the normal strains ea = +36 prin./in., eh = Gage b
+310 uin.!in., and e, = +150 ,uin./"m. Gages a and c are
oriented in the axial and hoop directions of the vessel, re- 501,...-
spectively. Determine the principal strains and the maxi-
mum shearing strain at this point. Show the principal strain
deformations and maximum shear strain distortion on a
+ Gagea
I
sketch. Figure P3-65
148 CHAPTERS iuwursrs or STIIAIN: CONCEPTSANDDEPINITIONS
3-66 At a point on the free surface of an aluminum alloy 3-67* At a point on the free surface of an aluminum alloy
(v = 0.33) machine part, the strain rosette shown in Fig. P3-66 (v = 0.33) machine part, the strain rosette shown in Fig. P3-67
was used to obtain the following normal strain data: ea = +875 was used to obtain the following normal strain data: en = +800
urn/m, ei, = +700 um/m, and ac = -650 um/m. ,uin./in., er, = +950 ,u.in.1'in., and e, = +600 uinjin.
a. Determine the principal strains and the maximum shearing a. Determine the principal strains and the maximum shearing
strain at the point. Prepare a sketch showing all of these strain at the point. Prepare a sketch showing all of these
strains. strains.
b. Determine the shearing strain y,., at the point. b. Determine the normal strain in the n-direction at the point.
t
, fl
/1/If 40" Y
/ x
600
I Gage b
Gage c Gage b MU
y Gage c
120°
Gage a
~._s0° I so".
B _
Gage a
Figum P346 Figure P3-67
SUMMARY
When a system of loads is applied to a machine component or structural element,
individual points of the body generally move. A study of displacements in which
neither the size nor the shape of the body is changed is the concern of courses
in rigid-body mechanics. When displacements induced by applied loads cause
the size and/or shape of a body to be altered, individual points of the body move
relative to one another. Inthe design of structural elements or machine components,
the deformations experienced by the body as a result of the applied loads often
represent as important a design consideration as the stresses.
Strain (deformation per l.1l'li'[ length) is the quantity used to measure the
intensity of deformation, just as stress (force per unit area) is used to measure the
intensity of an internal force. Vtrhen the deformation 8 is in the same direction as
the gage length L, the strain is called normal strain
est = 6..3 (3-1)

When the deformation 8 is perpendicular to the gage length L, the strain is called
shear strain
5
yavg = 3’ = ran¢ <3-3)
Since 8,/L is usually very small (typically 5,/L < 0.001), sin Q5 E tan ¢ E ¢, where
¢ is measured in radians, and 1/avg = ¢ = 8,/L is the decrease in the angle between
two reference lines that are orthogonal in the undeformed state.
suiuiuutr 149
Although the normal strain and the shear strain at a point both depend on
the orientation of the gage length L, the state of strain at a point is completely
determined by the normal strain and shear strain in three mutually orthogonal
directions at the point. For plane strain (for which 6, = yz, = 1/,3, = 0, or, 79 0),
the normal and shear strains for a pair of axes oriented at an angle 8 relative to the
x-axis are given by
6,, = 6, cosz 6 + €_p sinz 9 + yxy sin 6 cos 6 (3-7a)
y,,, = —2(s,, — ey) sin6 cos 9 + 1/,,,( cos: 9 — sinz 6) 6'8“)
respectively.
For design purposes, the critical strains at a point are usually the maximum
normal strain and the maximum shearing strain. The maximum (and minimum)
values of normal strain are called the principal strains and always occur for sets
of axes that are flee of shear strain and which are called principal directions. At
every point in a stressed body, there exist three principal strains acting in mutually
orthogonal directions. In plane strain situations, two principal strains a.re in the x—y
plane
f 2 2
GPLFZ = fx 2'5): i (éx 2 Gy) + (J/5}‘)
and the third principal strain 1s epg = e 0. The pnncrpal directions are onented
at an angle 6;, given by
tan 20,, = £6 (3-9)

x _v
relative to the xy-axes.

The maximum in-plane shearing strain occurs for lines oriented at 45° to the
principal directions and can be formd from the principal strains
yp = Gpl ‘T €p2
Themaximum shear strain at the pointmaybe (cpl — Epg), (tsp, — 0), or (0 — Epg),
depending on the relative magnitudes and signs of the principal strains. The lines
associated with the maximum shear strain bisect the angles between the lines
experiencing maximum and minimum normal strains.
All of the transformation equations developed for plane stress in Chapter 2
can be applied to plane strain by substituting 6 for 0 and 1//2 for 1:. Likewise, the
pictorial or graphic representation of Eqs. 2-12 and 2-13, known as Mohr‘s circle
for stress, can be used with Eqs. 3-7 and 3-8 to yield a similar Mohr’s circle for
strain. The angle relationships on Mohr’s circle for strain a.re identical to the angle
relationships on Mohr’s circle for stress.
Strains can be measured by several methods, but except for the simplest
cases, stresses cannot be obtained directly. Therefore, the usual procedure used
in experimental stress analysis is to measure the strains and calculate the state of
stress by using the stress-strain equations presented later in Section 4-3. in most
experimental work involving strain measurement, the strains are measured on a
fi"ee surface of a member where a state of plane stress exists. However, Eqs. 3-7
150 CHAPTER 5 ANALYSIS or smart; coscrrrrrs into DEFINITIONS
and 3-8 are also valid for the plane stress case present when strain measurements
are made on a free surface.
Electrical resistance strain gages have been developed to provide accurate
measrnements of normal strain. Shear strains are more difficult to measure directly
than normal strains and are often obtained by measuring the normal strains in two
or three different directions using a strain rosette. The shearing strain yg, can then
be computed from the normal strain data by using Eqs. 3-12.
In Section 4-3 , it will be shown that for plane stress
6, = GP; = -fig, + 6,.) (3-13)
where v is Poisson‘s ratio (a property of the material used in fabricating the mem-
ber), which is defined in Section 4-2. For the case ofplane stress, this out-of-plane
principal strain is important because the maximum shear strain at the point may
be (epi — Gpg), (epl 6P3), or (epg — epz), depending on the relative magnitudes
and signs of the principal strains at the point.
1 REVIEW PROBLEMS
1-68* A rigid bar AD is supported by two rods as shown in a. The axial strain in bar EF.
Fig. P3-68. There is no strain in the vertical bars before the b. The axial strain in bar EF if there is a 0.005-in. clearance in
loadP is applied. Afler the load P is applied, the axial strain in the connection between bars EF and CD.
rod BF is 400 um/m. Detemiine the axial strain in rod CE.
E
A =-
it B c
...l.... 1)
o
1-:
‘ 15in.
Rigid
8 in.
‘U
1000mm - ggmm ‘pica
_" 160mm ' 80mm >
C B F D'|
3-69* The rigid bar CD of Fig. P3 -69 is horizontal under no load, 3-70 A brake block has the shape of a circular ring segment
and bars EF and AB are unstrained. When the load P is ap- (Fig. P3-70a). During application of the brake, the outer sur-
plied, the axial strain in bar AB is found to be 0.0015 inJin. face of the block rotates with respect to the inner surface,
Determine as shown in Fig. P3-70b. Determine, in terms of ¢, R1, and
REVIEWPROBLEMS 151
R2, the shearing strains at point A and B in the block (as- J’

sociated wlth the radial and circumferential directions). Note
that radial lines before deformation are asstnned to be straight D
\ I
lines after deformation. Solve by assuming that the angle ¢ is \
\ I
I
\ I
small. \
\ I
I
‘st’
I \
150mm
I \
I \
I \
I \
I \
I \
A i I
it 200mm i
--- Brake drum Figure P3-72
@‘
Figure P3-10
(11)
(5)
3-73 The strain components at a point in a body under a state
of plane strain are e, = +1000 p.infin., ey = -800 ,uin./in.,
and y,y = ——800 nrad. Determine the principal strains and the
maximum shearing strain at the point. Show the principal strain
deformations and the maximum shearing strain distortion on a
sketch.
3-74* The strain components at a point are ex = -600 ptmlm,
ey = +1200 um/m, and yx). = +2000 itrad.
a. Sketch Mohr's circle for the state of strain at this point.
h. Determine the principal strains and the maximum shearing
strain at the point.
3-71* The thin square plate shown in Fig. P3-71 is uniformly c. Show the principal strain deformations and the maximum
deformed such that ex = +3200 uin.r'in., e, = +1500 ,uin./in, shearing strain distortion on a sketch.
and yg, = +1000 ptrad. Determine
3-75 The strain rosette shown in Fig. P3-75 was used to obtain
a. The normal strain 5,, in the plate. the following strain data at a point on the free surface of a steel
h. The shearing strain y,,, in the plate. (v = 0.30) machine part: ea = +600 ;iin.fin., er, = +500
ptin./in, and er = --200 ,u.in./in. Determine the principal strains
and the maximum shearing strain at the point. A sketch is not
required.
y
t n
J’
I
Gsgec
Ga eb
.45" Q g
1 ill. 4 \ rt‘ 450
Flgune P3-71
Gages
Figure P3-75
3-72 The thin rectangular plate shown in Fig. P3-72 is uniformly

deformed such that e, = +1500 ptmfm, e_,. = -1250 umfm,
and yn. = +1000 urad. Determine the normal strain e 3;; along 3-76* The strain components at a point are e, = —-800 um/m,
the diagonal BD of the plate. ey = +640 p.m/m, and y,_,. = —960 grad.
152 CHAPTER 5 ANALYSIS or s'nuu1t= coscnrrs mu nsmrrrrous
a. Sketch Mohr’s circle for the state of strain at this point.

b. Determine the principal strains and the maximum shearing Gage b
strain at the point. A sketch is not required.
3-77 At a point on the free surface of an aluminum alloy
as y _ __ i __1 20°
(v = 0.33) machine component, the three strain gages shown in
Fig. P3-77 were used to obtain the following strain data: E, = 120° |: I X
+800 ,t.tin./in., eh = +960 ,u.inJin., and efl = +800 uin./in De-
termine the principal strains and the maximum shearing strain _ G
" T 120° age a
at the point. Show the principal strain deformations and the
maximum shearing strain distortion on a sketch.
ii Gage c
Figure P3-77
Chapter 4
Material Properties and Stress-Strain
Relationships
4-1 INTRODUCTION
The satisfactory performance of a structure frequently is determined by the amount
of deformation or distortion that can be permitted. A deformation of a few thou-
saudths of an inch might ma.ke a boring machine useless, whereas the hook on a
drag line might deflect several inches without impairing its usefirlness. It is often
necessary to relate loads and temperature changes on a structure to the deforma-
tions produced by the loads and temperature changes. Experience has shown that
the deformations caused by loads and by temperature eifects are essentially inde-
pendent of each other. The deformations due to the two effects may be computed
separately and added together to get the total deformation.
4-2 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAMS

The relationship between loads and deformation in a structure can be obtained by
plotting diagrams showing loads and deflections for each member and each type
of loading in a structure. However, the relationship between load and deformation
depends on the dimensions of the members as well as on the type of material
fi"om which the members are made. For example, the graph of Fig. 4-la (one-
dimensional loading) shows the relationship between the force required to stretch
three bars of the same material but of different lengths and cross-sectional areas
and the resulting deformations of the bars. It is not clear from this graph that these
three curves all describe the same material behavior. However, if these curves are
redrawn plotting stress versus deformation as in Fig. 4-lb, the data for the first
and third bars form a single line. If the c1u'ves are redrawn plotting stress versus
strain as in Fig. 4-lc, the data for all three curves form a single line. That is,
curves showing the relationship between stress and strain (such as Fig. 4-lc) are
independent of the size and shape of the member and depend only on the type of
material from which the members are made. Such diagrams are called stress-strain
diagrams.
4-2-1 Thfl TEHSHC TESII Data for stress-strain diagrams are obtained by
applying an axial load to a test specimen and measuring the load and deformation
simultaneously. A testing machine (Fig. 4-2) is used to strain the specimen and to
measure the load required to produce the deformation. The stress is obtained by
CHAPTER 4 M.»\'l‘liRl.»\I.. PROPERTIES AND STRESS-S'l'RAL\i RELATIONSHIPS
Force vs. Deformation

8-0° A, = to
7,00 A2 = 10
600 A3 = 20 lrun‘
5 5.0-0 L, =300 mm
1- 400 L; =600 mm
Q L, =3c0 mm
ta. 3.00
2.00 2 Stress vs. Strain
400 A|=l0mm2
1.00
A2=l0rnm2
0000.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 300
1,2,3 A,=2omm1
Deformation (mm)
L|=300mm
(11) N2 Q E
L2=600mm
L5=300mm
Stress vs. Deformation Seuss.MPa
400 A,= 10|11m: 100
1.3 A;=l0mrn2
300 A3=20mm‘ 0
0.00 1.00 2.00 3 00 4.00
L1=300mm Strain (X1000 nimimm)
. 2 2 L;=600mm
b-D
L3=300mm
(C)
Srt.-as
MPa
100
00.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
Deformarion(rnm)
(bl
Figure 4-1
t
l
Figure 4-2 Hydraulic testing machine set up for
a tension test. (Courtesy of MTS Systems
Corporation.)
4-2 STRESS-SIRAIN or-teams 155
dividing the load by the initial cross-sectional area of the specimen. The area will
change somewhat during the loading, and the stress obtained using the initial area
is obviously not the exact stress occurring at higher loads. However, it is the stress
most commonly used in designing structures. Stress obtained by dividing the load
by the actual area is frequently called the true stress and is useful in explaining the
fundamental behavior of materials.
4-2-2 Strain MCHSUICHICHI Strains are small in materials used ir1engi-

neeling structures, often less than 0.001, and their accinate determination requires
special measuring equipment. Normal strain is obtained by measuring the de-
formation 8 in a length L and dividing 5 by L. Instruments for measuring the
deformation 5 are called strain gages or extensometers and obtain the desired
accuracy by multiplying levers, dial indicators, beams of light, or other means.
The electrical resistance strain gage is widely used for this type of measure-
ment.
True strain, like true stress, is computed on the basis of the actual length
of the test specimen during the test and is used primarily to study the funda-
mental properties of materials. The difference between nominal stress and strain,
computed from initial dimensions of the specimen, and true stress and strain is
negligible for stresses usually encoimtered in engineering structures, but some-
times the difference becomes important with larger stresses and strains. A more
complete discussion of the experimental determination of stress and strain will be
found in various books on experimental stress analysis.‘
4-2-3 Example Stress-Strain Diagrams Figures 4-3a, b, and C

show tensile stress-strain diagrams for structural steel (a low-carbon steel), for
a magnesium alloy, and for a gray cast iron, respectively. These diagrams will
be used to explain a number of properties useful in the study of mechanics of
materials.
Although some of the relationships that follow have a basis in theory (for
example, the linear relationship between stress and strain for small strain), others
are ptnely empirical fits to experimental data. In either case, the values of specific
constants for various materials must be experimentally determined.
4-2—4 M0dlllllS Of Elasticity The initial portion of the stress-strain di-

agram for most materials used in engineering structures (see Figs. 4-3a and b) is a
straight line. The stress-strain diagrams for some materials, such as gray cast iron
(see Fig. 4-3c) and concrete, show a slight curve even at very small stresses, but it
is common practice to draw a straight line to average the data for the first part of
the diagram and neglect the curvature. The proportionality of load to deflection
was first recorded by Robert Hooke who observed in 1678, “ut tensio sic vis” (as
the stretch so the force); this relationship is frequently referred to as Hookeh law,
0 = Es (4-la)
in which the constant of proportionality, E, is the slope of the straight-line portion

of the stress-strain diagram. It is important to realize that Hookes law (Eq. 4-Ia)
11-Ixperimental Stress Analysis, 3rd ed. J. W. Dally and W. F. Riley, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1991.
156 cnavrsa 4 MA'l'ER]Al. PROPERTIES AND sraass-s'rlmN RELATIONSHIPS
_, Fracture
Ultimate strength 40 Upper strain

“ scale
60
Upper strain scale
Fzacure
t ~t 30
B Low strain
E40 I Lower strain scale -- s ale
’B Cl /_ 0.2% offset yield
A IQQ /
St5,
rcs i" Horizontal to approx Stress,ks ,1 -~..,_ _ . . .
E = 0.01 to 0.02 // E1’-‘“° 1“'““
20 _’_""‘ ’ " Proportioml limit
5
Qw 4q,;’*’<'1>.»6,
' lastie mthe
laslic
% elongation’ Y C % elongation --xx
00 0 l 02 03 00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20
0 0001 0002 0.003 0 0.002 0.004 0.000 0.00s 0.010
Strain-2-in. gage length Strain
(a) Structural steel (b) Magnesiimt alloy
30
25
20
G
Stress,ks
10
0
0 0.004 0.008
Strain
(c) Gray east iron
Figure 4-3
only describes the initial linear portion of the stress-strain diagram and is valid
only fbr bars loaded in uniaxial extension as in the testing machine ofFig. 4-2.
A modified version of Hooke’s law which is valid for materials being stretched in
two or three directions at the same time will be derived later in Section 4-3.
Thomas Young, in 1807, suggested what amounts to using the ratio of stress
to strain to measure the stiffness ofa material. This ratio is called Ybungfs modulus
or the modulus of elasticity and is the slope of the straight-line portion of the
stress-strain diagram. Young‘s modulus is written as
E = a/e (normal stress-strain) (4-lb)

4-2 snuzss-snuun DIAGRAMS 157
A similar modulus called the shear modulus or the modulus ofrigidity relates the
shearing stress r and the shearing strain y.
G = r/y (shear stress-strain) (4-lc)
The maximum stress for which stress and strain are proportional is called the
0
proportional limit and is indicated by the ordinates at points A on Fig. 4-3a or b. Slope=E, \ D
The exact point of the proportional limit is diflicult to determine from the stress- 50
C
strain curve. cc --—------
For points on the stress-strain curve beyond the proportional limit (such as A
point C on Fig. 4-4), other quantities such as the tangent modulus and the secant 5.4
modulus are used as meastues of the stiffness of a material. The tangent modulus '“'~ Slope = E
E, is defined as the slope of the stress-strain diagram at a particular stress level.
Thus, the tangent modulus is a function of the stress (or strain) for stresses greater " Slope = E
than the proportional Limit. For stresses less than the proportional limit, the tangent
modulus is the same as Young’s modulus. The secant modulus E5 is the ratio of 5,, ec an E
the stress to the strain at any point on the diagram. Young’s modulus E, the tangent
modulus E,, and the secant modulus E, are all illustrated in Fig. 4-4. Figure 4-4
4-2-5 ElflSfiC Lillllil The action is said to be elastic if the strain resulting
from loading disappears when the load is removed. The elastic limit (point D
in Fig. 4-3b) is the maximum stress for which the material acts elastically. For
stresses above the elastic limit, some defonnation (strain) remains when the load
is removed (and the stress goes to zero). For most materials it is found that the
stress-strain diagram for unloading (see line BC in Fig. 4-3b) is approximately
parallel to the loading portion (see line OA in Fig. 4-3b). If the specimen is again
loaded, the stress-strain diagram will usually follow the tmloading ctnve until it
reaches a stress a little less than the maximum stress attained during the initial
loading, at which time it will start to curve in the direction of the initial loading
curve. As indicated in Fig. 4-Sb, the proportional limit for the second loading
(point B) is greater than that for the initial loading. This phenomenon is called
strain hardening or work hardening.
\Vhen the stress exceeds the elastic limit (or proportional limit for practical
purposes), it is found that a portion of the deformation remains afier the load is
removed. The deformation remaining after an applied load is removed is called
plastic deformation (OC in Fig. 4-Sb). Plastic deformation which depends only
on the amount of load (stress) and is independent of the time duration of the
applied load is known as slip. Plastic deformation that continues to increase under
a constant stress is called creep. In many instances creep continues until fracture
occurs; however, in other instances the rate of creep decreases and approaches
zero as a limit. Some materials are much more susceptible to creep than others,
but most materials used in engineering exhibit creep at elevated temperatures. The
total strain is thus made up of elastic strain, possibly combined with plastic strain
that results from slip, creep, or both. When the load is removed, the elastic portion
ofthe strain is recovered, but the plastic part (slip and creep) remains as permanent
set.
Zln some instances a portion of the strain that remains immediately after the stress is removed may
disappear after a period of time. This reduction of strain is sometimes called recovery.
158 crnrrrs 4 mrsiuu. rnorrurrms nu) s'rar.ss-smus RELATIONSHIPS
4-2-6 Yiflld Pflillt A precise value for the proportional limit is diflicult
to obtain when the transition of the stress-strain diagram fi'om a straight line to
a curve is gradual. For this reason, other measures of stress that can be used as
a practical elastic limit are required. The yield point and the yield strength for a
specified offset are used for this purpose.
The yield point is the stress at which there is an appreciable increase in
strain with no increase in stress, with the limitation that, if straining is continued,
eventually the stress will again increase. This latter specification indicates that
there is a kink or “knee” in the stress-strain diaglam, as indicated in Fig. 4-3a.
The yield point is easily determined without the aid of strain-measuring equipment
because the load indicated by the testing machine ceases to rise (or may even drop)
at the yield point. Unfortunately, few materials possess this property, the most
common examples being low-carbon steels.
4-2'7 Yifild Stffiflgtll The yield strength is defined as the stress that will
induce a specified permanent set, usually 0.05 to 0.3 percent (which is equivalent
to a strain of 0.0005 to 0.003) with 0.2 percent the most commonly used value.
The yield strength can be conveniently determined lrom a stress-strain diagram by
laying oil" the specified offset (permanent set) on the strain axis (OC in Fig. 4-3b)
and drawing a line CB parallel to OA. The stress indicated by the intersection
of CB and the stress-strain diagram is the yield strength for the specified offset
(0.2 percent in Fig. 4-3b).
4-2-8 Ulfilllfltfi Strength The maximum stress (based on the original

area) developed in a material before rupture is called the ultimate strength of the
lllllllliilllllllillll material (Fig. 4-3a), and the term maybe modified as the ultimate tensile, compres-
sive, or shearing strength of the material. Ductile materials undergo considerable
plastic tensile or shearing deformation before rupture. When the ultimate strength
of a ductile material is reached, the cross-sectional area of the test specimen starts
ll\l\l\\\\\\\\\\\l
7 i¢\\\\\\\\\\\||
to decrease or neck down (see Fig. 4-5), and the resultant load that can be carried
by the specimen decreases. Thus, the stress based on the original area decreases
beyond the ultimate strength of the material (Fig. 4-3a), although the true stress
Figure 4-5 continues to increase until rupture.
4-2-9 EIHSIOPIHSHC Materials Most engineering structures are de-

cr HI ,
signed so that the stresses are less than the proportional limit; therefore, Young‘s
modulus provides a simple and convenient relationship between stress and strain.
‘When the stress exceeds the proportional limit, no simple relation exists between
stress and strain. Various empirical equations have been proposed relating the
stress and strain beyond the proportional limit. A stress-strain diagram similar to
the one shown in Fig. 4-6 (elastoplastic) is frequently assumed for mild steel or
other materials with similar properties in order to simplify calculations. For mild
Elastoplastic steel the plastic strain that occurs at the yield point with no increase in stress is
16-20 times the elastic strain at the proportional limit.
E
Figure 4-6 4-2-10 Dllfillillty Strength and stiffness are not the only properties of in-
terest to a design engineer. Another important property is ductility, defined as the
capacity for plastic deformation in tension or shear. This property controls the
amount of cold forming to which a material may be subjected. The forming of
automobile bodies and the manufacture of fencing and other wire products all
4-2 snuzss-smun DIAGRAMS 159
require ductile materials. Ductility is also an important property of materials used

for fabricated structures. Under static loading, the presence of large stresses in
the region of rivet holes or welds may be ignored, since ductility permits consid-
erable plastic action to take place in the region of high stress, with a resulting
redistribution of stress and the establishment of equilibrium Two commonly used
quantitative indices of ductility are the ultimate elongation (expressed as a percent
elongation or the gage length at rupture) and the reduction of cross-sectional area
at the section where rupture occurs (expressed as a percentage of the original area).
4-2-1 1 Cffifip Limit The property indicating the resistance of a material to

failure by creep is known as the creep limit and is defined as the maximum stress for
which the plastic strain will not exceed a specified amount during a specified time
interval at a specified temperature. The creep limit is important when designing
parts to be fabricated with polymeric materials (commonly known as plastics)
and when designing metal parts that will be subjected to high temperatures and
sustained loads (for example, the turbine blades in a turbojet engine).
4-2- 12 P0lSS011’S Rfl.l;i0 A material loaded in one direction will undergo

strains perpendicular to the direction of the load in addition to those parallel to the
load. The ratio of the lateral or perpendicular strain (em or Q) to the longitudinal
or axial strain (along or ea) is called Poisson is ratio after Simeon D. Poisson, who
identified the constant in 1811. The symbol v is used for Poisson’s ratio, which is
given by the equation3
V = _ E lat G
= _ _r (4_2)
Elong 50
The ratio v = -5,/5,, is valid onlyfor a uniarial state ofstress. Since the lateral
strain and the axial strain always have opposite signs, the negative sign in Eq. 4-2
ensures that v will have a positive value. Like the modulus of elasticity E and the
shear modulus G, Poisson's ratio is a property of the material. It will be shown in
Section 4-3 that v is related to E and G by the formula
E = 2(1 + v)G (4-3)

Therefore, Poisson’s ratio is a constant for stresses below the proportional limit
and has a value between 1/, and I/3 for most metals.
4-2-13 Effect Of C0lllp0Silll0Il The alloy content of a material affects

the stress-strain behavior of the material. For example, Fig. 4-7 shows the effects
of various alloy content on the stress-strain curves for steels of different strength
levels ranging from a very hard, strong, brittle steel (A) to a relatively soft, ductile
steel (E). The alloy content does not affect the modulus of elasticity but does affect
the elastic limit, the ultimate strength, the fi"acttu'e strength, and the ductility of the
steel.
3Equation 4-2 relating Poisson’s ratio and the lateral and axial strains is only valid for a uniaxial state
of stress such as in the tension test described in this section. If the material is stressed in the lateral as
well as the axial direction, then the lateral and axial strains will be independent quantities, and their
ratio could be positive, negative, or even zero.
160 cnarrsn 4 MA'l'ER]Al. PROPERTIES AND srnnss-srnam RELATIONSHIPS
A
B
Stress g
_____=___
Strain
Figure 4-7
4-2-14 Efififlt Of TE1IlPC1'31lll'€ Temperature also affects the stress-

strain behavior of a material. The stress-strain diagrams shown in Fig. 4-3 were for
room temperature. Figure 4-8 shows the effect oftemperature on the tensile stress-
strain diagram for a class 40 gray iron. The ductility ofthe material increases as the
temperature increases, whereas the ultimate strength decreases as the temperature
increases.
4-2-15 Effect of Tension or Compression The stress-strain be-

havior of some materials depends on whether the axial load is tension or
40 70”]?
7S0'F
35
840°}?
30
930'!-‘
IQUh
-1
IQQ
Tenscsrcs —-1ks Us
10
0 l
0 0.5 1 .0 1.5
Sn-ain—pc1-cent
Figure 4-8
4-2 S'I'RI!SS-STRAIN DIAGRAMS 161
30
' 500
— 450
60 Compression ' 400
- 350
MPa
8
Tension luc.» Us@@G
Stress,ks Stress,
- 200
20 -150
— 100
-50
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Strain, %
Figure 4-9
compression. For ductile materials the tension and compression behavior are usu-
ally assumed to be the same. For brittle materials the stress-strain curve obtained
ir1 a tension test differs from the curve obtained in a compression test. For example,
Fig. 4-9 shows the tension and compression stress-strain curves for a class 35 gray
iron. The linear range of stress-strain behavior for the compression curve is larger
than the linear range for the tension curve. The ultimate strength in compression
is also greater than the ultimate strength in tension.
The properties discussed in this section a.re primarily concerned with static
or continuous loading or with slowly valying loading. Properties of a few typical
materials may be found in Appendix B, Average Properties of Selected Materials.
1 Example Problem 4-1 A 100-kip axial load is applied to a 1 >< 4 ><

90-in. rectangular bar. When loaded, the 4-in. side measures 3.9986 in., and the
length has increased 0.09 in. Determine Poisson’s ratio, the modulus of elasticity,
and the modulus of rigidity of the material.
SOLUTION
The lateral and longitudinal strains and the axial stress for the bar are
513; = 3.9936 - 4 = -0.0014111.

5 -0.0014
em = E = T = -0.00035
L 4
6 0.09
flung = ~l—:"1§ = W =U.0UlUU
P IUD
cr = —
A = 4(1)
i = 25k s1'
Poisson‘s ratio v is obtained by using Eq. 4-2,
e -0 00035
v=-l =-+=0.35 Ans.
5,0,, 0.00100
162 CHAPTER 4 MA'l'ER]Al. PROPERTIES AND S'I'Rl?SS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS
The modulus of elasticity E is obtained by using Eq. 4-lb,
0 25 _
E = E = = 25,000 kSl ADS-
The modulus of rigidity is obtained by using Eq. 4-3,
__i___?fl?__ 9260ks' An 5 .
2(1 +v) 2(1 +0.35) 1
1 PROBLEMS
MecMovie Activities and Problems f. The fracture stress.
g. The true fracture stress if Poisson’s ratio v = 0.30 remains
.\'[M4.1 Hooke’s Law - basic problems. Concept checkpoints. constant.
Four basic problems requiring the use of Hooke’s Law. h. The tangent modulus at a stress level of 400 MPa.
i. The secant modulus at a stress level of 400 MPa.
500
4-1* A 1.50-in.-diameter rod 20 ft long elongates 0.48 in under a 450
load of 53 kip. The diameter ofthe rod decreases 0.001 in. dur-
ing the loading. Determine the modulus of elasticity, Poisson's 400 X
jso scale
ratio, and the modulus of rigidity for the material.
4-2* At the proportional limit, a 200-mm gage length of a 15-
mm-diameter alloy bar has elongated 0.90mm and the diameter I
has been reduced 0.022 mm. The total axial load carried was | Lower scale
Stnes ,MPa 8Q
S
l\lB‘)L»)
62.6 kN. Determine the modulus of elasticity, Poisson's ratio,
150 l—
and the proportional limit for the material.
100*)
4-3 A U4 x 2-in. flat alloy bar elongates 0.08 in. in a length of
50
5 ft under a total axial load of 10,000 lb. The proportional limit
0
of the material is 35,000 psi. Determine 0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008
a. The axial stress in the bar.
b. The modulus of elasticity for the material. Strain, rrlfm
c. The total change in each lateral dimension if Poisson’s ratio Figure P4-4
for the material is 0.25.
4-5 A tensile test specimen having a diameter of 0.250 in. and
Intermediate Problems a gage length of 2.000 in. was tested to fiacture. Stress and
strain values, which were calculated from load and deforma-
4-4* A tensile test specimen having a diameter of 5.64 mm tion data obtained during the test, are shown in Fig. P4-5.
and a gage length of 50 mm was tested to fracture. Stress Determine
and strain values, which were calculated from load and defor-
a. The modulus of elasticity.
mation data obtained during the test, are shown in Fig. P4-4.
h. The proportional limit.
Determine
c. The ultimate strength.
a. The modulus of elasticity. d. The yield strength (0.05% offset).
b. The proportional limit. e. The yield strength (0.2% offset).
c. The ultimate strength. f. The fracture stress.
d. The yield strength (0.05% offset). g. The true fracture stress if the final diameter of the specimen
e. The yield strength (0.2% offset). at the location of the fracture was 0.212 in
4-2 S'1'liBSS-STRAIN nnlclmllls 163
h. The tangent modulus at a stress level of 56 ksi. Challenging Problems

i. The secant modulus at a stress level of 56 ksi.
4-7* A tensile test specimen having a diameter of 0.505 in. and
a gage length of 2.00 in. was tested to fiacture. Load and de-
80 formation data obtained during the test were as follows:
79 /L Upper scale r K Load Change in Load Change in
60 1 (lb) Length (in.) (lb) Length (in.)
50
/ 0 0 12,600 0.0600
2,200 0.0008 13,200 0.0800
-hC ii? -— L Lower scale "- 4,300 0.00 16 13,900 0.1200
Strcs ,ks 30 , .. W . --. . ... 6,400 0.0024 14,300 0.1600
8,200 0.0032 14,500 0.2000
20
8,600 0.0040 14,600 0.2400
10 ‘ ' ‘ 8,800 0.0048 14,500 0.2800
9,200 0.0064 14,400 0.3200
00.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24
0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 9,500 0.0080 14,300 0.3600
Strain, injin. 9,600 0.0096 13,800 0.4000
Figure P4-5 10,600 0.0200 13,000 Fracture
1 1,800 0.0400
4-6 A tensile test specimen having a diameter of 5.64 mm and a Determine

gage length of 50 mm was tested to fracture. Stress and strain
values, which were calculated from load and deformation data a. The modulus of elasticity.
obtained during the test, are shown in Fig. P4-6. Determine h. The proportional limit.
c. The ultimate strength.
a. The modulus of elasticity. d. The yield strength (0.05% offset).
b. The proportional limit. e. The yield strength (0.2% offset).
c. The ultimate strength. f. The fracture stress.
d. The yield strength (0.05% offset). g. The true fracture stress if the final diameter of the specimen
e. The yield strength (0.2% offset). at the location of the fracture was 0.425 in.
f. The fracture stress. h. The tangent modulus at a stress level of 46,000 psi.
g. The true fracture stress if the final diameter of the specimen i. The secant modulus at a stress level of 46,000 psi.
at the location of the fiacture was 4.75 mm.
h_ The tangent modulus at a mess level of-440 Mpa_ 4-8 A tensile test specimen having a diameter of 11.28 mm and a
i. The secant modulus at a stress level of 440 MPa. 8486 length °f 50 mm was lfiswd 1° fi'a°l11f°- I-Oad and def“-
mation data obtained during the test were as follows:
600
Load Change in Load Change in
(140 Length (mm) (kN) Length (mm)
500 Upper scale
0 0 43.8 1.50
400 ' ~ '- 7.6 0.02 45.8 2.00
7 A Lower scale Y7 14.9 0.04 48.3 3 .00

lo)GQ
22.2 0.06 49.7 4.00
Stress,MPa 28.5 0.08 50.4 5 .00
200 ‘
29.9 0.10 50.7 6.00
100 — 30.6 0.12 50.4 7.00
32.0 0.16 50.0 8.00
0 33.0 0.20 49.7 9.00
0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012 33.3 0.24 47.9 10.00
Strain, mfm 36.8 0.50 45.1 Fracture
Figure P4-6 41.0 1.00
164 CHAPTER 4 M.»\'l'liR].»\I.. PROPERTIES AND S'I'RE5S-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS
Determine e. The yield strength (0.2% offset).

. . f. The fracture stress.
a‘ The modulus ofelasnclty‘ g. The true fracture stress if the final diameter of the specimen
b‘ The proportional limit‘ at the location of the fracture was 9 50 mm
C’ The ultimate strength‘ h. The tangent modulus at a stress level of 315 MPa.
d. The yield strength (0.05% offset).
i. The secant modulus at a stress level of 3 15 MPa.
4-5 GENERALIZED HOOKE’S LAW

Hooke’s law (see Eq. 4-1) can be extended to include the biaxial (see Fig. 2-26 and
triaxial (see Fig. 2-24) states of stress often encountered in engineering practice.
Consider Fig. 4-10, which shows a differential element of material subjected to
5v
a biaxial state of normal stress. Shear stresses have not been shown on the faces
of the element because they produce distortion of the element (angle changes)
but do not produce changes in the lengths of the sides of the element which
would contribute to the normal strains. The deformations of the element in the
dy directions of the normal stresses, for a combined loading, can be determined by
dz: computing the deformations resulting from the individual stresses separately and
adding the values obtained algebraically. This procedrue is based on the principle
of superposition, which states that the effects of separate loadings can be added
Figure 4-10 algebraically if two conditions are satisfied:
1. Each efiect is linearly related to the load that produced it.
2. The eifect of the first load does not significantly change the effect of the second
load.
Condition 1 is satisfied if the stresses do not exceed the proportional limit for the
material. Condition 2 is satisfied if the deformations are small so that the small
changes in the areas of the faces of the element do not produce significant changes
in the stresses.
The deformations ofthe element ofFig. 4-10, associated with the stresses
0, and 0),, are shown ir1 Fig. 4-11. The shaded square in Fig. 4-1 la indicates the
original or unstrained configuration of the element. Under the action of the tensile
stress ox (rrniaxial state of stress), the element experiences a tensile strain of 0,/E
(Eq. 4-la) in the x-direction and a compressive strain of —va,/E (Eq. 4-2) in
the y-direction. These strains cause the element to stretch an amount (0,/E)dx
in the x-direction and to contract an amount (vs,/E)dy in the y-direction to the
configuration indicated in Fig. 4-1 lb (the deformations are greatly exaggerated).
Then, rmder the action of the tensile stress cry superimposed on the stress cry, the
element experiences a tensile strain of cry/E in the y-direction and a compressive
strain of vcry/E in the x-direction. These strains cause the element to stretch an
amount (cry/E)dy in the y-direction and to contract an amormt (vc',./E)dx in the
x-direction, as shown in Fig. 4-1 lc. If the material is isotropic,4 Young’s modulus
has the same value for all directions and the final deformation in the x-direction is
(Fig. 4-11d),
118,, = exdx = %dx — v%dx
‘In an isotropic material, material properties such as the modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio are
independent of direction within the material. Examples of nonisotropic materials are fiber-reinforced
materials, wood, and many crystalline materials.
4-5 G HO0KE'SLAI' 165
J’ J’
dx
_, 1
(II) (5)
ray P "y
Eydy uy
- J_T“*'
v“§1 <
5:
_|_,, Y | —x
fly Ll G,‘
v T dx v%d'x
(C) ('1')
Figure 4-ll
Prooeeding in a similar fashion for the deformations in the y- and z-directions, the
three nonnal strains are
1
G1 1 Ewx * VG)-)
1
6,, = 5(0), — vax) (44)
G; 1 *%(ax +
Note thate, 96 0 eventhougha, = 0. Thatis, whenthematerialispulledinthe

x- and y-directions, it will shrink in the z-direction unless prevented by a stress
in the z-direction. Note that Eqs. 4-4 are valid for a state ofplane stress in which
cr, = 1:1,, = 1' = 0.
The anasis above is readily extended to txiaxial principal stresses, and the
expressions for strain become
Gx = —[ax _ v("-7y +az)]
5y = —["y — v(U.r + 01)] (4-5)
5: = _["-7: _ v(ax + 1%)]

f=1'-l1 -~l=1-
CHAPTER 4 MATERIAL PROPERTIES AND S'l'RE§S-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS
In these expressions, tensile stresses and strains are considered positive, and com-
pressive stresses and strains are considered negative.
When Eqs. 4-4 are solved for the stresses in terms of the strains, they give
E
ax = Wk, +vey)
E r4-61
(Ty = ']j(€y +V€_y)
and er, = 0 by assumption. Equations 4-6 can be used to calculate normal stresses
fi'om measured or computed normal strains. “Then Eqs. 4-5 are solved for stresses
in terms of strains, they give
E
'33- = [(1_l")€x +V(5y +5z)]
E
ay = l — v)ey + v(e, + e,)] (4-7)
E
02 = 1 — V16; + V(Ex + 5;-)1
In Chapter 3, the expression
v
e, = em = fie, + 6}.) (3-13)
was stated without proof for the case ofplane stress. From Eqs. 4-4 and 4-6, which
represent Hooke‘s law for the case of plane stress,
v v E
E z=_”(x+
E U Uy ):_""[""i*](x+
E vl _v2 [E VG _v)+( Ey + VG X)]
Z — Gk; +€'t')
This out-of-plane principal strain is important since the maximum shear strain at
the point may be (em — Gpg), (em — s_,,3), or (GP; — Gpg), depending on the relative
magnitudes and signs of the principal strains at the point.
Torsion test specimens are used to study material behavior under pure shear,
and it is observed that a shear stress produces only a single corresponding shear
strain (Chapter 6). Thus, Hooke’s law extended to shear stresses (for linear elastic
material behavior) is simply
1: = Gy (4-8)
where G is the shear modulus or modulus of rigidity. Equations 4-7 and 4-8 seem
to indicate that three elastic constants E, v, and G are required to determine the
defonnations (and strains) in a material resulting from an arbitrary state of stress.
In fact, only two of these constants need to be determined experimentally for a
given material.
The relationship between the elastic constants E, v, and G can be determined
by considering the stresses and strains produced by an axial tensile load in a bar
4-5 GENERALIZED nooms LAW 167
‘\ _/n
r 5" "ta = 45"
P "r I q,_x P
\ /
Figure 4-12
of the material (Fig. 4-12). The shearing stresses for the xy coordinate axes (0 1,
0), = try = 0) and the nt coordinate axes (an, 0,, rm.) are related through the stress
transformation equation (Eq. 2-13a),
13,, = —(a,, — ay) sin Bcos 6 + 1:,y(cos2 6 — sinz 9)

= —(a,, — O) sin (+45°) cos (+45°) + 0
ax
= -5 la)
The relationship between the shearing strains for the xy and the nt coordinate axes
is determined using the strain transformation equation (Eq. 3.8a) as
14,, = -2(€, - 6,) sin 9cos 0 + y,,,, (@052 0 - sing 9)

= —2(e,; — ey) sin (+45°) cos (+45°) + O
= —(@ — Ey) (b)
Since the bar shown ir1 Fig. 4-12 is subjected to an axial force, the relationship
between ex and ey is found using Eq. 4-2; that is,
—e —e
vzlzi
an ex
from which
6,. = —v6,, (c)
Substituting Eq. (c) into Eq. (b) gives
PM = —€1(1 + 1’) (Ii)
Equation 4-lc may be used to give a relationship between shearing stress and
shearing strain, resulting in
Tn! = Gym (8)
Since 1/,,, is negative [Eq. (d)] the shearing stress "rm is also negative, giving
rm = Gym = —Ge,(l +v) (f)

168 CHAPTER 4 M.»\'l'ERL»\L PROPERTIES AND STRESS-S'l'RA[N RELATIONSHIPS
Recall Hooke ‘s law (Eq. 4- la)
ax
5: = E
Finally, combining Eqs. (a), (f), and (g) gives
OI'
Equation 4-9 shows that, for homogeneous, isotropic materials, the material prop-
erties E, v, and G are related; there are only two independent material properties.
Values ofE and G for selected materials are given in Appendix B, Tables B-17 (in
U.S. customary imits) and B-18 (in SI imits).
If Eq. 4-9 is substituted into Eq. 4-8, an alternate form ofgeneralized Hooke’s
law for shearing stress and strain in isotropic materials is obtained. Thus,
E
Txy : Gl/xy : yxy
E
Ty: = G]/yz = is (4-10)
E
T’z = G
y“ = 2(1+v)y"z
Equations 4-4 through 4-10 are widely used for experimental determinations
of stress. The following Example Problems illustrate the method of application.
-I EXHIIIPIB Pl‘Obl€lll 4-2 At a point on the surface of an alloy steel

(E = 210 GPa and v = 0.30) machine part subjected to a biaxial state of stress,
the measured strains were 6, = +1394 tun/m, ey = —660 tam./m, and yxy =
2054 _u.rad. Determine
(a) The stress components ax, Uy, and txy at the point.
(b) The principal stresses and the maximum shear stress at the point. Locate
the planes on which these stresses act and show the stresses on a triangular
element.
SOLUTION
(a) The normal stresses 0,, and 0,, are obtained by using Eqs. 4-6. Thus,
E
0, = Gk, +ve,.)
210 109 _
= %[l394 + 0.30(—660)](l0 6)
1 — (0.30)
= +216.o(1o°)N/m2 = 216 MPa (T) Ans.
4-5 csmsrmrzsn nooms LAW 169
E
0,, = 3(6). + vex)
= [-660 + 0.30(1394)](10-°)
= —55.80(l0°) N/ml = 55.8 MPa (C) Ans.
The shear stress 1:1,. is obtained by using Eqs. 4-10. Thus,
E
= 2<T>""
__ 2(lwg))(2054)(10
210(10‘~‘) _ 6)
= 1ss.90(10‘=)N/ml = 165.9 MPa Ans.

(b) When the values for 0,, 0,, and tr, are substituted ir1 Eq. 2-15, the principal
stresses are found to be
_aX-1-Uyd: U1_a)'2+ Z
UPMPI _ 2 2 try
2
= 276.0 55.30 i (276.0+55.s0 +(l65_90),
2 2
= 1l0.10:h234.62
op, = 110.10 + 234.62 = 344.72 MPa E 345 MPa (T) A115-

ap, = 110.10 — 234.62 = -124.52 MPa E 124.5 MPa (C) Ans.
A state of plane stress exists on the surface of the machine part; therefore,
cr_,,, = 0, = 0 Ans.
Since 0'P1 and op; have opposite signs, the maximum shearing stress is given
by Eq. 2-18 as F The direction of rm“ = 235 MPa on Fig.
4-13 is to oppose the larger of the principal
1 stresses 0,1 = 345 MPa and op; = 124.5
rm, = rp = §(0p, —0_,,,) MPa. As observed in Example Problems 2-
11 and 2-12, the normal stress on the sur-
1 face of maximum shear stress is the aver-
= E(344.72 + 124.52) = 234.62 MPa '5 23515/[Pa Ans.
age ofthe principal stresses 0,, = [344.72 +
(—124.52)]/2 = 110.1 MPa.
The in-plane principal stress directions are given by Eq. 2-14 as
tanzgpz 2
1,, : 2065.90) i
1.0000
<1,-0,. 27e.0+ss.s0
26,, = 45.00” 9,, = 22.5” Ans.
The required sketch is shown in Fig. 4-13

170 CHAPTER 4 smrsnru rnorsmss rum srrrass-srrmrv nsmrrossnrrs
345 MP
553 Mpg 110.1 MPa 3
_1§5'9 MP’ 235 MPa
| 276 MPa )
1 if-2-2.5:, 124.5 MPa
Figure 4-13
J’
1 EXHIIIPIC 4-3 At a point on the free surface of a steel
(E = 30,000 ksi and v — 0.30) machine part, the sn"ain rosette shown in Fig. 4-14
Gage c
was used to obtain the following normal strain data: 6,, = +650 ,uin./in., 6;, =
+475 ,u.in./in., and 6, = -250 ,u.in./in.
Gage b (a) Determine the stress components 0,, 0',., and 1:,,,, at the point.
:15" (b) Determine the principal strains and the maxirrnnn shearing strain at the point.
Prepare a sketch showing all of these strains.
45° Gage a
(c) Determine the principal stresses and the maximum shearing stress at the point.
Prepare a sketch showing all of these stresses.
Figure 4-14
SOLUTION
(a) The measured strain values are
Ga = 6, = +65U].L, E1, = +475]; (9 = 45;), and 6,; = 6,, = -250];
The shear strain yr, is obtained fiom these measured data by using Eq. 3-Ta.
Thus,
Q, = 6,, cosz 6;, + ey sinz 6;, + yxy sin 6;, cos 6;,
= sson cos2(45") - zson sin2(45°) + 11,, sin(45°) cos (4s=)
= +475p.
fi'om which 3/1,, = 55011..

The normal stresses 0', and 0,, are obtained by using Eqs. 4-6. Thus,
E 30,000 _,
<1, = 1 _ fire, + vey) = gwwso + 0.30(-2s0)](10 )
= +l8.956ksi Z 13.96 ksi (T) Ans.
E
<1, = gs, 30,000
+ ve,,) = i)_30)2[-250 + 0.30(ss0)](10 _ 6)
= —l.8132l-:si=' l.8l3ksi (C) Ans
4-5 GENERALIZED HO0KB'S raw 171
The shear stress 1:,,,, is obtained by using Eqs. 4-10. Thus,
E 30,000 _,
”‘*’ _ 2(1+ 11)?” _ 2(1+ 0.30)(550)(w )
= 6.346 ksi '5 6.35 ksi Ans.
(b) The in-plane principal strains cpl and 5,2 are obtained from the strain data
by using Eq. 3-10. Thus,
Q‘+€ €x__E 2 KP 2
“’*‘€"*: 2yiV( 21) +(2})
6500-250,0 650n+2s0n 2 550,1 2
Ti T + T
= 2000 1 527.40
6,, = 2000 + 527.40 = 121.4,“ '5 721,0 Ans.
ep, = 200p. — 527.4,u. = —327.4,u. E —327,u. Ans.
The third principal strain e_,,3 = 6, is obtained by using Eq. 3-13. Thus,
V
EP3 Z G2 Z —G(Ex +€y)
0.30
= - 1-_-6-3605500 - 2500) = -1"/1.4,). Ans.
Since s_,,3 is less compressive than the in-plane principal strain Gpz, the maxi-
mum shear strain at the point is the maximum in-plane shear strain yp. Thus,
Ynm = YP = 5:11 ‘$.01

= 727.4,u. + 327.4_u. = 1054.8,u. E 1055;; Ans.
The in-plane principal strain directions are given by Eq. 3-9 as
,, = ii‘
tan26,, = L 550 = 0.61111
6, — 5,. 65010 + 250,11.
26,, = 31.429“ 6,, = 15.714‘ E 15.71” Ans.
The required sketch is shown in Fig. 4-15.
4 -*1
327 11 - ' ‘
a_l055}l
y __- 2 2
,~’ . ;\\ //-X
| .- 1,"
7,15-71 JB
Figure 4-15
172 CHAPTER4 sL\'1'1:1uu.P11oPs1rr1s S AND STRILSS-S'I'IIA[N RELATIONSHIPS
P Note that Eqs. 4-6 relate the stresses 0 (c) Once the principal strains cpl and e_,,2 are known, Eqs. 4-6 can be used to
and the strains e for any pair of orthogo- determine the principal stresses Upl and epz. Thus,
nal directions in the plane—the x- and y-
directions or the n- and t-directions or the 1- E
and 2-directions. “pr = Q1501 +"E.v=)
30,000
= ?2[72r.4 + 0.30(-327.4)](10 _ 6)
1- (0.30)
= +20."1421<.=i '5 20.7161 (T) Ans.
E
UP: = 1 _ V2 (£192 +v6P|)
= 1 _30mmzr
000
‘L —327.4 + 0.30 r 727.4 )]( l0_6 1
= -3.599 ksi E 3.60ksi (C) Ans
Since a state of plane stress exists on the surface of the machine part, the
third principal stress is
op, = 0, = 0 Ans.
The maximum shear stress is obtained using Eq. 4- 10 and the maximum shear
strain. Thus,
rm“ _— 2(1+v)"““"
L _— T105411
2(1+0.50)( ' X 10*‘ )
= 12.171 ksi E 12.l7ksi Ans.
The two in-plane principal stresses have opposite signs; therefore, the maxi-
mum shear stress can also be obtained as
rmax = tp = _(Up1 _ cpl)
P As observed in Example Problems 2- >—~l’\J'-'

= 5(2U.742 -1- 3.599) = 12.171 ksi E 12.17 ksi Ans.
11 and 2-12, the normal stress on the sur-
face of rnaximum shear stress is the aver-
age of the principal stresses on = [20.'742 + The required sketch is shown in Fig. 4-16.
(—3.599)]f2 — 8.57 ksi.
1.213 ksi
11.51 ksi 20.2 ksi
0.35 ksi
12.11 ksi/
f 111.96 ksi )
1 1.50 ksi
Figure 4-10
4-5 GENERALIZED nooxss new 173
i Example Problem 4-4 A 10 >< 10 >< rem. block of steel (E =

30,000 ksi and v = 0.30) is loaded with a uniformly distributed pressure of
30,000 psi on the four faces having outward normals in the x- and y-directions.
Rigid frictionless constraints limit the deformation of the block in the z-direct:ion
to +0.002 in. Determine the normal stress 0, that develops as the pressure is
applied.
SOLUTION
1.,
1..
Figure 4-17 depicts the stresses acting on the block. For simplicity, the constraint
(which is perpendicular to the z-axis) is not shown. The uniformly distributed
pressure causes the stresses 0, = —30,000 psi and 0,. = —30,000 psi. Since the
constraint is rigid and fiictionless, there are no shearing stresses on the z-faces of
the block (1.;-I = r,,. = 0). The normal stress 0, is developed when the deformation
in the z-direction becomes 0.002 in. Thus, the stresses and deformation in the
z-direction give Figure 4-17
0, = —30,000 psi
0,. = —30,000 psi
0, = unknown
5, = +0.002 in.
The third of Eqs. 4-5 gives
1
6: = Elia: _ v(ax + U_v)]
But the normal strain 62 is related to the given value of deformation 8, = +0.002
in. by Eq. 3-1,
52
€;=I
where L is the original length of the block in the z-direction. Combining the two
expressions for 6, gives
5E‘ = Em,
1 - v(0, + 5.)]
OI‘
0.002
— = 1 6 [5, - (0.5)(-30,000 - 30,000)]
10 50(10 )
and solving for 0, gives
0, = —12,000 psi = 12.00 ksi (C) Ans.

CHAPTER 4 MATERIAL PROPERTIES AND STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS
4m:--‘ "~ 1n.
F1 - in i EXHIIIPIB 4-5 A 0.5 x 6 x 4-in. piece ofrubber is attached

1 to a wall and a piece of steel (Fig. 4-18a). “Then the force P is 30 lb, the rigid
steel plate displaces downward a = 0.0003 in. Determine the shear modulus of
6 in.
l the rubber.
SOLUTION
- The shear modulus is given by Eq. 4-10 as
G=T/Y
P
(,1) To determine the shear stress, consider the free-body diagram of the steel plate
shown in Fig. 4-13b, where V is the resultant shear force acting over the 4 x 6-in.
,..__
area of the rubber. For vertical equilibrium, V = P = 30 lb. Therefore,
4111; vi“
V 30
‘=—
A. = 7
141(6) = 1.25 P“i
6 if The shear strain is found using Eq. 3-3,
8, 0.0003
1,/=—= L 0.5 = 0.0006
Therefore,
P 1.25
(bl
G=1=
y 0.0005
= 2030 psi Ans.
Figure 4-18
1 PROBLEMS
MecMovie Activities and Problems
.\‘[M4.2 Principal stresses from rosette data. Example; Try one. Intermediate Problems
Using strain gage rosette data to compute the normal and shear
strains, the normal and shear stresses, and the principal stresses 4-13* Determine the state of strain that corresponds to the fol-
in the x—y plane. lowing state of stress at a point in a steel (E = 30,000 ksi and
v = 0.30) machine part: 0, 15,000 psi, 0,. 5000 psi,
Introductory Problems 0, = 7500 psi, r,,. = 5500 psi, r,., = 4750 psi, and 1:1, =
In Problems 4-9 through 4-12 the strain components ex, e_,., and 3200 psi.
y,, are given for a point on the surface of a machine compo- 4-14* Determine the state of strain that corresponds to the fol-
nent. Determine the stresses 0,, 0,, and r ,,. at the point. lowing state of stress at a point in an aluminum (E = 73
GPa and v = 0.33) machine part: 0, = 120 MPa, 0,, = -85
MPa, 0, = 45 MPa, r,_, = 35 MPa, r,., = 48 MPa, and ru =
Problem 4, 4, l 17,, l E l v 76 MPa.
4-9= +9001. -30071 l-4000 l 100001141‘ 0.50
4-15 The 0.5 x 2 x 4-in. rubber mounts shown in Fig. P4-15 are
4-10* +1175”. -12500] +s50p.l 1900141 l0.25 used to isolate the vibrational motion of a machine from its
4-11 +500n +2500 l+1501.t|l5,000ksi]0.34 supports. The shear modulus of the rubber is 3000 psi. Deter-
mine the force P required to displace the rigid frame 0.001 in.
4-12 +1000“ +4000 \+so0,tt l 2100141 ‘0.2: vertically.
4-5 asnsnsttzsn uoomrs LAW 175
P J’
T
P C P Gage c
*— l_t Gagc b
_ T 45" @
2i.n_
1 as" X
H -o.sin. Gage a
4-16* At a point on the free surface of an aluminum (E = 73 4-19* The stresses on the free surface of a bar subjected to an
GPa and v = 0.33) machine part, the strain rosette shown in axial force P and a torque T are shown in Fig. P4-19. The bar
Fig. P4-16 was used to obtain the following strain data: en = is made of steel (E = 30,000 ksi and v = 0.30). Determine the
+875 umlrn, ab = +700 ptmhn, and er = -650 ,t.t111/H1. De- strain components ex, e_,., and 1/W.
termine the stress components 0,, Hy, and r,,.
K666.
500(|J psi
Gage c Gage b 1"
LL 1 | soon psi
3 i X
P
’\_60° asQ
ix Figure P4-19
CiI-H-I-I-HW D
Figure P4-16 Challenging Problems
4-17 The strain rosette shown in Fig. P4-17 was used to mea- 4-20* The strain rosette shown in Fig. P4-20 was used to obtain
the following normal strain data at a point on the free sur-
sure the normal strains on the free surface of a structtual steel
(E = 30,000 ksi and v = 0.30) member. The measured strains face of a steel (E = 200 GPa and v — 0.30) machine part: ea
= -555 um/m, eb = +925 nmfm, and ec = +740 p.rn/m.
were ea = +650 ,u.in./in., e,, = +475 pin./in., and E, = -250
,u.in./in. Determine the stress components ax, o_,,, and rxy. a. Determine the stress components ax, 0)., and r,3. at the point.
b. Determine the principal stresses and the maximum shear
F stress at the point. Prepare a sketch showing these stresses
on a triangular element.
Gage c
Y
Gage b
45"
‘- 45° Gage a
Gage b _ _ 120°
\_ G "18 ea
Figure P4-17 120°-j\' I X
_,/
4-18 A steel (E = 200 GPa and v — 0.30) thin-walled pressure ves- 120°
sel is subjected to an internal pressure, an axial force P, and a
torque T, as shown in Fig. P4-18. A strain rosette mounted
Gage
c
on the outside surface of the vessel measured the strains:
ea = +540 um/m, eh = +930 um/m, and er = -+-20 ,u.m./m,
where a is in the longitudinal direction and c is in the hoop
direction Determine the stress components ax, cry, and 1,0,. Figure P4-20
CHAPTER 4 MA'l'liR]Al. PROPERTIES AND S'l'R|iSS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS
4-21* At a point on the free surface of an alloy steel (E = 30,000 a. Determine the principal strains and the maximum shearing
ksi and v = 0.30) machine part, normal strains of +1000 strain at the point.
,u.in./‘in., +2000 pin./in., and +1200 _u.in./in. were measured b. Use the results of part a to determine the principal stresses
at angles of 0°, 60", and 120°, respectively. Design considera- and the maximum shear stress at the point. A sketch is not
tions limit the maximum normal stress to 74 ksi, the maximum required.
shearing stress to 40 ksi, the maximum normal strain to 2200
p.in.lin., and the maximum shearing strain to 2500 ,u.rad. What Gage b
is your evaluation of the design‘?
4-22 A l0 x 10 x 25.4-mm block of rubber-like material (E
""\\ Gage a
= l.4 GPa and v = 0.40) is to be pushed into a lubricated
90° x
10 x 10 x 25-mm flat-bottomed hole in a rigid material, as . _.-'
_ w /
shown in Fig. P4-22. Determine the load P required to push
2 135°
the block into the hole until its top surface is flush with the top
of the hole.
Gage c
Figure P4-23
P
4-24 A thick-walled cylindrical pressure vessel will be used to
store gas under a pressure of 100 MPa. During initial pressur-
ization of the vessel, axial and hoop components of strain were
measured on the inside and outside stnfaces. On the inside
surface the axial strain was +500 um/m and the hoop strain
was +750 um/tn. On the outside surface the axial strain was
+500 um/m and the hoop strain was +100 ,u.m!m. Determine
the axial and hoop components of stress associated with these
strains ifE = 200 GPa and v = 0.30.
25mm
4-25* A steel sleeve is connected to a steel shaft with a flexible
nibber insert, as shown in Fig. P4-25. The rubber insert has an
outside diameter of 4.25 in. and an inside diameter of 3.25 in.
The length of the insert is 8 in.; the shear modulus is 2000 psi.
For a force P = 300 lb, determine the deflection of the shalt
with respect to the sleeve.
<—l0mm
Figure P4-22 ..-— Rubber insert
__\Til“
4-23 The strain rosette shown in Fig. P4-23 was used to measure
the normal strains at a point on the free surface of an alu-
‘-- Shafi
minum (E = 10,600 ksi and v = 0.33} member. The measured
strains were e, = +875 _u.in./in., 6;, = +700 rtin./in., and e, = “‘-— Sleeve
-350 uin-/in- Figure P4-25
4-4 THERMAL STRAIN

Most engineering materials when unrestrained expand when heated and contract
when cooled. The thermal strain due to a one-degree (1°) change in temperature
is designated by tr and is lcnown as the coficiem‘ ofthermal expansion.
The thermal strain (ofan unrestrained body) due to a temperature change of
A T degrees is
£1 = aAT (4-11)
4-4 nrsamtstmts 177
Like the matctial constants described in the last section, the value of or for various
materials must be determined experimentally. The coeflicient of thermal expan-
sion is approximately constant for a large range of temperatures (in general, the
coeficient increases with an increase of temperature). For a homogeneous}
isotropic material, the coefficient applies to all dimensions (all directions). Values
of the coefficient of expansion for several materials are included in Appendix B.
4-4-1 T0t2l.l St1‘fliIlS Strains caused by temperature changes and strains

caused by applied loads are essentially independent. The total strain inauy direction
is the sum of the strain caused by the applied loads and the strain caused by the
temperature change
e,,,,,,| = 6,, + sf (4-12a)
For a member loaded only in the x-direction, the total axial strain (strain in the
load direction) is given by‘
Eaxial = ea + 57‘
0,, v0,. va,
=(s-Y-?l+"AT
U
Mb»
— E+0!AT
and the total lateral or transverse strain (strain in the direction perpendicular to the
load) is given by
em,,,s=e,,+e;~
_fl_‘fi_‘E
_(E E E)+°'AT (“"12”)
—va
=—E +0: AT
Since homogeneous, isotropic materials, when tmrestraincd, expand uniformly in

all directions when heated (and contract uniformly when cooled), neither the shape
of the body nor the shear stresses and shear strains are affected by temperature
changes.
Example Problem 4-6 The aluminum [E = 10 GPA, ct =

22.5(l0'°)/°C] block shown in Fig. 4-19 rests on a smooth, horizontal surface.
When the body is subjected to a temperature change of AT = +20“C,
determine
(a) The thermal strains en, 63., and e;-,.
(b) The deformations ir1 the coordinate directions 8,, 8)., and 6,.
(c) The shearing strain y,,,..
5ln a homogeneous material, material properties such as modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio do
not vary from point to point. Examples of nonhomogcncous materials are concrete (which consists of
sand and rocks held together by cement) and particle board (which consists of sawdust and wood chips
held together by glue).
‘Assuming the deformation remains in the linearly elastic range so that Hoolte’s law (Eq. 4-5) applies.
178 crnrrrn 4 mrsinu. Pnorrrrrms sun smass-srrmrm RELATIONSHIPS
Z "“'100mm.______ Hf, ~475““”

Jag I
Figure 4-19
SOLUTION
(a) The thermal strain is given by Eq. 4-1 1, e T = as AT, and is the same for each
coordinate direction. Thus,
61- = 51-, = 57-, = 61'; = 11 AT = 22.5(10-‘)(2o)

= 450(l0_°)rn/m = 450 pm/m Ans.
(b) Deformations may be calculated using Eq. 3-1, 8 = EL. Since the block is not
constrained and there are no applied forces, there are no stresses, 0, = 0,. =
0, = 0. Therefore, the load portion of the strain is zero (5,, = 0) and the total
strain is the same as the thermal strain, emml = 6, + er = er. Although the
total strain is the same for each ofthe coordinate directions, the initial lengths
of the member are different for each of the coordinate directions. Therefore,
the deformations in the coordinate directions are
5, = 6;-,L = 450(10-°)(100) = o.0450mm Ans.

5,. = eT,,L = 4s0(10-6)(s0) — 0.0225n'1m Ans.
5, = $1,-,L = 450(1o-*'*)("/5) — 0.033Sm1I1 Ans.
(c) Since the body is not constrained and there are no applied forces, there are
no stresses (0, = 0,. = 0, = r,_,. = 1:), = ta, = 0) and the total strain is the
same as the thermal strain, emu = ea + er = er. However, the thermal strain
is the same in all directions. Therefore, original 90° angles do not change.
That is, there are no shearing strains.
y,,,. = 0 Ans.
-I Example Problem 4-7 A 112-in.-diameter steel [E = 30,000 ksi,

v — 0.30, or — 6.5 (10-6)/°F] rod has an initial length of6 Pt. Determine
(a) The change in length of the rod after a tensile load of 5000 lb is applied to
the rod, and the temperature of the rod decreases 50°F.
(b) The change in diameter of the rod for the conditions given in part (a).
SOLUTION
Since the rod is loaded in only one direction, Eq. 4-12b can be used for the axial
direction and Eq. 4-120 for the transverse (diametral) direction.
4-4 rrmnsutsrmm 179
(a) Strain e is the ratio of change in length 5 and initial length L, and stress cr is
the ratio of force P and areaA. Therefore, Eq. 4-12b can be written
8 P
Z — E -l-HAT
and the rod will stretch

P It is important that the terms in Eq. 4-
12 be compatible. That is, a positive strain
P
8= e is a stretch (positive 5) and is caused by
(AB +°‘ AT l L
—
a tensile stress (positive a) and a tempera-
5000 ture increase (positive AT). Since the force
= a + 6.5(10-°)(-50)](6) is tensile, it is entered as a positive 5000 lb.
i30(10°)(rr/4)(1/2)2 Because the temperature decreases, it is en-
= 0.003143 rt 2 0.0377 in. Ans_ tered as a negative 50“‘E
(b) In the diarnetral direction the strain is still the ratio of the change in length
a.nd the initial length, but here length refers to the diameter. Therefore,
Eq. 4-12c can be written
dd VP
E — F + (EAT
and the diameter of the rod will stretch
- P + aAT) d P Since strain e = 8:‘L is dimensionless, the

5,, = (ALE deformation 6 and the gage length L must
both have the same units. They can both be
in feet as in part (a) of this problem or both
=[ + 6.500-@)(-s0)](1/2) in inches as in part (b).
= -0.000290m. Ans.
1 PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems span if the plane leaves the ground at a temperature of 40°C
and climbs to an altitude where the temperature is —40*'C.
4-26* A cast iron pipe has an inside diameter of 70 mm
and outside diameter of 105 mm. The length of the pipe is 4-29 A large cement kiln has a length of 225 ft and a diameter
2.5 m. The coefiicient of thermal expansion for cast iron is of 12 ft. Determine the change in length and diameter of the
or = l2.1(l0'°)/°C. Determine the dimension changes caused structural steel shell [ix = 6.5(l0"‘*)f°F] caused by an increase
by in temperature of 250'=F.
a. An increase in temperature of 70°C. Intermediate Problems

b. A decrease in temperature of 85°C.
4-30* A bronze [Gig = 16.9(10‘“)f“C] sleeve with an inside di-
4-27* A l x 2-in. rectangular bar of steel [E = 30,000 ksi and ameter of 99.8 mm is to be placed over a solid steel [erg =
cc = 6.6(10‘°)1"’F] has a length of 4 ft. The bar is subjected to 1l.9(10-°)f°C] cylinder that has an outside diameter of
an axial load P = 3000 lb and a temperature increase of AT°F. 100 mm. If the temperatures of the cylinder and sleeve re-
Determine the temperature increase AT if the elongation of main equal, how much must the temperature be increased in
the bar is 0.05 in. order for the bronze sleeve to slip over the steel cylinder?
4-28 An airplane has a wing span of40 m. Determine the change 4-31* Determine the movement of the pointer of Fig. P4-31 with
in length of the aluminum alloy [or = 22.5(l0“°)./°C] wing respect to the scale zero when the temperature increases 80"‘F.
180 crrsrrrzrt 4 MA'l'ER]Al. PROPERTIES AND srnass-srnxnv RELATIONSHIPS
The coefiicients of thermal expansion are 6.6(10‘°)f“F for the 4-33 An aluminum [E = 10,000 ksi, v = 0.33, and a =
steel and 12.5(l0'°)/°F for the aluminum. l2.5(l0'°)/°F] rod of 0.25-in. diameter and 2-it length is sub-
jected to an axial compressive load of 4000 lb and a tempera-
l 4in. ‘lim. ture change of +60"F. Determine the change in diameter ofthe
rod.
+ !_..--—||_rSmooth pins
0 i:) . Challenging Problems
4-34* A 25-mm-diameter aluminum [E = 73 GPa, v = 0.33, and
at = 22.S(l0-°)/° C] rod hangs vertically while suspended fi'om
_ 20 in. one end. A 2500-kg mass is attached at the other end. After the
load is applied, the temperature decreases 50°C. Determine
a. The axial stress in the rod.
i jirsi b. The axial strain in the rod.
c. The change in diameter of the rod.
Figure P4-31 4-35 A steel [E = 30,000 ksi and or = 6.5(l0"°)f°F] surveyor's
tape U2 in. wide x 1/32 in. thick is exactly 100 ft long at
72°F and under a pull of 10 lb. What correction should be in-
4-32 Determine the horizontal movement of point A in troduced if the tape is used to make a 100-ft measurement at a
Fig. P4-32 due to a temperature increase of 75°C. Assume temperature of 100°F and under a pull of 25 lb?
member AE has an insignificant coefficient of thermal expan-
sion. The coefiicients of thermal expansion are 1l.9(l0—°)/°C 4-36 The stepped bar shovm in Fig. P4-36 is subjected to an axial
for the steel and 22.5(10-“)/=‘C for the aluminum alloy. load P = 25 kN and a temperature change AT = +20"C. Seg-
ment AB is steel [E = 200 GPa and or = 12(l0'°)/"C] with a
50-mm diameter and length 200 mm; segment BC is aluminum
A [E = 70 GPa andcr = 22.5(l0'°)/"C) with adiameter of 25 mm
and length of 150 mm. Determine
a. The deformation of segment AB.
h. The deformation of segment BC.
c. The deflection of a cross section at C.
250 mm
. 'B Steel C
W i-ti—
25 mm
L
P
D Aluminum alloy E
< 300 rmn A *1
4-5 STRESS-STRAIN EQUATIONS FOR

f _ .=--"""’F I
t ORTHOTROPIC MATERIALS
The generalized Hooke’s law for homogeneous, isotropic materials (Eqs. 4-5 and
——__ —_'l
| 4- 10) is found in Section 4-3. Recall that a body is homogeneous and isotropic ifthe
__J material properties are neither a fimction ofposition within the body nor a fimetion
___,,,_|-_|-— ofdirection within the body, respectively. Such a body has three material properties
(modulus of elasticity, modulus of rigidity or shear modulus, and Poisson‘s ratio),
Figure 4-20 only two of which are independent. For an isotropic material (Fig. 4-20), a normal
4-5 srasss-srruus sousrross Fort ortrnorrtorrc srsrsnrus 181
tensile stress causes an elongation in the direction of the stress and a contraction
in the direction perpendicular to the stress. Shear stresses cause only shearing
U
deformations. These types of deformations exist for isotropic materials regardless
of the direction of the stress.
For some materials, wood for example, three material properties are not
IIII _1
.
sufficient to describe the material behavior. Wood, however, has three mutually
perpendicular planes of material symmetry, one parallel to the grain, one tangential
tlllllill"ll-"ll‘slit,-'il|'l‘|lt'llI*"‘l. I
to the grain, and one radial. Bodies having material properties that are different in
three mutually perpendicular directions at a point within a body but that have three
-_ -‘
-‘ '_“_J
mutually perpendicular planes of material symmetry are known as orthotropic
materials. The material properties are a function of orientation within the body.
Orthotropic materials have three natural axes that are mutually perpendicular Figure 4-21
(such as for the wood previously discussed). Figure 4-21 shows an orthotropic
material subjected to an applied stress in the direction of a natural axis. As for the
isotropic material, the orthotropic material elongates in the direction of the stress T
and contracts in the perpendicular direction. The magnitudes ofthe elongations and
contractions are not the same for the two materials, since the material properties I 1-»; ,;.;1;j1?"' 1._.;:f;:?
for the orthotropic material are dependent on the orientation of the applied stress.
Ifthe stress in Fig. 4-21 were applied in the perpendicular direction, the elongation _ _ ,_ "0 W:__,,_,,._._. _ 7:
and contraction would have different values from those shown in Fig. 4-21. On the WW‘
other hand, the elongations and contractions of the isotropic material of Fig. 4-20 1%!
§~{_.;-'{_r;{_1;:I-'ji.§;-iii"
.I
"_-IQ$—
1-
are independent of the direction of the applied load. 1_-
G
QG
An applied stress that is not in the direction of one of the natural axes of an Figure 4-22
orthotropic material behaves as shown in Fig. 4-22. A normal stress produces an 3
elongation, a contraction, and a shearing deformation. A shear stress also produces
an elongation, a contraction, and a shearing deformation. Thus, depending on the 2
direction of the stress, there may exist a coupling between elongation, contraction,
and shearing deformation. No coupling exists for an isotropic material, regardless
of the direction of the stress. The mechanical behavior of orthotropic materials ' 1
(or anisotropic mater'ials—no planes of material symmetry) is more complex than Figure 4-23
for isotropic materials. A complete description of such behavior may be formd in
books dealing with composite materials.
In this book, discussion will be lirrrited to orthotropic materials subjected P 2
to plane stress. For example, consider a thin piece of material (such as an epoxy) 41 _.|l.
reinforced by unidirectional fibers (such as graphite), as shown in Fig. 4-23. This 0.0%};
material is orthotropic. Axes l, 2, and 3 are in the principal material directions

(natural axes), and planes 1-2, 2-3, and 1-3 are planes of material symmetry. For (4)
O
plane stress, 03 = 1:31 = 1: 3; = 0. To determine the strain-stress relations, assume
that the material behavior is linear elastic and use the principle of superposition.
First, consider that the orthotropic specimen is subjected to uniaxial loading
in the l-direction, as shown in Fig. 4-24a. The stress and strains are
at = —PA 01
-1 = —
E1
V12 = -—£2E1 ta) E1
l
where u | 2 is the Poisson’s ratio for loading in the l-direction and E1 is the modulus
of elasticity for the same loading (Fig. 4-24b).
Next, consider uniaxial loading in the 2-direction, as shown in Fig. 4-25a. E
The stress and strains are (I1)
Figure 4-24
P 0'2 £1 b
62—A €2—E2 v2r— £2 ()
182 crrsrrss 4 snmzrrru PROPERTIES turn STRESS-S'I'RA[N nsnrrrossnrrs
P where v;| is the Poisson’s ratio and E2 is the modulus of elasticity for loading in
42 . the 2-direction (Fig. 4-25b).
1 ., u ' Finally, the material is subjected to the shear stresses shown in Fig. 4-26a.
P '' The shearing stress is
ct
‘“) J/12 _ ti
— G12 (C)
where G12 is the shear modulus in the 1-2 plane (Fig. 4-26b).
Using Eqs. (a) and (b) and the principle of superposition, the strains are
€1=%l—‘-’2r€2=%—V21% (d)
0'2 0'3 (T1
E; 62 = -V1251-i‘ E2 = E -Vizg (9)
l
Summarizing, the stress-strain equations for the unidirectionally reinforced
E material of Fig. 4-23 for plane stress are
(5) U1 G2
Figure 4-25 er = —
E, — vg1—
E2
U2 U1
52 = F2 — V1251 (4-13)
pd‘
1-'12
V12 — G12
(‘*3 Equations 4-13 can be solved for the stresses, giving the stress-strain
T equations:
E1
cn = —(e1+vm)
1 — Vtzvzr
E
02 = L216: +‘-H261) (4-14)
1 — Vlzvzr
G12 ‘II 12 = G r2l'12
i Ofthe five material properties in Eqs. 4- l4, only fotrr are independent, 1 since
r E _E
(bl E, — E; (M 5)
Figure 4-26
The stress-strain equations (Eqs. 4-14) only apply when the loading is in the
principal material directions. For loadings in other directions, refer to the compo site
materials book by Jones.7
Ifthe material is isotropic (E1 = E2 = E; vtg = vg| = v; and G1; = G), Eqs.
4-14 reduce to Eqs. 4-6 and 4-8. For isotropic materials, recall that there are only
two independent material properties.
Some typical material properties for a unidirectional composite material are
shown in Table 4-1.8 The Poisson‘s ratio v;| can be found by using Eq. 4-15.
7Mec}mm'cs of C0mp0s'i!8 Materials, R. M. Jones, Scripts Book Co., Washington, D.C., 1975.
slnrrmluctrcn 10 Composite Materials, S. W. Tsai and H. T. Hahn, Technomic Publishing Co., Inc.,
Westport, CT, 1980.
4-s srssss-srnxrv rqusrross rorr orrmorrrorrc MA'l'llRIAl.S 183
Table 4-1 Material Properties for Two Unidirectional Composites

Type Material E1GPa(ksi) E; GPa (ksi) v1; 0.2 GPa (ksi)
T300l5208 Graphite! 1s1 10.3 0.23 7.17
Epoxy (26,300) (1494) (1040)
Scotchply Glass! 38 .6 8.27 0.26 4.14
1002 Epoxy (5 600) (1 199) (600)
As previously stated, wood is an orthotropic material. In this book, wood

members will be subjected to either axial loads (tension or compression) or bending
loads (Chapter 7). The isotropic material properties listed in Appendix B are
suflicient to solve problems involving these loading situations.
1 Example Problem 4-8 A unidirectional T300/5208 graphite./epoxy

composite material is loaded in the principal material directions with stresses
01 = 50 ksi, 02 = 6 ksi, and r12 = 2 ksi. Determine the normal and shear strains
in the principal material directions.
SOLUTION
The material properties, from Table 4-l, are E1 = 26,300 ksi, E2 = 1494 ksi,
G1; = 1040 ksi, and v12 = 0.28. The Poisson’s ratio 12;“ is found using Eq. 4-15
and is
E; 1494 (0.28) = 0.01591
V2‘ = Ev” = 26 300
The strains are found using Eqs. 4-13. Thus,
6, = “-1 - v21 3 = i - 0.01591l = 0.0018372 2 183711 Ans.

E| E; 26,300 1494
0; 0| 6
e=r‘“r=na‘
2 1
0.28 so = 0.003434 '5 3480p
26,300
Ans.
T|2 2
= _ = _ =0.0019231z1923 Ans.
1"” G12 1040 ‘L
1 PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems 4-39 A thin plate of T300/5208 unidirectional composite mate-
rial is subjected to the stresses 01 = 40 ksi, U2 = -10 ksi, and
4-37* A thin plate of T3001'5208 unidirectional composite ma- r12 = 2 ksi. Determine the normal and shear strains in the
terial is subjected to the strains e1 = +2000 p.1t1./111., e; =
principal material directions.
+4000 pin./in., and yr; = +1500 ptrad. Determine the nor-
mal arrd shear stresses in the principal material directions. 4-40 The material properties for a Boron/"Epoxy unidirectional
composite are E1 = 200 GPa, E; = 20 GPa, vi; = 0.23,
4-38* A unidirectional composite plate of Scotchply 1002
and G1; = 6 GPa. Determine the stresses in the principal
GlassfEp0xy is subjected to the stresses 01 = 30 MPa,
material directions if the strains are e1 = +1000 pint/m, e2
0; = -2 MPa, and rt; = 0.3 MPa. Determine the normal
and shear strains in the principal material directions. = +500 /.trn/m, and yr; = +300 ptrad.
184 crrtwrsrr 4 srrrssru PROPERTIES turn srsass-srsxrs RELATIONSHIPS
Intermediate Problems Challenging Problems

4-41* A thin 10 x 10-in. square plate of T300/5208 unidirec- 4-43 The rmidirectional composite material shown in Fig. P4-43
tional composite material is subjected to the stresses shown in is subjected to a uniform stress ox. Both the fibers and the
Fig. P4-41. The y-axis is in the fiber direction. Determine the matrix are isotropic materials with material properties Ef, vf,
change in length of each side of the plate. GI and E,,,, v,,,, G,,,, respectively. The fibers and matrix are per-
fectly bonded so that ex = e1- = e,,,. The cross-sectional areas of
the composite, the fibers, and the matrix are A, Af, Am, respec-
tively. Ifboth the fibers and the matrix behave in a linear elastic
o,.=5ksi
manner, show that the longitudinal modulus of the composite
__- r,,=1ksi E, is given by
H EA~+EA
I 1 cix=5ksi EFT
-.-- -- In addition, if the volume fractions of the fiber and the matrix
are Kr =4--/A and V," =A,,,fA, respectively, show that the above
equation can be written
Figure P4-41
E, = V;E;~ + V,,,E,,,
4-42 A plate of unidirectional Scotchply 1002 Glass1'Epoxy has

the dimensions shown in Fig. P4-42. The fibers are in the x- I .0
direction. For the stresses shown on Fig. P4-42, determine the , e I‘ ______
. . 0 6, x
change in length of each side of the plate.
Figure P4-43
5)’ = 2 Mpa 4-44 For the unidirectional composite material of Problem 4-43,
1 show that
Q_ Er V7"
P EIVJ,-+E,,,(1— VJ,-)
100mm G,=Sl\¢[Pa
ii where P is the total force carried by the composite and Pf is
L Al the force carried by the fibers. Prepare a plot ofPf/P (percent)
versus E,-/E,,,. Construct the plot for 1% 5 Pf/P 5 100% and
' 125 mm 0.1 5 E,»/E,,, 5 100 and for fiber volume fractions 0.1 5 I§- 5
Figure P4-42 0-9-
SUMMARY
In 1678, Robert Hooke observed that the stretch of a structural member acted on
by an axial load was directly proportional to the magnitude of the load applied
to the member. When stress is plotted as a function of strain (rather than load as
a function of deformation), the resulting curves are independent of the size and
shape of the member and depend only on the type of material from which the
member is made. The relationship between the load acting on a structural member
and the deformation of the member must be determined experimentally. Data for
stress-strain diagrams are obtained by applying an axial load to a test specimen
and measuring the load and deformation simultaneously. The initial portion of the
stress-strain diagram for most materials used in engineering structures is a straight
suturtrsrrr 185
line and is represented by Hooke‘s law,
0 = Ee (4- 1 a)
where the constant ofproportionality (modulus ofe lasticity, E) must be determined

fi"om the experimental data. Although the stress-strain diagram for some materials
such as gray cast iron and concrete show a slight curve even at very small stresses,
it is conunon practice to draw a straight line to average the data for the first part of
the diagram and neglect the curvature. It is important to realize that Hooke’s law
(Eq. 4-la) only describes the initial linear portion of the st1'ess-strain diagram and
is valid only for uniaxially loaded bars.
A body loaded in one direction will undergo strains perpendicular to the
direction ofthe load in addition to those parallel to the load. The ratio of the lateral
or perpendicular strain to the longitudinal or axial strain is called Poisson‘s ratio:
€ G
-.» = -l = --‘ (4-2)
Elong 50
Because the lateral strain and the axial strain always have opposite signs, the
negative sign in Eq. 4-2 ensures that v will have a positive value. Like the modulus
ofelasticity E and the shear modulus G, Poisson’s ratio is aproperty ofthe material.
Poisson’s ratio v is related to E and G by the formula
E = 2(1 + v)G (4-3)

Therefore, Poisson’s ratio is a constant for stresses below the proportional limit
and has a value between 1/4 and 1/3 for most metals. Equation 4-2 relating Poisson’s
ratio and the lateral and axial strains is only valid for a uniaxial state of stress such
as in the tension test.
Hooke‘s law (Eq. 4-la) can be extended to biaxial and triaxial states of stress
often encountered in engineering practice by using the principal of superposition.
The results for a biaxial state of stress are
1
6, = E(crx —vo,.)
1
6,, = 5(0) — vox) (44)
v
e, = —E(cr, + 0,.)
Solving Eqs. 4-4 for the stresses in terms of the strains gives
E
0,, = jet, + vey)
E t4-61
0,, = day + vex)
Equations 4-6 can be used to calculate normal stresses from measured or computed
normal strains.
CHAPTER 4 MA'I'ER]AI.. PROPERTIES AND STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS
Torsion test specimens are used to study material behavior under pure
shear, and it is observed that a shearing stress produces only a single cor-
responding shear strain. Thus, Hool-te‘s law extended to shearing stresses is
simply
r = Gy (4-8)
Ifunrestrained, most engineering materials expand when heated and contract

when cooled. The thermal strain of an unrestrained body due to a temperature
change of AT degrees is
er =aAT (4-11)
where or is known as the coefficient of thermal expansion, and it is approximately
constant for a large range of temperatures. For a homogeneous, isotropic material,
the coefficient applies to all dimensions. Like the constants E and G, the value for
or for various materials must be determined experimentally.
Strains caused by temperature changes and strains caused by applied loads
are essentially independent. The total normal strain in a body acted upon by both
temperature changes and axially applied loads is given by
Etotal : so '1' ET (4'12a)
Because homogeneous, isotropic materials expand uniformly in all directions when

heated (and contract uniformly when cooled), neither the shape of the body nor
the shearing stresses and shearing strains a.re affected by temperature changes if
the body is unrestrained.
For an isotropic material, a normal tensile stress causes an elongation in
the direction of the stress and a contraction in the direction perpendicular to the
stress. Shear stresses cause only shearing deformations. For isotropic materials, the
deformations depend only on the magnitude of the stress and not on the direction
of the stress. In an isotropic material, the material properties are not a function of
direction within the body.
Bodies that have three mutually perpendicular planes of material symmetry
and that have material properties that are different in those three mutually per-
pendicular dircctions at a point within a body are known as orthotropic materials.
In wood, for example, the elastic modulus for stresses along the grain is differ-
ent from the elastic modulus for stresses across the grain of the wood. Since the
material properties are a function of orientation within the body, the mechanical
behavior of orthotopic materials is more complex than for isotropic materials. In
orthotropic materials, a normal stress can produce a shearing deformation as well
as an elongation or a contraction; a shear stress can produce an elongation or a
contraction as well as a shearing deformation.
REVIEW PROBLEMS
4-45* Stress-strain diagrams for a steel alloy at two temperatures a. The modulus of elasticity.
are shown in Fig. P4-45. For each temperature, determine b. The yield strength (0.2 percent offset).
nsvmw PROBLEMS 187
70 4-48* A 10 x 25 x 50-mm block of 0.4 percent C hot-rolled

steel (E = 210 GPa and G = 80 GPa) is placed between two
60 I J.--75°F rigid, frictionless walls and subjected to the stress shown in
Fig. P4-48. Determine the change in length of the 10-mm side
of the block.
50
:- @
...
S
ks
rcss, Lnl G
O
20 I , 1eoo=_1=
25 mm 100 MPa
10
‘L 501-nm
0_ I
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.003 0.010 Figure P4-48
Strain, injin.
Figure P4-45
4-46* The stresses shown in Fig. P4-46 act at a point on the fi'ee 4-49 Two thin blocks of structural steel (E = 29,000 ksi and
surface of an aluminum alloy (E = 70 GPa and v = 0.33) ma- G = 11,000 ksi} are subjected to the stresses shown in
chine component. Determine the normal strain e,, that would Fig. P4-49. The 2 x 2-in. block shown in Fig. P4-49a is sub-
be indicated by the strain gage shown in the figure. jected to a state of biaxial stress (0,. may be either tension or
compression), and the 2 x 3-in. block shown in Fig. P4—49b
80 MPa is subjected to a uniaxial state of stress. If the x-component of
deformation 6,‘ is to be the same for the two blocks, determine
—l—~ 60 MPa the value of 0,.
I I 120 MP
I 8
-— 7'. \
30° 0,.
Figure P4-46
cl‘ = 6000 psi 0', = 5000 psi

4-47 The stresses shown in Fig. P4-47a act at a point on the free
surface of a steel (E = 30,000 ksi and v = 0.30) machine com-
ponent. Determine the normal strains ea, e,,, and e, that would
he indicated by the strain rosette shown in Fig. P4-47b.
(H) (5)
4ksi
F Figure P4-49
1 | I Gage b
I L 12 ksi Hm“
_, 5 ksi Gage C W Gees H 4-50 Stress-strain diagrams for two steel alloys are shown in
l » Fig. P4-50. For each alloy, determine
(H) (5) a. The modulus of elasticity.
Figure P4-47 h. The yield strength (0.2 percent offset).
188 cmtvran 4 MA'l'ER]Al. PROPERTIES AND S’I'R|iSS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS
1400 36 MPa
‘__ __ Gage c T Gage b

1200
I 72 MPa
‘® 92 @'
1000
1// I
—%
L
24 MPa
Gage a
I ""-._4s°
' x
StMParess, O\@
QQ@@ (Q) (5)
Figure P4-52
|
200 surface of a steel (E = 30,000 ksi and v = 0.30) machine com-
ponent. Determine the normal strain en that would he indicated
by the strain gage shown in the figure.
0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.014
4500 psi
Strain, nun./mm
Figure P4-50 —'- 6000 psi
8500 psi
'.
Z—r
we" 1
.¢_r___
1 1|;
4-51* Steel [E = 29,000 ksi and or = 6.6(l0-°)f°F] rails 55 it 26"
long are separated 0.125 in. when the temperature is 60°F.
Determine Figure P4-53
a. The temperature at which the rails will just touch.
b. The gap between the rails when the temperature drops to 4-54* At a point on the flee surface of an aluminum alloy (E =
10°F. 73 GPa and v = 0.33) machine part, the measured strains are
e, = +825 ptmlm, e). = +950 jimfm, and yg = +680 ,u.rad.
4-52 The stresses shown in Fig. P4-52a act at a point on the
free surface of a brass (E = 100 GPa and v = 0.28) ma- a. Determine the stresses 0,, cry, and tn. at the point.
chine component. Determine the normal strains ea, eh, and b. Determine the principal stresses and the maximum shear-
e, that would be indicated by the strain rosette shown in ing stress at the point. Show these stresses on a triangular
Fig. P4-52b. element.
Chapter 5
Axial Loading Applications
and Pressure Vessels
5-1 INTRODUCTION
The problem of determining internal forces and deformations at all points within
a body subjected to external forces is extremely diflicult when the loading or ge-
ometry of the body is complicated. A refined analytical method of analysis that
attempts to obtain general solutions to such problems is known as the theory of
elasticity. The numberofproblems solved by such methods has been limited; there-
fore, practical solutions to most design problems are obtained by what has become
known as the mechanics of materials approach. With this approach, real structural
elements are analyzed as idealized models subjected to simplified loadings and
restraints. The resulting solutions are approximate, because they consider only
effects that significantly affect the magnitudes of stresses, strains, and deformat-
rons.
In Chapters 2 and 3, the concepts of stress and strain were developed and a
discussion of material behavior in Chapter 4 led to the development of equations
relating stress to strain. In the remaining chapters of the book, the stresses and
deformations produced in a wide variety of structural members by axial, torsional,
and flexural loadings will be considered. The mechanics of material analyses, as
presented here, are somewhat less rigorous than the theory of elasticity approach,
but experience indicates that the results obtained are quite satisfactory for most
engineering problems.
5-2 DEFORMATION OF AXIALLY LOADED MEMBERS

Uniform Member: When a straight bar ofuniform cross section is axially loaded
by forces applied at the ends, the axial strain along the length of the bar is assumed
to have a constant value,' and the elongation (or contraction) of the bar resulting
fi'o1n the axial load P may be expressed as 5 = eL (by the definition ofaverage axial
strain). If Hooke’s law (Eq. 4-la) applies, the axial deformation may be expressed
1The forces at the ends of such members must be equal in magnitudeppposite in direction, and directed
along the axis of the member. Furthermore, the internal forces atany position along the member
must be the same as the forces at the ends of the member and also must actalong the axis of the
member.
190 CHAPTER 5 AXIAL LOADING APPLICATIONS AND Pitsssmur vrssrrrs
in terms of either stress or load as
L
a = EL = % (5-1)
PL
8 =—
EA (5-2 1
The first form will be convenient in elastic problems in which the limiting axial
stress and axial deformation are both specified and either the maximum allowable
load or the required size (cross-sectional area) of the member are to be determined.
The stress corresponding to the specified deformation can be obtained fiom Eq. 5-1
so kip 40 kip and compared to the allowable stress. The smaller of the two values can then be
used to compute the allowable load or the required cross-sectional area. In general,
.| 30 kip Eq. 5-1 is preferred when the problem involves the determination or comparison
of stresses.
Multiple Loads!Sizes: Equation 5-2, which gives the elongation (or contraction)
" *._ so kip '-._\ 40 kip 5 occurring over some length L, applies only to uniform members for which P, A,
\“'-~ Rigid bearing plates and E are constant over the entire length L. If a bar is subjected to a number ofaxial
loads at different points along the bar, or ifthe bar consists ofparts having different
cross-sectional areas or of parts composed of different materials (Fig. 5-la), then
Tension the change in length of each part can be computed by using Eq. 5-2. The changes
in length of the various parts of the bar can then be added algebraically to give the
Flwc total change in length of the complete bar
5
s
kip
roe, n n PELI
U
-50 Pco 5 = _:s,- =25 (5-3)
fo
Ax'a -loo ‘Firs I I 1 I
Compression where A, and E,- are both constant on segment i and the force P, is the internal force
in segment i of the bar and is usually different fi'om the forces applied at the ends
Figure 5-l of the segment. These forces must be calculated from equilibrium of the segment
and are often shown on an axial-force diagram such as Fig. 5-lb.
5-2-1 Nonuniform Deformation For cases in which the axial force or

the cross-sectional area varies continuously along the length of the ba.r (Fig. 5-2),
Eq. 5-2 is not valid. The axial strain at a point for the case of nommiform deforma-
tion was defined in Section 3-2 as e = d5/dL. Thus, the increment of deformation
associated with a differential element of length dL = dx may be expressed as
dd = e dx. If Hooke’s law applies, the strain may again be expressed as e = a/E,
where 0 = PXIAI. The subscripts indicate that both the applied load P, and the
cross-sectional area A, may be firnctions of position x along the bar. Thus,
PX
d6 = ——- d
L ‘ ,2 EA, I (“J
Integrating Eq. (a) yields the following expression for the total elongation (or
contraction) of the bar:
L L P
a=f d5=f —‘dx (5-4)
0 0 EAX
P Equation 5-4 gives acceptable results for tapered bars, provided the angle between
Figure 5-2 the sides of the bar does not exceed 20°.
5-2 DEFOIIMATION or sxuu.|.r LOADED rusrmsns 191
1 EXHIIIPIB Pfflblfllll 5-1 The compression member shown in Fig. 5-

3a consists of a solid aluminum barA, which has an outside diameter of 100 mm,
a brass tube B, which has an outside diameter of 150 mm and an inside diam-
eter of 100 mm, and a steel pipe C, which has an outside diameter of 200 mm
and an inside diameter of 125 mm. The moduli of elasticity of the aluminum,
brass, and steel are 73, 100, and 210 GPa, respectively. Determine the overall
shortening of the member rmder the action of the indicated loads.
SOLUTION
The forces transmitted by cross sections in parts A, B, and C of the axially loaded
member shown in Fig. 5-3a are obtained by using the free-body diagrams shown
in Fig. 5-3b. Summing forces along the axis of the bar yields
P The internal axial forces PA, PB, and PC
are all drawn as tension forces on the free-
+¢ZjF=0= —P,,—650=0 body diagrams of Fig. 5-3b. If the forces
P, = -650101 = 650kN(C) evaluate to be positive, then they will be
plotted as positive (tension) forces on the
+¢ZF=0; —PB—650'-850:0 axial-force diagram of Fig. 5-3c and they
P3 = —1500kN= l500kN(C) will cause the respective segment of the bar
+¢ §jF=0= —P¢—650—850—l500=0 to stretch (6 will be positive). If the forces
evaluate to be negative, then they will be
PC = -3000101 = 3000kN(C) plotted as negative (compression) forces and
will cause the respective segment of the bar
A pictorial representation of the distribution of axial, or intemal, force in to shrink (8 will be negative).
the member is shown in Fig. 5-3c. The cross-sectional areas of the aluminum,
brass, and steel are
A, = gr? = ;i(100)2 = 1354 mmz = 0.007854 m2

AB =-
Z013 —d-,1) = — ( 150 2—l002)=98l7lI1II1—0.0098l7II12
1
AC = ’§(d§ -.23) = #4-PN (2001 - 1252) = 19,144 1111112 = 0.019144 m2
-Ii
P,=650kN P,=650kN P,=650kN

P,=650kN -- — —
A
’Rigid
r5=ss0hr~1 =850kN
:350kN -_. -_.
131
‘Rigid
£5 _
F§=1500kN I};
P,= l500kN '-.:=

-—-Rigid
Q:
. §i§=n ._ P0
Eiwéarsw 11 3_._ ,
P.:_,F‘
PL.
Tenson 3 2 1 0-1-2-3
Axia1force,MN
Compres ion
(11) (5) (B)

Figure 5-3
192 CHAPTER 5 AXIAL LOADING APPLICATIONS AND PRESSURE vsssrrrs
P Since the cross-sectional areas and the in- The changes in length of the different parts are obtained by using Eq. 5-2. Thus,
ternal axial forces are different in segments
A, B, and C of the bar, the deformations 5,, PL -65010’ 1.0
(SB, and 6C must be computed separately and 5,, = E = L = —l.l337(l0'3)m= -1.133'1mm
then added together to get the total deforma- E.)/1.. 73(10‘-‘)(0.001ss4)
tion of the bar. PL -1500 103 1.25 _
5, = E
ERAS = 2
100(10 )(0.009s17) = -1.9100(10 3) m= —l.9l00In.m
P L- -3000 103 0.75
ac —— i
ECAC
= 2lO(l09)(0.0l9l4-4)
L = -0.5597(10-3) III = —0.5597n'1.m
The total change in length of the complete bar is given by Eq. 5-3 as
5r0ra1 = 54 -1- 53 + 56
= —l .1337 — 1.9100 —0.5597 = —3.6034 mm E -3.60 mm A115.
The negative sign indicates that the complete bar decreases in length.
1 Example Problem 5-2 The rigid yokes B and c of Fig. 5-4a are
securely fastened to the 2-in. square steel (E = 30,000 ksi) bar AD. Detemune
(a) The maximum normal stress in the bar.
(b) The change in length of segment AB.
(c) The change in length of segment BC.
(d) The change in length of the complete bar.
SOLUTION
Since bar AD is subjected to a number of axial loads applied at different points
along the bar, the different sections AB, BC, and CD of the bar will transmit
different levels of load. An axial-force diagram, such as the one shown in Fig.
5-4b, provides a pictorial representation of the levels of internal force in each of
the sections and serves as an aid for stress and deformation calculations.
41 kip 23.5 kip

2 in.
.1 1 l e
s2 ‘7-1
kip _ T C
‘- 3 5
41 kip J 2s.s kip
s 0:» ¢—s rt r—4 11-1
(I1)
s2 kip
45 kip
tfl
kip
ce,
o l I l I Position
12 kip
AxiaforO
r"\ Ur \-I
Figure 5-4
5-2 oaronmrron or AXIAl.l.Y LOADED MEMBERS 193
The axial-force diagram is easily constructed by isolating diiferent portions

of the bar with imaginary cuts and computing the internal force that must be
transmitted by the cross section exposed by the cut to maintain equilibrium of the
isolated portion of the bar. For example, an imaginary cut anywhere in section
AB will expose a cross section that must transmit 82 kip to maintain equilibrium
of the portions of the bar on either side of the cut.
(a) Examination of the axial-force diagram indicates that the maximum load
transmitted by any section of the bar is 82 kip; therefore, since the bar has a
uniform cross section,
P s2
Uffmx = -5‘; = I = 20.5 ksi (T)
. Ans.
(b) Since different parts of the bar are transmitting different levels of load, Eq.
5-2 must be used to determine the changes in length associated with each of
the different parts of the bar. For segment AB,
PABLAB +s2(s)(12) . ... .

343 =
E,,,,A,,,, =—=
30,0o0(4) + 0.06560 1“ .= + 0.0656 1“ . A“S .
The positive sign indicates that segment AB of the bar increases in length.
(c) For segment BC,
PBCLBC -12t5>t12)
5 “C =—=—=-0.006003 A.
EBCABC 30,000(4) 1“ “S
The negative sign indicates that segment BC of the bar decreases in length.
(d) For segment CD,
aw_ _ ECDACD
P,;,,LC,, __ +45(4)(12) _ _
30,000“) -+0.0l8001n.
The positive sign indicates that segment CD of the bar increases in length.
The deformations of the individual segments 5,15, 53¢;-, and 5(1) are then added
algebraically to give the change in length of the complete bar. Thus,
PL
540 = =5AB+5ac+3co
= -1-0.06560 — 0.00600 -1- 0.01800
= -1-0.07760 ill. '5 -1-0.0776 ill. Alli.
The positive sign indicates that the complete bar increases in length.
I Example Pl‘Obl€I]l 5-3 A homogeneous bar of uniform cross sec-

tion A hangs vertically while suspended fi'om one end, as shown in Fig. 5-5a.
L
Determine
(a) The elongation ofthe bar due to its own weight W in terms of W, L, A, and E.
(b) The elongation of the bar if the bar is also subjected to an axial tensile force
P at its lower end. Figure 5-5(a)
194 CHAPTER 5 AXIAL LOADING APPLICATIONS AND PRESSURE vrsslus
SOLUTION
P.=»; (a) A free-body diagram of a segment of the bar, Fig. 5-5b, shows that the axial
T force is a function ofx, the distance from the free end ofthe bar. Thus, Eq. 5-4
is applicable. The weight of the segment of the bar shown in Fig. 5-Sb is
L "T. = "rP;=vAx
W, = y V, = 1/Ax, where y is the specific weight of the material of which the
bar is made and P} is the volume of the bar segment. From Eq. 5-4,
(b) L P 1 L Y L
Figure 5-5(b) 5=f —xdx=—f yAxdx=—[ xdx

0 EA: EA <1 E u
where y, A, and E are each constant. The elongation of the bar is
Y 1. yxzi yL2
8—EL xdx_2E:i0_2E
The weight of the bar is W = 3/AL, fi'om which y = W/AL. Thus, the elon-
gation of the bar is
1/L2 W L2 WL
[2 l =5E
“iii? “*-
(b) When the bar is subjected to its own weight and a concentrated force P at
the free end, the elongation would be found using the method of superpo-
sition (Section 4-3). That is, the elongations found using Eqs. 5-2 and 5-4
separately would be added algebraically to find the elongation due to the
combined effects of the weight of the bar and the concentrated force. “Then
the bar is subjected to the axial force, the elongation of the bar is given by
Eq. 5-2,
PL
5=—
EA
Due to the weight of the bar and the axial force, the elongation is
WL PL L W
6_fi+Ej—ETA(?+P) Ans.
1 Example Problem 5-4 A bar ofsteel (E = 200 on-1 andv = 0.30)

with a 30 x 30-mm square cross section is subjected to an axial compressive
load P of 180 kN, as shown in Fig. 5-6a. Determine
(a) The change in length of the bar.
(b) The stresses 0,, 0)., and 1: xy on element A, which is on the outside surface of
the bar.
(c) The strains ex, 6)., and yxy.
5-2 DEFOIIMATION or 1ucuu.|.v roman nmnuums 195
iv lm =*
.9
(H)
Figure 5-6(a)
SOLUTION
(a) Since P, A, and E are all constant over the length L of the bar, the change in
length of the bar may be found using Eq. 5-2. Thus,
_ 3
a=Q=
EA 2o0(10°)(0.o30)1 = -1.00000-3) m= —l.O00rr1m Ans.
ov
_a
(b) The element at A is subjected to a state of plane stress, as shown in Fig.
5-6b. Since the bar is loaded by an axial force, the only nonzero stress is 0,. |
Furthermore, 0,, is compressive since P is a compressive force and is
A
| “Xix
<1 = 5 = mlsouoa) = -200(10°)N/ml

" A (0.030? (5)
= -200 MPa = 200 MIPa (C) Ans.
The stresses on the element at A are shown in Fig. 5-6c. —> A 4— zoo MPa
(c) Since the bar is axially loaded, the normal strains could be calculated using
(C)
Eqs. 3-1 and 4-2. An alternative approach is to use Eq. 4-4 for plane stress.
The required normal strains are ex and e,.; thus Figure 5-6(b-c)
1
6, = E[o', — vary]
= 2%0,)[-2o0(10@) - (0.s0)(o)]
= —0.00l000 = -1000 pm/rn Ans.
1
ey = E[c,. — 120,]
1 [(0) - (0.30)(-20o)(10°)]
= MW“
= +0.00030O = +300 ,u.m/m Ans.
Since thexy-axes remain perpendicular after the bar is loaded, the shear strain
1/,,. is zero. Alternatively, using Eq. 4-lc,
0
}/1,. = ti = E = Onrad Ans.
196 cuavran 5 AXIAL IDADING APPLICATIONS mo PRESSURE vassms
1 PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems °a"1__
5-1* The tension member of Fig. P5-1 consists of a steel (E =
30,000 ksi) pipe A, which has an outside diameter of 6 in. and - - -
an inside diameter of 4.5 in., and a solid aluminum alloy (E = Bearing/
10,600 ksi) bar B, which has a diameter of 4 in. Determine the Plm -"
overall elongation of the member.
(_ .
to lib H
Figure P5-3
4 ii
L 5-4* An aluminum alloy (E = 73 GPa) bar is loaded and sup-

ported as shown in Fig. P5-4. The diameters of the top and
P = 120 kip bottom sections ofthe bar are 25 mm and 15 mm, respectively.
Figure P5_1 Determine the deflection
a. Of cross section a—a.
b. Of cross section b-b.
5-2* A fiat steel (E = 200 GPa) bar 100 mm wide and 25 mm thick
is subjected to the axial forces shown in Fig. P5-2. Determine
the change in length of
a. Segment AB of the bar. ,
b. Segment BC of the bar.
c. The complete bar. 1.2 rn
r[800mmL 1200mm i 1000mm.‘ 1.5 m I 2° l<N

—%t— 8 G
ssotm <—Qo.¢ so—> 4—oc .oo§—>1son~1

zsotu sow 1-5111 151*"
Figure P5-2 ii b
20kN
5-3 The steel (E = 29,000 ksi) pipe column shown in Fig. P5-3 Figure P54
has an outside diameter of 6 in., a wall thickness of 0.6 in., and
a length of 24 in. The axial load imposed on the column by the
timber beam is 30,000 lb. Determine
a. The normal stress in the column. 5-5 An 8-ft-long steel (E = 30,000 ksi) bar has a 1.5-in. diameter
b. The change in length of the column. over one-half its length and a 1.0-in. diameter over the other
c. The average axial normal strain in the column. half (Fig. P5-5]. For the axial loads shown, determine
5-2 nsrotuumon or sxutu.v mmsn tttutssns 197
a. The change in length of the bar. (E = 180 GPa) tube, which has an internal diameter of 40
b. The change in length ofa bar ofuniform cross section having mm, a wall thickness of 10 mm, and a length of 2.0 m, as
the same weight as the bar of part a. shown in Fig. P5-8. Determine the load required to stretch the
assembly 3.00 mm.
K Rigid plate
/' Rigid plate
10 kip 20 kip
we —
l‘ 4fi ‘i i‘ 4 it ‘i
i'— 1.0 m—i iii-0 mii
Figure P5-5
Figure P5-8
S-6 A structural tension member ofaluminum alloy (E = 70 GPa) Intermediate Problems

has a rectangular cross section 25 mm x 75 mm and is 2 m
long. Determine the maximum axial load that may be applied 5-9* A flat 1 x 2-in. bar of6061-T6 aluminum alloy (E = 10,000
if the normal stress is not to exceed 100 MPa and the total ksi) is subjected to the axial loads shown in Fig. P5-9.
elongation is not to exceed 4 mm a. Determine the change in length of the bar.
S-7* The roof and second fioor of a building are supported by the b. Determine the xy components of stress at points A, B, and
column shown in Fig. P5-7. The column is a structural steel C on the outside surface of the bar. Show these stresses on
(see Appendix B for properties) section having a cross sec- stress elements for these points.
tional area of 9 in? The roof and floor subject the column to
the axial forces shown. Determine
a. The amount that the first floor will settle.
b. The amount that the roof will settle.
IA
6000 lb
J"
85 kip
_ 5000lb ______ "X
cl
ll 0 145 kip e;+;*i;,.=-
_,_ !' 5000 lb
Figtu'e P5-9
lift
5-10* A hollow structural steel (E = 200 GPa) tube A with an
outside diameter of 60 tmn and an inside diameter of 50 mm
is fastened to a 2014-T4 aluminum (E = 73 GPa) bar B that
Ti has a 50-mm diameter over one-half its length and a 25-mm
diameter over the other half. The bar is loaded and supported
Figure P5-7 as shown in Fig. PS-10. Determine
a. The change in length of the steel tube.
b. The overall change in length of the member.
5-8 A steel (E = 200 GPa) rod, which has a diameter of 30 mm c. The average axial strain in the steel tube.
and a length of 1.0 m, is attached to the end of a Monel d. The maximum normal stress in the member.
198 CHAPTER S AXIAL IDADING APPLICATIONS AND PRESSURE VESSEIS
~ c. The average axial strain in the circular segment of the

65 k.N member.
d. The change in diameter of the circular segment of the
220 kN
Z—=1
M member.
.....L l j T lm T 2rn 1
400mm— —5(]0mm-— —500mn1---»-
Figure P5-10 .41 .|:| ._.

5-ll The tension member of Fig. P5-ll consists of a structural
steel (E = 29,000 ksi and v = 0.30) pipe A, which has an out-
side diameter oi‘ 6 in. and an inside diameter of 4.5 in., and a tn,
solid 2014-T4 aluminum alloy (E = 10,600 ksi and v = 0.33)
bar B, which has a diameter of 4 in. Determine '19 0,,
a. The change in length of the steel pipe.
b. The overall deflection of the member.
c. The maximtnn normal and shearing stresses in the aluminum
bar. Figure P5-12
d. The change in diameter of segment B of the member.
5-13* A 3/4-in.-diameter x 3-it-long structural steel (E = 29,000

ksi, v = 0.30) rod is supporting an axial tensile load P of 5 kip,
as shown in Fig. P5-13. Determine
I I
I I a. The elongation of the bar.

so in. sskip b. The stresses ox, 0,, and r,_,. on the element at A, which is
on the outside surface of the rod.
c. The components of strain e,,, ey, and y-,3, at point A.
40 in.
.» AU .»_.
Cl’
120 kip
Figure P5-ll f .
._l..
5 12* A 2024-T4 aluminum alloy (E = 73 GI-‘a and v = 0.33)
bar 3 m long has a 25-mm square cross section over 1 m
of its length and a 25-mm-diameter circular cross section
over the other 2 m of its length, as shown in Fig. P5-12. Figure P5-13
The bar is supporting an axial tensile load P of 50 kN.
Determine
a. The elongation of the bar. 5-14 The roof and second floor of a building are supported by
b. The stresses ox, 0,, and r,,. on the elements at A and B, the column shown in Fig. P5-14. The column is a structural
which are on the outside surface of the assembly. steel (E = 200 GPa and G = 76 GPa) W305 x 74 wide-flange
5-2 nsrotuumon or sxutu.v tmnsn MEMBERS 199
section with a cross-sectional area of 9485 mmz. The roof and Challenging Problems
floor subject the column to the axial forces shown. Determine
5-16* An aluminum alloy (E = '73 GPa) tube A with an out-
a. The change in length of the column. side diameter of 75 mm is used to support a 25-mm-diameter
b. The stresses 0,, 0,, and 13, on the elementsA and B, which steel (E = 200 GPa) rod B, as shown in Fig. P5-16. Determine
are on the outside surface of the web of the column. the minimum thickness t required for the tube if the maxi-
c. The components of strain ex, e,,, and y,,, at points A and B. mtnn deflection of the loaded end of the rod must be limited to
0.40 mm.
260lkN
l -- F
300mm .
3-5 m mom
900mm
y
B‘
3.5 m BI l I
— 35k.N
Figure P5-16
Figure P5-14
S-l5 A hollow brass (E 15,000 ksi and G - 5600 ksi] tube 5-17* A structural steel (E = 29,000 ksi and y = 0.284 lb/in’)
A with a 4-in. outside diameter and a 2-in. inside diameter is bar ofrectangular cross section consists of uniform and tapered
fastened to a solid 2-in.-diameter steel (E = 30,000 ksi) rod B, sections as shown in Fig. P5-17. The width of the tapered sec-
as shown in Fig. P5-15. Determine tion varies linearly from 2 in. at the bottom to 5 in. at the top.
a. The deflection of cross section a-a. The bar has a constant thickness of U2 in. Determine the elon-
b. The deflection of cross section b-b. gation of the bar resulting from application of the 30-kip load
c. The horizontal and vertical components of stress on an ele- P and the weight of the bar.
ment on the outside surface of the tube and rod.
d. The change in both the inside and outside diameters of the
tube.
I.-5 in'4
50in. >-
60 in.
I: D
60 in. 25 kip 25 kip
25 in.
E 5
80 kip IP= so kip

Figure P5-l5 Figure P5-17
200 caitvrsit 5 AXIAL tosorno APPLICATIONS mo PRESSURE vssstus
5-18 Determine the elongation, due to its own weight, of the

homogeneous bar of Fig. P5-18. Express the results in terms
of L, E, and the specific weight y of the material. The ta-
l:'~
per of the bar is slight enough for the assumption of a ,=>_,|
uniform axial stress distribution over a cross section to be
valid.
-vfT4-
‘I4- yi
i<-=
“->i
1....t_
(H)
y
‘ 2r x
1%% F
I
L
(5)
Figure P5-20
2 X
AD = rrr T,
Figure P548 5-21 Determine the change in length of the homogeneous corti-
cal bar of Fig. P5-21 due to its own weight. Express the results
in terms of L, E, and the specific weight y of the material.
The taper of the bar is slight enough for the assumption of
a uniform axial stress distribution over a cross section to be
5-19* A homogeneous bar of specific weight y , uniform cross valid.
section A, and length L is suspended at one end and hangs vetti-
cally, as shown in Fig. P5-19. The stress-strain relationship for
the rod is givenby o = Ks "'2, whereKis aconstant. Determine
the elongation of the rod. cw x
I.
J’
Figure P5-21
Figure P5-19
5-22* An aluminum alloy (E = 70 GPa) bar of circular cross
section consists of uniform and tapered sections as shown in
5-20 A uniform circular member of cross sectional area A is Fig. P5-22. The diameter of the tapered section varies lin-
pressed into a slightly smaller circular hole, as shown in early from 50 mm at the top to 20 mm at the bottom. The
Fig. PS-20a. As a result, normal and frictional forces are de- uniform section at the top is hollow and has a wall thick-
veloped over the surface of the cylindrical shaft. The friction ness of 10 mm. Determine the elongation of the bar resulting
force varies linearly with depth L, as shown in Fig. P5-20b. from application of the 75-kN load. Neglect the weight of the
Determine the shortening of the member. bar.
5-5 DEFORMATIONS [N A srsmu or xxuun LOADED BARS 201
50 mm. 5-24 The 300-mm-diameter timber (E = 13 GPa and v 0 30)
pile shown in Fig. P5-24 is being extracted from the ground.
Assume that the horizontal normal stresses 0,, and the ver-
!I tical shearing stresses r (vhich are a function of the type

of soil surrounding the pile) can be approximated by the
expressions
750 mm '
‘ 1
HA1) = 1/X(1 -— $ir1¢) 1(1) = 0» W1 ¢
where y = 400 N/m3 is the specific weight of the sur-
rounding soil, 4: = 28° is the friction angle of the soil,
500 mm i 20 mm and x is the distance from the ground surface. Compute and
plot
a. The axial stress cr,(x] in the pile as a fimction of the distance
P=75kN x from the ground surface when the entire 8-rn length of the
Figure P5-22 pile is in the ground (0 5 x 5 8 m).
h. The axial deformation &(x) of the pile as a function of the
Computer Problems distance x from the groimd surface when the entire 8-m
length of the pile is in the ground (0 5 x 5 8 m).
5-23 A 3-in.-diameter structural steel (E = 30,000 ksi and v = c. The force P required to extract the pile from the ground as
0.30) shaft is pressed into a slightly smaller circular hole as a fimction of the length L of the pile that remains in the
shown in Fig. P5-23. Assume that the normal stresses 0,, and ground (0 5 L 5 8 m].
the shearing stresses 1: are uniformly distributed over the sur-
face of the cylindrical shafi. Ifthe magnitudes of the normal
and shearing stresses are 600 psi and 300 psi, respectively,
compute and plot
a. The force P required to insert the shafi as a function of the P
lengthl. that has been inserted (0 5 L 5 15 in.).
h. The axial stress 0, (x) in the shafi as a function of the dis-
tance x from the surface of the hole when 15 in. of the shaft
has been inserted (0 5 x 515 in.).
c. The axial deformation 6x(x) of the shaft as a function of the
distance x from the surface of the hole when 15 in. of the r ,,
shafthasbeeninserted(05x515in.). x " 1_ 1 "
L 5" 0'"
0,, 0,, 0,, -

' an L on
P—-L 1: c“1:'-
°" °" °" Figure P5-24

ll Lib
Figure P5-23
5 3 DEFORMATIONS IN A SYSTEM OF AXIALLY

LOADED BARS
It is sometimes necessary to determine axial deformations and strains in a loaded
system of pin-connected deformable bars (two-force members). The problem is
202 CHAPTER 5 AXIAL LOADING APPLICATIONS AND PRESSURE vssssrs
J’
or
l I
-n
.\
\\_
z- \\
Q/_.
\\
\\\
'-‘t \\
\
\
\
'\. 6 1/
‘ 1 .-
’\
l':: II -'-’?§ V x
_V I _,a" E
B "\_.
I:"‘. - ..-‘""' Y’ ‘ze .»'
..- 1i"-’
“Z
\|
I1?
\\\
Figure 5-7
approached through a study of the geometry of the deformed system, from which
the axial deformation 8 of the various bars in the system are obtained. Suppose,
for example, one is interested in the axial deformations ofbars AB, BC, and BE of
Fig. 5-7, in which the solid lines represent the unstrained (unloaded) configuration
of the system and the dashed lines represent the configuration due to a force (not
shown) applied at B. The displacement of point B is the vector D5. The scalar
components of this displacement are 1:3 and —vB (since the v component is in the
negative y-direction) in the x- and y-directions, respectively. The change ir1 length
of member./LB is
an = L; —L,-
where the subscripts f and i denote final and initial length of member AB, respec-
tively. Thus, the change in length ofAB (the deformation) is
3As=\![l-+vs)2+l42;,—L
Transposing the last term and squaring both sides gives
aj, + 2Ls,,B + L1 = L2 + 21:11,, + 1»; + 143,

If the displacement components are small (the usual case for stiff materials and
elastic action), the terms involving the squares of the displacements may be ne-
glected; hence,
5,13 Z Va
In a similar manner,
555 E EB
5-5 nsrommnoss IN A srsmu or AXIALLY LOADED arms 203
The axial deformation in bar BC is
am; = ‘/(R cos 9 - a,,)1 + (R sin 9 + v,,.)2 - R
Transposing the last term and squaring both sides gives
556. + 2R8,,¢ + R1 = R2 cos; 9 - 2Ru,, cos 9 + sf,

+ R2 sinz 9 +2Rv3 sin9 +v§.
Neglecting small second-degree terms and noting that sinz 9 + cos2 6 = 1, one
obtains
5 .
83¢-§v5sin9—ugcos9 /.,\V"°
B
or in terms of the deformations of the other two bars, TI
)’=5As
I \
856 E 6,13 Sill 9 — 535 CO5 9

L ‘=2|F__;>\
Ti .. I = 535 l
The geometric interpretation of this equation is indicated by the shaded right
triangles of Fig. 5-8. Figure 5-8
The general conclusion that may be drawn from the above discussion is that,
for small displacements, the axial deformation in any bar may be assumed equal to
the component ofthe displacement ofone end ofthe bar (relative to the other end)
taken in the direction of the unstrained orientation ofthe bar. Any rigid members
of the system will change orientation or position but will not be deformed in any
manner. For example, if bar BE of Fig. 5-7 was rigid and subjected to a small
downward rotation, point B could be assumed to be displaced vertically through a
distance y, and 55¢ would be equal to y sin 9.
1 EXHIIIPIB 5-5 Atie rod and apipe strut are used to support
a 50-kN load, as shown in Fig. 5-9a. The cross-sectional areas are 650 mmz for ii 1-35 1“
tie rod AB and 925 mmz for pipe strut BC. Both members are made of structural i@
steel that has a modulus of elasticity of 200 GPa. Determine "i
(a) The normal stresses in tie rod AB and pipe strut BC.
(b) The lengthening or shortening of tie rod AB and pipe strut BC.
311 . so W
(c) The horizontal and vertical components of the displacement of point B. L i _
(d) The angles through which members AB and BC rotate. _i- '
C
SOLUTION
(11)
(a) The forces in members AB and BC can be determined by using the fi'ee-body Figure 59(8)
diagram ofjoint B shown in Fig. 5-9b. Thus,
ins, = 0; —FAB + FBC cos 42.61" = 0

+¢ 2F_,, =0; FgQ' sin 42.61" -so =0
204 cn1u'1's1t 5 AXIAL LOADING xrrucxnons mo PRESSURE vssslus
from which
iB
FAB _ —x FAB = +54.36 kN = 54.36 kN (T)
1|‘
FBC = -73.85 kN = 73.85 kN (C)
42.61 "“~
so kN The normal stresses in members AB and BC are determined by using Eq. 2-2
Thus,
Fee
(5)
FAB +54-.36(l03)
3 545 31 = Ts = W1
Sac
x \'.\’a
> / = +83.63(l0°)N/m2 2 83.6 MIPa (T) Ans.
F56 _ -73.85003)
\
\.
\
B2 , ~ 42.61° Use =
2'
/ \
\ .\.
U‘
ABC — 92s(10"‘)
/ \
\.
/I‘:
= -19.s4(10‘=)N/m2 '2 79.8 MPa (c) Ans.
Vs
'1
/jQ(\
/
, 9,16
5,111 (b) The changes in length of the members are determined by using Eq. 5-1 . Thus,
1 / _~'Q1Q5//
/
\ \ \/I
42.613
/
5 _ aABL,u,- _ +83.63(l0°)(l.25)
/
/
/
A” — E — 200009)
/
/
= +0.5227(l0_3) m E +0.523 mm Ans.
ifisivi B‘
UBCLBC -79.84-(106)(l.699)
(C) ‘SEC = = 9
E 200(l0 )
Figure 5 9(b—c)
= —0.6782(l0'3) m '5 -0.678 mm Ans.
(c) The horizontal and vertical displacements “B and vg of point B are indi-
cated on the deformation diagram shown in Fig. 5-9c. The deformations
have been greatly exaggerated in this diagram and the arcs through which
the members rotate have been replaced by straight lines drawn perpendicular
to the unloaded positions of the members. From the diagram it is ob served
that
P Imagine that the pin connecting the bars
at B is removed for a moment. As the tie rod
AB stretches, it wants to push the joint from 143 = 5,13 = +0.5227mm E 0.523 mm Ans.
point B to point B1. Similarly, as the pipe
strut BC shrinks, it wants to pull the joint and pin B moves to the right a distance, “B = 0.523 mm. Also,
from point B to point B2. Then, the tie rod
AB must rotate clockwise about pin A and
the joint moves downward from Bl to B’, a = 543 cos 42.61“ = 0.5227 cos 42.61" = 0.3847 I.l'1II1
the pipe strut rotates clockwise about pin C
and the joint moves downward from B; to b = I61,-CI = 0.6782 mm
B’, and the pin can be replaced in the joint.
The displacement of point B is the vector 5 ~- 0.6"/s2 0.3347 1.0629
from B to B’.
sin 42.61= = B‘ +0 = + =
V3 V3 V3
V5 =
1.0629 = l.5700I11]Il = l.570Il'1H'l Ans.
That is, pin B moves down a distance vs = 1.570 mm.

5-5 DEFORMATIONS IN A srsmu or AXIALLY LOADED BARS 205
(d) As pin B moves from B to B’, barAB rotates clockwise about pin A through an
angle 9,11; to AB’ (see the deformation diagram shown in Fig. 5-9c). Assuming
that the angle is very small, tan 6,13 E 6,43 (where 6,45 is in radians), and
1.510 = 0.001256 rad 2 0.0720"

9,“, 2 tan 9,“, = § = fi Ans.
AB
Similarly, as pin B moves fi'om B to B’, bar BC rotates clockwise about pin
C through an angle 9;,-C to CB’. Again assuming that the angle is very small,
tan BBC E 93¢", alld
95¢. ; tmgflc = ‘ 42.61:

Lac
0.5227 sin 42.61=’ +1.5"/00 COS 42.61"
s/11501 + 12502
= 0.000839 rad 2 0.0509= Ans.
Note that the forces F45 and F35 were found using a free-body diagram
drawn ir1 the rmdeformed instead of the deformed configuration. The impli-
cations of using free-body diagrams in the undeformed configuration will be
discussed in Section 5-4.
1 Example Problem 5-6 A rigid bar co is loaded sdd supported as

shown in Fig. 5-10a. Bars A and B are unstressed before the load P is applied.
BarA is made ofstainless steel (E = 190 GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of
750 mmz. Bar B is made of an aluminum alloy (E = 73 GPa) and has a cross-
sectional area of 1250 mmz. Afier the load P is applied, the strain in bar B is
fotmd to be 1200 ,u.m/m. Detertmine
(a) The vertical components of the displacements ofpins F and E and ofpoint D.
(b) The change in length of member A.
1m ;4
T "3 2
0.5 m < 3
C i E RA
D
i‘—0.2mri'70.3m ,-
0.ll'l‘l/, P
(9)
Figure 5-lt](a)
206 cn1u'rs1t 5 sxnu. LOADING xrrucsnorvs mo PRESSURE vssslus
SOLUTION
(a) The deformation of memberB is found using Eq. 3-l,
8,, = s,,.L,, = 1200(10-°)(0.s) = 600(10-6) m

Since bar CD is rigid, it rotates about the pin at C as shown in Figiltlb.
Point D moves in an arc of a circle with radius CD. The vector DD’ is
T
C -------------- - -u. the displacement of D, and up and vD are the x- and y-components of this
0.2 m bl" 115 V ‘I displacement, respectively. The vertical components of the displacements of
n_3 m D ,1‘ points E and F are V5 and vs-, respectively. The component of displacement
E/' D‘ v;- is
0.1 m
<1») v,.- 2 5,, = 600(10-6) m — 0.600 mm Ans.

3 Using similar triangles,
4 VD VE V 1-.‘
6:6: 2
E
5.4 Therefore,
“E vi; = 3v,=~ = 3(0.600) mm = 1.800 mm Ans.
And
(B)
Figum 5_lo(b_c) v5 = 2.517]-‘ = 2.5(0.600) mm = 1.500 mm Ans.
(b) Since the displacements are small, the arc through which member A has
rotated has been replaced by a straight line drawn perpendicular to the unde-
formed position ofmember A, as shown in Fig. 5-10c. The change in length
of member A is
d,. = v;,- COS 9 = 1.s00(4/5) = 1.200 mm Ans.
I PROBLEMS C
5-25* Two tie rods are used to support a load P = 16 kip as
shown in Fig. P5-25. Rod AB is made of an aluminium al-
loy with a modulus of elasticity of 10,600 ksi, a length of
80 in., and a cross-sectional area of 0.6 in? Rod BC is made
of an structural steel with a modulus of elasticity of 29,000 A 5 -859°
ksi, a length of 160 in., and a cross-sectional area of 1.25 in? ii‘-
Determine
a. The elongation of each rod. P
b. The horizontal and vertical displacements of pin B. Figure P5-25
5-5 nsrormsnons [N s svsnm or AXIALLY roxnsn nuts 207
5-26* A tie rod and a strut are used to support a 50-kN load as of structural steel (E = 200 GPa). The cross-sectional areas are
shown in Fig. P5-26. Tie rod AB is made of a titanium alloy 620 mrn2 for AB and 1000 n1m2 for AC. Determine
(E = 96 GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of450 mm’. Strut
a. The normal stresses in the tie rod and pipe strut
BC is made of Monel (E = 180 GPa) and has a cross-sectional
b. The changes in length of the tie rod and pipe strut.
area of 1450 mmz. Determine
c. The horizontal and vertical displacement of point A.
a. The lengthening or shortening of the rod and strut.
b. The horizontal and vertical displacements of pin B.
B
A 2.5 rn
f-i
A
100kN 4.5m
Gmi-ii
cl
55° C ' Figure P5-28
50 its
Figure P5-26 5-29 Two tie rods are used to support a 10-kip load as shown in
Fig. P5-29. Rod AC, which is made of an aluminum alloy with
a modulus of elasticity of 10,600 ksi and a yield strength of
5-27 Two structural steel (E = 29,000 ksi) cables are used to sup- 41 ksi, is 10 fi long and has a cross-sectional area of 0.326 inz
port the 220-lb traffic light shown in Fig. P5-27. Each cable Rod BC, which is made of structinal steel with a modulus of
has a cross-sectional area of 0.01 5 in? Determine elasticity of 29,000 ksi and a yield strength of 36 ksi, is 15 it
a. The normal stresses in each cable. long and has a cross-sectional area of 0.508 in? Determine
b. The change in length of each cable. a. The elongation of each rod.
c. The vertical displacement of point C. b. The horizontal and vertical displacements of pin C.
20ft 201’! 1
B
B
A
29° ____ f____i"l5l’ 45° 30°
10 kip
L1 Figure P5-29
Figure P5-27
Intermediate Problems 5-30 A rigid bar CD is loaded and supported as shown in

Fig. P5-30. Bars A and B are rmstressed before the load P
5-28* A tie rod AB and a pipe strut AC are used to support a is applied. Bar A is made of steel (E = 200 GPa) and has
100-kN load as shown in Fig. P5-28. Both members are made a cross-sectional area of 1250 mml. Bar B is made of brass
208 cuavrsn 5 AXIAL mmmo APPLICATIONS mo PRESSURE vsssms
(E = 100 GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of 940 mm? 5-32 Apin-cormected structure is loadedandsupportedas shown
Afler the load P is applied, the strain in bar B is found to he in Fig. P5-32. Member CD is rigid and is horizontal before
1500 _u.m/m. Determine load P is applied. Bar A is made of structural steel (E =
200 GPa), and bar B is made of an aluminum alloy (E =
a. The vertical displacement of pin C.
'73 GPa). The axial strain in member A is 625 ,u.m/m. De-
b. The load R
termine the vertical displacement of the pin used to apply the
load.
—
B 375
mm A
A 2°”
gm B
I11111
C D l a l‘—2m—'L—2m lm
U P
1} 1Oo_]|l_ 1m_L so _]| Figure P5-32
P mm mm mm
Figure P5-30
5-33 Two struts are used to support a 30-kip load as shown
5-31* The three bars shown in Fig. P5-31 will he used to support a in Fig. P5-33. Strut AB is made of 2024-T4 aluminum alloy
load P of 100 kip. All ofthe bars have the same cross-sectional (E = 10,600 ksi) and has a cross-sectional area of 1.25 in.’
area of 2.5 in? and all are 6 ft long. BarA is made of Monel Strut BC is made of structural steel (E = 29,000 ksi) and has
(E = 26,000 ksi), bar B is made of a magnesium alloy (E = a cross-sectional area of 2.50 in? Determine
6500 ksi), and bar C is made of structural steel (E = 29,000
ksi). A strain gage mounted on member C indicates that the a. The maximum normal and shearing stresses in strut AB.
axial strain is 680 pain./in. Determine the change in length of h. The maximum normal and shearing stresses in strut BC.
each member and the force R c. The lengthening or shortening of both struts.
d. The horizontal and vertical displacements ofpin B.
A B 30 kip
C
12
5 4
3
so in.
600 45°
/1;; ----------- ——-—*—c

ntooth
P
5-4 S'l‘ATlCALLY INDl?l'ERM[NA'l‘E sx|.~u.r.r roman MEMBERS 209
5-4 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE AXIALLY

LOADED MEMBERS
In many simple structures (and mechanical systems] constructed with axially
loaded members, it is possible to find the reactions at supports and the forces
in the individual members by drawing fi"ee-body diagrams and solving equilib-
rium equations. Such structures (and systems) are referred to as being statically
deterrriinate.
For many other structures (and mechanical systems), the equations of equi-
librium are not sufficient for the determination of axial forces in the members and
reactions at the supports; these structures (and systems) are referred to as being
statically indeterminate. Problems of this type can be analyzed by supplement-
ing the equilibrium equations with additional equations involving the geometry of
the deformations in the members of the structure or system. The following out-
line of procedure will be helpful in the analysis of problems involving statically
indeterminate situations.
l. Draw a free-body diagram.
2. Note the number of unknowns involved (magnitudes and positions).
3. Recognize the type of force system on the free-body diagram and note the
number of independent equations of equilibr'iurn available for this system.
4. If the number of tmknowns exceeds the number of equilibrium equations, a
deformation equation must be written for each extra unknown.
5. When the number of independent equilibrium equations and deformation equa-
tions equals the number of unknowns, the equations can be solved simulta.ne-
ously. Deformations and forces must be related in order to solve the equations
simultaneously.
Hooke’s law (Eq. 4-1) and the definitions of stress (Eq. 2-1) and strain (Eq.
3-1) can be used to relate deformations and forces when all stresses are less than
the corresponding proportional limits of the materials used in the fabrication of the
members. If some of the stresses exceed the proportional limits of the materials,
stress-strain diagrams can be used to relate the loads and deformations. In this
section, the problems will be limited to the region of elastic action of the materials.
Problems involving inelastic behavior of materials are discussed ir1 Section 5-7.
It is recommended that a displacement diagram be drawn showing deformations
to assist in obtaining the correct deformation equation. The displacement diagram
should be as simple as possible (a line diagram), with the deformations indicated
with exaggerated magnitudes and clearly dimensioned. Note that an equilibrium
equation and the corresponding deformation equation must be compatible; that is,
when a tensile force is assumed for a member in the free-body diagram, a tensile
deformation must be indicated for the same member in the deformation diagram.
If the diagrams are compatible, a negative result will indicate that the assumption
was wrong; however, the magnitude of the result will be correct.
In most engineering applications, a body is assumed to be rigid when the
equations of equilibrimn are used to determine support reactions even though it is
a fact that the body deforms when the loads are applied. For example, consider the
lever/cable system shown in Fig. 5-l la and assume that leverABC is rigid and that
the weights of the lever and cable are negligible with respect to the applied loads.
The cable is fastened to and wraps around the circular sector at the left end of the
2 10 CHAPTER 5 m LOADING APPLICATIONS mo PRESSURE vsssrus
T th=- 1?»
L
Cable
i T
W
(5) W
D
(4) T
.9,
SE Q 'e x
T W
(C)
Figure s-11
lever. The no-load position of the system is shown in Fig. 5-1 la. Equilibrium of
the system under two conditions will be investigated: (1) the cable is rigid and (2)
the cable deforms.
5-4-1 Cflllditiflll (1) “Then both the cable and the lever are assumed to
be rigid, the fi'ee-body diagram for the lever is as shown ir1 Fig. 5-1 lb. The moment
equilibrium equation for lever ABC is
+LEMB=0: TR—%=0
Thus, the tension T in the rigid cable is
Wa
T= — R (=1)
5-4-2 Condition (2) When the cable is assumed to be deformable, the
fi'ee-body diagram for the lever after the cable deforms (defonned state of equi-
librium) is as shown in Fig. 5-1 lc. The moment equilibrium equation for the lever
ABC is then
+L2MB=0: TR—W(acos0)=0
and the tension in the deformed cable is
T - ml
R cos 9 ( b)
Equation (b) cannot be solved for T, since 9 is unknown. Since the remaining
equations of equilibrium do not provide the additional information needed to solve
5-4 S'l‘ATlCALLY 11vn1rrnor|1~nrs xx|.~u.r.r LOADED MEMBERS 211
for T, the problem is statically indeterminate. Statically indeterminate problems
are solved by using the equilibrium equations [in this case, Eq. (b) above] together
with equations obtained from the deformation of the member.
The deformation of the cable is given by Eq. 5-2 as
Mg (C)
where E is the modulus of elasticity and A is the cross-sectional area of the cable.
Combining Eqs. (b) and (c) gives
5EA_%
L R cos I9 (d)
which has two unknowns, 6 and 6. However, the cable wraps around a circular
sector on the lever; therefore,
6 = R9 (e)
Substituting Eq. (e) into Eq. (d ), and rearranging yields
R2EA6 = Wal. cos 0 gr)

Equation (f) can be solved for 6 (if the geometric parameters R, A, a, and L, the
material property E, and the weight W are known) by using trial and error, by using
numerical methods, or by plotting both sides of Eq. (f) versus 8 and locating the
intersection of the two curves. Once 6 is known, Eq. (b) is used to find the tension
in the cable.
Even though Eq. (a) for the rigid cable and Eq. (b) for the deformable
cable are similar, the computations required to find tension T in Eq. (b) are some-
what lengthy. Computational difficulties aside, are the results obtained by using
Eq. (a) significantly different fi"om those obtained by using Eq. (b) in typical
engineering situations? To help answer this question, consider the next several
examples.
Example 1: The cable is rigid.
IfW= l00lb,a= 30 in.,andR= l5 in.
Eq. (a) yields: T = 200 lb
Example 2: The cable is a 3/32-in.-diameter steel (E = 29,000 ksi) wire.
IfW= l00lb,a= 30 in.,R=15 in., ar1dL= 45 in.
Eq. (f) yields: 9 = 0.002997 rad = 0.1717”
Eq. (b) yields: T = 199.999 lb
The percent difference in T in the two Examples is
0 200 - 199.999 D
an = 0) = 0.00054.
This error is acceptable for practical engineering problems. A check on the normal
stress in the wire (0 = P/A) yields 0 = 29.0 ksi. This stress level is within the linear
range of the stress-strain behavior of the steels used to produce wire products. The
normal stress must be in the linear range for Eq. (c) to be valid.
212 CHAPTER 5 AXIAL LOADING APPLICATIONS AND PRESSURE vrssrus
Example 3: The cable is a 3/32-in.-diameter aluminum (E = 10,600 ksi) wire.

IfW= 100 lb,a=30in.,R= l5 in.,andL= 45 in.
Eq. (f) yields: 6 = 0.00820 rad = 0.4698”
Eq. (b) yields: T = 199.993 lb
The percent difference in T for Examples 1 and 3 is
% D = 0.0035 %.
A check on the normal stress in the aluminum wire yields 0 = 29.0 ksi, which is
again within the linear range of the stress-strain behavior of aluminum so that Eq.
(c) is valid. Examples 2 and 3 indicate that the tension in the wire changes very
little when the stifliress ofthe wire is changed by a factor of almost 3 and that both
values are essentially the same as that obtained using the rigid wire assumption
(example 1).
In Sections 5-2 and 5-3, a rigid body was used when calculating support
reactions and internal forces; these forces were then used to determine stresses
and deformations. Equilibrium requirements should be satisfied when a body is in
the deformed configuration. However, the previous example illustrates that forces
may be determined, within engineering accuracy, using the equilibrium equations
and a fi"ee-body diagram ir1 the undeformed configuration. These forces may then
be used to determine stresses and deformations with sufficient accuracy for most
engineering applications.
In all the following problems and examples, the loading members, pins, and
supports are assumed to be rigid. and the mechanism is so constructed that the force
system is coplanar. The procedure outlined above is illustrated ir1 the following
examples.
I Example Problem 5-7 Nine 25-mm-diameter Stet] (E = 200 GPa)

reinforcing bars are used in the short concrete (E = 30 GPa) pier shown in
Fig. 5-12a. An axial load P of 650 kN is applied to the pier through a rigid
capping plate. Determine
(a) The stresses in the concrete and in the steel bars.
(b) The shortening of the pier.
SOLUTION
P Note that both forces are drawn on the (a) A free-body diagram of the rigid capping plate is shown ir1 Fig. 5-12b. The
free-body diagram of Fig. 5-12b as pushing fi'ee-body diagram contains two unknown forces: the resultant force Pg ex-
on the rigid capping plate. The cappingplate erted by the concrete and the resultant force PR exerted by the rods. Since only
will exert equal pushing forces back on the
one equation of equilibrium, SF, = 0, is available, the problem is statically
concrete pier and the steel reinforcing bars.
indeterminate. The additional equation needed to obtain a solution to the
Thus, the forces PC and PR are both com-
pressive forces; they will lead to compres- problem is obtained fi'om the deformation diagram shown in Fig. 5-12c. As
sive stresses ac and an, and they will lead to the load P is applied to the rigid capping plate, it moves downward an amount
shortening ofthe pier and the rods (as drawn 8, which represents the deflection (the vertical component of the displace-
on the deformation diagram of Fig. 5-12c). ment) experienced by both the steel rods and the concrete. The relationship
between load and deflection for axial loading is given by Eq. 5-2. Thus, the
two equations needed to solve the problem are as follows.
Equilibrium equation,
+¢ EF,,=0: P;¢+P¢—P=PR+P¢:—650(l03)=0 (9)

5-4 S'I‘A’l'lCALLY lNDB‘l'ERMl1\b\’l'E sxuu.r.v noansn MEMBERS Z 15
I2S0mmI,
'¢:19t'299' .9' :0.’

O-,0; l
P P P
l—' Rigid 999
8.“ 5°
§
ML
600 mm
y
ta) tc)
Figure 5-l2
Deformation equation,
(SR = BC
PRLR PCLC
ERAR _ ECAC
The total cross-sectional area AR for the nine steel rods is
AR = 9G)(2s)2 = 4410 1111112

P The area of all nine rods is required since
PR is the resultant force acting on all nine
The cross-sectional area Ac for the concrete is rods. Similarly, AC is the total area of the
concrete over which PC acts (the 250-mm
AC =(250)1 - AR = (250)2 - 4413 = 52,080 mmz square minus the area of the rods).
The deformation equation then yields
PR(0.600) _ P¢(0.600)
200(10°)(441s)(10-6) — 30(10“)(5s,0s0)(10-6)
fi'om which
PR = 0.5071P¢
Solving Eqs. (a) and (b) simultaneously yields
PR = 212.1003) N 2 219 as (c)

PC = 431.3(103)N 2 431 101(0)
2 14 CHAPTER 5 AXIAL LOADING Arrucxrioivs itivn PRESSURE vrssrus
The normal stresses in the rods and in the concrete are obtained by using
Eq. 2-2. Thus,
2 . 3
<1, = fi = E = 49.50(l0°)Nfm2 2 49.5 l\/IP21 (c) Ans.
AR 441s(10 )
(TC _- 5
AC __ 5—8!080(10_,)
431.3003) _
_ 7.42600 6 )N/m, N 7.43 lV[Pt1(C) Ans.
(b) The shortening of the pier is obtained from either the deformation of the
rods or the deformation of the concrete since they are equal. Thus, from the
deformation of the rods,
URL); 49.50(10°)(0.600)
= 0.14s5(10-3) II1 = 0.1485 mm Ans.
1 Example Problem 5-8 A rigid plate c is used to mister H 20-kip

load P to a steel (E = 30,000 ksi) rod A and to an aluminum alloy (E = 10,000
ksi) pipe B, as shown in Fig. 5- l 3a. The supports at the top of the rod and bottom
of the pipe are rigid and there are no stresses in the rod or pipe before the load P
is applied. The cross-sectional areas of rod A and pipe B are 0.800 in.2 and 3.00
in.2, respectively. Determine
(a) The normal stresses in rod A and pipe B.
(b) The displacement of plate C.
SOLUTION
(a) A fi'ee-body diagram of plate C and portions of rod A and pipe B is shown
in Fig. 5-13b. The free-body diagram contains two unknown forces, PA and
P5. Since only one equation of equilibrium, SF), = 0, is available, the prob-
lem is statically indeterminate. The additional equation needed to obtain a
P When the 20-kip load is applied to the solution to the problem is obtained from the deformation diagram shown in
rigid plate C, the plate will move down a dis- Fig 5-13c. As the load P is applied to plate C, it moves downward an amount
tance 5; the steel rodA will stretchanamount 8, which represents the deflection experienced by both rod A and pipe B. The
8,, = 5 = PAL,/E_,A,, = o,,L__,/EA (where relationship between load and deflection for axial loading is given by Eq. 5-1.
PA is a tension force and 0,, is a tension Thus, the two equations needed to solve the problem are as follows.
stress); and the aluminum pipe B will shrink Equilibrium equation,
an equal amount 8, = 8 = PBLBIEBAB =
aBLB/EB (where PB is a compression force
and 03 is a compression stress). Since PA +1‘EF,=0: P,4+P;,-—20=0
is a tension force and PB is a compression
force, PA is shown as pulling on the rod and or in terms of stresses
P, is shown as pushing on the pipe in the
free-body diagram of Fig. 5-13b.
0.3000,, + 3.0005 = 20 (H)
5-4 srxncxnr mnmarorrima 11xuu.rv rmnsn MEMBERS 2 15
l n 4
' mu:
A
10 in.
P
E
P
E P.4
_... 10 kip 10 kip

C ,. _-..-_ j8A=53
W 20 in. hi
1-s. 2?
‘-:
5-:
(H) (9)
Figure 5-13
Deformation equation
5,4 = 55
GALA 0'gL3
TA = T,
<1A (10) 0,120)
30.000 — 10.000
fi'om which
P Note that Eqs. (a) and (b) could just
as easily have been written and solved in
0,1 = 603
terms of the forces PA and Pg rather than
in terms of the stresses 0,; and 05. Stresses
Solving Eqs. (a) and (b) simultaneously yields were selected since the problem asked for
the stresses but did not ask for the forces.
0,; = 15.384 ksi E 15.38 ksi (T) Ans.
03 = 2.564 ksi E 2.56 ksi (C) Ans.
(b) The displacement of plate C is the same as the deflection of rod A or the
deflection ofpipe B. Thus, from Eq. 5-1,
0'10
_ 1s.3s4(10)
30,000
= 0.005128 in. E 0.00513 in. downward Ans.

2 16 CHAPTER 5 xxnu. 1.0110011; APPLICATIONS AND PRESSURE viissrirs
i EXHIIIPIB Pfflblfllll 5-9 A pin-connected structure is loaded and

supported, as shown in Fig. 5-14a. Member CD is rigid and is horizontal before
the load P is applied. Member A is an aluminum alloy bar with a modulus of
elasticity of 75 GPa and a cross-sectional area of 1000 mmz. Member B is a
structural steel bar with a modulus of elasticity of 200 GPa and a cross-sectional
area of 500 mmz. Determine
(a) The normal stresses in ba.rs A and B.
(b) The vertical component of the displacement of point D.
is
Qi
i A 2.0m
B 1.5 rn
t c _ V _ _ _ n
@.IF?
1.5m i= 2.5m" -l 1‘°mI
(Q) P=l50kN
Figure 5-l4(a)
SOLUTION
(a) A free-body diagram of member CD and portions of members A and B is
shown in Fig. 5-14-b. The free body-diagram contains four unknown forces:
Cx, Cy, FA, and F5; therefore, since only three equilibrium equations are
available, the problem is statically indeterminate. As the load P is applied
to member CD, it will tend to rotate clockwise about pin C and produce
deformations in members A and B, as shown in Fig. 5-14c. The extensions
shown in Fig. 5-14c are compatible with the tensile forces shown ir1 members
A and B ir1 Fig. 5-14b. The unknown reaction at C is not needed to complete the
solution of the problem and can be eliminated from further consideration by
summing moments about pin C. The equilibrium and deformation equations
needed to solve for FA and F3 are
F5 F4
1.0m
cx l— 1.5 In 2.5 111 j
4-? G) ij
C" (b) P= 150 kN

a-..-._-.~---£§3______“__ 15,, 188
to T“
Figure 5-l4(b-c)
5-4 S'l‘ATlCALLY INIIETERM[NA'l'E 11xuu.|.r LOADED MEMBERS 2 17
+l’EMc=0: P(5)—F,1(4)—F5(l.5)=0
from which
41-1, +1.51-1., = 150(10’)(5) = 15000’) N (11)

Deformation equation (using the principle of similar triangles),
6,. 5,,
TZE
F,,L,, FBLB
4E,.A,, Z 1.553145
F,1(2) _ FB(l.5)
4(75)(10°)(1000)(10-°) _ 1.5(200)(10‘-’)(500)(10-°)
or
FA = l.5FB (b)
FA = 150.0(103) N = 150.0 kN
F, = l00.0(103)N = 100.0 kN
The normal stresses in the two bars are
F = WW2)
GA = A_: 150.0 103 = 150.0(10°) N/m2 = 150.0 MPa (T) Ans.
F = fig
5,, = Ti 100.0 103 = 200.0(l06)N/m2 = 200 MPa (T) Ans.
P Note that when pointD moves down 5.00

(b) Since bar CD rotates as a rigid body, the vertical component of the displace- mm, the rigid bar rotates clockwise 0.001
ment of point D is (again using the principle of similar triangles), rad E 0.0573". This slight angle will have
a negligible effect on the free-body diagram
5 5(150.0)(103)(2) and the equilibrium equation.
all : '54
4 : E56
4(75)(10 )(l000)(l0_ )
= 5.000(10_3) m = 5.00 mm downward Ans.
1 Example Problem 5-10 A 1/2-in.-diameter alloy-steel 1501:

(E = 30,000 ksi) passes through a cold-rolled brass sleeve (E = 15,000 ksi)
as shown in Fig. 5-15a. The cross-sectional area of the sleeve is 0.375 in.2 De-
termine the normal stresses produced in the bolt and sleeve by tightening the nut
1/4 ttnn (0.020 in.).
2 18 c111u'r1z1t 5 m 1.o11n11\1o APPLICATIONS AND PRESSURE VESSEIS
l 6 111- l
<4) P to
(B)
l—8.-1 "
<4) J
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII. I
I-— Bi
1—. .'
(B) Iii Final position
Figure 5-15
SOLUTION
A free-body diagram of the nut and parts ofthe bolt and sleeve is shown in Fig.
5-15b. The free-body diagram contains two unknown forces FB and F5. Since
the only equilibrium equation available is BF; = 0, the problem is statically
P Although a free-body diagram of the bolt indeterminate. The additional equation needed to obtain a solution to the problem
alone or of the nut alone would work j ust as is obtained from deformation considerations. As the nut is turned it would move
well for purposes of writing the equilibrium a distance A = 0.020 in., as shown in Fig. 5-15c, if the sleeve were not present;
equation, it would not be as good for pur- however, the sleeve is present and the movement is resisted. As a result, tensile
poses of writing the deformation equation. stresses develop in the bolt and compressive stresses develop in the sleeve. These
Since it is desired to relate the forces in the stresses produce the extension 53 of the bolt and contraction 65 of the sleeve
sleeve and in the bolt to the deformations
shown in Figs. 5-15d and e. The deformation equation obtained from the final
that these forces cause, the fiee-body dia-
gram should show these forces. These forces positions of the nut and sleeve is 85 + 63 = A. The two equations needed to solve
are made visible by cutting a section through the problem are:
the bolt and sleeve as shown in the free-body Equilibrium equation,
diagram of Fig. 5-15b. On Fig. 5-15b it is
clear that the force F5 represents a tension i>)3F,,=0: F,--FB=0
force in the steel bolt while the force F5 rep-
resents a compression force in the aluminum or in terms of stresses
H 2
sleeve. l
Z U3
fi'om which
as = 0.5236 01,- (a)
P If the bolt were rigid, then the sleeve Deformation equation,
would shrink by the amount that the nut was
tightened, 65 = A. However, the bolt is not 53 + 55 = A
rigid, so the bolt will stretch an amount 55, GB-LB + USLS = A
and the shrink ofthe sleeve is reduced by the
EB E5
amount that the bolt stretches, 63 = A - 85.
03(6) 05(6)
= 0.020 (0)
30,000 15,000
5-4 S'l‘ATlCALLY mnmusnmara szmttn msnsn nummans Z 19
.1, = 4s.s4 ksi 2 43.2 ksi (T) Ans.

05 = 25.58 ksi 2 25.6 ksi (c) Ans.
1 PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems 5-36 A 3-mm-diameter cord (E = 7 GPa) that is covered with a
0.5-mm thick plastic sheath (E = 14 GPa) is subjected to an
S-34* A hollow brass (E = 100 GPa) tube A with an outside di- axial tensile load P, as shown in Fig. P5-36. The load is trans-
ameter of 100 mm and an inside diameter of 50 mm is fastened ferred to the cord and sheath by rigid blocks attached to the
to a 50-mm-diameter steel (E = 200 GPa) rod B, as shown in ends of the assembly. The length of the cord-sheath assembly
Fig. P5-34. The supports at the top and bottom of the assembly is 500 mm and the load P is 90 N. Determine the forces carried
and the collar C used to apply the 500-kN load P are rigid. by the cord and sheath.
Determine
a. The normal stresses in each of the members
b. The deflection of the collar C.
P 3.
mm
£ P
_ "-‘ - ..
J ,1 P
. 2 2
2 in ' '
I C Flgiue P5-36
1.5 m
5-37* A load P will be supported by a structure consisting of a
rigid bar A, two aluminum alloy (E = 10,600 ksi) bars B, and a
stainless-steel (E = 28,000 ksi) bar C, as shown in Fig. P5-37.
Figure P5-34
Each bar has a cross-sectional area of 2.00 in? If the bars are
5-35* The 7.5 x 7.5 x 20-in. oak (E = 1800 ksi) block shown unstressed before the load P is applied, determine the normal
in Fig. P5-35 was reinforced by bolting two 2 x 7.5 x 20-in. stresses in the bars after a 40-kip load is applied.
steel (E = 29,000 ksi) plates to opposite sides of the block. If
the load P is 700 kip, determine
a. The normal stress in each member of the assembly.
b. The shortening of the block when the load of part a is |!A
applied.
P
can
20‘in.
A
220 cmwrun s sxuu. manure mvucmous mo PRESSURE vassms
5-38 Member CD of the structure shown in Fig. P5-38 is rigid

and is subjected to a load P of 5 kN. Members A and B are steel
(E = 200 GPa) wires and each has a cross-sectional area of B
80 mm’. Determine 1.8m
1.2111 A
a. The forces in each wire.
b. The vertical component of the displacement of point C.
L1500 mm *|*i—30t)(lm.rn———>L——=|
500 mm
Figure P5-40
T
400n'un
5-41* A hollow steel (E = 30,000 ksi] tube A with an outside
B _ .
diameter of2.5 in. and an inside diameter of 2.0 in. is fastened
L! to an aluminum (E = 10,000 ksi) harB that has a 2-in. diameter
over one-half of its length and a l-in. diameter over the other
A 200 mm half. The assembly is attached to tmyielding supports at the left
and right ends and is loaded as shown in Fig. P5-41 . Determine
C _
1“?- 2 a. The normal stresses in all parts of the bar.
100mm 100mm-lit] . b. The deflection of cross section a»-a.
P 50mm
Figure P5-38 20 kip W T
in so kip
5-39 Each part of the stepped circular shaft shown in Fig. P5-39
is aluminmn (E = 10,600 ksi and v = 0.33]. If segment AB has l I
a diameter of 2.25 in., segment BC has a diameter of 3.20 in.,
20kip =1
and the loadP is 150 kip, determine '20in.l 24in. -L 2-rm
a. The deflection of a cross section at B. Figure P5-41
b. The axial strain in partAB.
c. The change in diameter of part AB. 5-42* The 100 >< 100 >< 500-mm aluminum (E = 13 GPa) block
is reinforced by bolting a 25 x 100 x 500-mm steel (E = 200
GPa) plate on one side of the block as shown in Fig. P5-42.
The structure is compressed between two rigid plates by a force
P = 30 kN. If the rigid plates are to remain horizontal, deter-
mine the location x of the load P.
C
P-iBid
2fiiI|Ii2fi
Steel >-
Aluminum
Figure P5-39
S-40* The rigid 4500-kg homogeneous slab shown in Fig. new

P5-40 is supported by two cables. Cable A is aluminum (E =
70 GPa) and cable B is steel (E = 200 GPa). Determine the 100r|1.1r|i*|
ratio of the diameters of the two cables if the slab is to remain 25 "ll"
horizontal. Figure P5-42
5-4 S'I‘A’l'lCALLY mnmusumara AXIALLY mans]: MEMBERS Z2 1
5-43 The assembly shown in Fig. P5-43 consists of a steel bar Fig. P5-45. Ifthe force P is 1000 lb, determine the change in
A (E = 30,000 ksi and A = 1.25 in.2), a rigid bearing plate length of each wire.
C that is securely fastened to bar A, and a bronze bar B (E =
15,000 ksi and A = 3.75 in.2). A clearance of 0.015 in. exists
between the bearing plate C and bar B before the assembly is
loaded. Alter a load P of 95 kip is applied to the bearing plate, |_ -; _ - - . ,
determine A ' -=:| ' "o is-
a. The normal stresses in bars A and B. V
b. The vertical displacement of the bearing plate C.
B . 4711
2 it 2 it l 2 ft ...‘
A
§ § 6 it P
Figure P5-45
0.015 in. H I IO F13

5-46 The rigid bar CDE, shown in Fig. P5-46, is horizontal before
the load P is applied. Tie rodA is a hot-rolled steel (E = 200
GPa) bar with a length of450 mm and a cross-sectional area of
Figure P5-43 300 1111112. Post B is an oak timber (E = 12 GPa) with a length
of 375 mm and a cross-sectional area of 4500 mm’. After the
225-kN load P is applied, determine
S-44* A 150-mm-diameter x 200-mm-long polymer (E = 2.10 a. The normal stresses in barA and post B.
GPa) cylinder will be attached to a 45-mm-diameter x 400- b. The shearing stress in the 20-mm-diameter pin at C, which
mm-long brass (E = 100 GPa) rod by using the flange type of is in double shear.
connection shown in Fig. P5-44. A 0.15-mm clearance exists c. The vertical displacement of point D.
between the parts as a result of a machining error. If the bolts
are inserted and tightened, determine
a. The normal stresses produced in each of the members.
b. The final position of the flange-polymer interface after as-
sembly with respect to the left support.
Smooth A P
0
C D E
_ll_0‘l5mm l L500mL 850mm .
s
2 l‘i40'0nrm
Figure P5-46
Figure P5-44
5-47 Five 1-in. diameter steel (E = 29,000 ksi) reinforcing bars
will be used in a 3-ft-long concrete (E = 4500 ksi) pier with
5-45* A rigid bar AD is supported by two steel (E = 29,000 ksi) a square cross section, as shown in Fig. P5-47. The allowable
wires of the same cross-sectional area of 0.3 in}, as shown in strengths in compression for steel and concrete are 18 ksi and
222 CHAPTER 5 AXIAL manure spruntrrous mo PRESSURE vassrus
1.4 ksi, respectively. Determine the minimmn size of pier re- 0.375 in? Determine the normal stresses produced in the bolt
quired to support a 200-kip axial load. and sleeves by tightening the nut U4 tin-n (0.020 in.).
ri 6 mil
O O
-‘.0-!¢.Y€.9v,I!/.n/_vn!.v .I.»\'.v.!9.I-29¢-Q. -
I Hl.l|||Il
O ' I ..
(— I.
O O
Figure P5-49
200lkip
Rigid cap 5-50 Bar BF of Fig. P5-50 is made of steel (E = 210 GPa), and
bar CE is made of aluminum alloy (E = 73 GPa). The cross-
sectional areas are 1200 mm’ for bar BF and 900 mmz for bar
CE. As a result of a misalignment of the pin holes at A, B, and
. 3 ft C, a force of 50 kN upward must be applied at D, after pins A
._ ._- . and B are in place, to permit insertion of pin C. Determine
_, _. . -. -.
a. The normal stress in bar CE when the force P is removed
5 :-:¢ ‘a§’& %§7 _§»%°:a'4?n.‘£J..':_en5'£$.°a'.:‘a7n.§£.-“''?-?r t
1"-"1"-'
-0- 5“"'-7'
with all pins in place.
b. The vertical component of the displacement of pin D from
Figure P5-47 its no-load position.
5-48* The two faces ofthe clamp shown in Fig. P5-48 are 250 mm
apart when the two stainless-steel (E = 190 GPa) bolts con-
necting them are unslretched. A force P is applied to separate
the faces of the clamp so that an aluminum alloy (E = 73 GPa) 1
ii 600mm
bar with a length of 251 mm can be inserted as shown. Each of
the bolts has a cross-sectional area of 120 mm: and the bar has D
a cross-sectional area of625 rnrng . After the load P is removed,
determine
Ts
1000mm Somm 160mm Somm P
a. The axial stresses in the bolts and in the bar.
b. The change in length of the aluminum alloy bar.
F
II
v - ,
40mm4( |-i250mrn<-( |»—-1-0mm

Figure P5-50
I I
. I . 5-51 The mechanism of Fig. P5-51 consists of structural stegl

P P (E = 29,000 ksi) rodA with a cross-sectional area of 0.50 1.11. ,
_ acold-rolled brass (E = 15,000 ksi) rodB witha cross-sectional
ii i is area of 1.20 in.2, and 3. rigid bar c. The nuts at the top ends
of rods A and B are initially tightened to the point where all
Figure P5-48 slack is removed from the mechanism but the bars remain free
of stress. Determine
a. The axial stress induced in rod A by advancing the nut at the
5-49* A 1/2-in.-diameter alloy-steel (E = 30,000 ksi) bolt top ofrod B one turn (0.10 in.).
passes through a cold-rolled brass (E = 15,000 ksi) sleeve as b. The vertical displacement of the nut at the top end of
shown in Fig. P5-49. The cross-sectional area of the sleeve is rod A.
5-4 S'I‘A’l'lCALLY mnsrusrruvaru sxuu.r.r IDADED iusiusans Z25
F? s itii-5 in.—1 P= 10 kip

J2 sT2.5 n-l~2.5 it
c , _ 1%__
1&1
60 in.
A B
In
_ ._;iq IL;
1
Figure P5-53
Figure P5-51
5-54 The bronze (E = 100 GPa) post D ofFig. P5-54 has a cross-
sectional area of 2500 mrnz, and the high-strength steel (E =
S-52* A solid circular altuninrnn (E = 73 GPa and G = 28
200 GPa) bar C has a cross-sectional area of 600 mm’. Bari-LB
GPa) bar of constant diameter 30 mm is subjected to the ax-
and the bearing block on post D are to be considered rigid. The
ial loads P1 = 6 kN and P; = 3 kN as shown in Fig. P5-52.
clearance between post D and bar AB is 0.09 mm before the
Determine
load P is applied. If the axial stresses are not to exceed 215 MPa
a. The normal stresses in segments AB, BC, and CD ofthe bar. for the steel and 95 MPa for the bronze, determine the maxi-
b. The maximum shear stress in the bar. mum load that can be applied.
c. The change in length of segment BC.
d. The change in diameter of segment BC.
e. The axial strain in segment AB.
50mm 100mm P
mm E'.I
unloaded
_, B
I:1| — cE -
7? -‘*Rigid
200mm
-— A
150*“ C 300mm
lmA'71m—l%lm
. cg
Figure P5-52
Figure P5-54
5-53* A pin-connected structure is loaded and supported as Computer Problems

shown in Fig. P5-53. Member CD is rigid and is horizontal
before the load P is applied. Member A is an altuninum alloy 5-55 A high-strength steel bolt (E = 30,000 ksi and A = 0.785
bar with a modulus of elasticity of 10,600 ksi and a cross- irtz) passes through a brass sleeve (E = 15,000 ksi and A =
sectional area of 2.25 in? Member B is a stainless-steel bar 1.767 in.2), as shown in Fig. P5-55. As the nut is tightened, it
with a modulus of elasticity of28,000 ksi and a cross-sectional advances a distance of 0.125 in. along the bolt for each com-
area of 1.75 in? After the load P is applied to the structure, plete tum of the nut. Compute and plot
determine
a. The axial stresses 0, (in the steel bolt) and 0,, (in the brass
a. The normal stresses in bars A and B. sleeve) as functions of the angle of twist 6 of the nut (0° 5
b. The maximum shearing stresses in bars A and B. 6 5 180°).
c. The shearing stress in the 0.5 in.-diameter pin at C, which b. The elongations 8, (of the steel bolt) and 5;, (of the brass
is in double shear. sleeve) as functions of the angle of twist 6 of the nut (0° 5
d. The vertical displacement of point D. 6 5 180°).
224 CHAPTER 5 AXIAL manure spruntrrous mo PRESSURE vassrus
c. The distancel. between the two washers as a fimction of the b. The changes in length 6,, (of the aluminum rod) and 83 (of
angle of twist 6 of the nut (0” 5 6 5 180"). the brass post) as fimctions of the force P (0 kip 5 P 5
30 kip).
c. The rotation angle 6 (deg) of the crank C as a function of
1in.—11 ii iziiiii |-—1 in. the forceP(0 kip 5 P 5 30 kip).
Z/I!!!/{I!{!{.'£l!ll.l(i{(;
l
_ ",1,,,,,,,,”,”,””,,. rise in.
Rigid washers R_ ,d_ 1' - _ - :E-
Figure P5-55 131 . 5 in. A
P .
0.00001. _ . Sin.
5-56 The mechanism of Fig. P5-56 consists of a structural steel L -_.L
(E = 200 GPa) rodA with a cross-sectional area of 350 rnrni,
a cold-rolled brass (E = 100 GPa) rod B with a cross-sectional
area of 750 mnrz, and a rigid bar C. The nuts at the top ends Unleaded
of rods A and B are initially tightened to the point where all 15 in.
slack is removed fi'om the mechanism but the bars remain free
of stress. If a nut advances 2.5 mm with each firll turn (360°), B
calculate and plot 6i.n.

a. The axial stresses 0,; and 0'3 in the rods as functions of the Figure P5-57
angle 9 through which the nut at the top end of rod B is
rotated (0° 5 6 5 180°).
b. The vertical displacement 6,,,,, of the nut at the top end of 5-58 Initially, the barAB shown in Fig. P5-58 is horizontal; there
rod A as a function of the angle 6 through which the nut at is a 0.09-mm gap between the horizontal arm and the bronze
the top end ofrod B is rotated (0° 5 6 5 180°). (E = 100 GPa and/1 = 2500 mmz) post D; and the aluminum
c. The rotation angle if) (deg) of arm C as a fimction of the (E = 73 GPa and A = 600 mml) rod C is vertical. Ifthe bar
angle 6 through which the nut at the top end of rod B is AB is rigid, calculate and plot
rotated (0° 5 6 5 180°).
a. The axial stresses cg (in the aluminum rod) and on (in
the bronze post) as functions of the force P (0 kN 5 P 5
150 kN).
,».........j'15_1i-'11, b. The changes in length BC (of the aluminum rod) and 59 (of
the bronze post) as fimctions of the force P (0 kN 5 P 5
150 kN).
C 1 c. The rotation angle 6 (deg) of the barA.B as a function of the
forceP(0kN5P5 150 kN).
1500 mm
P
50mm 100mm
A B
200mm
uni ded B E A
°“ ll:l5J.=<-5&1:
Figure P5-56 Ti Rigid
150mm C 300mm
5-57 Initially, the arms of the crank C shown in Fig. P5-57 are
horizontal and vertical; there is a 0.009-in. gap between the
horizontal arm and the brass (E = 15,000 ksi andA 12 inf)
post B; and the aluminum (E = 10,000 ksi andA = 2 in?) rod
A is horizontal. If the crank C is rigid, calculate and plot it
a. The axial stresses or (in the aluminrun rod) and U3 (in the
brass post) as functions of the force P (0 kip 5 P 5 30 kip). Figure P5-58
5-5 TIIBRMAL smicrs 225
5-5 THERMAL EFFECTS

When a temperature change takes place while a member is restrained (free move-
ment restricted or prevented), stresses (referred to as thermal stresses) are induced
in the member. For example, the bar AB of Fig. 5-16a is securely fastened to rigid
supports at both ends. Since the ends of the bar are fixed, the total deformation of
the bar must be zero
stotal = 67" + so = €TL +€cL
0 = enrt + %L
The term 5? is the deformation due to a temperature change, and 8,, is the defor-
mation due to an axial load. If the temperature of the bar increases (AT positive),
then the induced stress must be negative and the wall must push on the ends of the
rod. If the temperature of the bar decreases (AT negative), then the induced stress
must be positive and the wall must pull on the ends of the rod.
That’is, 1'f endB were no ttthedtth
a ac o c wall andthte e mperaturedrops,
end B would move to B’, a distance I6;-I = Is;-Ll = |o:ATL|, as indicated in Fig.
5-16b. Therefore, for the total deformation of the bar to be zero, the wall at B must
. rib
A B"1 _.
apply a force P 0.4 (Fig. 5-16c) of sufficicnt magnitude to move cnd B through
H. 511 Z GUL — (0/E)L so that the length of the bar is again L, the distance
between the walls. S ince the walls do not move, |8T|=5p, or .1 Bl_5_T:l_
1
dp —|61|=5p+6T =0
'14 l 3.
and thus the total deformation of the bar is zero. é_ P
- °
( l lie-I
Figure 5-16
1 Example Problem 5-11 A 10-[ll section of steel [E = 200 GPa
and at = ll.9(l0‘6)/°C] rail has a cross-sectional area of 7500 1111112. Both ends
of the rail are tight against adjacent rails that, for this problem, can be assumed
to be rigid. The rail is supported against lateral movement. For an increase in
temperature of 50°C, determine
(a) The normal stress in the rail.
(b) The intemal force on a cross section of the rail.
SOLUTION
The rail is modeled as shown in Fig. 5-16a. Since the temperature increases, the
deformations shown in Figs. 5-16b and 5-16c arc reversed, but the magnitudes
of 87- and 5,, are equal.
(a) The change in length of the rail resulting fi'om the temperature change is
given by modifying Eq. 4-1 1 as
15,- = 67L = trl. AT = 11.9(10-°)(10)(50) = 5.950(10-3) II1 = 5.95 mm

The stress required to resist a change in length of 5.95 mm is given by Eq.
5-l as
U __ E _ 200(10°)(5.95)(10-3)
7 L 7 10
= 119.0006) N/mz = 119.0 we (c) Ans.
226 CHAPTER 5 AXIAL LOADING APPLICATIONS mo PRESSURE vnsssrs
(b) The internal force on a cross section of the rail is
F = GA = 119.0(10*)(7s0o)(10-6)
= s92.5(10*) N 2 s93 kN (c) Ans.
1 Example Problem 5-12 Afiera loadP = 150 kN is applied to the

pin-connected structure shown in Fig. 5-Ha, the temperature increases 100°C,
The thermal coefficients of expansion are 22(lO"")/“C for the aluminum alloy
rod A and l2(l0"')f°C for the steel rod B. The moduli of elasticity of aluminum
and steel are 75 GPa and 200 GPa, respectively. The cross-sectional area of
members A and B are 1000 mm: and 500 mmz, respectively. If member CD is
rigid, determine
(a) The normal stresses in bars A and B.
(b) The vertical component of the displacement of point D.
2.0 m
B 1.5m
' t Q ' ' " G ""'
' L 1.5m l 2.5m i mml)

(4) P=150kN
Figure 5-l7(a)
SOLUTION
(a) A fi'ee-body diagram for bar CD is shown in Fig. 5-17b. The deformations
ir1 bars A and B are fimctions ofboth load and temperature change, as shown
in Fig. 5-17c. Thus
54 =5AP+5AT (Q)
55 = 531' + 551'
where the subscripts P and T refer to load and temperature, respectively. The
equilibrium and deformation equations needed to solve for FA and F1; are
+TEM¢- =0: P(5)—F,1(4)—Fg(l.5)=0
fi'om which
4F.‘ + i.5FB = 750(l03)N (b)

5-5 TIIBRMAL EFFECTS Z27
F8 FA
CX
:Ic-” (b) YP = 150 kN
CTil.5 mf 2.5 111 fil.0 Ifl1*1D
‘~‘““-__¥5BT 542'
855"“-___‘_ 8
P As the rigid bar CD rotates about pin C,
<c)\“~~ 8l‘f_ D the pins B, A, and D move on circular arcs
about pin C. If the angle of rotation is small,
Figure 5-l7(b-c) these motions can be approximated as verti-
cal (perpendicular to the bar CD) displace-
Deformation equation, ments, as shown in Fig. 5- 17c. From similar
5,, _ 5,, triangles, 89/1.5 = 6,,/4.0 = 8,3/5.
4 _B
FALA +°¢ALA(AT) _ FBLB +"1r='LB(AT)
45.4,. 4 _ 1.55845 1.5
F,,(2.0) + 22(10-°)(2.0)(100)
4("/5)(10“)(1000)(10-"-') 4
_ FB(l.5) 12(10-°)(1.s)(100)
_ 1.5(200)(10°)(500)(10-6) + 1.5
fi'om which
FA = l.5F,;,- + 15003) (C)
Solving Eqs. (b) and (c) simultaneously yields
FA = l53.00(103) N = 153.00 kN
F5 = 92.00(l03) N = 92.00 kN
The stresses in the two bars are

F = D6)
6,, = _" 153.00 103 =1s3.0(10)° N/m2 = 153.0 MPa (T) Ans.
A, 1000(10 )
F3 92.0000’)
03 =—=—=14.010°N
AB 500(l0__.J) 3 ( )/m2=14.MIP
8 0 a(T) An.s
(b) Since bar CD rotates as a rigid body, the vertical component ofthe displace-
ment of point D is
61) = 28,1 = g + gC\!,4L,4(AT)
_ 5(l53.00)(103)(2.0) 5 _6
— 4(75)(l09)(100U)(10_6) + 4-(22)(l0 )(2'0)(100)
= 10.e0(10-3) m = 10.60 mm l Ans.

228 CHAPTER 5 AXIAL manure APPLICATIONS AND PRESSURE vssssrs
i EXHIIIPIE Pfflblfilll 5- 13 The assembly shown in Fig. 5-l Ba consists

ofa steel rod A (EA = 30,000 ksi, AA = 2.50 in.2, and 1.2,, = 6.6 x l0_6/°F), a
rigid bearing plate C that is securely fastened to bar A, and a bronze bar B (EB =
15,000 ksi, AB = 3.75 in.2, and fig = 9.4 x 10-6/°F). A clearance of0.0l5 in.
its as SP
~‘u »-1» exists between the bearing plate C and bar B before the assembly is loaded. If
a load P = 5 kip is applied to the bearing plate and then the temperature of the
assembly is slowly raised, calculate and plot the stresses 0,, in the steel rod and
_;r——— U5 in the bronze bar as a function of the temperature increase A T for 0°F < AT
_*_ —T— < 50°F.
0.015 in. 2ft
SOLUTION
(Q) The first step is to draw a free-body diagram. When the force P is applied to the
bearing plate C, we expect the plate to be pushed down (causing a tensile force in
E1 A) and press against the bar B (causing a compressive force in B). The free-body
2.514;, t Z.5k.ip diagram is drawn accordingly (Fig. 5- 18b). The only equation of equilibrium that
1 1 gives any usefirl information is the sum of forces in the vertical direction
+TEF,,=0: r,,+PB-s=0 T,|+Pg=5kip

2.50,, +3.15% =s000 lb (0)
L»,
(45) Therefore, the problem is statically indeterminate and we have to write a com-
Figure 5-l8(a-b) partibility equation relating the deformations to solve for the stresses.
Since TA is a tensile force, the stress deformation (aL/E),, will represent a
stretch of the rod A. When the temperature ofA increases, the stretch ofA will be
even greater. Therefore, the total stretch ofA is the sum of the stress deformation
(a stretch) and the temperature deformation (also a stretch)
L
5,. = (i +aATL) (b)
E A
Likewise, since P3 is a compressive force, the stress deformation (UL/E)3

will represent a shrink of the bar B. When the temperature increases, bar B will
stretch, thus reducing the shrink caused by the force P3. Therefore, the total shrink
of B is the difference of the stress deformation (a shrink) and the temperature
0.0(5_m. I II 5": 5"
deformation (a stretch)
51;
o'L
83 - (Y — uATL)B (c)
(C)
Figure 5-l8(c)
The deformation diagram (Fig. 5-18c) relates the stretch 84, the shrink 83, and
the initial gap of0.0l5 in.
8,, =85+0.0l5 (d)
Combining equations (b), (c), and (d) gives
L L
(L
1: + aATL) A = (L
E - aATL) , + 0.015 (6)
5-5 Trrsrrrur. srwscrs 229
or, putting in numbers,
54 (72)
+ (6.s)(10-“)AT(72)]
i(30)(196)
(f)
__ F3006)
¢,,(24) _ (9.4)(10 _ ")AT(24)] +0.01s
Multiplying through by 30 x 10° and rearranging gives
720,1 — 4803 = 450,000 — 2l,024AT (g)
Finally, solving Eqs. (a) and (g) simultaneously gives the stresses
Q4: 4942.308 — 202.l54AT

03: l34.769AT — 1961.539 (fr)
which shows that both 0,, and 05 a.re linear fimctions of the temperature increase
AT. However, this says that for a temperature increase of less than about l4.5°F,
the stress in bar B is negative or in tension (opposite what was initially assumed).
But there is nothing pulling on bar B that could put it in tension, and this solution Z:
carmot be valid. (Actually, this solution would apply if the plate C were pulled
2.5 kip T 2.Sk1p
down to the barB, welded to it, and then released. The tension stress above would
be the tension in the weld until the temperature increase exceeded about 14.5 "F.)
Therefore, for a temperature increase of less than about 14.5°F, the assumption
%
that the app lied force closes the gap and the plate pushes on the barB is not correct.
(4)
Starting over with a new free-body diagram (Fig. 5-18d) gives the equilib- Figure S-18(d)
rium equation
+1‘EF,,=0: T,g—5=0 T,,=5kip

2.50,, = 5000 lb (i)
Stress in Rods
6000
,1 I
4000 .-.4
§’l’
1"
I
2000 \»¢ '1
U mmmm **fi***"’r I I I
10 20 y0\ 40 50
Stpsi
ress,
-2000
— SigA-T
4°00 --- SigB - c
4000
Temperature Increase, deg. F
(6)
Figure 5-l8(e)
230 crrsrrrzrr 5 sxuu. LOADING srrrrorrrons rum Prrsssurrs vrssrus
So now the stresses in the two bars are (for AT < 14.5“)
0,, = 2000 psi

05 = 0 psi (j)
For temperature increases greater than AT > 14.5“, the stresses are given by
Eq. (I2). The stresses are shown in the graph of Fig. 5-l8e. Positive stresses
represent tension in barA and compression inbar B (as assumed on the free-body
diagrams), and negative stresses represent compression in bar A and tension in
bar B (opposite what was assumed on the free-body diagrams).
1 PROBLEMS
0 Rigid plate -\
5-59* A 3-in.-diameter >< 80-in.-long aluminum alloy [E =
10,600 ksi and or = 12.5 (l0“°)/“F] bar is stress free after Aluminum Sm‘
being attached to rigid supports, as shown in Fig. P5-59. If the
temperature drops 100" F, determine |
a. The nonnal stress in the bar.
b. The change in length of the bar.
c. The normal stress in the bar if the rigid support at B is re-
30in. V 20in. _
moved. Figure P5-61
d. The change in length of the bar for the conditions stated in
P3110.
5-62 A steel tie rod containing a rigid turnbuckle (Fig. P5-62)

F 80in. 1 has its end attached to rigid walls. During the summer, when
. A B . the temperature is 30°C, the tumbuckle is tightened to produce
a stress in the rod of 15 MPa. Determine the normal stress in
the rod in the winter when the temperature is -10°C. Use E =
Figure P5-59 200 GPa and a = 11.9 (10'°)/“C.
5-60* A 6-m-long x 50-mm-diarneterrodofaluminum alloy [E =

70 GPa, v — 0.346, and ct = 22.5 (10-°)/°C] is attached at the
ends to supports that yield to permit a change in length of 1.00
mm in the rod when stressed. When the temperature is 35°C,
there is no stress in the rod. After the temperature of the rod
drops to —~20°C, determine Figure P5-62
a. The normal stress in the rod.
b. The change in diameter of the rod.
5-61 A bar comists of3-in.-diameter aluminum alloy [E = 10,600 Intermediate Problems
ksi, v = 0.33, and or = 12.5 ( l0‘°)./°F] and 4-in.-diameter steel
5-63* Nine 3/4-in.-diameter steel (E = 30,000 ksi) reinforc-
[E = 30,000 ksi, v = 0.30, and or = 6.6( 10*“)/“F1 parts, as
ing bars were used when the short concrete (E = 4500
shown in Fig. P5-61. If end supports are rigid and the bar is
ksi) pier shown in Fig. P5-63 was constructed. Alter a load
stress free at 0°F, determine
P of 150 kip was applied to the pier, the temperature in-
a. The normal stress in both parts of the bar at 80°F. creased 100"F. The coefficients of thermal expansion for steel
b. The change in diameter of the steel part of the bar. and concrete are 6.6(l0“°)/"F and 6.0(l0“°)f°F, respectively.
c. The displacement of the rigid plate. Determine
5-5 ‘I1-IBRMAL EFFECTS Z31
a. The normal stresses in the concrete and irrthe steel bars afler
the temperature increases.
b. The change in length ofthe pier resulting from the combined
effects of the temperature change and the load.
it Zfi
_ ll
10'tn.
B C B311
Q
Q_-.0-'§9
EJ5.
s>.<>'I0:0'9; in.
ur. ii: -1-1
P=150kip
—
i'72ft—a*—2ft**i
ii Risidcap Figure P5-65
5-66* Bar B of the pin-connected system of Fig. P5-66 is made

ofan aluminum alloy [E = 70 GPa, A = 300 mmz, and cr =
24 in. 22.5 (l0‘°)f°C] and barA is made of a hardened carbon steel
[E = 210 GPa, A = 1200 rm-nz, and or = 11.9 (l0‘°)f°C]. Bar
CDE is to be considered rigid. When the system is unloaded at
40°C, bars A and B are unstressed. Alter the load P is applied,
the temperature of both bars decreases to 15°C. Determine
Figure P5-63 a. The normal stresses in bars A and B.

b. The maximum shearing stresses in bars A and B.
c. The shearing stress in the 20-mm-diameter pin at C, which
is in double shear.
5-64* The 50-mm-diameter circular steel [E = 200 GPa, and or = d. The vertical component of the displacement of pin E.
11.9 (l0'°)/° C] bar shown in Fig. P5-64 is subjected to an axial
load of P = 100 kN. Alter the load is applied, the temperature
decreases 20°C. Determine the normal stress in segments AB |||-
and BC of the bar.
‘ ||| 5'
T -- 500mm
250mm A
- mg 1
. r D E
1} * '
200mmii'i200mm L#300m
150mm P = l00kN
Figure P5-66
Figure P5-64
5-67 A rigid block weighing 5000 lb is suspended by three wires,
as shown in Fig. P5-65. Wires B are steel [E = 29,000 ksi, or =
6.6(10-°)/°F, andA = 0.25 in.2] and wire C is aluminum [E =
S-65 A rigid block of negligible weight is suspended by three 10,600 ksi, or = l2.5(10"°)/“E andA = 0.50 in.1]. Ifthe tem-
wires, as showninFig. P5-65. Wires B are steel [E = 29,000 ksi,
perature rises 50°F, determine the normal stress in each wire.
cs = 6.6(10'°)1'°F, andA = 0.25 in.2] and wire C is aluminum
[E = 10,600 ksi, or = 12.S(10‘°)./°F, and A = 0.50 in.2]. If 5-68 The pin-connected structure shown in Fig. P5-68 con-
the temperature rises 50°F, determine the normal stress in each sists of a rigid bar ABCD, a steel [E = 210 GPa, and or =
wire. 1l.9(l0"°)/‘°C] bar BF, and an aluminum alloy [E = 73 GPa
232 crrsrrrrrr 5 AXIAL rnsnute APPLICATIONS mo Passsurrs vassrus
and or = 22.5(10‘°)/°C] bar CE. The cross-sectional areas are Challenging Problems
1200 mm: forbarBF and 900 mm: for har CE. The bars are un-
stressed when the structure is assembled at 40°C. Determine 5-70* A solid circular bar of aluminum [E = 74 GPa and or =
12.5 (10-")/°C) has the shape shown in Fig. P5-70. The bar is
a. The normal stresses in the bars after the temperature is re- securely fastened to rigid supports at each end and is essentially
duced to -20°C. stress free at 20°C. Assruning that plane sections perpendicular
b. The shearing stresses in the 30-mm-diameter pins at A, B, to the longitudinal ands of the bar remain plane, determine the
and C. Pin B is in double shear, and pins A and C are in stress at sectionx (0 5 x 5 1 m) when the temperature is 70°C.
single shear.
c. The vertical component of the displacement of pin D from
it original position
Fl 600 mm
1 -—-~-E- l
‘ |B x
. A ___ \ Rigid C D 1 "1
|-| Figure P5-70
1000 mm 160 mm .
80 80 mm
CT. 1-.
F 5-71* The pin-connected structure shown in Fig. P5-71 consists
ofa cold-rolled bronze [E = 15,000 ksi, or = 9.4(10'°)f“F] bar
A, which has a cross-sectional area of 3.00 in.2, and two 0.2 per-
Figure P5-68 cent C hardened steel [E = 30,000 ksi and or = 6.6 (10‘°)f°F]
bars B, which have cross-sectional areas of2.50 in? If the tem-
perature of bar A decreases 50°F and the temperature of bars
5-69* A 200-lb block W is suspended by an aluminum [E = B increases 30°F after the 200-kip load is applied, determine
10,600 ksi, at = l2.5(10"’)f‘F, andA = 0.15 in.2] wire AB, as
a. The normal stresses in the bars.
shown in Fig. P5-69. There is an initial clearance of 0.08 in.
b. The displacement of pin C.
between the block and the floor. Determine the nonnal stress
inthewire
a. For a temperature increase of 25°F. f 3 ft 3 ft 1
b. For a temperature increase of 60°F. ' " ' ' ' ‘ '
ll| ||| |ll
IA B A B
Y 4n
120 in.
c
P = 200 kip
r,r B
Figure P5-71
°-°8 i!_1;sL g
_
5-12 The two faces of the clamp ofFig. P5-72 are 250 mm apart
when the two stainless-steel [E = 190 GPa, A = 115 mm’
Figure rs-so (each), and or = 17.3 (10'°)('°‘C] bolts connecting them are
5-5 'l'l{lllI.MAL tamzcrs Z33
unstretched. A force P is applied to separate the faces of the temperature tmtil the bolt has a tensile force of 3500 lb, and
clamp so that an aluminum alloy [E = 73 GPa,/I = 625 mmz, then the temperature ofthe assembly is slowly raised. Calculate
and or = 22.5(l0‘°)f°C] bar with a length of250.5 mm can be and plot
inserted as shown After the loadP is removed, the temperature
a. The stress 0,; in the aluminum bolt and the stress 0,, in the
is raised 100°C. Determine the normal stresses in the bolts and
steel sleeve as a function ofthe temperature increase A T (0°
in the bar, and the distance between the faces of the clamp.
5 AT 5 l00*F).
b. The change in length ofthe aluminum bolt 8,; and the change
in length of the steel sleeve 5,, as a function of the tempera-
40mm 1 It 250mm 1 T 40mm ture increase AT (0° 5 AT 5 100°F).
Q _
I L I
P O IIIIIIJIIIIII oy O P
...,n...._.t...
1111111111r1!1111111111nl. H
i‘ iH V Ti. IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIA __ it i
Rigid washers
5-73 The three bars shown in Fig. P5-73 are 0.5 in. thick, 1 in. 5-75 A pin ' _connected structure is
' 10a d e d and supported as shown
wide, and 10 in. long. Bars S are steel [E = 29,000 ksi and 0' = in Fig. P5-76. Member AB is rigid; C is a steel [E = 200 GPa, A
6.6(10'°)!°F] and bar/l is aluminum [E = 10,600 ksi and or = = 600mrn2, and or =1l.9(l0‘°)t"‘C]rod;andDis an aluminiun
l2.5( l0‘°)f*F]. The assembly is held together by single rivets alloy [E 73 GPa, A _ 2500 mmz, and at : 22.5(10'°)f’C]
of 0.5-in. diameter at each end, and is stress free at 20°C. Afier post. Initially, bar AB is horizontal, rod C is vertical, and there
the temperature drops 40°C, determine is a 0.09-mm gap between the horizontal arm and the post D. If
a. The normal stress in the rivets. a 35-kN forceP is applied to the right end ofthe bar/ll? and the
b. The shear stress in the rivets. temperature of the system is slowly raised, calculate and plot
a. The axial stresses crg (in the steel rod} and an (in the alu-
minum post) as functions of the temperature increase AT
{0“C 5 AT 5 40°C).
~- 5 0.5 tn. b. The changes in length BC (of the steel rod) and 89 (of the
1 I 5 t 1 T aluminum post) as fimctions of the temperature increase AT
(0°C 5 AT 5 40°C).
L ki1in.i)l I c. The rotation angle 6 (deg) of the bar/LB as a function of the
mm. 4 temperature increase AT (0"C 5 AT 5 40°C).
Figure P5-73
P
50mm\I I/-100rn2.rgoImn
5-74 A prismatic bar [E = 70 GPa and at = 22.5 (l0"’)l°C], free
of stress at room temperature, is fastened to rigid walls at its
ends. One end of the bar is heated to 100°C while the other end
is maintained at room temperature. The change in temperature ‘“"°“°“ I:5.=e
AT along the bar is proportional to the square of the distance T? “ —"-Rigid
from the unheated end. Determine the normal stress in the bar
after the change in temperature. 15° my C 300 mm
Computer Problems
5-75 An aluminum [E = 10,000 ksi, a =12.5(l0“’)!°F, andA =
1.400 in.2] bolt passes through a steel [E = 30,000 ksi, or =
6.6 (l0'°):"’F, andA = 0.400 in.2] sleeve, as shown in Fig. P5-
75. Initially, the nut is tightened against the washer at room Figure P5-76
234 CHAPTER 5 AXIAL LOADING APPLICATIONS mo PRESSURE vrsssrs
5-77 A pin-connected structure is loaded and supported as shown 22.5(l0"’)/° C]. As a result of a misalignment of the pin holes
in Fig. P5-77. Member CD is rigid; A is a stainless steel [E = atA, B, and C, bar CE must be heated 80°C (afier pins A and B
28,000 ksi, or = 6.6(l 0‘°)1"’F, andA = 1.75 in.2] bar; andB is an are in place) to permit insertion of pin C. Calculate and plot
aluminum alloy [E = 10,600 ksi, or = 12.5 (l0‘°)/"‘F. andA =
a. The axial stresses Um" (in the steel bar) and Ufg (in the alu-
2.25 in.2] bar. Initially, CD is horizontal and bars A and B are
minum bar) as functions of the temperature decrease (as
unstressed. If the temperature of the system is slowly raised,
bar CE cools back down to room temperature) AT (— 80“‘C
calculate and plot
5 AT 5 0°C).
a. The axial stresses 0,, (in the steel bar) and 0'3 (in the alu- b. The changes in length 65,- (in the steel bar) and 5.;-E (in the
minum bar) as functions of the temperature increase AT aluminum bar) as functions of the temperature decrease (as
(0“ 5 AT 5 l00°F). bar CE cools back down to room temperature) AT (— 80°C
b. The changes in length 6,, (of the steel bar) and 53 (of the 5 AT 5 0*C).
aluminum bar) as functions of the temperature increase AT
(0“ 5 AT 5 l00"‘F).
~ -0 ‘
its ga E ii
1'3
W
_;_[ .5 A H D
600mm
G_-_ 4._._
E" -main?‘
i as i 5ft gr_.‘-_
v-2n
gull;
' \-Rigid C
Figure rs-17 l000rmn 160mm
80mm
T
80
5-78 Member ABCD of the pin-connected structure shown in F

In
Fig. P5-78 is rigid; bar BF made of steel [E = 210 GPa, A =
1200 rnmz, and at = ll.9(l0'°)1"C]; and bar CE is made of
an aluminum alloy [E _ 73 GPa, A = 900 mmz, and or = Figure P5-78
5-6 STRESS CONCENTRATIONS

In the foregoing section, it was assumed that the average normal stress given by
the expression 0 = PIA is the significant or critical stress. For many problems,
this is true: for other problems, however, the maximum normal stress on a given
section may be considerably greater than the average normal stress. For certain
combinations of loading and material, the maximurn rather than the average is the
important stress. If there exists in the structural or machine clement a disconti-
nuity that interrupts the stress path (called a stress tmject0ry),2 the stress at the
discontinuity may be considerably greater than the nominal (average, in the case
of centric loading) stress on the section; thus, there is a stress concentration at the
discontinuity. This is illustrated in Fig. 5-19, in which a type of discontinuity is
shown in the upper part of Figs. 5-19a, b, and c and the approximate distribution
of normal stress on a transverse plane is shown in the accompanying lower figure.
The ratio of the maximum stress to the nominal stress on the section is known
2A stress trajectory is a line everywhere parallel to the maximum normal stress.

5-6 STRESSCONCENTRATIONS 255
An. AAAA4 AAAAAAAQ F-ll!-'~~*
.4_ A B_l<{@>il B @_F,;T- %_@
vvvvvvvv vvvvvvvv vvvvv
AA AAAA-iv A AAAAAA llllel-ll
A‘ ‘A Bi ‘B C‘ ‘C
, ‘_ Y. .
.1 / \
\ \
I \ \ ’ \
Y
(<1) (5) (6)

Figure 5-19
as the stress concentration factor. Thus, the expression for the maximum normal
stress in a centrically loaded member becomes
<1 = KIP (5-5)
where A is either the gross area or the net area (area at the reduced section)
depending on the value used for K, the stress concentration factor. Curves, similar
to the ones shown in Fig. 5-20, can be found in numerous design handbooks. It
is important that the user of such curves (or tables of factors) ascertain whether
the factors are based on the gross or net section. The factors K, shown in Figs.
5-20a, b, and c are based on the net section. Sometimes the solution of a problem
is expedited by use ofthe factor K3 based on the gross section, and for this purpose
conversion expressions are given with the various curves.
A classic example of the solution of a problem involving a localized redis-
tribution of stress occurs in the case of a small circular hole in a wide plate under
uniform unidirectional tension.3 The theory of elasticity solution is expressed
in terms of a radial stress 0,, a tangential stress 05, and a shearing stress 1,8,
3'I‘his solution was obtained by G. Kirsch; see Z. Ver. dent. Ing.,Vol. 42, l8§8. See also Elaslicily
in Engineering Mechanics, A. P. B-oresi and P. P. Lynn, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. I974,
pp. 304-309.
236 cnsvrsn 5 AXIAL IDADING APPLICATIONS mo PRESSURE vassms
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
_ Rad=,\ 4 _ __ _~ __ _
-‘I I U IL -II I Z.’-I —-Ii -
_1i B iI_ mi W $ ii; _1i D d i
oi 1, I iv oi iv‘
Ln) d - Ln) :idI: _ Ln)
\“-Rad=r -
factorK,
all 1<.=1<.(s)j _ fK,
anctor Pt .=1<.(fi) _iA factorK,
ation I
sI IIIIIIII
concentr
ESS
M T, Ya
.
1
III
ccnlrao
0011 M
_ ii mm mi
centration
C011 NI
_ :_
:5
/_
i b-)
% = 3.00 Q Z400
Str Srcss Stress
I
mi
I I I I %=125_ '-;;;___
, I I I I I I I , 1
0 0.5 1.0 0 0.5 1.0 0 0.5 1.0
Ratio rib Ratio dfw Ratio rid
(-11) (5) (C)
Figure 5-20 Stress concentration factors for grooves, holes, and fillets.
as shown in Fig. 5-21. The equations are
-lbah-‘I Ln ab
a, =—
2( l—— ——
2( l——
r2+r4)cos6
— 2
cr 0 3:14
U5 = 5(i-I-* + E(1-F?) C0529 [5-6)
QQ IQWDWDg u iuru
b-}\/\/
U-IQE
-h
‘E,-9 = Si]126
On the boundary of the hole (at r = a), these equations reduce to

0'
J, 0', = 0
59 ‘rs '
H, I, 0'6 = o'(l + 2 cos 26)
r é T,-,9 = 0
Jr At 6 = 0° the tangential stress as equals 30, where a is the uniform tensile stress
in 8 .,
i in the plate in regions far removed from the hole. Thus, the stress concentration
factor associated with this type of discontinuity is 3.
The localized nature ofa stress concentration can be evaluatedby considering
the distribution of tangential stress 0'9 along the x-axis (6 = 0°) in Fig. 5-21. Here
0'
0' a2 311"’
Figure s-21 ”=E2+F+F“
At a distance r = 3a (one hole diameter from the hole boundary) this equation
yields as = 1.0740. Thus, the stress that began as three times the nominal stress
5-6 sraasscoscnvrnsrross 257
at the bormdary of the hole has decayed to a value only 7 percent greater than
the nominal stress at a distance of one diameter from the hole. This rapid de-
cay is typical of the redistribution of stress in the neighborhood of a disconti-
nuity.
Stress concentration is not significant in the case of static loading ofa ductile
material (defined in Section 4-2) because the material will yield irrelastically in
the region of high stress and, with the accompanying redistribution of stress, equi-
librium may be established and no harm done. However, if the load is an impact
or repeated load, instead of the action described above, the material may fracture.
Also, if the material is brittle, even a static load may cause fiacture. Therefore, in
the case of impact or repeated loading on any material or static loading on a brittle
material, the presence of stress concentration should not be ignored. Before we
leave the subject of stress concentration, it should be noted that inregions ofsupport
and load application, the stress distribution varies from the nominal value (defined
as the stress obtained fi"om elementary theories of stress distribution uniform
for centric loading). This fact was discussed in 1864 by Barre de Saint-Venant
(1797-1886), a French mathematician. Saint-Venant observed that although lo-
calized distortions in such regions produced stress distributions different from the
theoretical distributions, these localized effects disappeared at some distance (the
implication being that the distance is not of great n1agnitude‘*) fi'om such loca-
tions. This statement is known as Saint-Fienanrfs principle and is constantly used
in engineering design.
1 Example Problem 5-14 The machine pm shown in Fig. 5-22 is 90 mm '—~-\ 60 mm >\_
20 mnr thick and is made of 0.4 percent carbon hot-rolled steel. Determine the
maximum safe load P if the maximum normal stress is not to exceed 14-4 MPa.
SOLUTION
The maximum normal stress in the machine part will occur either in the fillet I ‘" 15 rmn rad.
\- 27 mm dia. hole
between the two sections or on the boundary of the hole. At the fillet,
Figure 5-22
D/d = 90/so — 1.5
r/d = 15/so = 0.25
From Fig. 5-200
K, '5 1.62 P Recall that the graphs in Fig. 5-20 are

all based on the net area (the smallest area
that carries the stress at the discontinuity).
Thus, from Eq. 5-5,
Therefore, the correct area to use at the fillet
is A, = (60 x 10'3)(20 >< 104) m2. Simi-
P = 0.4,/K, = 144(10°)(s0)(20)(10-*2)/1.62 larly, the correct area to use at the hole is/1, =
= 106.6"/(103) N 2 106.7 rm [(90-27) x l0'3)](20 x 10‘3)m2.
At the hole,
d/w = 2'7/90 = 0.3
‘I-‘or example, it can be shown mathematically that the lo-calizedeffect of a concentrated load on a beam
may disappear at a section slightly greater than the depth ofthe beam away from the load. Sec Theory
ofl!-TIa.s-riciey, S. Timoshenko and J. N. Goodier, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1970.
238 crntrrrzrr 5 xxnu. LOADING xrruotrross mo Passsutts vassrris
From Fig. 5-20b,
K, '5 2.30
Thus, from Eq. 5-5,
P = 0A,/K, = 144(10°)(90 - 27)(20)(10-6)/2.30

= 73.39003) N 2 13.9 not
Therefore,
Pm, = 13.9 tor Ans.
I PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems in.-diameter hole is drilled through the bar as shown in Fig.
P5-81.
5-79* The machine part shown in Fig. P5-79 is 1/4-in. thick and
is made of SAE 4340 heat-treated steel. Determine the n1axi- a. Determine the stress at pointA (on the edge of the hole) in
mum safe load P ifthe maximum normal stress is not to exceed the bar before and alter the hole is chilled. Use Fig. 5-20b.
66 ksi. b. Determine the stress at point A using Eq. 5-6.
c. Repeat parts a and b if the diameter of the hole is increased
to l in.
d. Repeat parts a and b if the diameter of the hole is increased
to 2 in.
PG‘? 3in. Zin. ZDP
B
0.5 in. dia. hole I
Figure P5-79 .4
P _l|O|l_ if in P
5-80 The machine pan shown in Fig. P5-80 is 10 mm thick and is Figure P5-81
made of cold-rolled 18-8 stainless steel. Determine the maxi-
mum safe load P ifthe maximum normal stress is not to exceed
760 MPa.
5-82* The machine part shown in Fig. P5-82 is 20 mm thick, is
made ofcold-rolled red brass, and is subjected to a tensile load
P of 100 kN. Determine the minimum radius r that can be used
between the two sections if the maximum normal stress is not
P l60Imm O:LT_16mm P to exceed 205 MPa.
Figure P5-80
I’ I
P 40 mm 80 mm P
5-81 A 118-in. thick x 4-in.-wide steel bar is transmitting an )
axial tensile load of 500 lb. After the load is applied a 1164- Figure P5-82
5-1' ntrrrxsrrc BEHAVIOR or AXIALLY LOADED MEMBERS 259
Challenging Problems 5-84 The 25-mm-thick altnninum (E = 73 GPa and G = 28 GPa)

bar shown in Fig. P5-84 is subjected to an axial load P of 180
5-83* The 112-in.-thick bar with semicircular (d/r = l) edge kN. Determine the components of strain e_,-, e_,-, and V13; at point
grooves, shown in Fig. P5-83, is made of structural steel and A on the edge of the hole.
will be subjected to an axial tensile load P of 10 kip. Determine
the minimum safe width B for the bar if the maximum normal
stress is limited to 20 ksi.
in.
P
Iv/Q?
B 5 P ‘ f
I f'7'ti'I[L P 200mm 1'—A62
80mm P
_1-
r——tn.
2 _Z1.tn.
Figum 115-33 Figure P5-84
5-7 INELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF AXIALLY LOADED MEMBERS

Preceding sections in this chapter of the book covered elastic analyses of axially
loaded members. Stress was proportional to strain (Hooke’s law applies), and the
maximum normal and shearing stresses in the members were not permitted to
exceed the corresponding proportional limits (or yield strengths) of the materials.
l.r1 some design situations, the restriction on elastic behavior is not required and
a limited amotmt of inelastic action can be permitted. The theory of inelastic 45
behavior in axially loaded members is introduced in this chapter.
The stress-strain diagram used to represent the behavior of a specific ma- Ln) Q
terial was introduced in Section 4-2. Typical diagrams for structural steel and a 0.00124 iniin.
magnesium alloy were presented in Figs. 4-3a and b. These diagrams were used
Stress,ks G 29,000 ksi
to define a number of material properties.
The useful small-deformation region of the stress-strain diagram for struc- k
T
tural steel can be approximated by the idealized diagranr shown in Fig. 5-23. The 00 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005
elastic portion of the diagram is a straight line whose slope is the modulus of
Strain, in./in.
elasticity E of the material. The inelastic portion of the diagram is a straight line
of zero slope beginning at the yield stress. A material for which the slope is zero Figure 5-23 Structural steel.
in the initial portion of the inelastic region is called an elastoplastic material.
The stress-strain diagram for structural steel, shown in Fig. 4-3a, indicates that
the yield stress is approximately 36 ksi, and the strain at yield is approximately
0.00124, which gives a modulus of elasticity of approximately 29,000 ksi. Figure
4-3a indicates that plastic flow continues with no increase in stress beyond the
yield stress until the strain reaches a value of approximately 0.015. Beyond this 60
point (which is beyond the useful small-deformation region of the material) strain
hardening begins to occtn' and an increase in the stress level is required to produce -- 1 11100 ksi
additional strain. - 0.004 in.fin.
The useful small-deformation region of the stress-strain diagram for an alu-
Stressks[Q-DQG 1 10,500 ksi
minum alloy can be approximated by the idealized diagram shown in Fig. 5-24.
The elastic portion of the diagram is a straight line. The inelastic portion of 1
the diagram is a straight line of different slope beginning at the yield stress. 00 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
A material for which the slope in the initial portion of the inelastic region is
Strain, in.t'in.
not zero is called a stmin-hardening material. The data presented in Fig. 5-24
indicate that the yield stress for the aluminum alloy is approximately 42 ksi Figure 5-24 Aluminum alloy.
CHAPTER 5 AXIAL LOADING APPLICATIONS AND PRESSURE VFSSEIS
and the strain at yield is approximately 0.004. Thus, the modulus of elasticity
for the aluminum alloy is approximately 10,500 ksi. The slope of the diagram in
the initial portion of the inelastic region is 1400 ksi; therefore, the increment of
stress required to produce a specified increment of strain in the inelastic region is
36
less than it is in the elastic region. It is obvious from the diagram that a strain-
hardening material does not permit an increase in strain without an increase in
-- toas 0.0024 in./" - .
ks '\~ o = 381 so-53
stress.
15.6 ksi The useful small-deforrnation region of the stress-strain diagram for a mag-
Stress, »-4 IQ nesium alloy can be approximated by the idealized diagram shown in Fig. 5-25.
6500 ksi The elastic portion of the diagram is a straight line. The inelastic portion of the
0 1 diagram cannot be represented adequately by a straight line of different slope
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 beginning at the yield stress; therefore, this nonlinear region is defined by an ap-
Strain, in.!i11. propriate mathematical function. The data presented in Fig. 5-25 indicate that the
Figure 5-25 Magnesium alloy. yield stress for the magnesium alloy is approximately 15.6 ksi and the strain at
yield is approximately 0.0024. Thus, the modulus of elasticity for the magnesium
alloy is approximately 6500 ksi. It is obvious fi'om the diagram that this magne-
sium alloy is a strain-hardening material that does not permit an increase in strain
without an increase in stress.
A statically determinate, axially loaded member will deform elastically until
stresses in the member reach the yield point of the material. Once the yield stress
for the member is exceeded, the strain in the member must be obtained by referring
to the stress-strain diagram for the material. Failure of such members is assumed
when a prescribed level of strain is reached.
The elastic analysis of statically indeterminate, axially loaded members was
discussed in Section 5-4. The procedure outlined in that section for solving stati-
cally indeterminate problems consisted of the following steps:
1. Draw a free-body diagram.
2. Identify the unlcrrown forces.
3. List the independent equations of equilibrium.
4. Write the required number of deformation equations.
5. Solve the equilibrium and deformation equations for the unknown forces.
“Then the stresses in some members extend into the inelastic range, stress-strain
diagrams such as those shown in Figs. 5-23, 5-24, and 5-25 must be used to relate
the loads and the deflections before the equations can be solved for the unlcnown
forces. For the case ofan elastoplastic material (Fig. 5-23), the force in the member
will have a constant value after the yield stress is reached. Once the forces irrthese
members are known, the remaining forces can be determined by using statics
methods. For the case of strain-hardening materials (Figs. 5-24 and 5-25), trial-
and-error solutions are required because the stress in each ofthe members depends
on the deflection imposed on the member.
The procedure for analyzing axially loaded members with stresses extending
into the inelastic range is illustrated in the following example.
Example Problem 5- 15 The rigid plate c in Fig. 5-26¢ is fastened

to the 0.50-in.-dianreter steel rod A and to the aluminum alloy pipe B. The other
ends of A and B are fastened to rigid supports. When the force P is zero, there
are no stresses in A and B. Rod A is made of low-carbon steel (assumed to be
elastoplastic) with a proportional limit and yield point of 40 ksi and a modulus
5-7 [NELASHC BEHAVIOR or AXIALLY mans]: MEMBERS Z41
so ,
g L -_,r_ ,, K
J
2 2 Ii
I
10111. I
1 /
I
4-0
O Pi
Stress,ksi
20
20in.
00 0.004 0.008 0.012

Strain
(11) (5)
Figure 5-26(a—b)
of elasticity of 30,000 ksi. Pipe B has a cross-sectional area of 2.00 in.2 and is
made of an aluminum alloy with the stress-strain diagram shown in Fig. 5-26b.
A load of 30 kip is applied to plate C as shown. Determine the normal snesses
in rod A and pipe B and the displacement ofplate C.
SOLUTION
Figure 5-26c is a free-body diagram of plate C and portions of members A and
B. The free-body diagram contains two unknown forces. Only one equation of
equilibrium is available; therefore, the problem is statically indeterminate. As
the load is applied to plate C, it moves downward an amount 8, which represents
the total deformation in members A and B (see Fig. 5-26d). This observation
provides a displacement equation that can be used with the equilibrium equation
PA=(m'4)(0.50)20A I8 _ 6
A _ B
15 kip 15 kip
J’
L,
PB = 2.000,,
(6) (4)
Figure 5-26(c-d)
242 CHAPTER 5 AXIAL LOADING APPLICATIONS AND PRESSURE vrssrus
to solve the problem. The two equations are equilibrium
+'TER,,=0: P,,+P,,-30=0
(H/4)(U.50)2UA + 2.000, - 30 = 0
0.190356, + 2.000, - 30 = 0 (Q)
and compatibility
5,; = 55
which can be rewritten using 8 = eL as
e,1(l0) = €3(20)
In order to solve these equations, the stresses and strains must be related.
If the stresses are less than the corresponding proportional limits, Hooke’s law
can be used. If Hooke’s law (0 = Es) is assumed to be valid, the compatibility
equation becomes
106,1 _ 2003
30(103) 10(10*)
where EB = lO(lO3) ksi is the slope of the linear portion of the stress-strain
diagram shown in Fig. 5-26b. Thus
0,4 = 603
The simultaneous solution of Eqs. (a) and (b) gives
0,; = 56.64 ksi '5 56.6 ksi (T)

<15 = 9.440 ksi E 9.44 ksi (C)
These results indicate that bar A is stressed beyond the proportional limit
of the steel (40 ksi) and that Hooke’s law does not apply. Since the material is
assumed to be perfectly plastic beyond the proportional limit, the stress in bar./1
must be 40 ksi. When this value is substituted in equilibrium equation, Eq. (a),
the equation becomes
+¢ $5,, = 0; 0.19s3sa,, + 2.000,, - 30 = 0

0.19s3s(40) + 2.000,, - 30 = 0
P If the stress in B had been more than the fi'om which
proportional limit ofthe aluminum, it would
have been necessary to determine the strain
from the curve in Fig. 5-26b. If the material
as = 11.073 ksi 2 11.07 ksi (c) Ans.
in bar A were not perfectly plastic, a trial- 0,, = 40.00 ksi (T) Ans.
and-error solution would be required, since
the stresses in both A and B depend on the
The stress in B is less than the proportional limit for aluminum (E 35 ksi from
movement of C.
Fig. 5-26b); therefore, Hooke‘s law can be used to determine the movement of
5-7 rsautsrrc BEHAVIOR or sro.u.|.r roman rrsrraans Z43
the plate, which is
0,,-L3 l1.073(20)
8=8,-;=—= e=0.022l4-in.E0.0221 in. .1, Ans.
EB 10003)
1 PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems 5-87 The stepped bar shown in Fig. P5-87 has a 0.75-in.-diameter
over half its length and a 1.25-in.-diameter over the other half.
5-85* MemberABC of Fig. P5-85 is rigid and bar CD is mistress- The bar is made ofan alumimnn alloy with the idealized stress-
ed before the load P is applied. Bar CD has a cross-sectional strain diagram shown in Fig. 5-24. Determine
area of 1.00 in? and is made of an aluminum alloy with the
idealized stress-strain diagram shown in Fig. 5-24. Determine a. The change in length of the bar when P = 10,000 lb.
b. The change in length of the bar when P = 20,000 lb.
a. The normal stress in bar CD when P = 28,000 lb.
b. The normal stress in bar CD when P = 35,000 lb.
c. The change in length of bar CD when P = 35,000 lb.
|ii8in.
" i C P
0
B ca
A
Sin. _ 10 m.—-— 10 in.—-.
Figure P5-87
I0 in. Intermediate Problems

P 5-88* The rigid bar CD of Fig. P5-88 is horizontal, and bars A
and B are unstressed before load P is applied. Bar A has a
Figure P5-85
cross-sectional area of 500 mm‘ and is made of an aluminum
5-86* A 20-mm-diameter aluminum alloy bar is subjected to alloy that has a proportional limit of 330 MPa and a modulus
the axial loads shown in Fig. P5-86a. The idealized stress- of elasticity of 73 GPa. Bar B has a cross-sectional area of
strain diagram for the aluminum alloy is shown in Fig. P5-86b. 750 mrn2 and is made of a low-carbon steel (elastoplastic) that
Detennine has a proportional limit and yield point of 275 MPa and a
modulus of elasticity of 210 GPa. Determine
a. The normal stress in each segment of the bar forP = 20 kN.
b. The normal stress in each segment of the bar forP = 65 kN. a. The normal stresses in bars A and B after load P is applied.
b. The shearing stress in the 30-mm-diameter pin at C, which
is in double shear.
e. The maximrun shearing stresses in bars A and B.
d. The vertical component of the displacement of pin D.
2m
420 . GI
l99Ml‘s '°-0 9100 OI
W__ l.rn
Mir
E. -1 EA B
T . "1 Sness,
M‘a
8
Zocv
O
1 12,500 MPa
1 C
i‘=m E)
0
" =
0 0.004 0.008 |-—1.sm—=li2.s [email protected] m
30 kN Strain, mmfrrun
(11) (bl P= l60kN

244 cnavrsn 5 AXIAL rmnntc APPLICATIONS mo PRESSURE vassnis
S-89* The rigid, weightless bar shown in Fig. P5-89 is supported Challenging Problems
by two steel (yield strength = 100 ksi, E = 29,000 ksi, andA =
1.6 in?) cables and an aluminum (yield strength = 70 ksi, 5-91* Bar A of Fig. P5-91 is made of an aluminum alloy with
E = 10,600 ksi, and A = 3.2 in?) cable. Determine the largest a proportional limit of 55 ksi and a modulus of elasticity of
load P that can be applied without any cable exceeding its yield 10,500 ksi. Bar B is made of structural steel (elastoplastic)
strength. with a proportional limit and yield point of 36 ksi and a mod-
ulus of elasticity of 29,000 ksi. Both bars have cross-sectional
areas of 1.5 in? Determine
a. The normal stresses in bars A and B aiter a 50-kip load P is
applied.
. ":5 . b. The shearing stress in the 1.00-in.-diameter pin at C, which
Aluminum is in double shear.
Steel 10 ft Steel
sn an "E5
fi 40m. A
i B
20in. ~ 3
i-50 5114 <1 I ..d

/
P in.
Figure P5-89
P
Figure P5-91
5 90 Bar A of Fig. P5-90 is made of an alrmiinurn alloy that has

a proportional limit of 380 MPa and a modulus of elasticity
5-92 An aluminum circular rod is securely fastened to a steel
of 72 GPa. Bars B are made of structural steel (elastoplastic)
tube, and the assembly is subjected to an axial load, as shown
that has a proportional limit and yield point of 250 MPa and a
in Fig. P5-92a. The cross-sectional area ofeach member ofthe
modulus of elasticity of 200 GPa. All bars have cross-sectional
assembly is 315 mmz. The stress-strain diagrams for the two
areas of 1500 mmi. For L = 900 mm, determine
materials is shown in Fig. P5-92b. Determine the displacement
a. The normal stresses in bars/I and B afler a 1110-kN load P of the lower end of the assembly when P = 530 kN.
is applied.
b. The vertical displacement (deflection) ofpin C produced by
the 1110-kN load.
G,MPa
1- L mo ________ _ _ Steel
I" I" I"
Q E) ®
“V 750 mm
B A B
L
3
350 _ _ A___ 3'lummum
Fl
C i 00 9 Q O__ UV “-"“‘- 007
F’
P
P (#1) (bl
5-7 rsautsrrc BEHAVIOR or sxuu.|.r LOADED rrsrmans Z45
5-93 The rigid bar CD of Fig. P5-93 is horizontal and bars A
and B are unstressed before the load P is applied. Bar/1 has a '5
cross-sectional area of 2.00 in.’ and is made of an aluminum
alloy that has the stress-strain diagram shown in Fig. 5-26b.
Bar B has a cross-sectional area of 2.50 in? and is made of
a low-carbon steel (elastoplastic) that has a proportional limit
and yield point of 36 ksi and a modulus of elasticity of 30,000 '5 B 500mm
ksi. Determine
250 mm A
a. The normal stress in each of the bars afler a 40-kip load P
is applied.
b. The normal stress in each of the bars after a 60-kip load P
is applied.
' sis
c. The vertical displacement (deflection) of C after a 65-kip —I 150mm L300mm
load P is applied.
d. The axial strain in barA when P = 40 kip. P
e. TheaxialstraininbarsAandBwhenP=65 kip. Figure P5-94
5-95 A 314-in.-diameter bolt passes through a sleeve, as shown in
Fig. PS-95a. As the nut is tightened, it advances a distance of
0.125 in. along the bolt for each complete turn of the nut. The
._.|., bolt is made of low-carbon steel (assumed to be elastoplastic)
with a proportional limit and a yield point of 40 ksi and a
modulus of elasticity of 30,000 ksi. The sleeve has a cross-
sectional area of 0.40 in.; and is made of an aluminum alloy
10 in. ‘I with the stress-strain diagram shown in Fig. P5-95b. Calculate
and plot:
a. The axial stresses 0,, (in the steel bolt) and 0,; (in the alu-
minum sleeve) as frmctions of the angle oftwist 6 of the nut
C A. (0° 5 6 5 210°).
ii-:i b. The changes in length 8,, (of the steel bolt) and 5,, (of the
5 in.—Ii—3 tn.-I2 in.i1— aluminum sleeve) as functions of the angle of twist 6 of the
nut (0° 5 6 5 210").
c. The distance L between the two washers as frmctions of the
P angle oftwist 6 ofthe nut (0° 5 6 5 210°).
Figure P5-93 lin.—!| |*il0in.iI; |l—li1|.
Computer Problems
5-94 The rigid bar CDE of Fig. P5-94 is horizontal and bars Rigid Rigid
A and B are rmstressed before the load P is applied. Bar A
(H)
has a cross-sectional area of 500 mm’ and is made of an alu-
minum alloy that has a proportional limit of 330 MPa and a so
modulus of elasticity of 73 GPa. Bar B has a cross-sectional
area of 750 1111112 and is made of a low-carbon steel (elasto- -— 1 1400 ksi
plastic) that has a proportional limit and a yield point of 275 i 0.004
MPa and a modulus of elasticity of 210 GPa. Calculate and
plot ks
Stress, DJ-InOO l0,500ksi
1
a. The axial stresses 0,, (in the aluminum bar] and 05 (in
the steel bar) as fimctions of the load P (0 kN 5 P 5 0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
260 kN). Sln-1i.rr,in.1"in.
b. The changes in length 3., (of the aluminum bar) and 65
{of the steel bar) as fimctions of the load P (0 kN 5 P 5 (5)
260 kN). Figure P5-95
CHAPTER S AXIAL LOADING APPLICATIONS AND PRESSURE VESSEIS
5-8 THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSEIS

A pressrne vessel is described as thin walled when the ratio of the wall thickness
to the radius of the vessel is so small that the distribution of normal stress on a
plane perpendicular to the surface of the vessel is essentially uniform throughout
the thickness of the vessel. Actually, this stress varies from a maximum value at
the inside surface to a minimum value at the outside surface of the vessel, but it
can be shown that if the ratio ofthe wall thiclcness to the inner radius ofthe vessel
is less than 0.1, the maximum normal stress is less than 5 percent greater than the
average. Boilers, gas storage tanks, pipelines, metal tires, and hoops are normally
analyzed as thin-walled elements. Gun barrels, certain high-pressure vessels in the
chemical processing industry, and cylinders and piping for heavy hydraulic presses
need to be treated as thick-walled vessels.
Problems involving thin-walled vessels subjected to liquid (or gas) pressure
p are readily solved with the aid of free-body diagrams of sections of the vessels
together with the fluid contained therein. In the following subsections, spherical,
cylindrical, and other thin shells of revolution are considered.
1. Spherical Pressure Vessels. A typical thin-walled spherical pressure vessel
used for gas storage is shown in Fig. 5-27. Ifthe weights of the gas and vessel
are negligible (a common situation), symmetry ofloading and geometry requires
that stresses on sections that pass through the center ofthe sphere be equal. Thus,
on the small triangular element shown in Fig. 5-28a,
a,=a,,=a,,
_‘ .
1
3 v
Figure 5-27 Hortonsphere for gas storage in Superior, ‘Wisconsin. (Courtesy of Chicago
Bridge and Iron Co., Chicago, Ill.)
5 8 THIN WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS
/,----.___ x __’ /,1

N
1\1"1 ha
1"‘-_\~\ \ __fl_, _" P = pttrz

\/ '\\
-\\
,1 ,9 \1
\ll
\I
\=9, -“PR = 2rrrroa
1=9I -_-__.- \ \
\\\‘\\
/(-\~\\.\\-
t \\\\\
\\\
\\\,\\
\\ _
(H) (11)
Figure 5-28
Furthermore, there are no shearing stresses on any of these planes be-

cause there are no loads to induce them. The normal stress component in
a sphere is known as a meridional or axial stress and is commonly denoted
as 0,, or a,,.
The free-body diagram shown in Fig. 5-28b can be used to evaluate the
stress 0,, = 0,. = on, — 0,, in terms of the pressure p, and the radius r and
thickness t of the spherical vessel. The force R is the resultant of the internal
forces that act on the cross-sectional area of the sphere, which is exposed by
passing a plane through the center of the sphere. The force P is the resultant
of the fluid forces acting on the fluid remaining within the hemisphere. From a
summation of forces in the x-direction,
R— P =0
or
Znrtaa = prrrz
from which
U0 = ii: (5-7)
Cylindrical Pressure Vessels. A typical thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel
used for gas storage is shown in Fig. 5-29. Normal stresses, such as those shown
on the small element ofFig. 5-300, are easy to evaluate by using appropriate free-
body diagrams. The normal stress component on a transverse plane is known as
an axial or meridional stress and is commonly denoted as 0,, or am. The normal
stress component on a longitudinal plane is known as a hoop, tangential, or
circumferential stress and is denoted as 0),, 0,, or 0,-. There are no shearing
stresses on transverse or longitudinal planes.
The free-body diagram used for axial stress determination is similar to
Fig. 5-28b, which was used for the sphere, and the results are the same. The
free-body diagram used for the hoop stress determination is shown ir1Fig. 5-30b.
CHAPTER 5 AXIAL LOADING APPLICATIONS AND PRESSURE VESSEIS
5-~---r 1 ' ll
| _- -'=f§nt~ "T"
R -§
Figure 5-29 Cylindrical tanks for gas storage in Northlake, Illinois. (Courtesy of Chicago Bridge and Iron Co., Chicago Ill.)
The force P, is the resultant of the fluid forces acting on the fluid remaining
within the portion of the cylinder isolated by the longitudinal plane and two
transverse planes. The forces Q are the resultant of the internal forces on the
cross-sectional area exposed by the longitudinal plane containing the axis of
the cylinder. From a stmrmation of forces in the x-direction,
2Q — P, = 0
or
2o;,Lt = p2rL
from which
0;, = ¥ (5-8:1)
J‘
I‘
Q = o_;,L1
z , .0
* “ “ “ ' ‘ “ "' --.//r I It
Uh ' l_1:'j/Z’
'
Ga A :-€i‘_;::_’/’
on :2" _ ':’ -_
__________ /,~\-Q. ii:/,

M :fi" R : \\\ \\\\
__—___.//:
R,.=p2rL
(H) (I1)
Figure 5-30
5-s 'I'l-IIN-WALLBD Pnsssnlus vssssts 249
Also (see Eq. 5-7),
pr
a,, _ 21 (5-8b)
The previous analysis of the stresses in a cylindrical vessel subjected to

uniform internal pressure indicates that the stress on a longitudinal plane is
twice the stress on a transverse plane. Consequently, a longitudinal joint needs
to be twice as strong as a transverse (or girth) joint. Meridian ~\ ' -T “vs
‘ ‘\ \\
Thin Shells of Revolution. The discussion in the two previous subsections was
limited to thin-walled cylindrical and spherical vessels under uniform internal \\
pressure. The theory can be extended to include other shapes and other loading
conditions. Consider, for example, the thin shell ofrevolution shown inFig. 5-3 1 .
I
l :*=1
lQ '|‘I‘-‘-“LI_-______
/
,
I,’
\
Such shells are generated by rotating a plane curve, called the meridian, about
@
id_i.
an axis lying ir1 the plane of the curve. Shapes that can be formed ir1 this manner
include the sphere, hemisphere, torus (doughnut), cylinder, cone, and ellipsoid.
In shells of revolution, the two unknown principal stresses are a meridional
Figure 5-31
stress am that acts on a plane perpendicular to the meridian and a tangential
stress 0', that acts on a plane perpendicular to a parallel. Both of these stresses
are shown on the small element of Fig. 5-31. The two stresses can be evaluated
by using two equilibrium equations.
The small element ofFig. 5-31 is shown enlarged inFig. 5-32. The element
has a uniform thickness, is subjected to an internal pressure p, and has different
curvatures in two orthogonal directions. The resultant forces on the various
surfaces are shown on the diagram. Summing forces in the n-direction gives
P — 2F,,, sind6,,, —2F} sindél, = 0
from which
p(2r,¢i6,)(2r,,,dE3,,,) = 2a,,,(2tr,d6,) sin d0," + 2o',(2tr,,,d9,,,) sin d6,
and since, for small angles, sin 0'49 '5 d9, the above equation becomes
E+ E = B (5_9)
r,,, r, t
Fm = <:,,,(21r,a'e,)
dam
fl
as,
P =p(2r,d'9,) (2r,,,.:e,,,) - _
/’
rm
G F. = 6121*»/IBM)
2‘
I ,,
Figure 5-32
250 CHAPTER 5 AXIAL LOADING APPLICATIONS mo PRESSURE vrssrzrs
In Eq. 5-9, r,,, is the radius of curvature of the meridian, o',,, is the meridional
stress, r, is the curvature of the parallel, 0, is the circumferential stress, and t is
the thickness of the wall of the thin shell of revolution.
Since Eq. 5-9 contains two unknown stresses, an additional indepen-
dent equation is needed. Such an equation can be obtained by considering
equilibrium of a portion of the vessel above or below the parallel that passes
through the point of interest. Application of Eq. 5-9 is illustrated in Example
Problem 5-1'7.
‘-I EXHIIIPIB P1‘0blBlIl 5- 1 6 A cylindrical pressure vessel with an inside

diarneter of 1.50 m is constructed by wrapping a l5-mm-thick steel plate into a
spiral and butt-welding the mating edges of the plate, as shown in Fig. 5-33a.
The butt-welded seams form an angle of 30‘ with a transverse plane through
the cylinder. Determine the normal stress 0,, perpendicular to the weld and the
(a) shearing stress 1:“, parallel to the weld when the internal pressure in the vessel is
Figure 5-33(2) 1500 kPa.
SOLUTION
The hoop stress 0;, and the axial stress an in the cylinder can be determined by
using Eqs. 5-8a and b Thus,
3
0,, = 3 = = 75.0(10°)N/m2 = 75.0 MPa
r 0.015
_ E _ 1500(103)(0.7s) _ 6 ,_
<1, _ 2: _ e2(0_0l5) _37.5(10 )N/m _ 37.5 MPa
y I
The normal stress 0,, perpendicular to the weld and the shearing stress rm parallel
to the weld can be determined by using the stress transformation equations,
Eqs. 2-12 and 2-13. The stresses for use in these equations are
.»'-30" " 0', = on = +37.5 MPa cry = 07, = +75.0 MPa tn. = 0
II
The angle 9 for the plane parallel to the weld is —30", as shown in Fig. 5-33b.
(b)
Thus, from Eqs. 2-l2 and 2-13,
Figure s-33(1))
0,, = ax cosz 9 + 0,, sin: 9 + 213,. sin 6 cos 6
P The longitudinal and hoop directions are = 37.5 cos2(—30°) + 15.0 sin2(—30°) + 0
principal directions, and these surfaces are
free of shear stress. However, the weld seam = 4-6.875 MP3 Z 46.9 MP8. (T) ADS.
(and any other surface not aligned with the
r,,, = —(0',, — ay) sin 6 cos 6 + r,,.(cos2 9 — sinz 6)
axial or hoop directions) will be subjected
to both a normal stress and a shear stress. = —(37.5 — 75.0) sin(—30°) cos(—30°) + 0
= —l6.238 h/[Pa E -16.24 MPa Ans.
The minus sign indicates that the direction of the shearing stress r,,, is opposite
to that shown in Fig. 5-33a.
5-8 THIN-WALLBD Pnsssnrur vssssrs 251
1 EXHIIIPIB 5-17 A pressure vessel of l/4-in. steel plate

has the shape of a paraboloid closed by a thick flat plate, as shown in Fig. 5-34a.
The equation of the generating parabola is y = x2/4, where x and y are in inches.
Determine the meridional and tangential stresses am and 0, in the shell at a point
16 in. above the bottom of the vessel due to an intemal gas pressure of 250 psi.
G. Ill
%
x= in
Thick plate \ __
/is
\.
---___
____‘ "iii V
2 _-
y=% Fim 16in
1i 1
L
36 in.
I6 in. I °'
_ QHI
pi
*—8in.—>
H
N|
(<1) (5)
Figure 5-34
SOLUTION
Determining 03,,
The meridional stress am, which must be tangent to the shell, can be determined
with the aid of the free-body diagram shown in Fig. 5-34b. From the equation
of the parabola, the radius x and the slope of the shell dyfdx at y = 16 in. are
determined to be 8 in. and 4/ l, respectively.
Summing forces in the y-direction gives
—f dP+f dFcosa=0
A,» .4,
—pTl.'X2+U,,,2JTIICCISf.!=0
Substituting the given data yields
—250(rr)(82) + 0,,,(2rr)(8)(l /4)(4/~/I-2) = 0
from which
0,, = 4123 psi E 4120 psi (T) Ans.
Determining 0-,
In order to find 0, from Eq. 5-9, the radii rm and r, at the point must be de-
termined. The radius of curvature rm of the shell in the xy plane is determined
252 crntrnzn 5 xxnu. LOADING xrrucsnons mo Prtsssuns vsssrtrs
fi'om the expression
r”' = [1+l“Y/‘mzllis
d2y/dxg
= (1+42)1'5
1 /2
= 140.19 in.
and the perpendicular radius r, is found from the geometry of Fig. 5-3 4b as
r, = s(~/E/4) = 8.246 in.

Then, from Eq. 5-9
£=&+2
I rm I’;
250_ 4123 + 0,
1/4 — 140.19 3.246
from which
0', = 8003 psi 2 s000 psi (T) Ans.
1 PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems a. The normal stress perpendicular to the weld.
b. The shearing stress parallel to the weld.
5-96* Determine the maximum normal stress in a 300-mm-
diameter basketball that has a 2-mrn wall thickness after it
has been inflated to a pressure of 100 kPa.
5-97* A steel pipe with an inside diameter of 10 in. will be used
to transmit steam under a pressure of800 psi. If the hoop stress
in the pipe must be limited to 10 ksi because of a longitudinal
weld in the pipe, determine the minimum satisfactory thickness
for the pipe.
5-98 A cylindrical propane tank, similar to the ones shown in Fig. Figure P5-100
5-29, has an outside diameter of 3 .25 m and a wall thickness of
22 mm. If the allowable hoop stress is 100 MPa and the allow-
able axial stress is 45 MPa, determine the maximum internal
pressure that can be applied to the tank.
5-99 A spherical gas storage tank, similar to the one shown in 5-101* A cylindrical pressure vessel with an internal diameter of
Fig. 5-27, has a diameter of 35 it and a wall thickness of 718 in. 6 it and a wall thickness of 0.5 in. is subjected to an internal
Determine the maximum normal stress in the tank if the gas pressure of 200 psi. The vessel is made of steel having a mod-
pressure is 100 psi. ulus of elasticity of 29,000 ksi and a shear modulus of 11,000
ksi. Determine
a. The axial and hoop stresses in the vessel.
Intermediate Problems b. The axial and hoop strains in the vessel.
5-100* A steel boiler l m in diameter is welded using a spi- 5-102 The cylindrical tank shown in Fig. P5-102 is 20 m in di-
ral seam that makes an angle of 30*‘ with respect to a trans- ameter, is made of structural steel (E = 200 GPa), and will be
verse plane of the boiler, as shown in Fig. P5-100. For an in- used to store stove oil with a density of 850 kg/mi. Determine
ternal pressure of 950 kPa and a wall thickness of 50 mm, the minimum wall thickness required if the maximum normal
determine stress is not to exceed 80 MPa.
5-s 'I'l-IIN-WALLIED Pnsssurts vssssts Z55
1/8 in. The vessel is made of0.4 percent carbon hot-rolled steel
(E = 30,000 ksi and G = 11,600 ksi). Determine
a. The stresses 0, and 0; in the vessel.
b. The intemal pressure applied to the vessel.
l . -r
Figure P5-102
Figure P5-105
5-103 A standpipe 12 ft in diameter and 50 ft tall is being con-
structed for use as a storage tank for water with a specific weight 5-106 An internal pressure p is applied to the t.hin-walled toroidal
of 62.4 lb/ft’ (Fig. P5-102). The wall thickness of the vessel is shell (pressurized doughnut) shown in Fig. P5-106. Determine
0.5 in. the axial and hoop stresses 0, and 0,, at points A and B on the
a. Determine the axial and hoop stresses at the lower end of horizontal plane of symmetry of the shell in terms of p, R, r,
the vessel. Neglect stress concentrations. and t. Hint: the hoop stress 0,, at point/1 can be determined by
b. Determine the axial and hoop stresses at a point 25 ft above using a free body consisting of one quarter of the shell, such
the bottom of the vessel. as the part shown cross-hatched in Fig. P5-106.
Challenging Problems 0,, 6‘

t
5-104* A cylindrical pressure vessel is fabricated by butt-welding _ T _ _1:___ 1 B
20-mm-thick steel (E = 200 GPa and G = 76 GPa) plate with a
spiral seam, as shown in Fig. P5-104. The pressure in the tank “Pitt?
is 2800 kPa. Detertnine lira
a. The stresses parallel and perpendicular to the weld. Figure P5-106
b. The axial and hoop strains.
c. The maximum shearing stress at a point on the outside sur-
5-107 A hemispherical tank of radius r and thickness t is sup-
face of the vessel. ported by a flange, as shown in the cross section of Fig. P5-107.
d. The maximum shearing stress at apoint on the inside surface The tank is filled with a fluid having a specific weight y. De-
of the vessel.
termine, in terms of y, r, and t, the meridional and tangential
stresses 0,, and 0, at a depth y = r/2.
Rigid plate
Kata?’ Fluid level
Ell’
4
"1 T" x
I
P
Flgtue P5-107
Figure rs-104
Computer Problems
5-105* The strains measured on the outside surface of the cylin- 5-108 A 1200-mm-diameter cylindrical pressure tank is fabri-
drical pressure vessel shown in Fig. P5-105 are e1 = +619 cated by butt-welding 20-mm-thick plate with a spiral seam as
,u.in.!in. and e; = +330 ,u.in./in. The angle 6 = 30f’. The out- shown in Fig. P5-108. Ifthe seam angle is 6' = 37°, compute
side diameter of the vessel is 20 in., and the wall thickness is and plot the nonnal stress perpendicular to the weld and the
254 cuavrsn 5 AXIAL tmnnvs APPLICATIONS mo PRESSURE vasssls
shearing stress parallel to the weld as functions of the internal Rigid P1816
pressurep (10 kPa 5 p 5 2800 kPa). __ - __
E ' L
5-109 A 4-ft-diameter cylindrical pressure tank is fabricated by
F\
butt-welding 314-in.-thick plate with a spiral seam as shown
in Fig. P5-108. The pressure in the tank is 200 psi. Compute
and plot the normal stress perpendicular to the weld and the
shearing stress parallel to the weld as functions of the seam
angle 6 (0° 5 6 5 60°).
Figure P5-108
5-9 COMBINED EFFEC'l"S—AXIAL AND PRESSURE LOADS

Previously, in Chapter 4, we fotmd that an axial load produces a constant normal
stress on a transverse plane; the axial stress is given by cr = FIA. A pressure load
acting on a thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel produces normal stresses on
both transverse and longitudinal planes; the stresses are 0,, = pr/2t and 0;, = pr/t,
respectively (Section 5-8).
Consider an axial load and a pressure load acting on a thin-walled pressure
vessel simultaneously, as shown in Fig. 5-35a, where P is the axial load and p
is the pressure load. Both of these loads produce a normal stress on the x-plane
(a transverse plane) while only the pressure load produces a normal stress on the
y-plane (a longitudinal plane). For a point on the outside sin-face ofthe thin-walled
vessel, the stresses are shown on a three-dimensional element in Fig. 5-35b. The
GJW
P 5y G
P §”Gm
(H) (5)
0), = 0”,
0, = 01; + om
(¢)
Figure 5-35
5-9 conmrssn EFFBCI‘S—AXlALAl'lD PRESSURE LOADS 255
stress ax), is due to the axial load, and the stresses exp (= 0,) and cw (= ah) are due
to the pressure. The x-components may be added since both are tensile stresses and
act on the same plane at the same point. Since a point on the outside of the vessel is
a fiee surface, <1, = 0; aplane stress element showing the stresses is shown in Fig.
5-35c, where 0, = ax)» + 0,4,. There are no shear stresses on the element shown
ir1 Fig. 5-35c as there are no loads to produce them. Thus, the xy-components of
stress (Fig. 5-35c) are also principal stresses. Example Problem 5—18 illustrates
the procedures discussed.
30,000 lb
l ,-- Rigid plate

1 Example Problem 5-18 The cylindrical pressure tank shown irt
Fig. 5-3611 has an inside diameter of 4 it and a wall thickness of 3/4 in. The
pressure in the tank is 400 psi. An additional axial load of 30,000 lb is applied
to the top end of the tank through a rigid bearing plate. Determine P
(a) The stresses 0,, 0,-, and 17,, on a stress element at point A, which is on the AI |—:¢
outside surface of the tank.
(b) The normal and shearing stresses on an inclined plane oriented at +30“ fi'om
the x-axis.
SOLUTION
(a) The stresses on elementA a.re due to the combined effects of internal pressure (<1)
and axial load. The internal pressure produces tensile normal (hoop and axial) Figure S-36(a)
stresses 0;, = ax and 0,, = oy. The axial load produces a compressive normal
stress oy. There are no shearing stresses on transverse or longitudinal planes.
Since element A is on the outside surface of the tank, it is subjected to a state
of plane stress.
Stresses due to internal pressure:
<1, =0), = ¥ = 4002

%) 12 = 12,3(]0ps1. (T)
pr 400(2)(12)
(Ty =04 = '5 =
_
6140 psi
Stresses due to axial load:

)1’_x
F —30,000 , , 12,800 psi
Uy = — = m = —261.2ps1 = 261.2 psi (C)
A (Jr/4)(49.5 — 48 )
The stresses ax and Uy at point A, obtained by superimposing the results for

the two forms of loading, are (15)
GR
0,, = 12,800 psi (T) Ans.
Tm
ay = 6400 — 261.2 = 6138.8 psi E 6140 psi (T) Ans. "30°
These results are shown on the stress element of Fig. 5-36b. (6)
(b) The stresses on the inclined plane, shown in Fig. 5-36c, are found using Figure 5-36(b-c)
the stress transformation equation, Eqs. 2-12a and 2-13a. The stresses and
256 cusrrsx 5 xxnu. LOADING srrucmoss mo PRESSURE vsssris
angle 9 to be used irt the stress transformation equations are
0,, = +l2,800 psi rxy = 0 psi

cry = +6140 psi 0 = +120“
1,310 psi Thus,

2,880 psi
0,, = ax cos 2 6 +0_,- sin2 9 + 21.3,. sin6 cos6
w psi = 12,s00 cosz (120“)+ 6140 5012 (120°) + 0
= 7805 psi E 7810 psi Ans.
6,140 psi rm = -(6, - Uy) sin9 cos 0 + 1,11 @052 0 - sin! 0)
(J) = —(12,800 — 6140) cos (120°) sin (120°) + 0
Figure 545(4) = 2884 psi '5 2880 psi Ans.
The xy and nt stresses are shown on the triangular element of Fig. 5-36d.
I PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems The pressure in the tank is 2800 kPa, and an axial load of 1 30 kN
is applied to the end of the tank through a rigid bearing plate.
5-110* The thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel shown in Determine
Fig. P5-110 is subjected to the axial load P of 40 kN and an
internal pressure p of 2 MPa. The vessel has an inside diameter a. The normal stress perpendicular to the weld.
of 1000 mm and a wall thickness of 20 mm. Determine the h. The shearing stress parallel to the weld.
stresses ax, 0-y‘ and r,,., and show them on a rectangular stress c. The maximum shearing stress at a point on the outside sur-
element. face of the vessel.
d. The maximum shearing stress at a point on the inside surface
_ _ _y_ ___________ _ _ of the vessel.
P ( P
130 kN
Figure P5-110 - Rigid plate
_i _
5-lll The pressure vessel shown in Fig. P5-lll has an inside

diameter of 3 ft and a wall thickness of 0.375 in. The internal
"a
pressure is 300 psi. Determine the maximum load P that may
be applied if the maximum axial normal stress cannot exceed
18 ksi.
P
Figure P5-1 12
Figure P5-ll l
Intermediate Problems 5-113* The thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel shown in

Fig. P5-113 has an inside diameter of 40 in. and a wall thick-
5-112 A cylindrical pressure vessel is fabricated by butt-welding ness of‘0.4 in. The axial force P is 10,000 lb. The normal stress
20-mm-thick plate with a spiral seam, as shown in Fig. P5-1 12. at point A on plane B-B (which is perpendicular to the surface
5-10 'nncrr-wiuun crrrsnrncu. Prtsssuns vssssrs 257
of the plate at A) is 11,000 psi. Determine the air pressure in as shown in Fig. P5-116. An axial load of 130 kN is applied
the tank. to the end of the tank through a rigid bearing plate. I.f the
seam angle is 6 = 37°, compute and plot the normal stress
perpendicular to the weld and the shearing stress parallel to
so it1.'_‘_d_(;‘)i the weld as functions of the internal pressure p (10 kPa 5 p 5
"" ' ' B 2800 kPa).
‘U
/ Rigid plate
.6-
0 \’3,?
Figure P5-113
5-114* A thin-walled cylindrical presstne vessel is made of steel
(E = 200 GPa and G = 76 GPa), has an inside diameter of
1000 mm, has a wall thickness of 20 mm, and is subjected to
an axial tensile load of 50 kN and an intemal pressure of 2.5
kPa. Determine the axial and hoop strains at a point on the
outside surface of the vessel. Figure P5-116
5-115 A thin-walled pressure vessel, similar to the one shown in

Fig. PS-1 11, has an inside diameter of 4 ft and a wall thickness
of0.25 in. The internal pressure is 100 psi, and the axial tensile 5-117 A 4-it-diameter cylindrical pressure tank is fabricated by
load is 5000 lb. Determine the maximum shear stress at points butt-welding 3/4-in.-thick plate with a spiral seam as shown
on the outside and inside surfaces of the vessel. in Fig. P5-116. The pressure in the tank is 200 psi, and an
axial load of 30,000 lb is applied to the end of the tank
through a rigid bearing plate. Compute and plot the normal
Computer Problems
stress perpendicular to the weld and the shearing stress par-
5-116 A 1200-mm-diameter cylindrical pressure tank is fabri- allel to the weld as ftmctions of the seam angle B (0° 5 6
cated by butt-welding 20-mm-thick plate with a spiral seam 5 60").
5-10 THICK-WALLED CYLINDRICAL PRESSURE VESSELS

The problem of determining the tangential stress 0, and the radial stress tr, at arty
point ir1 the wall of a thick-walled cylinder, in terms of the pressures applied to
the cylinder, was solved by the French elastician G. Lame in 1833. The results
can be applied to a wide variety of design situations involving cylindrical pressure
vessels, hydraulic cylinders, piping systems, and shrink- and press-fit applications.
Consider a thick-walled cylinder having an inner radius a and an outer radius
b, as shown ir1 Fig. 5-37a. The cylinder is subjected to an intemal pressure p,- and
an extemal pressure pa. For purposes of analysis, the thick-walled cylinder can be
considered to consist of a series of thin rings. A typical ring located at a radial
distance p fr'om the axis of the cylinder and having a thiclcness rip is shown by
the dashed lines in Fig. 5-37a. As a result of the internal and external pressure
loadings, a radial stress or would develop at the interface between rings located at
radial position ,0, while a slightly different radial stress (0,, + a'a,) would develop
at radial position (p + dp). These stresses would be uniformly distributed over
the inner and outer surfaces of the ring, as shown in Fig. 5-37b. Shearing stresses
(“rt 4°,)(P + 11111) 45‘ dl
d
o,+ do, p
o, nip at p d9 G1‘ dP db
-- \ O G -______
‘\ \ r r II | -~___"\-_
I I \\ \ 1 ‘Ur ‘ I -"1
I :1p ll 1" 1 6' p deli“
1 1 ' ' __ dp 1. I '
I| p >_____ -I 1
Er |[|___»-"S lF_ Q _,l;| ‘I
P, .1 I ' I .1
1 z % [:11 5,, Ur 1|l Iii PH’
/
I
. I I.
/,’1/ \\
\ \\
\
0,. + do, o, + do, 1| Ii ‘£1
1 > ‘I'll
1H | | If J11:
1 to 11
(C)
would not develop on the inner and outer surfaces of the ring, since the pressure
loadings do not tend to force the rings to rotate with respect to one another.
In Section 5-8, which dealt with thin-walled pressure vessels, it was shown
that a tangential or hoop component of stress develops when a pressure difference
exists between the irmer and outer surfaces of a thin shell or ring. The planes on
which these tangential stresses act can be exposed by considering only a small
part of a ring, as shown shaded in Fig. 5-3 7b. Since the ring is assumed to be thin,
the tangential stress 0, can be considered to be tmiformly distributed through the
thickness of the ring. A relationship between radial stress 0, and tangential stress
0, can be obtained from equilibrium considerations. A free-body diagram of a
small part of a ring, such as the one shown in Fig. 5-37c for the shaded part of Fig.
5-37b, is useful for this determination. The axial stress ca, which may be present
in the cylinder, has been omitted from this diagram since it does not contribute
to equilibrium in the radial or tangential directions. The fi'ee-body diagram is
assumed to have a length dL along the axis of the cylinder.
From a summation of forces in the radial direction
_ d6
(0, + da,)(p + dp) d6dL — a,p d0dL — 20, dp dL sm? = 0 (a)
By neglecting higher-order terms and noting that for small angles sin d9l2 E d9f2,
Eq. (a) can be reduced to
tr.
pi”.-@.=o (b)
Equation (b) cannot be integrated directly, since both 0, and a, are functions
of radial position p. In previous instances, when such statically indeterminate
5-10 'I'HlCK-‘WALLED crurvortrcu. Prurssults vssssrs 2 S9
situations were encountered, the problem was solved by considering deformations

of the structure.
For the case of a thick-walled cylinder, the axial strain 2,, at any point in
the wall of the cylinder can be expressed in terms of 00, 0,, and 0, by using the
generalized Hooke’s law (see Eq. 4-5). Thus,
£0 = [U0 _ U(5r + 51)]/E (C)
The assumption normally made concerning strains in the thick-walled cylin-

der, which has been verified by careful measurement, is that the axial strain is
uniform. This means that plane transverse cross sections before loading remain
plane and parallel after the internal and external pressures are applied. So far as
the axial stress 0,, is concerned two cases are of interest in a wide variety of design
applications. In the first case, the axial loads induced by the pressure are not car-
ried by the walls of the cylinder (0,, = 0). This situation arises in gim barrels and
in many types of hydraulic cylinders where pistons carry the axial loads. In the
second case, the walls of the cylinder carry the loads. This situation occurs in
presstne vessels with various types ofend closures or heads. In this second case, in
regions of the cylinder away from the ends, it has been found that the axial stress
is uniformly distributed over the cross section. Hence ea, 0,, E, and v a.re constant
for the two cases being considered; therefore, it follows fi'om Eq. (c) that
0,, + 0, = (0,, — Esq)/v = 2C1 (d)
The constant is taken as 2C1 for convenience in the following derivation.

When the value for 0, from Eq. (d) is substituted into Eq. (b), this latter
equation may be written as
tr
,0 dig + 26, = 2c, (8)
If Eq. (e) is multiplied by p, the terms before the equal sign can be expressed as
%(p20,) , and thus Eq. (e) becomes
d
—(p2v-) = 2510
dp
Integrating yields
P29} = Cm’ + C:
where C2 is a constant of integration. Thus,
C
Ur = C1 + *5’ U)
P
The tangential stress 0, is then obtained from Eq. (d) as
C2
(Tr = C1 — F (8)
260 CHAPTER 5 AXIAL LOADING APPLICATIONS AND PRESSURE vrsssrs
Values for the constants C 1 and C2 in Eqs. (f) and (g) can be determined by using
the lcnown values for the pressures at the inside and outside surfaces ofthe cylinder.
These values, commonly referred to as boundary conditions, are
v,=—p.- at p=a
O'r:_po at pzb
The minus signs indicate that the pressures (normally considered as positive quan-
tities) produce compressive normal stresses at the srnfaces on which they are
applied. Substituting the boundary conditions into Eq. (f ) yields
C _ azpi —b2P0
1- b2_a2
-92-b2(Pr — P0)
Wm
The desired expressions for 0,, and 0, are obtained by substituting these values for
C, and C2 into Eqs (f) and (g). Thus,
U _ ¢12P:'— 112110 _ azbztpr — Po)

’ — b2 _ a2 (b2 _ azlpz
(5-10)
_ "2191 — bzps fl252(Pr — P0)
G1 _ b2 _ a2 + (b2 _ a2)p2
Radial and circumferential deformations 5, and 5, play important roles in

many practical problems. The change in circumference 5, of the thin ring shown
ir1 Fig. 5-37a, when the pressures p, and pa are applied to the cylinder, may be
expressed in terms of the radial displacement 5, of a point on the ring as
8, = 2:05,.
The circumferential deformation 5, may also be expressed in terms ofthe tangential

strain s, as
5, = e,c
where c = 2 rrp is the circumference of the ring. Thus,
5, = £,p
For many applications, the axial stress 0,, = 0. The tangential strain e, can
then be expressed in terms of the radial stress 0, and the tangential stress 0,» by
using the generalized Hooke‘s law. Thus,
51 = (U1 _ 1-"5r)£
The radial displacement of a point in the wall is then obtained in terms ofthe radial
and tangential stresses present at the point as
5, = (0, — v0,)p/E (5-1 l)

5-10 'I'HlCK-‘WALLED crurvortrcu. Prurssults vssssrs 261
As mentioned previously, Eqs. 5-10 and 5-ll can be used to compute stresses
and deformations in a wide variety of design situations involving pressure vessels,
hydraulic cylinders, and so on. Reduced forms of these equations are used with
sufficient frequency to warrant consideration of the following special cases.
Case 1 (internal Pressure Only):

If the loading is limited to an internal pressure p,- (pa = 0), Eqs. 5-10 reduce to
alpi (1 b2
U’ — b2 _ a2 _ P2
2 b2 (
5-12)
ap-
U, =
Examination of these equations indicates that 0, is always a compressive stress,

while 0, is always a tensile stress. I.n addition, 0, is always larger than 0, and is
maximum at the inside surface of the cylinder. Substituting the values of 0, and
0, fi'om the previous two equations into Eq. 5-11 yields the deformation equation
applicable for this special case (pa = 0 and 0,, = 0). Thus,
a — im - 0) 2 +(1+ 1002] (5-13)

' _ 01 —-105.0 "
Case 2 (External Pressure Only):
If the loading is limited to an external pressure pg (p, = 0), Eqs. 5-10 reduce to
U : iv _ E
’ b2_a2 pr (
514)
_ b2 P a2
U, — — "1"
In this case, both 0, and 0, are always compressive. The tangential stress is always
largerthan the radial stress and assumes its maximum value at the inner surface of
the cylinder. Substituting the values of 0, and 0, from the previous two equations
into Eq. 5-11 yields the deformation equation applicable for this special case (p, =
0 and 0,, = 0). Thus,
a —-Ni[(1-0) 2+(l+v)a2] (5-15)

" (bl-corp ”
(Jase 3 (External Pressure on a Solid Circular Cylinder):
Radial and tangential stresses 0, and 0, and the radial displacement 5, for this
special case can be obtained from the expression developed for case 2 by letting
the hole in the cylinder vanish (0 = 0). Thus,
0,=—
P“ (5-16)
at : _Po
262 CHAPTER 5 AXIAL LOADING APPLICATIONS AND PRESSURE vrsssrs
and
1— v
8. - -70.1» (5-10
The minus sign ir1 these equations indicates that the stresses are both compressive
and the radius of the cylinder is reduced when the external pressure pa is applied.
For this case the stresses are independent of radial position p and have a constant
magnitude equal to the applied pressure.
i Example Problem 5-19 A steel (E = 30,000 ksi and v = 0.30)

cylinder with an inside diameter of 8 in. and an outside diameter of 16 in. is
subjected to an internal pressure of 15,000 psi, as shown in Fig. 5-380. Axial
loads induced by the pressure are not carried by the walls ofthe cylinder (0,, = 0).
Determine
(a) The maxinrum tensile stress in the cylinder.
(b) The maximum shearing stress in the cylinder.
(c) The increase in the inside diameter as the pressure is applied.
(d) The increase in the outside diameter as the pressure is applied.
25,000 psi
4 in--if P-I .
15,000 PS1 V
/
./
1"’
8 in 5000 psi
(=0 (F1)
Figure 5-38(a-b)
SOLUTION
(a) The maximum tensile stress in a thick-walled cylinder subjected to an internal
pressure is the tangential stress at the inside surface of the cylinder and is
given by Eq. 5-12 as
a 2 p- b2
"'= bl-illilfi?)
= 4-2(l5,000)
$1 + E) B2
= 25,000 psi (T) Ans.
(b) The maximum shearing stress also occurs at apoint on the inside surface ofthe
cylinder on a plane inclined 45° with respect to a radial line, as shown in Fig.
5-38b. The minimum normal stress at the point is 0, = —p,- = —l5,000 psi,
5-10 'mrcrr-wxusm cmnnrnctr. Pxsssults vssssrs 263
since the axial stress 0,, = 0. Therefore, from Eq. 2-19,

'1.‘
Tmax
5 -0-
rm, = mu 2 mm =
25 ' 000-(-15
2 '
000) = 20,000 psi Ans.
;—’__"__\\
\
\ /
A Mohr’s circle representation of these results is shown in Fig. 5-3 8c. \ /
//'—‘\\ \lI
(c) The radial displacement of a point in the wall of a cylinder subjected to jl
1-: _ _ _\._ _
internal pressure (pa = 0 and 0,, = 0) is given by Eq. 5-13 as or 116,0 Gr 6
1
\\_ __ /’ \\ I/
\\ /,
8. = ire
(bi — -1050
- op’ +(1+ 0021 ~.______,
On the inside surface where p = 4 ir1.,
42(15 000) (6)

5., = (82
mm — 42)(30,000,000)(4)
- 0.30)(42) + (1 + 0.30)(s2)] Figure 5-38(e)
= 0.003933 in.
Therefore,
0.1), = 25,, = 2(0.005933) = 0.001266 in. 2 0.00787 in. Ans.

(d) On the outside surface where p = 8 in.,
42(15 000)
0,, = mm
(s1 - 41)(30,000,000)(s) - 0.:-10)(s2) + (1 + 0.30)(s2)]
= 0.002607 in.
Therefore,
an, = 20,, = 2(0.002ss1) = 0.005334 in. '5 0.00533 in. Ans.
1 PROBLEMS
5-118* A thick-walled cylindrical pressure vessel with an 5-120 A thick-walled cylindrical pressure vessel with an inside
inside diameter of 250 mm and an outside diameter of diameter of 200 mm and an outside diameter of 300 mm is
400 mm is subjected to mt internal pressure of 75 MPa. made of 0.2% C hardened steel, which has a yield strength
Determine of 430 MPa. Determine the maximum intemal pressure that
may be applied to the vessel if the yield strength must not be
a. The tangential stress 0, at a point on the inside surface.
exceeded.
b. The tangential stress 0, at a point on the outside surface.
c. The maximum shearing stress in the cylinder. 5-121* A thick-walled cylindrical pressure vessel with an inside
5-119 Demonstrate that for a cylindrical vessel with a shell thick- diameter of 4 in. and an outside diameter of 8 in. has a de-
ness (b-0) of one-tenth the radius 0, subjected only to internal sign specification that limits the maximum shearing stress to
pressure, the error involved in computing the hoop tension 0, by 24,000 psi. Determine the maximum internal pressure that may
be applied to the vessel.
the method of Section 5-9 instead of Eq. 5-12 is approximately
5 percent.
264 CHAPTER 5 AXIAL LOADING APPLICATIONS AND PRESSURE VFSSEIS
Intermediate Problems Challenging Problems

5-122 A steel cylinder with an inside diameter of 200 mm and an 5-124* A steel cylinder with an inside diameter of 50 mm and an
outside diameter of300 mm is subjected to an internal pressure outside diameter of250 mm is subjected to an internal pressure
of 75 MPa. Determine of 85 MPa. Determine the circumferential force per unit length
carried by a circular element having an inside diameter of
a. The maximum tensile stress in the cylinder.
100 mm and a thickness of 25 mm.
b. The maximum shearing stress at a point in the cylinder rnid-
way between the inside and outside surfaces. 5-125 A navel gun (E = 30,000 ksi and G = 11,600 ksi) with a
bore of 16 in. develops a maximum internal prmsure of20,000
5-123* A steel cylinder with an inside diameter of 8 in. and an
psi. Determine
outside diameter of 14 in. is subjected to an internal pressure
of 25,000 psi. Detennine a. The minimum outside diameter required if the maximum
tensile stress permitted in the gun barrel is 36,000 psi.
a. The maximum shearing stress in the cylinder.
b. The change in inside diameter when the gun is fired if the
b. The radial and tangential stresses at a point in the cylinder
outside diameter of part a is used.
midway between the inside and outside surfaces.
5-1 1 DESIGN
A designer must select a material and properly proportion a member to perform
a specified function without failure. Failure is defined as the state or condition
in which a member or structure no longer functions as intended. To accomplish
the design task, one must anticipate the type of failure (failure mode] that may
occur. Once the failure mode has been determined, the significant material prop-
erty that controls failure is established. Design computations are performed using
mathematical relationships between load and stress or load and deformation.
5-11-1 M0dCS Of FRIIIIIC The mode offailure of a member depends

on many factors: the type of material, the manner of loading, the rate of loading,
and environmental conditions. Discussion in this book will be limited to members
subjected to static or slowly applied loads at room temperature. Ftuthermore,
failure modes are limited to elastic failure, which occurs as a result of excessive
elastic deformation; yielding (sometimes referred to as slip failure), characterized
by excessive plastic deformation; and failure byfiucture (complete separation of
the material).
5-11-2 Significant P1'0pBl'lZy Associated with each mode

of failure is a significant material property. When a structure is designed to avoid
elastic failure, the modulus of elasticity is the significant material property. Since
yielding is characterized by excessive plastic deformation, the significant material
property is the yield strength. Failure by fracture may be due to sudden fracture
of a brittle material, fracture of a material with cracks or flaws, or fracture due to
repeated loading. In this book, fracture failure will be limited to sudden fracture,
where the significant material property is the ultimate strength.
5- 1 1 -3 Mfllhfifllflliflfll A11fl.IySIS A failure criterion is needed to per-

form design computations. The failure criterion may be based upon a probabilistic
model, an allowable stress model, or a load resistance factor design (LRFD) model.
Only the allowable stress model (called allowable stress design, ASD) will be dis-
cussed in this book. Once the mode of failure is established, the ASD model states
5-11 orzsrort 265
that the design is satisfactory so long as
Strength 3 Stress (5-18)
in which “strength” is the significant material property and “stress” refers to the
computed stress in the member. For example, stress = 0 = F/A for an axially
loaded member.
5-1 I-4 FHCIIOP Of Silffily Most design problems involve many unknown
variables. The load that the structure or machine must carry is usually estimated.
The actual load may vary considerably from the estimate, especially when loads
at some future time must be considered. Since testing usually damages a material,
the properties of a material used in a structtue cannot be evaluated directly but are
normally determined by testing specimens of a similar material. Furthermore, the
actual stresses that will exist in a structure are unknown because the calculations
are based on assumptions about the distribution of stresses in the material. Because
of these and other unknown variables it is customary to write Eq. 5-18 as
Strength 2 (Factor of safety)(Stress) (5-19)
where the factor ofsajety (FS) takes into account the imponderables.
As an aid to understanding the use of Eq. 5-l9, consider an axially loaded
rod that is to be designed (find the required diameter) so that the material does not
yield. Then, since the mode of failure is yielding, the significant material property
is the yield strength o_,., that is, strength equals cry. Then, Eq. 5-19 becomes
fly 2 (F5)(F//1)
O1‘
F
°" 2 (PS) (ma/4)
Solving for the diameter gives
d 2 t/4(F5)(F)/(Hay)
For a given material (0,. known), a given factor of safety, and a given load, the
minimum required diameter would be
dmin = ~/ 4(F5)(F)/(Fl0,1»)
The following Example Problems illustrate the use of the design principles
previously discussed.
Example Problem 5-20 An axially loaded circular bar is subjected

to a load of 6500 lb. The bar is made of structural steel, and the factor of safety
is to be 1.5. Determine the rrrinirnurn diameter bar required if yielding is to be
avoided.
SOLUTION
Since the mode of failure is yielding, the significant material property (strength)
is the yield strength. Using Table B-17 in Appendix B, the yield strength of
structural steel is 36(l03) psi. Equation (5-19) then gives
0, 2 0=S><F/A)
F
“y 2 “(ml
d, > 4F(FS)
_ 210,.
d, > 4(ss00)(1.5)
— :r(36)(lO3)
Therefore,
d 2 0.587 in. Ans.
The minimum required diameter is 0.587 in. Ifrods are commercially available
in increments of U8 in., a rod of diameter 5/8 in. would be selected.
1 Example Problem 5-21 An axially loaded circular bar made of

36kN l5lrN 21 kN
structural steel has a constant cross-sectional area and is subjected to the forces
4-SA B019‘ C019 shown in Fig. 5-39a. The factor of safety, based on failure by yielding, is to be
1.8. Determine the minimum permissible diameter ofthe bar required to support
1.5m 1.0m
the loads.
(<1)
Figure 5-39(2) SOLUTION
The forces transmitted by sections AB and BC are obtained from free-body dia-
grams ofportions of the bar isolated by using cutting planes to the right of pin A
and to the left of pin C and drawing the axial force diagram shown in Fig. 5-3 9b.
Thus, the maximum load transmitted by any cross section is FA5 = 3 6 kN. Since
Tension the criterion for failure is yielding, the significant material property is the yield
strength. From Table B-18 in Appendix B, 0,, = 250 MPa. Proceeding as in the
36 kN previous example,
!~JUI
UIQ
21k.N
force,kN
dz 2 4F(FS)
3",: B c
is _25 Position rraj.
Compression
where F = F45 is the largest internal force in the constant diameter bar. Substi-
(5)
tuting the numerical values
Figure 5-39(b)
d, > 4(36)(103)(1.s)
— n(250)(10°)
d 3 0.01817 m
Therefore,
dm-H, = 18.17 mm Ans.

5-11 orzsrcn 267
1 Example Problem 5-22 A 4-0-lb light is supported at the midpoint l 8“ 1

of a 10-ft length of wire that is made of 0.2% C hardened steel, as shown in B .
Fig. 5-40a. For reasons of safety, a factor of safety of 3 based on the yield
strength of the wire is specified. Spools of wire are available with diameters of
10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 mil (1 mil = 0.001 ir1.). What spool size would you select .5n s ft
for suspending the light?
SOLUTION
The forces transmitted by cables AB and AC are obtained form the free-body
diagram ofjoint A of the cable system shown in Fig. 5-40b. The wire angle is rfl -.
4 (H)
0 = cos_1—5 = 36.87"
ills Tir-
From the horizontal component of the equilibrium equation
0_ _ - ~<_ _0_ _ _ _ _ _ ___,.
+—>ZF,,=0: T,¢¢cos6—TA3cosl9=0 (I1)
we get that the two tension forces must be equal, TAG = TA3. Then, fi"om the
vertical component of the equilibrium equation W = 40 lb
(b)
+ 1‘ BF, =0: TAG sin 36.87°+T,;3 sin 36.87“ —40=0 (5) Figure 5-40
Substituting T45 = TA3 into Eq. (b) gives
TAC = TAB = 33.33 lb
For 0.2% C hardened steel (see Table B-17 in Appendix B), 0,, = 62 ksi.
Therefore, proceeding as in the previous examples
dz 2 4F(FS)
2:0,,
d, > 4(33.33)(3)
_ rr(62)(l03)
d 3 0.0453 in.
The required spool size is 50 (use 50-rnil wire). Ans.
1 Example Problem 5-23 The short post shown in Fig. 5-41¢ is

subjected to an axial compressive load P = 150 kip. The load is applied to the
post through a rigid steel plate. The core of the post is annealed bronze, and the
outer segment of the post is composed of two symrnetrically placed plates of
2024-T4 aluminum. Each of the aluminmn plates is one-fourth as thick as the
bronze core. Determine the rrrinimunr thickness i required if the factor of safety
based on failure by yielding is 1.5.
268 CHAPTER 5 AXIAL LOADING xrrunrrross AND PRESSURE VESSEIS
SOLUTION
P
Since the criterion for failure is yielding, the significant property for each material
is the yield strength. From Table B-17 ir1 Appendix B, the modulus of elasticity
and the yield strength are E3 = 15,000 ksi and 0,, = 20 ksi for the bronze and
EA = 10,600 ksi and 0,, = 4-8 ksi for the aluminum. The fi'ee-body diagram (Fig.
5-41b) has two unknown forces: PA, the force in the aluminum plates, and PB,
the force in the bronze core. Since only one equation of equilibrium is available,
r-
Bronze
Aluminum +1‘EF,,=0: 2P,1+Pg—l50=0
_ (=1)
2P,, + P, =150krp
the problem is statically irrdeternrinate. As the rigid steel plate pushes down
on the top of the post, the bronze core and the two aluminum plates will all
2in. shorten the same amount. Therefore, the deformation equation is 5,, = 55 which
gives
mi
"—i r—4r—>
Cross section
r—" (& _ &
EA ,,_ EA B
(R)
(2P,|)L _ PBL
P = 150 kip (l0,600)[2(2t)] — (l5,000)8t
or
Rigid steel plate
P, = 0.17667 PB (b)
Solving Eqs. (a) and (b) yields
P, = 19.532 kip
P, = 110.84 kip
The failure criterion is
-‘ft it 13¢
(11) 0,, 2 (F$)(P/A)
Figure s-41 Azfi
PF
Uy
Applying the failure criterion to each member of the structure yields
2., m .s...s..u...
for the aluminum and
110.84-(1.5) _
MT t31.039m.
for the bronze. Therefore, the minimum thickness is
rm“, = 1.039 in. Ans.

5-11 orzsrcn Z69
1 PROBLEMS
S-126* A short standard-weight steel pipe (see Appendix B] is 5-129* The machine component shown in Fig. P5-129 is made of
used to support an axial compressive load of 100 kN. l.fyield- hot-rolled Monel. The forces atB are applied to the component
ing (0,, = 250 MPa) should not occur and the factor of safety with a rigid collar that is firmly attached to the component. If
is to be 1.6, determine the smallest nominal diameter pipe that the mode of failure is yielding and the factor of safety is 1.5,
may be used to support the load. determine the minimum permissible diameter ofeach segment
of the machine component.
5-127* A short column made of structural steel is used to support
the floor beams of a building, as shown in Fig. P5-127. Each
floor beam (A andB) transmits a force of 40 kip to the column.
The column has the shape of a wide-flange (W) section (see zs kip
Appendix B). The factor of safety based on failure by yielding
is 3.0. Select the lightest wide-flange section that will support
the given loads.
40 kip 40 kip
-0 —| 25 kip
L
L—4in6m.J
-ll ':;_:'E, -::g':;,5§EiEr:.,E§ r' ___-, ..'...... ..!:_;:E:r::' "
ll Figtu-e P5-129
n.v.r» ““'"" 7.‘-1 :.._
[...
filltd
5-130* An axial load P = 1000 kN is applied to the rigid steel

bearing plate on the top of the short column shown in Fig. P5-
130. The outside segment of the column is made of structural
steel. The inside core is made of fairly high-strength concrete.
— I
Both segments are square. The failine modes are yielding for
the steel and fracture for the concrete. The factor of safety is
to be 1.4. If the area of the concrete is to be 10 times the area
W seption of the steel, determine the required dimensions.
l I l
Figure P5-127 P
5-128 The two structural steel (see Appendix B) rods A and B

shown in Fig. P5-128 are used to support a mass m = 2000 i i '
kg. If failure is by yielding and a factor of safety of 1.75 is
specified, determine the diameters of the rods (to the nearest l
mm) that must be used to support the mass. Both rods are to
have the same diameter.
l
50° 3 '
A
- 0-_- 9 Concrete
.1
FF U
u 0-'_u. ;,._iii-2
o00 _-_
"-°-0_. Steel
Figure P5-128 Figure P5-I30

270 CHAPTER 5 AXIAL LOADING APPLICATIONS mo PRESSURE VESSEIS
5-131 Four axial forces are applied to the l-in. thick, 0.4% C hot- is subjected to the forces P = 85 kN. Determine the minimrmr
rolled steel bar as shown in Fig. P5-131. The factor of safety bolt diameter required to safely support the forces if the mode
for failure by yielding is 1.75. Determine the minimum width of failure is yielding and the factor of safety is 1.5.
w of the constant cross-sectional area bar.
9111. 18 in. 271151. - __, T___ 1: 1 in. | ‘
L
7‘
Um.”
” iiile?
| .
‘=511 ”
30 kip 60 kip I300
Figure P5-131
5-132 The two parts of the eyebar shown in Fig. P5-132 are con-
nected by two bolts (one on each side of the eyebar). The bolts
are made of a grade of steel with a tensile yield strength of
1035 MPa and a shear yield strength of 620 MPa. The eyebar Figure P5-132
SUMMARY
“Then a straight bar of uniform cross section is axially loaded by forces applied at
its ends, the axial strain along the length of the bar is assumed to have a constant
value, and the elongation (or contraction) of the ba.r resulting from the axial load P
may be expressed as 5 = eL (by the definition of average axial strain). lfHoo1ce’s
law (Eq. 4-la) applies (if the stresses are less than the proportional limits of the
materials used in the fabrication of the members), the axial deformation may be
expressed in terms of either stress or load as
s—L—Q—‘Z
—6—E—EA
(512
")
where P, 0, A, and E are all constant over the entire length L. If the stress exceeds
the proportional limit of the materials, stress-strain diagrams can be used to relate
the load and deformation.
Ifa bar is subjected to a number of axial loads at different points along the
bar, or if the bar consists of parts having different cross-sectional areas or of parts
composed of different materials, then the change in length of each part can be
computed by using Eq. 5-1 or 5-2. The changes in length of the various parts of
the bar can then be added algebraically to give the total change in length of the
complete bar
n n Pl_L|_
5 = gs,» =2? (5-3)
where A; and E,- are both constant on segment i and the force P; is the intenral force
in segment i of the bar and is usually different than the forces applied at the ends
of the segment. These forces must be calculated from equilibrium of the segment
and are ofien shown on an axial force diagram.
SUMMARY 271
It is sometimes necessary to determine axial deformations and strains in a

loaded system of pin-connected deformable bars (two-force members). The solu-
tion of such problems involves a static analysis (free-body diagrams and equilib-
rium equations) combined with a study of the geometry of the deformed system.
For small displacements, the axial deformation in any bar may be assumed equal
to the component of the displacement of one end of the bar (relative to the other
end) taken in the direction of the unstrained orientation of the bar. If the statics and
the deformation portions of the problem can be separated and solved separately,
the problem is called statically determinate. If the statics and deformation portions
cannot be separated and solved separately, the problem is called statically inde-
temrinate. In either case, a displacement diagram showing deformations should
be drawn to assist in obtaining the correct deformation equation. The fi'ee-body
diagrams, equilibrium equations, and deformation diagrams must be compatible.
That is, when a tensile force is assumed for a member in the fi"ee-body diagram, a
tensile deformation (stretch) must be indicated for the same member in the defor-
mation diagram. If the diagrams are compatible, a negative result will indicate that
the assumption was wrong; however, the magnitude of the result will be correct.
When a bar is subjected to a temperature change in addition to a stress, the
total deformation of the bar is the sum of the deformation due to stress plus the
deformation due to the temperature change
L
51ota1 = 5., + 57‘ = 535- + aATL
where or is the coeflicient of thermal expansion. A tensile stress (0 > 0) and a
temperature increase (AT > 0) both cause a stretch of the bar (8 > 0).
The stress at a discontinuity in a structural or machine element may be
considerably greater than the nominal or average stress on the section. The ratio of
the maximum stress at a discontinuity to the nominal stress on the section is called
the stress concentration factor. Thus, the maximum normal stress at a discontinuity
in a centrically loaded member is
0 = Kg (5-5)
Graphs or tables for K, the stress concentration factor, can be found in numerous
design handbooks, and they may be based on either the gross area or the net area
(area at the reduced section). It is important when using such stress concentration
graphs or tables to ascertain whether the factors are based on the gross or net
section.
Stress concentration is a very localized effect. For example, the stress on the
botmdary of a hole in a large plate under uniform unidirectional tension is 3 times
the nominal stress—the stress in regions far removed lrom the hole. However, at
a distance of one hole diameter fi"om the edge of the hole, the stress is only about
7 percent greater than the nominal stress.
Stress concentration is not significant in the case of static loading ofa ductile
material because the material will yield inelastically in the region of high stress.
As a result of the accompanying redistribution of stress, equilibrium may be es-
tablished and no harm done. However, if the load is an impact or repeated load, the
material may fiucture. Also, if the material is brittle, even a static load may cause
fiacture.
A pressure vessel is described as thin-walled when the ratio of the wall

thickness to the radius of the vessel is so small that the distribution of normal
stress on a plane perpendicular to the surface of the vessel is essentially uniform
throughout the thickness of the vessel. Ifthe ratio of the wall thickness to the irmer
radius of the vessel is less than about 0.1, the maximum normal stress is less than
5 percent greater than the average. In a spherical, thin-walled pressure vessel, the
normal stress on a section that passes through the center of the sphere is called a
meridional or axial stress and is given by
an = g (5-1)
where r and t are the radius and wall thickness of the pressure vessel, and p is the
internal pressure. There are no shearing stresses on any of these planes since there
are no loads to induce them. In a cylindrical, thin-walled pressure vessel, the stress
on a longitudinal plane is called a hoop or circumferential stress and is given by
0,, = 1% (5-811)
The normal stress on a transverse plane is called an axial stress and has the sanre
value as in a spherical pressure vessel
<1, = g (5-Sb)
Although there are no shearing stresses on transverse or longitudinal planes, there

will be both normal and shear stresses on any other plane such as a spiral weld
surface. If a pressure vessel is subjected to an axial load in addition to an internal
pressrue, the normal stresses may be formd by superimposing the normal stresses
due to internal pressure and the normal stresses due to the axial load.
In a thick-walled pressure vessel, normal stresses are not uniform throughout
the thickness of the vessel. ln addition, for a thick-walled pressure vessel, the radial
component ofnomral stress cannot be ignored. In a thick-walled cylindrical vessel,
the radial normal stress and the tangential (hoop) normal stress vary with radial
position p according to
U _ ¢1‘Pi— bzpu _ flzbztpi — Po)

" — b2 _ a2 (b2 _ a2]p2
2 2 2 2 (5-10)
G =aPi-bPo+flb(Pi-Po)
' b2 _ a2 (b2 _ a2)p2
where pi is the internal pressure (at p = a) and pa is the extemal pressure

(at p = b).
In order to select a material and properly proportion a member to perform
a specified function without failure, a designer must anticipate the type of failure
that may occur. Once the type of failure has been determined, the significant
material property that controls failure is established. This property is then divided
by the factor of safety to determine the allowable stress to be used in the design
computations. In this book's context of design, attention will be focused on elastic
failure, failure by yielding, and failure by fracture.
ruzvniw PROBLEMS Z73
1 REVIEW PROBLEMS
5-133* An alloy steel (E = 30,000 ksi) bar is loaded and sup- B
3 P
ported as shown in Fig. P5-133. The loading collar at B is
free to slide on section BC. The diameters of sections AB, BC,
and CD are 2.50 in., 1.50 in., and 1.00 in., respectively. The
lengths of all three segments are 15 in. Determine the normal
stresses in each section and the overall change in length of the
bar.
60° so"
A . ll c
I
|
|= so in. 4 PIWII
40 kip as in. >

€ Ea D 10 Hp Figure P5-135
-Iso kip
40 kip
5-136* A rigid bar ABC is supported by two links, as shown
Figure P5-133 in Fig. P5-136. Link BD is made of an aluminum alloy (E =
73 GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of 1250 mm’. Link
CE is made of structural steel (E = 200 GPa) and has a cross-
sectional area of750 mm}. Determine the normal stress in each
5-134* A tension member consists of a 50-mm-diameter brass of the links and the deflection ofpoint A as the 50-kN load P is
(E = 100 GPa) bar connected to a 32-mm-diameter stainless- applied.
steel (E = 190 GPa) bar, as shown in Fig. P5-134. Deter-
mine the maximum load P that can be applied to the bar if
the normal stress in the brass must be limited to 200 MPa,
the normal stress in the steel must be limited to 500 MPa,
and the total elongation of the bar must be limited to
5.60 mm.
D mi-
200mm
E
Brass 400\n1m
B Steel
P A B c
' " J ¥}e00nuui-l-—300isuia|
_ 1.5m#l.0m
P
Flam P5-134 Figure P5-136
5-135 Two rigid bars (AB and BC) and a 172-in.-diameter struc- 5-137 Bar A of Fig. P5-137 is a steel (E = 30,000 ksi) rod that
tural steel (E = 30,000 ksi) tie rod AC are used to sup- has a cross-sectional area of 1.24 in? Member B is a brass (E =
port a 3000-lb load P, as shown in Fig. P5-135. Determine 15,000 ksi) post that has a cross-sectional area of 4.00 in? De-
the normal stress in the tie rod and the change in length of termine the maximum permissible value for the load P if the
the 30-in. reduced section of the tie rod as the load P is allowable normal stresses are 30 ksi for the steel and 20 ksi for
applied. the brass.
CHAPTER S AXIAL IDADING APPLICATIONS AND PRESSURE VKQSEIS
Iii 50 in. ii |_-

mg.
- rd _ - I .
R131 s in. A .
I
5' . Q
L C "1 B i 16in.
10in.
Unleaded .
0.009 in.
l5in. 5t——g—___ ___ _
s 10.000 ' -—».—' .
I 4in.-‘ll-4in.
. am.
em» E
“gm P5‘137 Figure P5-139
5-138 Bar C of Fig. P5-138 is an aluminum alloy (E = 73 GPa)

rod that has a cross-sectional area of 625 mmz. Member D is 5-140 A 90'Imn‘diameter bmss (E = 100 GPa) bar is securely
fastened to a 50-mm-diameter steel (E = 200 GPa) bar. The
a wood (E = 12 GPa) post that has a cross-sectional area of
ends of the composite bar are then attached to rigid supports,
2500 mmz. Determine the maximum permissible value for the
as shown in Fig. P5-140. Determine the stresses in the brass
load P if the allowable normal stresses are 100 MPa for the
and the steel alter a temperature drop of 70*C occurs. The
aluminum and 30 MPa for the wood.
thermal coeflicients of expansion for the brass and steel are
l7.6(l0"")/°C and l1.9(10—°)/"C, respectively.
50mm /l0Omm P
I 200mm
0.09mrn E -
unloladed
T
150 mm :.;_.'.=.=_,= C
E__T___A
Tl
300 mm
800 mm
=—-
480 mm
='@'- Figure P5-140

I
Figure P5-138
5-141 Three bars, each 50 mm wide >< 25 mm thick x 4 m long,
are connected and loaded as shown in Fig. P5-141. Bar A is
made of Monel, which has a pmportional limit of 400 MPa
5 139* The pin-connected structure shown in Fig. P5-139 occu- and a modulus of elasticity of 180 GPa. Bar B is made of a
pies the position shown when unloaded. When the loads D = magnesium alloy that has a proportional limit of 100 MPa and
16 kip and E = 8 kip are applied to the structure, the rigid bar C a modulus of elasticity of 40 GPa. Bar C is made of struc-
must become horizontal. Bar A is made of an aluminum alloy tural steel (elastoplastic) that has a proportional limit and yield
(E = 10,600 ksi), and bar B is made of bronze (E = 15,000 point of 240 MPa and a modulus of elasticity of 200 GPa.
ksi). If the normal stresses in the bars must be limited to 20 ksi Determine
in the aluminum alloy and 15 ksi in the bronze, determine
a. The normal stress in each of the bars after a 650-kN load P
a. The minimum cross-sectional areas that will be satisfactory is applied.
for the bars. b. The vertical displacement (deflection) of pin D produced by
b. The changes in length of rods A and B. the 650-kN load.
tuzvtuw PROBLEMS Z75
5-143* The conical water tank shown in Fig. P5-143 was fab-
ricated from 1/8-in.-thick steel plate. When the tank is com-
pletely full ofwater (specific weight y = 62.4 lb/ft‘), determine
the axial and hoop stresses 0,, and cn, at a point in the wall 8 fl
B below the apex of the cone.
A c
\
12 4
5 3
D
Smooth .1"" _- .
P “I ' 0]7¢'_
'
' an
Figure P5-141 --- ' 10ft
-1- ,-
S-142* The rigid barAB of Fig. P5-142 is horizontal and bar C

and post D are unstressed before the load P is applied. Bar C
\5fi
has a cross-sectional area of 600 mm’ and is made of a low-
carbon steel (elastoplastic) that has a proportional limit and
Figtme P5-143
yield point of240 MPa and a modulus ofelasticity of200 GPa.
Post D has a cross-sectional area of 2000 mmz and is made of
cold-rolled brass, which has a proportional limit of 410 MPa
and a modulus of elasticity of 100 GPa. Determine
5-144 A thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel has an outside
a. The normal stresses in bar C and post D after a 100-kN load
diameter of 2 m and a wall thickness of 10 mm. The vessel is
P is applied.
made of steel with a modulus of elasticity of 200 GPa and a
h. The vertical displacement (deflection) of point A produced
Poisson’s ratio of 0.30. During proof testing of the vessel, an
by the 100-kN load.
axial strain of 300 um/m is recorded. Determine
a. The internal pressure applied to the vessel.
P
50mm 100mm h. The axial and hoop stresses in the vessel.
200mm c. The maximtun shearing stress in the vessel.
0-we BE
““‘°”“°“ I:.'!J,=e%=I
A d. The hoop strain present when the axial strain was measured.
5-145 A gun barrel with an inside diameter of 3.00 in. and an
Rigid outside diameter of 7.00 in. is made of steel having a yield
strength of 50 ksi. Determine the maximum internal pres-
sure that may be applied to the gun barrel before yielding
15° my C 300 mm occurs.
5-146* A hydraulic cylinder with an inside diameter of 200 mm
and an outside diameter of 450 mm is made of steel (E =
210 GPa and v = 0.30]. For an internal pressure of 125 MPa,
determine
a. The maximum tensile stress in the cylinder.
Figure P5-142 h. The change in internal diameter of the cylinder.
Chapter 6
Torsional Loading of Shafts
6-1 INTRODUC'l'ION
The problem oftransmitting a torque (a couple) from one plane to a parallel plane is
fi"equently encountered in the design of machinery. The simplest device for accom-
plishing this function is a circular shaft such as that connecting an electric motor
with a pump, compressor, or other machine. A modified fi"ee-body diagram (the
weight and bearing reactions are not shown because they contribute no usefirl in-
formation to the torsion problem) of a shaft used to transmit a torque from a driving
motorA to a coupling B is shown in Fig. 6-1. The resultant of the electromagnetic
forces applied to armature A of the motor is a couple resisted by the resultant of
the bolt forces (another couple) acting on the flange coupling B. The circular shaft
transmits the torque fi"om the armature to the coupling. Typical torsion problems
involve determinations of significant stresses in and deformations of shafts.
A segment of the shaft between transverse planes a—a and b—b of Fig. 6-1
will be studied. The complicated stress distributions at the locations of the torque-
applying devices are beyond the scope of this elementary treatment of the torsion
problem. A free-body diagram of the segment of the shafi between sections a—a
and b—b is shown in Fig. 6-2 with the torque applied by the armature indicated
on the left end as T The resisting torque T, at the right end of the segment is
the resultant of the moment of the differential forces dF acting on the transverse
plane b—b. The force dF is equal to 1: pdA where 1: P is the shearing stress on the
transverse plane at a distance p from the center of the shaft and dA is a differential
Electromagnetic -
f°r°f5 “'1 .--An-nature
"' q . .. . ._ a T
1- in
Q a | ._______ /
_ --- Bolt
b forces
Figure 6-1
6-2 TORSIONAL SI-[BAKING srruuu 277
a
Tr’ I -r (IF = T9112!
T 1f’,T\.;1 _. -
I 1
/ J4*\‘
i\ é 2' dp
{J
b
Figure 6-2
area. For circular sections, the shearing stress on any transverse plane is always
perpendicular to the radius to the point. The resisting torque is statically equivalent
to the sum of the torques produced by dF
r.=f pdF=f Prpdfl

3163 BIB3
<6-1)
The law of variation of the shearing stress on the transverse plane (1: as a function
ofradial position p) must be known before the integral ofEq. 6-1 can be evaluated.
Thus, the problem of determining the relationship between torque and shearing
stress is statically indeterrninate. Recalling the procedures developed in Chapter 5,
the solution of a statically indeterminate problem requires the use of the equation
ofequilibrium, an analysis of deformation, and the relationship between stress and
strain.
In 1784 C. A. Coulomb, a French engineer, developed (experimentally) a
relationship between applied torque and angle of twist for circular bars.1 in a paper
published in 1820,‘ A. Duleau, another French engineer, derived the same rela-
tionship analytically by making the assumption that a plane section before twisting
remains plane afier twisting and a diameter remains straight. Visual examination
oftwisted models indicates that these assumptions are correct for circular sections
either solid or hollow (provided the hollow section is circular and symmetrical
with respect to the axis of the shaft), but incorrect for any other shape. Compare,
for example, the distortions of rubber models with circular and rectangular cross
sections shown in Fig. 6-3. Figure 6-3b shows the circular shaft after loading and
illustrates that plane sections remain plane. For the rectangular shaft, plane sections
before loading (Fig. 6-3c) become warped after loading (Fig. 6-3d).
6-2 TORSIONAL SHEARING STRAIN

If a plane transverse cross section of a circular shaft before twisting remains plane
after twisting and a diameter of the section remains straight, the distortion of the
shaft of Fig. 6-2 will be as indicated in Fig. 6-4a, where points B and D on a
‘From library ofStrength ofMaterials, S. P. Timoshenko, McGrsw-Hill, New York, 1953.

278 cmwrax 6 TORSIONAL nomnsc or sums
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii P
(H)
T( ___ __ _ __ T
III
IIII
"i _.- _ .-
-_T_ _ —-
7....
H-IIIInuI-I
‘-a '-IIIIIII
IIIIIIIII[-
III IIII
||Iln
FI-._
I IIIIIIII]IIIIIll
| lI(|IIIIIIIl|Iu|,|IIIIIIIl| l'!|]Il ""IIlII11‘
IIIIIlIIIIIIIl l lIIIIIII IIIIIII: ""'IIII"“"niIIIIl"llllllll IIIIIII |.,IIIlEli
--I"”"""
..-
"ll"IIIIIIII._ UIII|III:
"lllllljI-I',III. '~4*
\-41!
""1"9
III:
FEE
3
Figure 6-3
common radius in a plane move to points B’ and D‘ in the same plane and still
on the same radius. The angle 6 is called the angle oftwist. The siuface ABE’ of
Fig. 6-4a is shown in plan view in Fig. 6-4b, in which a differential element of
the material at B (Fig. 6-4c) is distorted at B’ due to shearing stress (Fig. 6-4d).
Clearly, the angle ¢ of Fig. 6-4b is the same as the shearing strain yc ofFig. 6-4d.
Similar figures could be drawn for the surface EDD‘. It is recommended that the
reader review the concept of shearing strain in Section 3-2.
E I
_U 1/’ \
E___ --: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ I '*\ 9

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __/ D \ X
.4 B ~~
B’
(Q) P. W
-2
L
r-=6 \
(=0
g ls
. J B
(b) (6)
Figure 6-4
6-5 TORSIONAL snmnntc srtutss-Ins |z.uis'nc TORSION FOIIMUIA 2 79
At this point the assumption is made that all longitudinal elements (AB, ED,
etc.) have the same length L (which limits the results to straight shafis of constant
diameter). From Fig. 6-4, the shearing strain 1/_,, at a distance p from the center of
the shaft and yc at the surface of the shaft (,0 = c) are related to the angle of twist
6 by
BB’ c9
““"’-r=z§=r
and
DD’ pa
‘M = 5 = T
or, ifthe strain is small (tan y E sin y E y, y inradians),
Ye = %9 (6-2a)
and
Yo = %9 (6-21>)
Combining Eqs. 6-2a and 6-2b gives
6=fi=M
C P
which indicates that the shearing strain
Y9 = §p (6-3)
is zero at the center of the shaft and increases linearly with respect to the distance
p from the axis of the shaft. Equation 6-3 is the result of the deformation analysis
of a circular shaft subjected to torsional loading. This equation can be combined
with Eq. 6-1 once the relationship between shearing stress 1: and shearing strain y
is known.
Up to this point, no assumption has been made about the relationship between
stress and strain or about the type ofmaterial of which the shaft is made. Therefore,
Eq. 6-3 is valid forelastic or inelastic action and for homogeneous orheterogeneous
materials, provided the strains are not too large (tan y E y). Problems in this book
will be assumed to satisfy this requirement.
6-3 TORSIONAL SHEARING STRESS-—'l'HE ELASTIC

TORSION FORMULA
If the assumption is now made that Hooke‘s law applies (the accompanying
limitation is that the stresses must be below the proportional limit of the material),
the shearing stress 1: is related to the shearing strain y by the expression r = Gy
280 cnarrsn 6 TORSIONAL LOADING or sums
In ;
“illiq-
nu
‘III
O
I ‘an QT,
"nu;
'\
"- JA = 2n p dp
(<1) (5)
Figure 6-5
(Eq. 4-lc). Then, multiplying Eq. 6-3 by the shear modulus (modulus of rigidity)
G gives
r
. 1,. = Ftp (6-41
6.1
When Eq. 6-4 is substituted into Eq. 6-l, the result is
1'l=3ffl2d/1=ti[p2dA (=1)
c P
The integral ir1 Eq. (a) is called the polar second moment ofareal and is given the
symbol .I For a solid circular shafi (see Fig. 6-Sa), the polar second momentl is
c Trc-1
J= f pzda =£ p’(2npdp>= 7 (Ma)
For a circular annulus (see Fig. 6-Sb), the polar second moment J is
J=fp‘*dA = fpzihpdp)
b 4 b4
(ass)
=’%-%=%<'I-t-*1
where 1-,, and r,- are the outer and inner radii, respectively, of the circular annulus.
In terms of the polar second moment J, Eq. (a) can be written as
CJ J
or solving for the l1I'l.l(Il0‘Wl1 shearing stress 1:
Ti 7}
r,,=7‘° and r,=7'° (6-6)
zlntegrals ofthe type f 1:2 atA arise often in mechanics and are given the general name second moments
ofarea. Second moments ofarea are discussed fiirther in Chapter 7, where theyare used to relate stresses
to internal forces and moments m ' beams. Second moments o fare a are sometimes (improperly) called
moments ofmerna
' ' 511106
' they are cl ose ly related to the moment ofinertia integral fpz rim, which arises
in dynamics.
6-4 ronsrosu nrsrntcsimsms 281
Like the shearing strain yp, the shearing stress 1:D is zero at the center of the
shaft and increases linearly with respect to the distance p fi'om the axis of the
shaft. Both the shearing strain y and the shearing stress r are maximum when
p = c. Equation 6-6 is known as the elastic torsion formula, ir1 which rp is the
shearing stress on a transverse plane at a distance p from the axis of the shaft,
and T is the resisting torque (the torque produced on the transverse plane by the
shearing stresses). Equation 6-6 is valid for both solid and hollow circular shafts.
The resisting torque T, is generally different than the external torques applied to
various points along the shaft and must be obtained from a free-body diagram
and an equilibrium equation. The procedure for calculating the resisting torque
is illustrated in Example Problem 6-1. Note that Eq. 6-6 applies only for linearly
elastic action in homogeneous and isotropic materials since Hooke’s law 1' = Gy
was used in its development.
6-4 TORSIONAL DISPLACEMENTS

Frequently the amount of twist in a shalt is of paramount importance. Therefore,
determination of the angle of twist is a common problem for the machine de-
signer. The fundamental approach to such problems is provided by the following
equations:
6 d6
V0 = PE QT Y0 Z PE (6-2)
Tp = T
T-‘VP 01'
71¢
Tc : T
G=5 (4-1)
J’
The second form of Eq. 6-2 is used when the torque or the cross section
varies as a function of position along the length of the shalt. Equation 6-2 is valid
for both elastic and inelastic action. Equation 6-6 is the elastic torsion formula that
provides the shearing stress 1:p on a transverse plane at a distance p fi'om the axis of
the shalt. Equation 4-1 is Hooke‘s law for shearing stress. The last two expressions
are limited to stresses below the proportional limit of the material (elastic action).
The three equations can be combined to give several different relationships; for
example,
0=@=E (6-7a)
P G0
Dr
0 = r’—
L (6-71>)
GJ
The angle of twist determined from the above expressions is for a segment
of shaft having a length L, a constant diameter (therefore, J = constant), constant
material properties (G = constant), and carrying a constant resisting torque T,_
The resisting torque T, is the torque produced on the transverse plane by the
shear stresses and is generally different from the extemal torques applied to the
282 cnarrsn 6 TORSIONAL LOADING or stuns
shaft at various sections by gears, pulleys, or couplings. Ideally, the length of the
shaft should not include sections too near (within about one-half shaft diameter of)
places where mechanical devices are attached. For practical purposes, however, it
is customary to neglect local distortions at all connections and to compute angles
as though there were no discontinuities.
If T,, G, orJ is not constant along the length of the shaft, Eq. 6-7b takes the
form
0=
" T-L~ (6-76)
[I
where each term in the summation is for a length L where T,,, G, andJ are constant.
If T,., G, or.I is a function ofx (the distance along the length ofthe shaft), the angle
of twist is found using
l9= L '“Tdx
G,
F? (6-7 <11
Up to this point, no mention has been made of a sign convention for the
internal torque or for the shear stress and the angle of twist in a shaft rmdergoing
torsion. In Eq. 6-6 the signs of the internal torque and the shear stress are often
ignored. Shear stresses in one direction are no better or worse than shear stresses
T -L -
in another direction. In Eq. 6-7c, if the angles of twist 6; = % of each segment
L; are in the same direction, they are simply added together. However, if the angles
of twist of the different segments are not all in the same direction, it is necessary
to decide which angles of twist to call positive and which to call negative.
A common sign convention used in torsion is that the intemal resisting
torque and the angle of twist are considered positive when the vectors representing
them point outward fiom the internal section. Recall that the direction of a torque
(moment) vector or a rotation vector is the axis about which the moment or the
rotation occurs. The sense of the moment or rotation is cormterclockwise when
looking back along the vector toward the internal section. All of the torques and
rotations shown in Figs. 6-6a and c are positive.
The problem with this sign convention (or with any other sign convention) is
that it is not always consistent with the positive direction for shear stress as defined
in Chapter 2. That is, a positive torque acting on a vertical shaft as shown in Fig.
6-6a results in a positive shear stress on an element next to the internal transverse
section as shown in Fig. 6-6b. However, a positive torque acting on a horizontal
shaft as shown in Fig. 6-6c results in a negative shear stress on an element next to
the intemal transverse section as shown in Fig. 6-6d.
In the rest of this chapter, the sign of the internal resisting torque will be
ignored when calculating shear stress (Eq. 6-6), and the direction ofthe shear stress
will be obtained from the direction of the torque} In torque diagrams and in the
calculation of angles of twist, internal resisting torques and angles of twist will
be considered positive when the vectors representing them point outward fi'om the
internal section.
3When the torsional shear stress is combined with normal stresses and other shear-stresses in combined
loading situations, it will be necessary to know the direction ofthe torsional shear stress.
64 ronsronu nrsrm-rcrnnzrrrs 283
i
“if
J
(Q) (bl
\
W l!l‘"i"C
1s kip-in.
20 kip-in. _ 10 kip-in. 10 kip-in.
Figure 6-6
(.5 E c .0 E
I \_./ 6
ss kip-in.
Example Problem 6 1 A steel Sllafi is used to transmit torque
from a motor to operating units in a factory. The torque is input at gear B (see
Fig. 6-7a) and is removed at gears A, C, D, and E. ha
(fll Determine the torques transmitted by transverse cross sections in intervals

AB, BC, CD, and DE of the shaft.
4%
(bl Draw a torque diagram for the shaft. =5‘!Q
SE3 55 kip-in.
SOLUTION ‘S8B
\L_
\—
5'5'
5' ILi-q
L 10 kip-in.
(=1) The torques transmitted by transverse cross sections, or resisting torques, in I

Ten
intervals AB, BC, CD, and DE of the shaft shown in Fig. 6-7a are obtained (“7 | ss kip-in.
by using the four free-body diagrams shown in Figs. 6-7b, c, d, and e. The 20 kip-in. | 10 lrlip-in. 15 kip-in.
internal resisting torques are labeled T45, T59, TCD, and TD); and are drawn
in the positive direction on the free-body diagrams. The moment equilibrium bl? r
equation EM = 0 about the axis of the shaft yields (8) ‘ ss kipin. TE
I l
+ LEM — 0; TAB - 20 = 0 TA, = +Z0.0kip - in. Ans- I
- +20 kip-in.
+tnM=o r,,C-20+ss=0 TB¢=—3S.0kip-in. Ans. k'p-'n.
8*58
O
+LEM=0: T6,,-20+ss-10=0 TCD=—2S.0kip~in. Ans.
Torque _ -as up-is."zsu
in P Eon?’
1“
+iEM=0: rm,--20+5s-10-1s=0 TD),-=—10.00kip-in. Ans- isis
sA s c .0 s
For all of the above calculations, a free-body diagram ofthe part ofthe barto (I)
the left of the transverse section has been used. A free-body diagram of the Figure 6-7
284 crnrrsn 6 ronsronu LOADING or srurrs
pa.rt of the bar to the right of the section would have yielded identical results.
In fact, for the determination of T1;-D and TD5, the free-body diagram to the
right of the section would have been more eflicient since fewer torques would
have appeared on the free-body diagrams.
> II. IS Il'l6 IO1'qLl6S T45, Tgf, T51), and (b) A torque diagram is a graph in which abscissas represent distances along
Tm; shown on the torque diagram (not the the shafi and ordinates represent the internal resisting torques at the corre-
torques applied to the gears) that are used sponding transverse cross sections. Positive torques point outward from the
in the elastic torsion formula (Eqs. 6-6 and cross section when represented as a vector according to the right-hand rule.
6-7) A torque diagram for the shaft of Fig. 6-7a, constructed by using the results
from part (a), is shown in Fig. 6-7f. Note in the diagram that the abrupt
changes in torque are equal to the applied torques at gears A, B, C, D, and E.
Thus, the torque diagram could have been drawn directly below the sketch
of the shaft of Fig. 6-7a, without the aid of the free-body diagrams shown in
Figs. 6-7b, c, d, and e, by using the applied torques at gears A, B, C, D, and
E. However, care must be exercised with the signs used for torques because
Fig. 6-7f represents resisting torques.
1 EXHIIIPIC PIOIIICIII 6-2 A hollow steel shaft with an outside diameter
‘Pt
of-1-00 mmand aninside diameterof300 nun is subjected to atorque of300 kN - n1,
as shown in Fig. 6-8. The modulus of rigidity G (shear modulus) for the steel is
80 GPa. Determine
6.3 (a) The maximum shearing stress in the shaft.
(b) The shearing stress on a transverse cross section at the inside surface of the
shaft.
(c) The magnitude of the angle of twist in a 2-m length.
SOLUTION
6.4
Equations for shearing stress and angle of twist in a circular shaft subjected to
a torque contain the polar second momentJ of the cross section, which is given
by Eq. 6-5b as
J = go; -rf) = goon“ -150‘)

= l7l8.l(lO6)rnn'14 = l7l8.l(lO'°)m4
,’ fa __ _400 mm
oz’ ‘ ~ _\ 300 mm (a) The resisting torque on all cross sections of the shalt is T, = 300 kN ~ m. The
\\ \\
xx \{'
maximum shearing stress occrns on a transverse cross section at the outer
‘\ ‘c \ T=-300 kN‘m
,, \.\
-.\ “
surface of the shaft and is given by Eq. 6-6 as
x ‘n
~
_ cc _ 3o0(101)(2o0)(10-3)
\
1:, _ — _ L
Figurg 6.3 J 171s.1(10"@)
= 34-.92(l0°) N/m2 E 34.9 MPa Ans.
The shear stress on an element at the outside surface is shown in Fig. 6-9.
6-4 ronsronu nrsrnrcsrnzivrs 285
(b) The shearing stress on a transverse cross section at the inner surface of the it
shaft is given by Eq. 6-6 as
I = Tie = 300(103)(1s0)(10-3) L
T5:N d
” J 171s.1(10"‘) <1 ‘C
= 29.19(10s) N/m2 2 26.2 MPa Ans. Figure 6-9
c The an le oftwist in a 2-m len h is 'ven . 6-7b as
( ) g gt gl by Eq P Remember that the angle 6 in Eq. 6-7 is in
9:2 2 30@<1@3><1>
GJ s0(10‘*‘)(171s.1)(10-°)
fiZ"§‘ ;‘il‘.‘.“Tu‘L‘3.“',1.“I f‘§.‘1fLi. ,‘°"‘“. ,.“.T“IE
this case, tan 0.004365 rad = 0.004365, and
= 0.004365 rad 2 0.0043"; rad Ans. "‘° Sm.“ ‘mgle “1’1"°"l‘”“‘i°“ is °"'""i“1Y
appropriate.
1 Example Problem 6-3 A solid steel shaft 14 ft long has a diameter

of6 in. for 9 it of its length and a diameter of4 in. for the remaining 5 it. The 65
shaft is attached to a wall at its left end and is in equilibrium when subjected to
the two torques shown in Fig. 6-10a. The modulus of rigidity (shear modulus) of
the steel is 12,000 ksi. Determine
(a) The maximum shearing stress in the shalt.
(b) The rotation of end B of the 6-in. segment with respect to end A.
(c) The rotation of end C ofthe 4-in. segment with respect to end B. 6_5
(d) The rotation of end C with respect to end A.
.' | 20 kip-ft 6.7

_
I /). J"
\ .
5 kip-ft
"' 6 in. f
A ” 4 in.
0 B 5"‘
a__-__i
(4)
Figure 6-10(0)
SOLUTION
Ln general, free-body diagrams should be drawn to evaluate the resisting torque
in each section of the shaft. Such diagrams are shown in Figs. 6-10b and c in
which TAB and THC are the internal resisting torques in segments AB and BC and
are drawn in the positive direction. From the free-body diagram of Fig. 6-10b,
ZM,=O: T45-+20—5=O T,|3=—l5kip~ft

286 CHAPTER 6 TORSIONAL mmmc or smrrs
TBC = +5
rs.
20 up-n kip'que,fi
D
LA
B C
\- 5 kip“ 5 kip‘fl Tor U\
I \ \
I I," IO
IT”
‘\_' I ' TBC x 15
I43 = —15 kiP‘fi
(5) (C) (4')

Figure 6-l 0(b-d)
From the free-body diagram of Fig. 6-10c,
EM,=0: Tgf—5=0 T3¢=+5kip-ft
A torque diaglam, such as the one shown in Fig. 6-10d, provides a pictorial
representation of the levels of torque being transmitted by each of the sections
and serves as an aid for stress and deformation calculations.
Equations for the shearing stress and angle of twist in a circular shafi
subjected to a torque contain the polar second moment J of the cross section,
which is given by Eq. 6-5a as
13¢ = Zia‘ = %(2“) = 25.13 in.‘
1,1,, = gs‘ = gm‘) = 127.23i11.'*

4.24 ksi
i
(a) The location of the maximum shearing stress is not apparent; hence, the
stress must be checked at both sections. The maximum shearing stress on a
1 75¢N
L
i
transverse cross section occurs at the outer surface of the shaft and is given
by Eq. 6-6 as
T 15 12 3
(B) 1'43 = ’j’c”” = % = 4.244 ksi
AB -
L
T V. s 12 2
TBC = = % = 4.175 ksi
BC -
Fi N L
Therefore,
Ii
4.73 ksi
(f) rm = 1:33 = 4.775 ksi 2 4.78 ksi Ans.
Figure 6-l0(e-f)
The shear stresses r,¢;,- and 1:33 are shown in Figs. 6-10e andf, respectively.
The direction of the shear stresses is the same as the direction of the internal
torques. For use in the stress transformation equations, ‘:45 would be apositive
shear stress and 1: BC would be a negative shear stress.
(b) As the resisting torque of -15 kip - Pt is transmitted fi'om section to section
in segment AB of the shaft, the section at B twists relative to the section at
A by an amount 6 1,-M, as shown on the angle of twist diagram of Fig. 6-10g.
64 ronstowu nisrntcninmrrs 287
9
-.
- C L
IA E:
oflws
_ liC.i4 ‘T \ P
Angle
GM 3;;-_'_‘"‘_—F _ w A 9 A .2 “IQ,-;~ ~ 9c/B.-_ \
acre T ““““““ _ _ _5”" ’ T‘ -__\," by
“ ‘; ‘‘---c r
-- u 90-.4 1' ‘
(8) ( I1)
Figure 6-ll](g-h)
The slope of the angle of twist diagram 65/4/L45 is constant since the term
T/JG (in Eq. 6-7b) is constant. The rotation of the section at B (angle of twist
in the 6-in. section) is given by Eq. 6-7b as
Taslan _ — 15(12)(9)(12)
615/A =
GM,-JAB — l2,000(l27.23)
= —0.0l2733 rad E 0.01273 rad -1‘ — Ans.
(c) Similarly for segment BC,

P Equation 6-7 can be used to calculate the
TBCLBC +5(12)(5)(12) angle of twist of any section of the shaft
BC/'B:i:i relative to any other section of the shafi so
GECJBC l2,000(25. 13)
long as 7} G, and J are all constant on the
= +0.0ll938rad 30.01 l94rad—L— Ans. section.
((1) If there were no resisting torque being transmitted by segment BC, it would
rotate as a rigid body through angle HEM. However, the resisting torque of
5 kip - fi causes the section at C to rotate relative to the section at B by an
amount 65,5 as segment BC deforms, as shown in Fig. 6-10g. The resultant
of the deformations in the two segments of the shafi is
6C,/.4 = 903 + 95/A

= H-0.011938) + (—U.0l2733)
= —O.U00795 rad
= 0.000795 tad —T— ADS.
The deformations for the entire shaft are pictorially shown in Fig. 6-10h.
1 Example Problem 6-4 Two 1.50-in.-diameter steel (G = 12,000

ksi) shafts are cormected with gears, as shown in Fig. 6-lla. The diameters of
gearsB and C are 10 in. and 6 in., respectively. If an input torque of TA = 750 lb -
ft is applied at section A of shaft AB, determine
6.8
(a) The maximum shearing stress on a cross section of shaft CD.
(b) The rotation of section A of shafi AB with respect to its no-load position.
288 CHAPTER 6 TORSIONAL LOADING or srurrs
ft SOLUTION
;;'
i 5 ‘ (a) The torque at sectionD of shafi CD required for equilibrium ofthe system can
,_
,_ l be determined from equilibrium considerations for the two shafts. As an aid
IF-| ~
I_ ______ for these considerations, free-body diagrams for gears B and C are shown in
1-
v-.
=| Figs. 6-l lb and c, respectively. The forces Bx, By, Cx, and Cy are the forces at
=- -—Bearii-lg the frictionless bearings, and do not affect the torque calculations. The input
lc
!-|I|!
torque TA in shalt AB is transferred to shaft CD by means of the gear tooth
force F shown in the two diagrams. Thus, from a summation of moments
4n—>
about the axis of each of the shafts:
(-'1)
For shaftAB, TA — r5-F = 0 (a)
T, to in. Forshaft CD, TD — r¢F = 0 (b)
F By;
Since the force F in Eqs. (a) and (b) must be equal,
N
(5)
TD = (rg/rg)T,1 = (3/5)(750) = 450 lb - ft
N
F The magnitude of the resisting torque on all cross sections of the shaft CD is
6 in. T, = 450 lb ~ it. The maximum shearing stress on a transverse cross section
t 2",, of shaft CD occurs at the outside surface of the shaft and is given by Eq. 6-6
(C) as
Figure 6-l1(a—c)
T,;-Dew _ 4-50(l2)(O.75)
tg Z
Jo.» _ (H/2)(0.75)4
= 8l49psi Z 8l50psi Ans.
(b) The quantities required for the determination for the rotation of section A of
shaft AB with respect to its no-load position are illustrated on the angle of
twist diagram shown in Fig. 6-1 ld. The rotation of the section at C relative
to the section at D in shaft CD is given by Eq. 6-7b as
TCDLCD = -4s0(12)(4)(12) 4 = O_04346md_,_

96/0 =
GCD-ICD 12,000,000(n/2)(0.'1s)
64.3 9
.4
...
+
-1
C7 CD
Ll- I"-
“ — : BUD
Aug
eof
w‘s
'1—I2:—
(I1)
Figure 6-l1(d)
6-4 TORSIONAL nrsrntcsnnmrrs 289
The teeth on gears B and C must move through the same arc length but in
opposite directions. Therefore,
-9 = T393 = F056/0 P The torque TA causes the entire shaft

AB to rotate counterclockwise (when viewed
from end A), and section A rotates further
f1'om which
than does the gear B. However, when gear
B rotates coimterclockwise, gear C rotates
BB = (rc/rB)(9¢-/D) = (3/5)(0.04346) = 0.02608 rad —l— clockwise (again viewed from end C). Thus,
the angle of twist diagram (Fig. 6-1 Id) goes
from a negative angle of twist at C to a pos-
The magnitude of the resisting torque on all cross sections of the shaft AB is
itive angle of twist at B.
T, = 750 lb - ft, and the rotation of the section at A relative to the section at
B in shalt AB is given by Eq. 6-7b as
T L
e,,,_,= '“’ "3 =
1 Sol 12 XSX 12J 4 =0.09054l‘8.d—l.—
6,131.15 l2,000,000(:rr/2)(0.75)
Finally,
9,1 = 63 ‘i-9,4”;
= 0.02608 + 0.09054 = 0.11662 rad = 6.68” —L— A08-
I Example Problem 6-5 The solid circular tapered Shaft ofFig. 6-12
is subjected to end torques applied in transverse planes. Determine the magnitude
of the angle of twist in terms of I L, G, and rt Assume elastic action and a slight
taper.
SOLUTION
Note that Eq. 6-2 was developed assuming that plane cross sections remain plane
and that all longitudinal elements have the same length. Neither ofthese assump-
tions is strictly valid for the tapered shaft, but if the taper is slight, the error
involved is negligible; therefore, from Eqs. 6-2, 6-6, and 4-l,
y T,p Tp 2T r
p x It J J'zp4/2 J'rp3 Y G
p "\-
T \
,"jT'r' I \ T 2’
9.':_-'.’;’.’_.L_
-___ _ ~ ‘ H H‘ ‘ It
_ x
I
._dx
L-is
Figure 6-12
290 CHAPTER 6 ronsronu LOADING or srurrs
Therefore,
r 2T
d6 = Fpdx = —Gnp4dx
The radius p can be expressed as a function ofx; thus,
2 _
p=r—t-LLrx=%(L+x)
Substituting this value for p into the expression for d9 gives
ZTL4
d6 = mdfdx
G:1rr“(L + x)
Integrating to obtain angle 9 yields
2 TL‘ L d 2 TL 4 1 1 7TL
0— x — - An
_ (.1111-J (L +x)4 — —3G:'rr4 (SL3 _ L3) _ 1201» 5'
Altematively, the origin of coordinates can be placed at a distance L to the
lelt of O in Fig. 6-12 (point O’). The function for p then becomes
P’
=*I
’° L
and
9_ 2TL4 ]'2"" dx _ TTL Ans

— Gn'r4 L x4 —l2GJ'rr4 -
1 PROBLEMS
MecMovies Activities and Problems Introductory Problems
MM6.1 Torsion concepts. Concept checkpoints. Basic torsion 6-1* For the steel shalt shown in Fig. P6-l,
problems involving internal torques, shear stress, and angles
a. Determine the torques transmitted by transverse sections in
of twist.
intervals AB, BC, CD, and DE of the shalt.
MM6.2 Gear basics. Theory; Concept checkpoints. Basic gear re- b. Draw a torque diagram for the shalt.
lationships for torque, rotation angle, rotation speed, and power
transmission.
MM6.3 Gear trains: torque and shear stress. Concept check-
points. Basic calculations involving two shafts connected by
gears. so kip-ft 3 E'5! :7 toU1 E T! F?
MM6.4 Gear trains: torque and shear stress. Concept check-

points. Basic calculations involving three shafts connected by
gears.
((6 (E @ @ I@> 100 kip-ft 45 kip-ft
.\‘[M6.5 Gear Trains: angles of twist. Concept checkpoints. Figure P6-1
6-4 ronsronu DISPLACEBIENIS 291
6-2* For the steel shaft shown in Fig. P6-2, a. The maximum shearing stress in the shaft.
b. The magnitude of the angle of twist in a 6-it length of the
a. Draw a torque diagram for the shaft.
shaft.
b. Determine the maximum torque transmitted by any trans-
verse cross section of the shaft. 6-6 A hollow steel shaft has an outside diameter of 120 mm and
an inside diameter of 80 mm. The shaft is subjected to a torque
of 28 kN - rn. The modulus of rigidity (shear modulus) for the
steel is 80 GPa. Determine
so kN-m 1s kN-n1 5 mm
a. The shearing stress on a transverse cross section at the out-
(Q
K @—3
40 ;N_m 10 kN‘l1‘l
side surface of the shalt.
b. The shearing stress on a transverse cross section at the inside
surface of the shalt.
Figure P6-2 c. The magnitude ofthe angle of twist in a 2.0-m length of the
shaft.
d. The magnitude of the angle of twist in a 2.0-m-long solid
shaft that has the same weight as the hollow shaft.
6-3 For the steel shalt shown in Fig. P6-3,
6-7* Specifications for a solid circular aluminum alloy (G =
a. Draw a torque diagram for the shalt.
4000 ksi) rod 6.5 ft long require that it be adequate to resist a
b. Determine the maximum torque transmitted by any trans-
torque of 2200 lb - it without twisting more than 5" or exceed-
verse cross section of the shaft.
ing a shearing stress of 14.5 ksi. What minimum diameter is
required‘?
6-8 A torque of 10 kN - m is supplied to the steel (G = 80 GPa)
10 kip-it l5 kiprfi 20 kip-it factory drive shaft of Fig. P6-8 by a belt that drives pulley A. A
torque of 6 kN - m is taken off by pulley B and the remainder
by pulley C. Shafts AB and AC are 2.25 m long and 1.60 m
long, respectively. If the diameter of shaltAB is 80 mm and the
diameter of shaft AC is 65 mm, determine
Figure P6-3 a. The maximum shearing stress in each of the shalts.
b. The angle of twist of pulley B with respect to pulley A.
c. The angle of twist of pulley C with respect to pulley B.
6-4* The motor shown in Fig. P6-4 supplies a torque of 500 N - m
to the shalt BCDE. The torques removed at gears C, D, and E
are 100 N - m, 150 N - m, and 250 N - m, respectively. A
B .
V/-Bearing
C
a. Determine the torques transmitted by cross sections in in-
tervals BC, CD, and DE of the shaft.
b. Draw a torque diagram for the shalt.
|E@_s - - - - ...
Figure P6-8
3 = ‘Z-
1". __
@- __
|=1-
-I
1:1 1: :
|:
6-9* The shaft shown in Fig. P6-9 consists of a brass (G = 5600
ksi) tube AB that is securely connected to a solid stainless-steel
(G = 12,500 ksi) bar BC. Tube AB has an outside diameter of
Figure P6-4 5 in. and an inside diameter of2.5 in. Bar BC has a diameter
of 3.5 in. Torques T1 and T2 are 70 kip - in. and 30 kip - in.,
respectively, in the directions shown. Determine
6-5 A solid circular steel shalt 2 in. in diameter is subjected to a a. The maxtrntnn shearing stress in the shaft.
torque of 18,000 lb - in. The modulus of rigidity (shear modu- b. The rotation of a section at C with respect to its no-load
lus) for the steel is 12,000 ksi. Determine position.
292 CHAPTER 6 ronsronsr mmrnc or smrrs
B:—1 /
‘B-Carin3
I
|:\"._\
.(_\.
T1
/ . _ A I; C Ir’ .
<\2ft ‘L’
1 _l1 Itgin PII _1'§1__l| !
B T2
: _ |_ § =
\3ii\
\/ C
Figure P6-12
Figure P6-9
6-13 A solid circular alrnninum alloy (G = 4000 ksi) shaft with
6-10* The solid circular steel (G = 80 GPa) shalt of Fig. P6-10 diameters of 2.5 in. and 1.75 in. is subjected to a torque T, as
has a diameter of 100 mm If the gears are spaced at 1.50-m shown in Fig. P6-13. The allowable shearing stress is 8000 psi,
intervals, determine and the maximum allowable angle of twist in the 7-ft length is
a. The maximum shearing stress in the shalt. 0.04 rad. Determine the maximum allowable value of T
b. The rotation of a section at D with respect to a section at B.
c. The rotation of a section at E with respect to a section at A. '' 2.5 in.
I
1.75 in.
ease?
8 kN-rn 15 kN-m 6 kN-m _ I
/1f__ ' _ \
- ._ 1
"'——~,.z_____ ______4
B fi_____ I. I’ T c
______?/
Figure P6-13
Figure P6-10
6-14 A stepped steel (G = 80 GPa) shaft has the dimensions and
6-ll The hollow circular steel (G = 12,000 ksi) shaft ofFig. P6-l 1 is subjected to the torques shown in Fig. P6-14. Determine
is in equilibrium under the torques indicated. Determine a. The maximum shearing stress on a section 3 m from the left
end of the shalt.
a. The maximum shearing stress in the shalt.
b. The rotation of a section 2 m fi'om the left end of the shaft
b. The rotation of a section at D with respect to a section at B.
with respect to its no-load position.
c. The rotation of a section at D with respect to a section at A.
c. The rotation of the section at the right end of the shalt with
9 kip-it respect to its no-load position.
~ {P Q
at ‘ i 1 kip-ft A 1601'”
‘Q5 fi \____\10l(ip-it l35kN-m-- -.,_\H\ \\—
lwqgfl in
I
m -- room "1 159"’
rt. fab 1,-
U I
lh no
1.s$ * if
' 4 tn. 20 kN-m
”\i/
2m 1)
Figure P6-ll / .1 E
0.5 m S kN-m
6-12* A motor supplies a torque of 5.5 kN - m to the constant Figure P6-14
diameter steel (G = 80 GPa) line shalt shown in Fig. P6-12.
Three machines are driven by the gears B, C, and D on the 6-15* A torque T is applied to the right end of shalt AB of
shalt, and they require torques of 3.0 kN - m, 1.5 kN - rn, and Fig. P6-15. The mean diameter of bevel gear C is twice that of
1.0 kN - m, respectively. Determine bevel gear B. Both shafts are made of steel (G = 12,000 ksi).
a. The minimum diameter required if the maximum shearing Shaft.-1B has a diameter of 1.5 in., and shalt CD has a diameter
stress in the shaft is limited to 100 MPa. of 2.0 in. If the maximum shearing stress in either shaft must
b. The rotation of gear D with respect to the coupling at A if not exceed 15 ksi, determine
the coupling and gears are spaced at 2-m intervals and the a. The maximum permissible torque T
shalt diameter is 75 rmn. b. The rotation of a section at A relative to its no-load position.
6-4 ronsrowu ursrucstmms 293
__ 6-18* The motor shown in Fig. P6-18 supplies a torque of

D 45 kN - m to shaft AB. Two machines are powered by gears
D and E. The torque delivered by gear E to the machine is
3 ft 8 kN - m. ShaftsAB and DCE are made of steel (G = 80 GPa)
Bearing and have 150-mm and 80-mm diameters, respectively. If the
__,_ C diameters of gears B and C are 450 mm and 150 mm, respec-
B A tively, determine
a. The maximum shearing stress in shaft AB.
Littflgrl b. The l'i13.X.lIT1lll'f1 shearing stress in shaft CDE.
Figure P6-15 c. The rotation of gear E relative to gearD.
6-16 The solid circular shaft and the hollow tube shown in T2mi1
Fig. P6-16 are both attached to a rigid circular plate at the left \ _ ‘ B /-Bearing
end. A torque TA = 2 kN - m applied to the right end ofthe shaft
is resisted by a torque T5 at the right end of the tube. The shaft
is made of steel (G = 80 GPa) and the tube is made of an alu-
j!&E‘;1—it—”—i—1#--t
minum alloy (G = 28 GPa). Ifthe shaft has a diameter of50 mm __, I ,_ ; C ,_ '_ E ,_
and the tube has an outside diameter of 80 mm, determine Elllg _ 111' £111 I El!‘
a. The maximum inside diameter that can be used for the tube
L~l.5m—»Li2.5 n1
if the maximum shearing stress in the tube must be limited
to 50 Ml-‘a. Figure P6-18
b. The maximum inside diameter that can be used for the tube
if the rotation of the right end of the shaft with respect to
the right end of the tube must be limited to 0.25 rad. 6-19 Torque is applied to the steel (G = 11,600 ksi) shaft shown
in Fig. P6-19 through gear C and is removed through gears
»~\
t
4"-.
-.
A and B. If the torque applied to gear C by the motor is
\\
~,~.
1H 8800 lb - ft and the torque removed through gear B is 5200
1’!
I’
/‘K
\
/
I’rr"/I
"llI’1/ 11 lb - ft, determine
x/ 1" /"'1:':11,I, E?-‘
2.5m._\. /,. TA_ . ’ a. The minimum permissible diameter for each section of the
‘M. / shaft if the maximum shearing stresses must not exceed
we P4
1.0 m /-" X 18 ksi.
8/ b. The minimum permissible uniform diameter for a shalt with
Figure P6-16 L1 = 5 ft and L; = 4 it if the rotation ofgear/f relative to
gear C must be less than 0.15 rad.
6-17* A torque of 30 lb - ft is applied through gearA to the left
end of the gear train shown in Fig. P6-17. The diameters of D —~ !_l-Iii-| ||
gears B and C are 5 in. and 2 in., respectively. If the mmdmum
shearing stresses in the aluminum alloy (G = 3800 ksi) shafts C—---» E‘
AB and CD are limited to 12 ksi, determine lit:
a. The min.imu.m permissible diameter for shalt AB.
b. The minimum permissible diameter for shalt CD.
c. The maximum length for shaft CD ifthe rotation ofa section
at D with respect to a section at C must not exceed 0.5 rad.
GE is ii ._bZ)I
0 D DJ
I
/on
‘ U7 =fl1‘i11B
B |i
A
,, _ I
I ‘
—‘.‘wfl|-l_:- “ ' /' ug L1 L2 A
/ D Figure P6-19
C-‘e -ii;_—;i~-Il-
,
6-20* The solid circular tapered shaft of Fig. P6-20 is subjected
2 fi iei L i> to a constant torque TI Determine the angle of twist in terms of
Figure P6-17 I L, G, r, and m.
294 cruumas 6 ronsroxu mmmc or snxrrs
? ‘ {K m + mL T’ t is small
I r \, I
//i /, 1 kl’ //5
(xx ”':\\
\ ~\ .
‘~\. L _
\\ L -K
\\._\ / \‘\\
‘x ___/ \_\ /.
\» " T 8/ r
6-24 The solid cylindrical shaft of Fig. P6-24 is subjected to a

6-21 The solid cylindrical shaft of Fig. P6-21 is subjected to a distributed torque that varies linearly from zero at the left end
tmiforrnly distributed torque of q. Determine the rotation ofthe to q at the right end. Determine the rotation of‘the left end of‘the
left end of‘ the shaft caused by the distributed torque q. Express shaft caused by the distributed torque q. Express your answer
your answer in terms ofq, L, G, and c. The dimensions of q are in terms of q, L, G, and c. The dimensions ofq are moment per
moment per unit of length. unit of length.
Torque distribution .\
Torque distribution-\\ . Tq
_ Q
l))))))l) lllllllll
Figure P6-24
Figure P6-21
Computer Problems
6-22 The tapered circular shaft of Fig. P6-22 has an axial hole 6-25 A hollow circular steel (G = 11,000 ksi) shaft 3 ft long is
of constant diameter throughout its length. Determine the an- being designed to transmit a torque T of" 3000 lb - ft. The outer
gle of twist due to a constant torque T in terms of 7} L. G, R, radius 1-,, of‘the shaft can vary, but the cross-sectional areaA of
and r. the shalt mustremain constant (A = 3 in. 2). Calculate and plot
a. The angle of‘ twist 6 for the 3-ft length as a function of the
ri’
outer radius r, (1 in. 5 r, 5 4 in.).
b. The maximtun shearing stress rt! in the shaft as a fimction
1?)?
1 "J \
of the outer radius r,, (1 in. 5 ro 5 4 in.).
.- 3\\\‘\
K
/ \ ~.
‘~,_ “-. \
6-26 A hollow circular brass (G = 40 GPa) shaft 2 m long is
-
“‘\ * -. ~ ._ R being designed to transmit a torque T of 7500 N - m. The outer
XX. \ \ \ \ \ \D \ -. \ "
radius r, of the shaft must be fixed (r,, = 50 mm); however,
L _\ ‘* . ‘ ._ .
‘\ \ the inner radius r,- of the shalt can vary (0 mm 5 r,- 5 45 mm).
XX‘ Calculate and plot
T a. The angle of twist 6 for the 2-m length as a function of the
Figure rs-22 radius ratio r,»/rfl (0 5 r,-/r,, 5 0.9).
b. The maximum shearing stress rt‘ in the shaft as a fimction
of the radius ratio r,-fr, (0 5 r,- I ra 5 0.9).
6-23* The hollow tapered shaft of Fig. P6-23 has a constant wall
6-27 A hollow circular steel (G = 11,000 ksi) shaft 3 ft long is
thickness I. Determine the angle of twist for a constant torque
being designed to transmit a torque T of 3000 lb - ft. The wall
T in terms of I L, G, t, and :2 Note that when t is small, the
thickness of the shalt is 0.25 in.
approximate expression for the polar second moment of area
(J = r2 A where A is the cross-sectional area of the shaft) may a. Calculate and plot the angle of twist 6 for the 3-ft length as
be used. a function of the outer radius ro (0.5 in. 5 ro 5 3 in.).
6-5 snuzssss on oturquu PLANES 295
b. Calculate and plot the maximum shearing stress rt in the

shaft as a function of the outer radius r,, (0.5 in. 5 r,, 5
3 in.).
c. Since increasing the outside radius of‘ the shaft increases its
weight and cost, what do you think would he a reasonable B
minimmn value for the outside radius?
C
6-28 The shaft of Fig. P6-28 is tl.l.l'[18d out of aluminum (G = 1-sag
28 GPa). Section AC is 1.5 m long and 100 mm in diameter CK
(AB is hollow, and BC is solid); section CD is 0.50 m long and
2500 N-rn
75 mm in diameter.
a. If the diameter of the hole from A to B is 75 mm, calculate
and plot the angle of‘ twist 6 ,,_,_, as a function of the distance D
LAB (0 m 5 LAB 5 1.4 m).
b. Repeat for a 90-mm-diameter hole. Figure P648
6-5 STRESSES ON OBLIQUE PLANES \
At this point it is necessary to ascertain whether the transverse plane is a plane of \

/ T
maximum shearing stress and whether there are other significant stresses induced
T __
by torsion. For this study, the stresses at point A in the shaft of Fig. 6-13a will -..__
be analyzed. Figure 6-13b shows a differential element taken from the shafi at I‘R-h\.\\
: U:_-="\\Q
A and the stresses acting on transverse and longitudinal planes. The shearing
stress txy can be determined by means of the torsion formula.“ The equality of
shearing stresses on orthogonal planes was previously discussed in Section 2-5 (see
Eq. 2-11).
(H)
WI .
= Txv (6'8)
\\ ‘>1
Therefore, if a shearing stress exists at a point on any plane, a shearing stress of \

\
the sarrie magnitude must also exist at this point on an orthogonal plane. This
ct. \
statement is also valid when normal stresses are acting on the planes, since the \
normal stresses occur in collinear but oppositely directed pairs, and thus they have ‘—1‘— )5? ‘
zero moment with respect to any axis.
The normal stress 0,, and the shear stress r,,, on the inclined plane of Fig. (bl
6-13c can be found by using the stress transformation equations (Eqs. 2-12 and
2-13). The stresses and angle for use in these equations are z\""
0',=0 Uy=0 Txy='lIyX 6:0!

Tn r
fl
on /
Equations 2-12 and 2-13 then give ' or
rxy
0,, = 0,, co52 6 +0). sin? 9 +21:,_,. sin6 oosfl (a)

=0+0+2r,ysinacosa =21:,,ysino'coso¢ I
1:),
‘The torque T is generated by a shear stress r,,. = Tc/J’. For the applied torque of Fig. 6-13a, the shear (C)
stress will act in the direction shown on Fig. 6-13b (which is in the positive sense as defined in Section Figure 6-13
2-8). The double subscript naming convention for the shear stress was described in Section 2-7.
WI-\ :0
Slrcss
riri
QQ 4s LA 0__ \O ca ' 135° l ED @ D é
___0
—-:9, - - — — — — - — - — — - — - — - — — - — - — -————-—-———— -————-—
Figure 6-14
and
rm = -(0, — a_,.) sin 9 cos 9 + r,_,,(cos2 6 — sinz 6) (b)

= 0 + r,y(cos2 a — sinz or) = r,y(cos2 or — sinz or)
Expressing Eqs. (a) and (b) in terms of the double angle 20¢ yields
0,, = rxy sin 2a (6-9)

r,,, = rxy cos 20: (6-10)
In Eqs. 6-9 and 6-10, 0,, is the normal stress on the inclined plane and r,,,
is the shearing stress on the same plane. The shearing stress 1:X, is found using
the elastic torsion formula (Eq. 6-6). At a given point of the circular shafi tn. is
constant, and thus Eqs. 6-9 and 6-10 show that the stresses 0,, and r,,, are functions
of the angle of the inclined plane ct. The results obtained from Eqs. 6-9 and 6-10
are shown on the graph of Fig. 6-14, from which it is apparent that the maximum
shearing stress occurs on both transverse (0: = 0) and longitudinal (a = 90“) planes.
The graph also shows that maximum normal stresses occur on planes oriented at
45° with the axis of the bar and perpendicular to the surface of the bar. On one of
these planes (oz = 45‘ on Fig. 6-14), the normal stress is tension, and on the other
(oz = 135“), the normal stress is compression. Furthermore, all of these maximum
stresses have the same magnitude; hence, the elastic torsion formula gives the
magnitude of both the maximum normal stress and the maximum shearing stress
at a point in a circular shaft subjected to pure torsion (the only loading is a torque).
Any of the stresses discussed previously may be significant in a given prob-
lem. Compare, for example, the failures shown in Fig. 6-15. In Fig. 6-15a, the steel
rear axle of a truck split longitudinally. One would also expect this type of failure
to occur in a shaft of wood with the grain running longitudinally. In Fig. 6-15b, the
compressive stress caused the thin-walled aluminum alloy tube to buckle along one
45° plane, while the tensile stress caused tearing on the other 45° plane. Buckling of
thin-walled tubes subjected to torsional loading is a matter of pararnoimt concern
to the designer. In Fig. 6- 1 Sc, the tensile stresses caused the gray cast iron barto fail
in ter1sion—typical of any brittle material subjected to torsion. In Fig. 6-15d, the
low-carbon steel bar failed in shear on a plane that is almost transverse—a typical
failure for a ductile material. The reason the fracture in Fig. 6-15d did not occur
on a transverse plane is that under the large plastic twisting deformation before
as srruzssss or ontrqurr PLANES 297
(11)
(5)
(C)
(<1)
"'
Figure 6-15
rupture (note the spiral lines indicating elements originally parallel to the axis ofthe
bar), longitudinal elements were subjected to both torsion and axial tensile loading
because the grips of the testing machine would not permit the bar to shorten as
the elements were twisted into spirals. This axial tensile stress changes the plane
of maximum shearing stress from a transverse to an oblique plane (resulting in a
warped surface of rupture).5 This will be discussed in later sections of this book.
1 Example Problem 6-6 A cylindrical tube is fabricated by buttweld-

ing a 6-mm-thick steel plate along a spiral seam, as shown in Fig. 6-16. If the If - l50||vrnnr
maximum compressive stress inthe tube must be limited to 80 MPa, determine I
F. /"X
(a) The maximum torque T that can be applied to the tube. T‘ Weld \ T
(b) The factor of safety with respect to failure by fracture for the weld, when a
torque of 12 kN - m is applied, if the ultimate strengths of the weld metal are
xx‘ ‘-
205 MPa in shear and 345 MPa in tension.
SOLUTION Figure 6-16
(a) For the cylindrical tube,
J = gt/5" - 59“) = 14.096(10°)mm“ = 14.O96(1O_6)m4
The magnitude of the maximum compressive stress in the tube is given by

Eq. 6-6 (see Fig. 6-14) as
T
Umax = T9 = fi = s0MPa = s0(10°)N/m2
5"I‘he tensile stress is not entirely due to the grips because the plastic deformationof the outer elements
ofthe bar is considerably greater than that of the inuerelements. This results in a spiral tensile stress in
the outer elements and a similaroompressive stress in the inner elements.
298 CHAPTER6 TORSIONAL LOADING OF SI'lAFI‘S
P Recall that for a shalt in pure torsion, Thus,

the maximum shearing stress, the maxi-
mum tensile normal stress, and the maxi- T _ T _ a,..,,J _ s0(10°)(14.096)(10"°)
mum compressive normal stress all have the ’““" _ ’ _ C — 7s(10-3)
same value; = 15.036(l03) N-mg 15.04 kN-m Ans.
Tc = UmaxT : Urnaxf = (b) The normal stress on and the shear stress r,,, on the weld surface are given
by Eqs. 6-9 and 6-10. The clockwise torque T = 12 kN - m on the right
end of the shaft causes a negative resisting torque T, = -12 kN - m, to
be felt at each cross section of the shaft. But for the purpose of Eqs. 6-9
P In pure torsion the normal stresses 0, and and 6-10 this negative resisting torque is generated by a positive shear stress
0,. are both zero, and the stress transforma- _ 12(10*)(0.075)
tion equations (Eqs. 2-12 and 2-13) reduce T" _ 14.096(10-6) '
to Eqs. 6-9 and 6-10 only for the case of
pure torsion. Equations 6-9 and 6-10 must r 12 10’ 75 10"’
not be used for axially loaded problems or On = Txy S111 20! = fie Sill 20! = Sill 2(60u)
any other more general loading situations.
= 55.29(10°)Nxm2 = 55.29 MPa (T)
T 12 10* 75 10-3
rm = Try cos 20: = %c cos 20: = cos 2(60")
= —3l.92(10")N/m2 = -31.92 MIPa

The minus sign indicates that the direction of rm is opposite to that shown
on Fig. 6-13c.
The factor of safety with respect to failure by fracture (normal stress)
for the weld is
345 =ts.24
Fs, = ?= 5529
,, .
The factor of safety with respect to failure by fi"acture (shear stress) for the
weld is
FS, = E = 205 = 6.42

r,,, 31.92
Therefore, the overall factor of safety with respect to failure for the weld
surface is the smaller of FSC, and FS,, or
FS = FS, = 6.24 Ans.
1 PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems a. The maximum tensile stress in section AB of the shalt.
b. The maximum compressive stress in section BC ofthe shaft.
6-29* A solid circular steel (G = 12,000 ksi) shaft with diameters c. The rotation of a section at C with respect to its no-load
as shown in Fig. P6-29 is subjected to a torque T = 15 kip - in. position.
Determine
es snuzssss or canons PLANES 299
3 in
\ 3 it , I ,1-I‘
r= 1.5 kN-m
T=151tip-in. "gm
4 rt )
\/ R ‘X' _- B
6-30* Determine the maximum torque that can be resisted

by a hollow circular shaft having an inside diameter of Intermediate Problems
50 mm and an outside diameter of 90 mm without exceed-
ing a normal stress of 75 MPa (T) or a shearing stress of 6-33* The motor shown in Fig. P6-33 develops a torque T =
80 MPa. 1500 lb - R; the output torques from gears C and D are equal.
The meandiameters ofgearsA andBa1-e12 in. and4in., re-
6-31 A cylindrical tube is fabricated by butt-welding a 0.075-in»
spectively. If the diameter of the motor shaft is 2 in. and the
thick plate with a spiral steam, as shown in Fig. P6-31. A
diameter of the power shafl is 1.25 in., determine
torque T is applied to the tube through a rigid plate. If the
outside diameter of the tube is 1.50 in. and T = 1000 lb - in., a. The torque in the power shalt between gears B and C.
determine b. The torque in the power shafl between gears C and D.
c. The maximum tensile and compressive stresses in each
a. The normal stressperpendicularto the weld and the shearing
shafi.
stress parallel to the weld.
b. The maximum tensile and compressive stresses in the tube.
Rigid
plate
§IiEI!blv!,
;; GearA l
' :- GearC Geal'D
| 1:11
Figure P6-33
Figure P6-31
6-34* A solid circular structural steel (see Appendix B for

6-32 The hollow circular steel (G = 80 GPa) shah shown in
properties) shaft is securely fastened to a solid cold-rolled
Fig. P6-32 has an outside diameter of 120 mm and an inside
bronze shafl, as indicated in Fig. P6-34. For the steel, the al-
diameter of 60 mm. Determine
lowable normal stress is 125 MPa and the allowable shear-
a. The maximum compressive stress in the shalt. ing stress is 75 MPa; for the bronze, the allowable nor-
b. The maximum compressive stress in the shalt after the inside mal stress is 260 MPa and the allowable shearing stress is
diameter is increased to 100 mm. 150 MPa. The allowable angle of twist in the 3.5-m length
c. The rotation of end B with respect to its no-load position for is 2.S°. Determine the maximum permissible value of the
the conditions of parts a and b. torque T.
300 crnvrrart 6 ronsroxu Lomrnc or sums
400 N 600 N
' , ‘Bronze
5/ 160 rnrn
' 31- /- Steel /'
2000 N 3000 N
_ \v Vii" l00_mm T
" I
A6" 2 m -__ if ,»
—___‘_-~,-C;->___
L, —_._
B
~- 1.5 rrt
_%¥_11-—?____g
4,--
‘
0 0 tc 0 Tg
Figure rs-34
25$] N 3011!) N 100 N
6-35 The hollow circular steel (G = 12,000 ksi) shaft of
Fig. P6-35 is in equilibrirun under the torques indicated. 500 N 600 N 500 N
a. The maximum compressive stress in the shaft at a point near
the outside stuface of the shaft. Challenging Problem
b. The maximum compressive stress in the shalt at a point near
the inside surface of the shaft. 6-37 When the two torques shown in Fig. P6-37 are applied to
c. The rotation of end D with respect to end A. the steel (G = 12,000 ksi) shalt, point A moves 0.172 in. in the
direction indicated by torque T1. Determine
s kip-it a. The torque T1.
/I \ Q‘
l\-7 b. The maximum tensile stress in section BC of the shaft.
“—
10 1tip'it
\ c. The maximum compressive stress in section CD ofthe shaft.
1 I 11
.-~":—-3fi__A__./
- -I1-._f'-_'__:- T“-ad
T“ \"'1
~ I ‘ " _l _»21n.
‘TX5?;
-r------5a__ ../ 7—----
4 it __f-I -.-
/""'—-_
$“‘|lL—;’
_
4-0'6 am
:" D
D
Figure P6-35 4 in.
--:. \-~ ../
\.
6-36 Five 600-mm-diameter pulleys are keyed to a 40-min- l“*-.,, 9000 lb-ft
diameter solid steel (G = 76 GPa) shaft, as shownin Fig. P6-36. ‘\
The pulleys carry belts that are used to drive machinery in a

48in. ,
'“"~\ "T Zin. -1
factory. Belt tensions for normal operating conditions are in- a, ,4,--'
dicated on the figure. Each segment of the shaft is 1.5 m long. ‘-..__ "~> , " em.
Determine
a. The maximtun shearing stress in each segment of the shaft.
R24 in.aw / /_, BI
b. The maximum tensile and compressive stresses in the shaft. ~"‘~1/-'4 T1
c. The rotation ofend E with respect to end A. Figure P6-37
6-6 POWER TRANSMISSION

One of the most common uses for the circular shaft is the transmission of power;
therefore, no discussion oftorsion would be adequate without including this topic.
69 Power is the time rate of doing work, and the basic relationship for work done by
a constant torque is Wt = T¢ where Wt is work and ¢ is the angular displacement
of the shaft in radians. The time derivative of this expression gives
Power: -07* = TI? = Tm

aw a’ (6-11)
where a'W;,1/dt is power in lb - ft per nrirrute (or similar units), T is a constant torque
6'10 in lb - it, and cu is the angular velocity of the shaft (assumed constant) in radlmin.
6-6 rowan TRANSMISSION 301
All units, of course, may be changed to any other consistent set of units. Since the
angular velocity is usually given in revolutions per minute (rpm), the conversion
of revolutions to radians will often be necessary. Also, in the English system of
units, power is usually given in units of horsepower, and the relation 1 hp = 33,000
lb - fi/min will be found useful. In the International (SI) system of units, power is
‘Pm
6.11
given in watts [N ~ mfs). Solution of a power transmission problem is illustrated in
the following example problem.
1 Example Problem 6-7 A diesel engine for 8. small commercial boat

operates at 200 rpm and delivers 800 hp through a gearbox with a ratio of 4 to
ll!at
1 to the propeller as shown in Fig. 6-17. Both the shaft from the engine to the Motor
gearbox and the propeller shalt are to be solid and made of heat-treated alloy 5/’
steel. Determine the minimum permissible diameters for the two shafis if the Gear
allowable shearing stress is 20 ksi and the angle of twist in a 10-fi length of
I-‘I-151 Propeller -i_ .
the propeller shaft is not to exceed 4°. Neglect power loss in the gearbox and _n=
F
assume (incorrectly because ofthrust stresses) that the propeller shaft is subjected
to pure torsion.
SOLUTION
The first step is the determination of the torques to which the shafts are to be Figure 6-17
subjected. By means of the expression, power = Tco, the torques are obtained as
follows:
P The angular velocity at in Eq. 6-11 must
be in either radians per second or radians
800(33,000) = T1(200)[2:r)
per minute; 1 revolution equals 2 J’! radians.
from which
T, = 2l,010lb- it
which is the torque at the crank shaft of the engine. Because the propeller shafi P Note that specifying the power that the
speed is four times that of the crank shaft and power loss in the gearbox is to shaft must transmit is just another way of
be neglected, the torque on the propeller shalt is one-fourth that on the crank specifying the torque that the shalt must
shafi and is equal to 5252 lb - ft. The torsion formula can be used to deter- withstand. After determining the torque
mine the shaft sizes necessary to satisfy the stress specification. For the main from the given power, the application of
shafi, the shearing stress equation (Eq. 6-6) and
the angle of twist equation (Eq. 6-7) is the
same as in previous examples.
.1 _ 5 _ 21,010(12) _ (1/2)¢§
¢ I 20003) cl
cf = 8.024 and C] = 2.002 in.
or the shaft fi'0m the engine to the gearbox should be
d = 2c| = 2(2.002) = 4.004 in. 1' 4.00 in. Ans.
The torque on the propeller shaft is one-fourth that on the main shaft, and
this is the only change ir1 the expression for cf; therefore,
cg = 8.024/4 C2 = 1.2612 in.

302 crmrrsn 6 ronsronu LOADING or srurrs
The size of the propeller shaft needed to satisfy the distortion specification
is found using Eq. 6-7b.
ILL
6=—
JG
.7! s2s2(12)(10)(12)
E01) = i
(M2/2)(12)(19 )
cg = 5.747 Cg = 1.5483 > 1.2612
Therefore, the propeller shaft must be

d = 20; = 2(l.5483) = 3.0966 in. '5 3.l0in. Ans.
1 PROBLEMS
MecM0vie Activities and Problems 6-42 A solid circular steel (G = 80 GPa) shaft 1.5 m long trans-
mits 200 kW at a speed of 400 rpm. If the allowable shearing
MM6.6 Gear trains: power transmission (two shafts). Concept stress is 70 MPa and the allowable angle of twist is 0.045 rad,
checkpoints. Basic calculations involving power transmission determine
in two shafts connected by gears.
a. The minimum permissible diameter for the shaft.
N[M6.7 Gear trains: power transmission (three shafts). Concept b. The speed at which this power can be delivered if the shear-
checkpoints. Basic calculations involving power transmission ing stress is not to exceed 50 MPa in a shaft with a diameter
in three shafts connected by gears. of 75 mm.
6-43 The engine of an automobile supplies 162 hp at 3800 rpm
Introductory Problems to the drive shaft. If the maximum shearing stress in the drive
shaft must be limited to 5 ksi, determine
6-38* The shaft of a diesel engine is being designed to transmit
240 kW at l 80 rpm. Determine the minimum diameter required a. The minimum diameter required for a solid drive shaft.
if the maximum shearing stress in the shaft is not to exceed b. The maximum inside diameter permitted for a hollow drive
80 MPa. shaft if the outside diameter is 3 in.
c. The percentage savings in weight realized ifthe hollow shaft
6-39 A steel (G = 12,000 ksi) shaft with a 4-in. diameter must is used instead of the solid shaft
not twist more than 0.06 rad in a 20-ft length. Determine the
maximum power that the shaft can transmit at 270 rpm. 6-44 A hollow shaft of aluminum alloy (G = 28 GPa) is to |:rans-
mit l200 kW at 1800 rpm. The shearing stress is not to exceed
100 MPa, mid the angle of twist is not to exceed 0.20 rad in a
Intermediate Problems 3-m length. Determine the minimtun permissible outside diam-
eter if the inside diameter is to be three-fourths of the outside
6-40* A 3-m long hollow steel (G = 80 GPa) shaft has an out- diameter.
side diameter of 100 mm and an inside diameter of 60 mm.
The maximtnn shearing stress in the shaft is 80 MPa, and the 6-45* A motor delivers 350 hp at 1800 rpm to a gearbox, which
angular velocity is 200 rpm. Determine reduces the speed to 200 rpm to drive a ball mill. If the maxi-
mum shearing stress in the steel shafts (G = 12,000 ksi) is not
a. The power being transmitted by the shaft. to exceed 15 ksi and the angle of twist in a 10-ft length is not to
b. The magnitude of the angle of twist in the shaft. exceed 0.10 rad, determine the minimum permissible diameter
6-41* The hydraulic turbines in a water-power plant rotate for each of the shafts.
at 60 rpm and are rated at 20,000 hp. The 30-in.-diameter
shaft between the turbine and the generator is made of steel
(G = 12,000 ksi) and is 20 ft long. Determine Challenging Problems
a. The maximum shearing stress in the shaft at rated load. 6-46* A motor supplies 200 kW at 250 rpm to gearA of the fac-
b. The angle of twist in the 20-ft length at rated load. tory drive shaft shown in Fig. P6-46. Gears B and C transfer
6-1 STATICALLY INDE‘l'ERltflNATE MEMBERS 303
125 kW, and 75 kW, respectively, to operating machinery 6 ft s rt st 4 it 1

in the factory. For an allowable shearing stress of 75 MPa, us teeth ,
determine |I'l-I.‘ til‘ —_Uil—:[-1 It
Motor -__ ‘ ~ :- T ._
a. The minimum permissible diameter d1 for shaft AB. GearA GearB
h. The minimum permissible diameter dg for shaft BC.
c. The rotation of gear C with respect to gear A if both shafts
are made of steel (G = 80 GPa) and have diameters of " 96 teeth
75 mm.
Figure P6-47
6-48 A motor provides 180 kW of power at 400 rpm to the drive

A B Bearing -~ C shafts shown in Fig. P6-48. The maximum shearing stress in
d1 dz the three solid steel (G = 80 GPa) shafts must not exceed
l .l 70 MPa. Gears A, B, and C supply 40 kW, 60 kW, and 80 kW,
respectively, to operating units in the plant. Determine
l
a. The minimum satisfactory diameter for shaft D.
b. The minimum satisfactory diameter for shaft E.
1 lm - 2m aim c. The minimum satisfactory diameter for shaft E
Figure P6-46
2.50 m T 2 m 2.25 rn
24 teeth -- Tl
-gt?‘ D 'g|
' | ‘. ‘ Geanl
6-47 The motor shown in Fig. P6-47 develops 100 hp at a speed of '\ |
360 rpm. Gears A and B deliver 40 hp and 60 hp, respectively,
to operating units in a factory. Ifthe maximum shearing stress
in the shafts must be limited to 12 ksi, determine - 48 teeth -" i F _
'5 __-1| LI 5 __ !~
a. The minimum satisfactory diameter for the motor shaft. 24 teeth - —" O ' - O Gear C
b. The minimum satisfactory diameter for the power shaft. Figure P6-48
6-7 S'l'A'l'lCALLY INDETERMINATE MEMBERS

All problems discussed in the preceding sections of this chapter were statically de-
temrinate; therefore, only the equations of equilibrium were required to determine
the resisting torque at any section. Occasionally, torsionally loaded members are
constructed and loaded such that the member is statically indeterminate (the num-
ber of independent equilibrium equations is less than the number of unknowns). 6-12
When this occurs, distortion equations, which involve angles of twist, must be
written until the total number of equations agrees with the number ofunknowns to
be determined. A simplified angle of twist diagram will often be of assistance in
obtaining the correct equations. The following examples illustrate the procedures
to be followed in solving statically indeterminate torsion problems.
Example Problem 6-8 The circular Shafi AC ofFig. 6-18a is fixed

to rigid walls atA and C. The solid sectionAB is made ofannealed bronze (GAB =
45 GPa), and the hollow section BC is made ofaluminum alloy (G5-C = 28 GPa).
There is no stress in the shaft before the 30-kN - m torque is applied. Determine
the maximum shearing stresses in both the bronze and aluminum portions ofthe
shaft after the torque is applied.
304 crrxrrsn 6 TORSIONAL LOADING or sn.u1'rs
4
' 1°°e.m
. ../' ,Ls , .-60rm'n
(>
r~ t T
ac = +70
30 kN-m
2m O“
J1,/1 .4 s TC
_ , B “*__-:_;__‘_v\
‘~: TA 30 1,14-m C
1.4rrt | T,,B=_TA
(=0
(C)
11/
6
30 kN-m
\ A B C
, '\
.,7I
>5-\ 08.-‘A Qaxc
(11) (4)
Figure 6-18
SOLUTION
A free-body diagram of the shaft is shown in Fig. 6-18b. The torques TA and
T¢;- at the supports are unknown. A summation of moments about the axis of the
shaft gives
1",, +TC =30(lO3)N~m (0)

This is the only independent equation of equilibrium relating the two rmlcnown
torques TA and TC; therefore, the problem is statically indeterminate. A second
equation can be obtained from the deformation of the shaft since the rotation of
the two ends of the shaft are not independent.
P The torque diagram (Fig. 6-18c) is cal- The torque diagram for the shaft (shown in Fig. 6-13c) represents the results
culated by drawing free-body diagrams and
of applying the equilibrium equations to fi'ee-body diagrams of portions of the
solving the equations of equilibrium for sec-
tions of the shaft to the left of B and to the shafi. The torque in every section ofthe shalt betweenA and B is TAB = —T,;,
right of B. Alternatively, the torque diagram and the torque in every section of the shaft between B and C is TBC = +T¢.
can be drawn by observing that it jumps TA Where the torque is negative the shaft rotates in a negative sense, and where the
at the left end ofthe shaft; it jumps 30 kN - m torque is positive the shaft rotates in a positive sense as shown in the rotation
(in the opposite direction) at section B; and diagram of Fig. 6-18d. However, because the two ends of the shaft are attached
it jumps TC (in the same direction as TA) at to the walls, the total rotation of the shaft must be zero
section C.
9mm = 631.4 + 96/B = 0 (bl
P An alternative interpretation of‘ Eq. (b) is
that the rotations of the two segments must Since Eq. (a) is expressed in terms of T,1 and Tc, the convenient form of Eq. (b)
have equal magnitude of opposite sense. for use here is Eq. 6-7b. Substituting Eq. 6-7b into Eq. (b) and using TAB = -1),
That is, 95,4 = ~6(-,5. and TBC = +T¢ gives
mTALAB = m
TCLBC ( C)
Gxs JAB Gsc Jsc
6-1 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE MEMBERS 305
For the two segments of the shafi, the polar second moments of area are
JAB = (zr/2)[504) = 9.8l7(l0“) mm" = 9.8l7(l0‘6)m4 > It is the torques in me mrque diagmm
JBC = (77/2)(504 _ 304) _ 8-545[106)mm4 _ 8-545(l0_6) m4 (Fig. 6-18c) that are used in the angle of
twist equation. That is, the torque in the lefl
Therefore, segment of the shafl is LB = -TA and the
torque in the right segment of the shaft is
T/1(2) _ Tc(1-4) Tar: = +T¢~-
45(l09)(9.8l7)(l0“°) _ 28(109)(8.545)(l0“)
from which
TC = 0.7737 TA (d)
Solving Eqs. (a) and (d) simultaneously yields
r,, = l6,9l4N~m = l6.9l4kN~m

T¢=13,086N-m=l3.086kN-m ,86-IMPQ
The stresses in the two portions of the shaft can then be obtained by using
Eq. 6-6. Thus, FN i
L
t _ T,,c,,,, _ 16.91-¢(103)(50)(10"3) "m

”” _ 1,“; _ 9.81"/(10-6) to
= 86.l4(l06)N/m2 2 se.1 MPa Ans. <-
I _= TCCBC = 13.086(103)(50)(l0‘3
B‘ 13¢ s.54s(10-6) i
Ffl H L
= 76.5"/(10*)N/ml 2 76.6 MPa Ans. _,

76.6 MPa
The stresses on the outside surface of the shaft, ‘:43 and 1:35, are shown in _ (b)
Figs. 6-19a and b, respectively. “gun 6'19
1 Example Problem 6-9 A hollow circular aluminum alloy (6,, =

4000 ksi) cylinder has a steel (G, = 11,600 ksi) core, as shown in Fig. 6-20a.
The steel and aluminum parts are securely connected at the ends. If the allow-
able stresses in the steel and aluminum must be limited to 14 ksi and 10 ksi, 5-13
respectively, determine
(a) The maximum torque T that can be applied to the right end of the composite
shaft.
(b) The magnitude of the rotation of the right end of the composite shafl when .
the torque of part (a) is applied. 614
SOLUTION
A free-body diagram of the shaft is shown in Fig. 6-20b. Since torques and
stresses will be related by the torsion formula, which is limited to cross sections
of homogeneous material, two unknown torques, the torque in the aluminum TQ
306 CHAPTER 6 ronsromu mmmc or srurrs
M
I I H.‘
./
1 .,_ \
“~._. ‘~\ T
fix - “-t G
x
"' ‘\ ‘.“\
4 in.--.‘.
\\ _~
--t
._ \ _\ l
M‘ “-.__ we
M‘
._
\
~ *+ -2m. T
60 in. _ .
"~~- E r‘ _~ Steel
' 7"" Aluminum
(H)
(bl
Figure 6-20
and the torque ir1 the steel Ts, have been placed on the lefi end of the shaft.
Summing moments with respect to the axis of the shafi yields
Ih+I;"=T (I1)
Since Eq. (a) is the only independent equation of equilibrium, the problem is
statically indeterrninate. A second equation can be obtained from the deformation
of the shafi. The fact that the shafi is nonhomogeneous does not invalidate the
assumptions of plane cross sections remaining plane and diameters remaining
straight. As a result, strains remain proportional to the distance from the axis of
the shaft; however, stresses are not proportional to the radii throughout the entire
cross section since G is not single-valued. The steel and aluminum parts of the
shaft experience the same angle of twist because of the secure connections at the
ends. Thus,
9, =9,,
Since maximum shearing stresses are specified, the convenient form of the angle
of twist equation for use ir1 this example is Eq. 6-7a. Thus,
r,L, r,,La
G,c, Gao,,
1-,(s0) _ 1460)
1l.6(106)(l) — 4.0(10")(2)
fi'om which
1:, = 1.45 r,, (b)
It is obvious from Eq. (b) that the shearing stress in the steel controls; therefore,
rs = l4ksi 1;, =14/1.45 = 9.6551-csi < l0ksi
(a) Once the maximum shearing stresses in the steel and aluminum portions of
the shafi are known, Eq. 6-6 can be used to determine the torques transmitted
or srsncsuv INDBTERMINATE MEMBERS 307
by the two parts of the shaft. Thus,
4
n = Iii = =2l,990lb-in.
S
,1, = ig
1;, = L 9655 2 2* -1* = ll3,750lb-in.
ca
From Eq. (a),
T = T,-1 -l- T} = ll3,750+21,990

= 135.740 lb ~ in. '5 135.7kip ~ in. Ans.
(b) The rotation of the right end ofthe shaft with respect to its no-load position
can be determined by using either Eq. 6-7a or Eq. 6-7b. If Eq. 6-7a is used,
e = 0,, = 0. = Eli
L 14,000 60
G,o, = ~—-~(-l
11.6(l0‘)(1) =0.0724-rad Ans.
1 Example Problem 6-10 The torsional assembly shown in

Fig. 6-21a consists of a solid bronze (GB = 45 GPa) shaft CD and a hollow
aluminum alloy (GA = 28 GPa) shaft EF that has a steel (G5 = 80 GPa) core.
The ends C and F are fixed to rigid walls, and the steel core of shaft EF is con-
nected to the flange at E so that the aluminum and steel parts act as a unit. The
two flanges D and E are bolted together, and the bolt clearance permits flange
D to rotate through 0.03 rad before EF carries any of the load. Determine the
maximum shearing stress in each of the shaft materials when the torque T =
54 kN - m is applied to flange D.
.-~— Bronze
~ T= S4 kN-m
‘ fr 1‘
?_4 __
7 ,/ I
iZ7/"\ _ .-— Alum. alloy
-\2 mx -'- 1’ . X _
\\\\ E I ~ \ X ‘
\->
Lxxtee a
(*1) \l.4 my ‘ F
ix, ""'\.
.
\-l
Figure 6-21(a)
54 kN-m
r
r£F= r,+rS
in i
54m-In
TA I TcD=-T5
(b) TS (C)
_>\. _
/.-’ /3-vi. 814- BS
,' |‘ _/ '\
9 7 i 4 \
9 B,ll. 14 -P’*n\
e ea:
c A 0E F I
,5
QM 0.03
9o/c ‘ ' _ 0.03 rad
(4) (B)
Figure 6-2 l(b-e)
SOLUTION
A fi'ee-body diagram for the assembly is shown in Fig. 6-2 lb. An unknown torque
TB is shown at the left support, and two unknown torques 7], and IQ are shown
at the right support. Summing moments with respect to the axis of the shaft, as
shown in the torque diagram of Fig. 6-21c, gives
r, + 1",, + rs = 54(l03)N - m (o)
Equation (a) is the only independent equilibrium equation that can be written
relating the three unknown torques TA, T3, and T5. Since there are three tmlcnown
torques and only one equilibrium equation, two deformation equations are needed
to solve the problem.
Two different types ofangle oftwist diagrams are shown ir1 Figs. 6-21 d and
e. The torque diagram shown in Fig. 6-21c represents the results of applying the
equilibrium equations to fi'ee-body diagrams of portions of the shaft. The torque
P The polar diagram (Fig. 6-21e) shows the in every section ofthe shaft between C and D is the negative of the torque that the
rotation of the coupling as viewed along the left support exerts on the brass shaft (TCD = —T;,-), and the torque in every section
shalt from end E A radial horizontal line on of the shaft betweenE and F is the sum of the torques that the right support exerts
the couplingD will rotate clockwise through on the aluminum and steel shafts (TE!-' = TI: + 13-). Where the torque is negative
an angle 65. For the first 0.03 radians that the shaft rotates in a negative sense, and where the torque is positive the shaft
the coupling D rotates, the bolts slip ir1 the rotates in a positive sense as shown in the rotation diagram of Fig. 6-21d. (The
holes and the coupling E does not move. As same quantities are shown in a polar form of representation in Fig. 6-21 e).
the coupling D continues to rotate, it pulls
However, because the two ends of the shaft are attached to the walls, the
the coupling E with it and causes a rota-
total rotation of the shaft must be zero
tion in both the steel and the aluminum shaft
65 = 6,‘.
Qtotal = 9.0/c + 95/0 + 9!-‘/E = 0 (bl
6-7 srsncsnv INDB'l'ERMINA'l‘E MEMBERS 309
in which GHQ = +0.03 rad is the rotation that occurs between the two parts of
the coupling. In addition, since the aluminum and steel parts of the shalt act as
a single unit, they must rotate an identical amount
(9l=',ls'),1 = (9r,lE)g ((3)
Equations (a), (b), and (c) can be written in terms of the same three unknowns
(torque, angle, or stress) and solved simultaneously. Since maximum stresses are
required, Eqs. (a), (b), and (c) will be written in terms of the maximum stress in
each material by using Eqs. 6-6 and 6-7a in which the polar second moments of
area are
J4 = (rr/2)(604 — 304) = l9.085(l06)rnm4 = l9.085(l0_6)m4

J5 = (rr/2)(60“) = 2O.36(l06)mm4 = 20.36(10_°) m4
J3 = (:rr/2)(304) = l.2723(l0") mm‘ = l.2723(l0_6) m4
Thus, Eq. (a) can be written
LJ” + LI" + L1‘ = 54(l03)

C5 CA C5
n,,(20.36)(10-6) n,,(19.0s5)(l0"°) r5(l.2723)(l0'6)

60(10-1) + 60[l0'3) + 30(l0_3) :54(w3)
from which
16r3 + 151:4 + 21:5 = 2.54-6(l09) (d)
Similarly, Eq. (b) can be written
—'t'3L3 TALA
?BcB + TAG,‘ + 0.03 _ 0
-1-13(2) + 711(2) + 0 03 = O
(45)(109)(60)(10_3) (33)(109)(50)(19_3) i
from which
81:5 = 9:, + 324(l0°) (e)

Finally, Eq. (c) can be written
TALA _ TSLS
G/16,1 _
1:,,(l.4) = rg(l.4)
28(l09)(60)(l0'3) 80(l09)(30)(l0_3)
from which
101:4 = 71:5 (f)

310 CHAPTER 6 ronsroxu roxnnvc or sums
Solving Eqs. (d), (e), and (f) simultaneously yields
= 52.93(l06)Nfm2 2 52.9 MIPa Ans.

= l.U0.0(l06)Nl'lI12 = 100.0 MPa Ans.
1, = 75.62(10°)N/n11 2 '75.6MPa Ans.
I PROBLEMS
MecMovie Activities and Problems a. The maximum shearing stress in each material.
b. The angle of twist in a 2-m length.
.\‘[M6.8 Shear stresses in coaxial shafts. Example; Try one.
Determine internal torques and shear stresses, and shaft ro-
tation angle in two coaxial shafts
N[M6.9 Shear stresses in end-to-end shafts. Example; Try one.
Determine internal torques, shear stresses, and rotation angles ., 175 mm
for a compound torsion member.
N[M6.10 Maximum torque for composite shaft. Example; Try Monel’-" ' H '"
one. Determine the maximum torque that can be applied to a
compound torsion member given allowable shear stresses. "I . 100 mm
Steel ""' F“-

Introductory Problems Figure P6-50
6-49* The 2-in.-diameter steel (G = 12,000 ksi) shaft shown in
Fig. P6-49 is fixed to rigid walls at both ends. When a torque
of 3500 lb - ft is applied as shown, determine
6-51 A 3-in.-diameter cold-rolled steel (G = 11,600 ksi) shaft,
a. The maximum shearing stress in the shaft. for which the maximum allowable shearing stress is 15 ksi,
b. The angle of rotation of the section where the torque is ap- exhibited severe corrosion in a certain installation. It is pro-
plied with respect to its no-load position. posed to replace the shaft with one in which an aluminum alloy
(G = 4000 ksi) tube 1/4 in thick is bonded to the outer surface
of the cold-rolled steel shaft to produce a composite shaft. If
the maximum allowable shearing stress in the aluminum alloy
shell is 12 ksi, determine
\
35°" a. The maximum torque that the original shaft can transmit.
. .->"i_‘-J J -
b. The maximum torque that the replacement shaft can
2 rt‘ -’,\. transmit.
Xx 6-52* A composite shalt consists ofa bronze (G = 45 GPa) sleeve
with an outside diameter of 80 mm and an inside diameter of
->‘0 60 mm over a solid aluminum (G = 28 GPa) rod with an out-
side diameter of 60 mm. Ifthe allowable shearing stress in the
Figure P6-49 bronze is 150 MPa, determine
a. The maximum torque T that can be transmitted by the com-
posite shaft.
6-50* A steel (G = 80 GPa) tube with an inside diameter of 100
b. The maximum shearing stress in the aluminum rod when
mm and an outside diameter of 125 mm is encased in a Monel
the maximum torque is being transmitted.
(G = 65 GPa) tube with an inside diameter of 125 mm and an
outside diameter of 175 mm, as shown in Fig. P6-50. The tubes 6-53 Two 3-in.-diameter solid circular steel (G = 11,600 ksi) and
are connected at the ends to form a composite shaft. The shaft bronze (G _ 6500 ksi) shafts are rigidly connected and sup-
is subjected to a torque of 10 kN - m. Determine ported as shown in Fig. P6-53. A torque T is applied at the
61 STATICALLY Il\lDB‘l'ERM1NATE MEMBERS 311
junction of the two shafts as indicated. The allowable shear- a. The rotation of a cross section at C.
ing stresses are 18 ksi for the steel and 6 ksi for the bronze. b. The rotation of a cross section at C if the steel shell is as-
Determine the maximum torque T that can be applied. sumed to be rigid.
c. The percent error introduced by assuming the steel shell to
be rigid.
__..---~ Steel
I T
,- if ‘ H Annealed bronze
, | V" 2 (4l‘1n.
5“ 5 n__ - ¢ ’ "
, .
>5»
sn 12in. -' __ '

--._ ' :-
. "as"!-"3 lfl.
>
Figure P6-53 4'in.x ‘ C
Figure P6-55
6-54* A composite shaft, as shown in Fig. P6-54, consists of a
solid brass (G = 39 GPa) core with an outside diameter of"
40 mm covered by a steel (G = 80 GPa) tube with an inside 6-56 A hollow steel (G = 80 GPa) tube with an outside diameter
diameter of 40 mm and a wall thickness of 20 mm, which is of 100 mm and an inside diameter of S0 mm is covered with
in turn covered by an aluminum alloy (G = 28 GPa) sleeve a Monel (G = 65 GPa) tube that has an outside diameter of
with an inside diameter of 80 mm and a wall thickness of 125 mm and an inside diameter of 102 nun. The tubes are con-
10 mm. The three materials are bonded so that they act as a nected at the ends to form a composite shaft. If the allowable
unit. Detemiine shearing stress in the steel is 70 MPa and the allowable shearing
stress in the Monel is 85 MPa, determine
a. The maximum shearing stress in each material when the
assembly is transmitting a torque of 15 kN - m. a. The maximtun torque T that the composite shalt can
b. The angle of twist in a 3-m length when the assembly is transmit.
transmitting a torque of‘ 10 kN - m. b. The angle of twist in a 2.5-m length when the composite
shaft is transmitting the maximum torque.
6-57* A solid aluminum alloy (G = 4000 ksi) rod with an out-
side diameter of 2 in. is used as a shaft. A hollow steel (G =
\“-\
\ ____ 12,000 ksi) tube with an inside diameter of 2 in. is placed over
1., 5‘;-. \ 100 nun the rod to increase the torque-transmitting capacity ofthe shaft.
\i_\\~,\\.:‘\\ ,80mm
‘T-
The tube and the rod are attached at the ends to form a com-
~__\\ ‘~,_-$’___ 40mm posite shaft. Determine the minimum tube thickness required
Aluminum——’ “'-‘“-.. ‘*-\‘-
"* \
/ j¥~\\ \\ to permit the torque-transmitting capacity of the shaft to be
1 \
increased by 50 percent.
’.\\\
53,51 -~'
‘ Q
/' 6-58 A composite shaft consists of a bronze (G = 45 GPa) shell
Brass = that has an outside diameter of 100 mm bonded to a solid steel
Figure P6-54 (G = 80 GPa) core. Determine the diameter of the steel core
when the torque resisted by the steel core is equal to the torque
resisted by the bronze shell.
6-59 The steel (G = 12,000 ksi) shaft shown in Fig. P6-59 is
6-55* The composite shaft shown in Fig. P6-55 is used as a tor- attached to rigid walls at both ends. The right 10 ft of the shaft
sional spring. The solid circular polymer (G = 150 ksi) por-
is hollow, having an inside diameter of 2 in. Determine
tion of the shaft is encased in and firmly attached to a steel
(G = 12,000 ksi) sleeve for part of its length. If a torque T a. The maximum shearing stress in the shaft.
of 1000 lb - in. is being transmitted by the composite shaft, b. The angle of rotation of the section where the torque is ap-
determine plied with respect to its no-load position.
312 cmwren 6 TORSIONAL uoxumc or sums
_::_.;. 25 ki nfl 1 7'. Q z
:’
4 Ks it / J _ I‘ \‘ /, 2 i-1- 4 in. .(Xx A If ' 6fin- .
\*,./"
_\~\\
B ~ __,- V N‘ :.\‘\ I '
3 fix;\<\\ B J . ' .
19 fixx 5*~F “5 fig C/
“ xx 1,/’ 1 “‘~\__R ’ I» '
V -y
‘ -..
6-60* A disk and two circular shafts are connected and sup- Challenging Problems
ported between rigid walls, as shown in Fig. P6-60. Shaft AB
6-62* The torsional assembly of Fig. P6-62 consists of an alu-
is made of brass (G = 39 GPa) and has a diameter of 75
minum alloy (G = 28 GPa) segment AB securely connected
mm and a length of 300 mm. Shafl BC is made of Monel
to a steel (G = 80 GPa) segment BCD by means of a flange
(G = 65 GPa) and has a diameter of60 mm and a length
coupling with four bolts. The diameters of both segments are
of 450 mm. If a torque of 15 kN - m is applied to the disk,
75 mm, the cross-sectional area of each bolt is 150 mm’, and
determine
the bolts are located 75 mm from the center of the shaft. If
a. The maximum shearing stress in each of the shafts. the shearing stress in the bolts must be limited to 60 MPa
b. The angle of rotation of the disk with respect to its no-load determine
position.
a. The maximum torque T that can be applied at section C.
c. The maximum tensile and compressive stresses in the shaft.
b. The maximum shearing stress in the steel.
T
/ ' Aluminum
/
.»- Steel
- "~ I
300 mm /-74' /'
c I “‘*:I{"'
~ ._\ 2"
600 nnm . '
X‘ _,
Figure P6-60 _“\~
\»<~
_// C
300 mm /-" -
12
\3/-
6-61 The solid steel (G = 12,000 ksi) shaft shownin Fig. P6-61 is Figure P6-62
fixed to the wall at C. The bolt holes in the flange at A have an
angular misalignment of 0.0018 rad with respect to the holes
in the wall. Determine
a. The torque, applied at B, required to align the bolt holes.
b. The maximum shearing stress in the shaft afier the 6-63* The steel (G = 12,000 ksi) shaft shown in Fig. P6-63 will
bolts are inserted and tightened and the torque at B is be used to transmit a torque of 1000 lb - in. The hollow por-
removed. tion AE of the shaft is connected to the solid portion BF with
c. The maximum torque that can be applied at section B after two pins at C and D as shown. If the average shearing stress
the bolts are tightened ifthe maximum shearing stress in the in the pins must be limited to 25 ksi, determine the minimum
shaft is not to exceed 10 ksi. satisfactory diameters for each of the pins.
ev srxrrcxrrr INDE‘l'llltli[INA’l'B rnmrssns 313
T |
(G = 40 GPa) segment CD. Ends A and D of the shaft are
\ 2m. fastened securely to rigid supports. Determine
Ir-.1r a. The maximum shearing stress in the bronze segment.
5\\1: I1
ts’! |*\ I I b. The maximum shearing stress in the steel segment.
mxxr I-I c. The rotation of a section at B with respect to its no-load
Q1; .'l*~r
I .
D
'l|._ '~
vs
lm. position.
E \
T F
. lUU|1'|!l.t'|!l 20 kN.m
Figure P6-63
l _ Steel
. x /'-Bronze, .
6-64 A stainless-steel (G = 86 GPa) shaft 2.5 m long extends

through and is attached to a hollow brass (G = 39 GPa) shaft
-< -:--____ 2
=~;---ii -
>___ ii‘ fi
1.5 m long, as shown in Fig. P6-64. Both shafts are fixed at m _)"{'{1.5 rnC:__7flt '
the wall. When the two torques shown are applied to the shaft,
determine Figure P6-66
a. The maximum shearing stress in the steel.
b. The maximum shearing stress in the brass.
c. The maximum compressive stress in the brass. 6-67 The shaft shown in Fig. P6-67 consists ofa 6-it-long hollow
d. The rotation of the right end of the shaft. steel (G = 12,000 ksi) section AB and a 4-ft-long solid alu-
minum alloy (G = 4000 ksi) section CD. The torque T of‘ 40
kip - ft is applied initially only to the steel section AB. Section
CD is then connected and the torque T is released. When the
'- l201'm:r1 torque is released, the connection slips 0.010 rad before the
1' _
almninurn section takes any load. Determine
1"-_"“~-_ 36kN\m 80mm
T " (t r 9 RN"! a. The maximum shearing stress in the alumintnn alloy.
__ Hm D‘
b. The maximum shearing stress in the steel alter the torque T
"--—~-_ _%__1 B . /, c is released.
m-_____
c. The final rotation ofthe collar at B with respect to its no-load
Figure P6-64 position.
6-65 The 4-in-diameter shaft shown in Fig. P6-65 is composed

of brass (G = 6000 ksi) and steel (G = 12,000 ksi) segments.
,.
Determine the maximum permissible magnitude for the torque ' ---Tr:-K
61,9‘ 4m.
"
T, applied at C, if the allowable shearing stresses are 5 ksi for ’ ----- __ . \T 4m.
->-.-.._..,,,___‘_ |"I _ A l
the brass and 12 ksi for the steel.
----n-_/-; "Q C
‘"- 4 n -n___,'// *
. 4'. Figure P6-67
im /Brass
- A _ _ \ ~Steel - '
1‘-7 / T I
/1-___
m---75.151
I
§ E5 C 6-68 A torque T of 10 kN - m is applied to the steel (G = 80 GPa)

_ ‘--24in.___,/1; ‘ shaft shownin Fig. P6-68 without the brass (G = 40 GPa) shell.
The brass shell is then slipped into place and attached to the
Figure P6-65 steel. After the original torque is released, determine
a. The maximum shearing stress in the brass shell.
b. The maximum shearing stress in the steel shalt.
6-66* The circular shaft shown in Fig. P6-66 consists of‘ a steel c. The final rotation of the right end of the steel shaft with
(G = 80 GPa) segment ABC securely connected to a bronze respect to its left end.
314 cruuvrux 6 rousrousr uoxumc or sums
800 rrtm c. The maximmn shearing stress rt in the bronze shaft as a
iii‘°"“"_‘ ’ /ii:::: fimction of the diameter ratio dhld, (1/2 5 dbfd, 5 2).
d. The maximum shearing stress r, in the steel shaft as a func-
3;-T
tion of the diameter ratio dbfd, (1/2 5 db/d, 5 2).
/--- Steel
Figure P6-68
l - T -- Bronze
< A 7 if
—‘_. -_______ .
C
Computer Problems
6-69 The hollow circular aluminum alloy (G = 4000 ksi) shaft Figure P6-70
shown in Fig. P6-69 is 5 ft long and is attached to rigid supports
at both ends. A 7500-lb - ft torque T is applied at section C,
which is located 2 ft from the right end. The outer radius r, of
the shalt must be 2 in.; however, the inner radius r,- can vary 6-71 A hollow steel (G = 12,000 ksi) shaft is stiffened by fill-
(0 in. 5 r,- 5 1.9 in.). Calculate and plot ing its center with an aluminum alloy (G = 4000 ksi) shaft as
a. The rotation 9 of a section at C with respect to its no-load shown in Fig. P6-71. If the steel and aluminum parts rotate as
position as a fimction of the radius ratio r,-i‘r,,(0 5 r,-/r, 5 a single unit, calculate and plot
0.95). a. The rotation of end B with respect to its no-load position
b. The maximum shearing stress rt as a function of the radius 65;,‘ as a ftmction of the diameter of the aluminum alloy
ratio r;/r,, (0 5 r,-/r,, 5 0.95). shaft do (0 in. 5 d, 5 3.75 in.).
b. The shear stress 1:0 in the aluminum alloy shaft at the inter-
face between the two shafts as a function of the diameter of
the aluminum alloy shaft d, (0 in. 5 do 5 3.75 in.).
c. The shear stress 1-, in the steel shaft at the interface between
' T the two shafts as a function of the diameter of the aluminum
alloy shaft d, (0 in. 5 a‘, 5 3.75 in.).
. A f
C I
Figure P6-69
- 6000 lb-ft ,/
.1’ 3-.
\\r.P-_. \\-—;
—5\.
_,-:I_______ ' A / ,/" '
6-70 A composite shaft consists ofa 2-m-long solid circular steel
3 fi -—_—__".-W”, B
(G = 80 GPa) section securely fastened to a 2-m-long solid
circular bronze (G = 40 GPa) section, as shown in Fig. P6-70. Figure P6-71
Both ends of the composite shaft are attached to rigid supports.
The maximum shearing stress must not exceed 60 MPa and the
rotation of any cross section in the shaft must not exceed 0.04
rad. The ratio of the diameters db/d, of the two sections can
6-72 The solid steel (G = 80 GPa) shaft shown in Fig. P6-72
vary (lf2 5 db/d, 5 2), but the average diameter (db + d,)/2
is fixed to the wall at C. The flange at A is to be attached
must be 100 mm. Calculate and plot
to the wall with eight 18-mm-diameter bolts on a 300-mm-
a. The maximum allowable torque T as a fimction of the di- diameter circle. However, the bolt holes in the flange have an
ameter ratio dbfd, (l/2 5 db/d, 5 2). angular misalignment of 1° with respect to the holes in the
b. The rotation 6 ofa section at C as a function ofthe diameter wall. If‘ a torque T is applied to the shaft at B, calculate and
ratio db/d, (l/2 5 db/d, 5 2). plot
6-s OOMBINED Loxnutc-iuuxr, rousioNx1., mu russsuus vssssi. 3 15
a. The maximum shearing stresses in both sections ofthe shaft Aluminum

as a function ofthe torque T (0 5 T 5 60 kN - m). (Assume
|
3iu.;' lg-L
that the bolts are inserted and tightened as soon as the holes ' ..-_ " " '_1| 3C /-Steel
align.) .' ‘~—--_ _;'_ A 2,111.,-7' T
b. The shearing stresses in the bolts as a function of the torque .-»’ ‘--._
"""" | "“
l;:@‘ '
| I |
T(05 T560kN-m). "‘"- 12' ._-_ E-“ '

c. The rotation 6 of a section at B as a fimction of the torque T In _"‘“6 in.-,..-:1" ' _..-/’ B
(05 T560kN-m). "~12 in. -____,-
Figure P6-73
6-74 The torsional assembly shown in Fig. P6-74 consists of a

' " '° \T 120 mm solid steel (G = 80 GPa) shaft CD and a hollow alumintnn
"- alloy (G = 28 GPa) shalt EF that has a bronze (G = 45 GPa)
L/,.---'""': _ " I/, core. The ends C and F are fixed to rigid walls, and the bronze
go.“
' '0.75m._j_,:f: . ___ _ 0 core of shaft EF is comiected to the flange at E so that the
1.50 m. _"“-p-"'
./’ C 1
aluminum and bronze and parts act as a single imit. Bolts are
used to connect flanges D and E. Bolt clearance in flange E
Figure P6-72 permits flange D to rotate 3" before shaft EF carries any of the
load. If a torque TD is applied to flange D, calculate and plot
a. The maximum shearing stresses in each of the materials as
6-13 A 2-in.-diameter solid steel (G = 12,000 ksi and rm = a fimction of the torque TD (0 5 T5 5 90 kN - m).
30 ksi) shaft and a 3-in.-diameter hollow aluminum alloy b. The rotation of flange D with respect to its no-load position
(G = 4000 ksi and rm, = 24 ksi) shaft are fastened together SD,-C as a function of the torque TD (0 5 TD 5 90 kN - m).
with a lf2-in.-diameter brass (rum, = 36 ksi) pin, as shown in
Fig. P6-73. Calculate and plot
, 1
a. The maximum shear stresses, ta in the aluminum shaft and _' - 120 mm TD
r, in the steel shaft, as a function of the torque T applied to - ‘ /F Steel " \ mm/"'AllUD.
the end ofthe shaft (0 5 T 5 20 kip - in.).
b. The average shear stress, r,, on the cross-sectional area of ' '. . ll“ ' i“!60mm . '
' ii | l‘__::‘“~=s_,I
the brass pin at the interface between the shafts as a fimction D ' m|E __-T“ '
ofthe torque T (0 5 T 5 20 kip - in.).
c. The rotation of end B with respect to its no-load position Bronze-V/ _
F
63,-D as a function of the torque T (0 5 T 5 20 kip - in.). 2 m -________
d. What is the maximum torque that can be applied to the shaft
5"‘ 1.4 m.___l
without exceeding the maximum shear stresses in either the
shaft or the pin? Figure P6-74
6-S COMBINED LOADING—AXlAL, TORSIONAL,

AND PRESSURE VESSEL
Inprcvious sections, formulas were developed for determining normal and shearing
stresses on specific planes in axially loaded bars, circular bars being twisted by
a torque, and pressure vessels. For example, the normal stress at a point on a
transverse cross section of a circular bar subjected only to an axial load P is
0 = P/A. The shearing stress in the same bar being twisted only by a torque
T is 1: = Tp/J If the bar is pulled and twisted at the same time, the combined
loading produces both a normal stress 0 and a shearing stress r at a point on
the transverse cross section of the bar. As long as the strains are small, these
stresses can be computed separately and superimposed on the element. Once these
stresses are known, the normal and shearing stresses on other planes through the
316 cinrrsii 6 TORSIONAL LOADING or SHAFTS
1" F
fifil
_: X qr}
L)
T r
.1 .1
ts) (C)
Q.
m‘Q
. . 't,,,='t,,,
r-.-
\
I.-i
(bl (4)
Figure 6-22
point can be determined using the stress transformation equations or Mohr's circle.
Furthermore, the maximum normal and shearing stresses at the point can be found
using the methods described in Section 2-9.
Consider the circular bar shown in Fig. 6-22a, which is subjected to an axial
load P and a torque T A small element of volume at the outside surface of the
bar is shown in Fig. 6-22b. Acting on the top surface of the element is the normal
stress oy resulting from the axial load P and the shearing stress 1:y, resulting from
the torque I The normal stress is tensile because P is a tensile foroe. The direction
of the shearing stress on the top surface of the clement is in the direction of the
resisting torque shown on the free-body diagram of Fig. 6-22c. Shearing stresses
exist on both transverse and longitudinal planes because try = ryg On the surface
of the bar a state of plane stress exists, and thus, the volume clement of Fig. 6-22b
is shown as a plane element in Fig. 6-22d. Once the snesses on the planes shown in
Fig. 6-22d a.re known, the stresses on any other plane through the point as well as
the principal stresses and the maximum shearing stress at the point can be foimd.
The following Example Problems illustrate the procedures discussed.
EXHIIIPIE Pl‘0b]8IIl 6-1 1 The solid 100-mm-diameter shalt shown

in Fig. 6-23a is subjected to an axial compressive foroe P = 200 kN and a torque
T = 30 kN - n1. For point A on the outside surface of the shaft, determine
6-s comnnritn LOADING—AXlAL, TORSIONAL, AND PRESSURE VESSEL 3 17
J’
‘I
Ar
Z / I
i.
T P <1»
(Q) \
PA
TA
.tLilr
A
ox 2% 25.5 MPa
i— 152.3 MPa
(v) (4) (B)
Figure 6-23
(a) The x- and y-components of stress.

SOLUTION
(a) Since pointA is on the outside surface (a fi'ee surface) of the shaft, a state of
plane stress exists at the point. The coordinate system is selected as shown
in Fig. 6-23b. This is the same coordinate system for which the equations
in Chapter 2 were developed. Passing a transverse plane through point A
and isolating the segment of the shaft to the right of point A results in the
fi'ee-body diagram shown in Fig. 6-230. The internal forces on the transverse
cross section are an axial compressive force PA of 200 kN and a torque TA
of 30 kN - m. The directions of the stresses on the left face of the element
are in accordance with the directions of the forces that produce the stresses,
that is, in the directions of the resisting forces. These stresses are shown in
Fig. 6-23d. The magnitude of the stresses are determined as follows.
<1, = 5 = T52 = 25.4-6(1O°)Nfm2 = 25.46 MPa

A (1/4)(o.100)
P There is no normal stress in the
1 —E=? = 152 79(10°)N./m2 — 152 79MPa y-direction (the circumferential direction)
"’ J (1/2)(o.050)" ' '
since there is no force to cause such a stress.
The shear stresses on the four sides ofthe el-
The x- and y-components of stress on the element at A are
ement have the same magnitude. The shear
stresses that meet at a corner either both
0', = 25.4-61\/[Pa '5 25.5 MPa (C) Ans. point toward the corner or both point away
rxy = 152.79 MPa '5 152.8 MPa Ans. from the comer.
318 crmrrrn 6 TORSIONAL LOADING or stuns
These stresses are shown on the element of Fig. 6-23e. Note that point A
could be anywhere on the outside surface along the length of the shafi that is
not in the vicinity of the fixed or loaded ends.
(b) Equation 2-15 is used to calculate the principal stresses. The stresses for use
ir1 this equation are
0, = —25.46MPa 11,. = 0 TI); = -152.79 MIPa
Substituting these stress components into Eq. 2-15 yields
2
GPWZ = 0,;-ay i [(0, 2 cry) +25}
-25.46 0 i
= ?+ -25.46-0 2 +1-152.79?
—
2 2
= -12.13 1153.32
Thus, the principal stresses are
cpl = -12.73 + 153.32 = 140.59 MPa E 14-0.6MPa(T) Ans.
UPZ = -12.73 — 153.32 = -166.05 MIPa E 166.1 MPa(C) Ans.
up; = 0, = 0 Ans.
Since the two in-plane principal stresses are of opposite sign and op; =
O’, = 0,
Untax _ Umin
Tmax = +
_ 140.59 -(-1615.05)
— 2
= 153.32 MPa E 153.3 MPa Ans.
i EXHIIIPIE Pfflblfilll 6-12 The thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel

shown in Fig. 6-24a has an inside diameter of24 in. and a wall thickness of 1./2 in.
The vessel is subjected to an internal pressure of 250 psi. In addition, a torque of
150 kip - fi is applied to the vessel through rigid plates on the ends of the vessel.
Determine the maximum normal and shearing stresses at a point on the outside
surface of the vessel.
SOLUTION
The stresses on an element on the outside surface of the vessel are shown in
Fig. 6-24b, where x is in the longitudinal (axial) direction and y is in the hoop
6-s comnnntn LOADING—A711AL, TORSIONAL, AND PRESSURE vssssl. 3 19
direction. The normal stresses are due to the internal pressure and are - 12 in .
pr 2 50(1 2) I T Rigid Plate
cr.,=a,=-—=—~——=3000ps1 ' T
2t 2(l /‘ 2)
25012 .
ah=a,.=€i= J2 )=6000ps1 U
G
The magnitude of the shearing stress resulting fi'om the torque is y
T =L
1,. = —° 15010’ 12 12.5 = 33941551
A J 0;/2)(12.5 - 12 )
and the direction of the shearing stress is the same as the direction of the intemal l- 1”
torque.
Equation 2-15 is used to calculate the maximum normal stress (a principal 1’ “H T‘
stress.) The stresses for use in this equation are
0, = 3000 psi 0,, = 6000 psi rxy = 3894 psi 1

(5)
Substituting these stress components into Eq. 2-15 yields Figure 5-24
=21
3000 6000 / 3000-0000 2 +0294)’
= 4500 :1: 4173
0P1 = 4500 + 4173 = 8673 psi

op; = 4500 — 4173 = 327psi
op; = 0, = 0
The maximum normal stress is
am,‘ = cpl = 8673 psi E 8670psi (T) Ans.
Since the two in-plane principal stresses have the same sign and op; = 0, = 0,
Tm“ = Umax ; 9'1-nin
8673 — 0
— 2
= 4337 psi E 4340 psi Ans.
320 cnxvrsn 6 ronsromt noxnntc or sums
1 PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems 6-79 A 4-in.-diameter shaft must support an axial tensile load
of tmknown magnitude while it is transmitting a torque of
6 75* A 4-in.- diameter shaft is subjected to both a torque of 100 kip - in. Determine the maximum allowable value for the
30 kip - in. and an axial tensile load of 50 kip, as shown in axial load ifthe tensile principal stress at a point on the outside
Fig. P6-75. Determine the principal stresses and the maximum surface of the shaft must not exceed 18,000 psi.
shearing stress at point A on the surface of the shaft.
6-80* A steel shalt is loaded and supported as shown in
° son-'. Fig. P6-80. Determine the maximum allowable value for the
\ pm axial load P if the maximum shearing stress in the shaft is not
\ to exceed 60 MPa and the maximum compressive stress in the
. ’ /' . 50l<ip shaft is not to exceed 96 MPa.
Figure P6-75 150|mm

I
. ' r=35 kN-m
6-76* A hollow shaft with an outside diameter of 400 mm and 1 Ill P
an inside diameter of 300 mm is subjected to both a torque of

350 ofkN - m and an axial tensile load of 1500 kN, as shown Figure P6-80
in Fig. P6-76. Determine
a. The xyz-components of stress at a point on the outside sur- 6-81* A 6-in.-diameter shaft will be used to support the axial
face of the shaft. load and torques shown in Fig. P6-81. Determine the principal
b. The principal stresses and the maximum shearing stress at stresses and the maximum shearing stress at point A on the
a point on the outside stuface of the shaft. surface of the shaft.
J" ' 50 kip-in. 6 in,

.' 125 kip-in.
1 400mm _/‘ __/
' *1-_______ ' 300mm T=350 kN-m _/ .-="- ' 1/
____ ___*‘___ \ __ 3 fi -__ -1"’ I
\__/1______
“ ‘_ “ /. 1?; _""'- an ______ I 1751"?
Z .
‘ .' N“ “-4- P=1500kN Figure P6-81
Figure P6-76 6-82 A steel shaft with the left portion solid and the right portion
hollow is loaded as shown in Fig. P6-82. Ifthe maximum shear-
ing stress in the shaft must not exceed 80 MPa and the maxi-
mum tensile stress inthe shaft must not exceed 140 MPa, deter-
6-77 A 2-in.-diameter shaft is used in an aircraft engine to trans- mine the maximum axial load P that can be applied to the shaft.
mit 360 hp at 1500 rpm to a propeller that develops a thrust
of 2800 lb. Determine the principal stresses and the maximum
shearing stress produced at any point on the outside surface of
the shaft.
‘ 20 kN-m
_ _ n____30 kN~m
6-78* A 60-mm-diameter shaft must transmit a torque of un- 100 mm P
known magnitude while it is supporting an axial tensile load i l 160mm ,/"B if
of 125 kN. Determine the maximum allowable value for the _,/ 100mm1 C
torque if‘ the tensile principal stress at a point on the outside
surface of the shaft must not exceed 100 MPa. Figure P6-82
as OOMBINED LOADING—AXlAL, TORSIONAL AND rnsssuna vsssiu. 52 1
6-83* A steel shaft is loaded and supported as shown in ness of 3.18 in. The vessel is subjected to an internal pressure of
Fig. P6-83. If the maximtnn shearing stress in the shaft must p and a torque of If At a point on the outside surface ofthe steel
not exceed 10 ksi and the maximum tensile stress in the shaft (E = 30,000 ksi and v = 0.30) vessel, the strain rosette shown
must not exceed 15 ksi, determine the maximum torque T that in Fig. P6-87b was used to obtain the following normal strain
can be applied to the shaft. data: ea = +36 ptin.fin., ei, = +310 ,u.in./in., and e, = +150
ninjin Gages a and c are oriented in the axial and hoop direc-
tions of the vessel, respectively. Determine the pressure p and
the torque If
T 12 in. -__ __
0
- T "'- 15 in. ____ '--ati
'0 J’
I
' A 6in. /»-/B
_;,/‘
_
4m
. _
C 125k1p Gage c:
Figure P6-83
T
ii \45==Qfia x
6-84 A tube having an inside diameter equal to one-half the
outside diameter must transmit a torque of 7.5 kN - m (4) (5)
while resisting an axial compressive load of 200 kN. De- Figure P6-87
termine the minimum outside diameter required if the max-
imum compressive stress in the tube is not to exceed
100 MPa.
6-88 A 50-mm-diameter steel (E = 200 GPa and v = 0.30) bar
6-85 A shaft that is transmitting 240 hp at 1800 rpm must also
is subjected to a tensile load P and a torque T, as shown in
support an axial tensile load of 20 kip. If the maxirntun ten- Fig. P6-88. Determine the axial load P and the torque T if the
sile stress in the shaft is not to exceed 15 ksi, determine the
strains indicated by gages a and b on the bar are ea = +1414
minimum diameter required for the shaft. um/m and eb = -212 ,um/m.
6-86* A 25-mm-diameter steel (E = 210 GPa and v = 0.30) T
bar is subjected to a tensile load P and a torque T, as shown G
in Fig. P6-86. Determine the axial load P and the torque T

if the strains indicated by gages a and b on the bar are e, =
+1084 tunim and eb = -754 umltn. P §j4s° I P
b
T
Figure P6-88
\
a T
P 45° " l P 6-89 A thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel with an inside di-
b ameter of 4 ft is fabricated by butt-welding 0.6-in.-thick plate
T with a spiral seam as shown in Fig. P6-89. The pressure in the
Figure P6-86 tank is 360 psi. Additional loads are applied to the cylinder
through a rigid end plate as shown in Fig. P6-89. Determine
a. The normal and shearing stresses on the plane of the weld
at a point on the outside surface of the tank.
6-87* The thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel shown in b. The principal stresses and the maximum shearing stress at
Fig. P6-87a has an inside diameter of 20 in. and a wall thick- a point on the inside surface of the tank.
322 crurrra 6 TORSIONAL LOADING or srurrs
P = 2s kip Computer Problems
Rigid plate 6-90 A 120-mm-diameter shaft is used to transmit an axial load
.'// of 250 kN and a torque of 20 kN - m. It is proposed to replace
" | “ _ cflqlz
is the solid shaft with a hollow shaft having the same weight (the
r= 550 kip-ft ’ 5 3?’ same cross-sectional area). Calculate and plot the axial normal
®/ 3 stress 0,, the torsional shear stress r,l_,., the principal normal
stress apl, and the maximum shearing stress rm“ at a point
on the outside surface of the shaft as a fimction of the outside
diameter do (120 mm 5 do 5 300 mm) of the shaft.
6-91 An aircraft engine is designed to transmit 360 hp at 1500 rpm
to a propeller that develops a thrust of 2800 lb. Calculate and
plot the axial normal stress 0,, the torsional shear stress r
\A
<.
the principal normal stress apl, and the maximum shearing
O.
- , ‘vl
v
u 1
stress rm“ at a point on the outside surface of the propeller
- ‘ 6
6 shalt as a function of the shaft diameter d (0.75 in. 5 d 5
2.50 in.).
Figure P6-89
6-9 STRESS CONCENTRATIONS IN CIRCULAR SHAFTS

UNDER TORSIONAL LOADINGS
In Section 5-6 it was shown that the introduction ofa circular hole or other geomet-
ric discontinuity into an axially loaded member can cause a significant increase ir1
the magnitude of the stress (stress concentration) in the immediate vicinity of the
discontinuity. This is also the case for circular shafts tmder torsional loading.
In previous sections of this chapter, it was shown that the magnitude of the
maximum shearing stress in a circular shaft of uniform cross section and made of
a linearly elastic material is given by Eq. 6-6 as
Y. = 16-6)
Equation 6-6 (torsional loading) can also be used to determine the maximum shear-
ing stress in a tapered shaft if the change in diameter occurs in a gradual manner.
For stepped shafts, however, large increases in stress (stress concentrations) occur
in the vicinity of the abrupt changes in diameter. These large stresses can be re-
duced by using a fillet between the parts of the shalt with the different diameters.
The magnitude of the maximum shearing stress in the fillet can be expressed in
temis of a stress concentration factor K as
rm = Ice = K,§
T (6-12)
The stress concentration factor Kl depends on the ratio of the diameters of the two
portions of the shalt (D/d) and the ratio of the radius of the fillet to the diameter of
the smaller shaft (r/d). Stress concentration factors K, (based on the net section)
for stepped circular shafts and for circular shafts with U-shaped grooves are shown
in Fig. 6-25. A careful examination ofFig. 6-25b shows that a generous fillet radius
r should be used wherever a change ir1 shaft diameter occurs. Equation 6-12 can be
used to determine localized maximum shearing stresses in stepped shafts as long
as the value of rm“ does not exceed the proportional limit of the material.
6-9 snuzss CONCENIRATIONS IN curcumn sums unrmrr TORSIONAL mmmcs 323
4
,g=4
- lIflliil
,-
m¢=r
,~- 1 = 2 Shafi with circular groove in torsion
K
DJLn) '\
,._- %=1
K
fStK
acrctoenceossntration
X i _ _
ii
r
£_i
r“; s
l
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 .0
Ratio rid
4 (H)
_ IIEQ rad. = r
\ // ‘l=133
d ' - torsion
Shafim -
IQLn) »-- §= 1.20

/‘ Q =1.o9
fStK
acrctoencossenrt aton
If,
../ “ In
f i
.1‘ *
I _
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Ratio r/d
(bl
Figure 6-25
Stress concentrations also occur in circular shafis at oil holes and grooves
(see Fig. 6-25a), and at keyways used for attaching pulleys and gears to the shafi.
Each ofthese types ofdiscontinuity require special consideration during the design
process.
Example Problem 6-13 A stepped Shflfi has a 4-in. diameter for

one-half of its length and a 2-in. diameter for the other half. If the maxirnum
shearing stress in the shaft must he limited to 8 ksi when the shaft is transmitting
a torque of 6280 lb - in., deterrnine the rninirnurn fillet radius needed at the
junction between the two portions of the shafi.
SOLUTION
The magnitude of the maximum shearing stress produced by the torque of 6280
lb - in. in the portion of the shaft with the 2-in. diameter is given by Eq. 6-6 as
T,c s2s0(1)
rm = —— = -i-— =3998psi
J or/2x1“)
Since the maximum shearing stress in the fillet between the two portions of the
shalt must be limited to 8 ksi, the maximum permissible value for the stress
P The actual stress at the change in section
is K, times larger than the nominal stress concentration factor K, based on the maximum shearing stress in the small (net)
in the 2-in.-diameter shalt calculated using section is
the shear stress formula Eq. 6-6. The values
used for c and J are for the smaller section K, = 8/3.998 = 2.001 E 2.00
since the stress concentration graph (Fig. 6-
25b) is based on the net section. Before using The stress concentration factor K, depends on two ratios (D/d) and (r/a’). For
any stress concentration graphs, it is impor- the 4-in.-diameter shaft with the 2-in.-diameter turned section, the ratio D/d =
tant to determine whether the stress concen- 4/2 = 2. From the curves presented in Fig. 6-25b, a ratio D/d = 2 and a stress
tration factors are based on the net section concentration factor K, = 2.00 give a ratio r/d = 0.06. Thus, the minimum
or the gross section properties.
permissible radius for the fillet between the two portions of the shaft is
r = 0.060‘ = 0.06(2) = 0.1200 in. Ans.
1 PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems the shaft must be limited to 60 MPa, determine the maximum
torque that can he transmitted by the shaft.
6-92* A fillet with a radius of 12 mm is used at the junction in a
stepped shaft where the diameter is reduced fi'om 135 mm to 6-97 A stepped shaft has a 5-in. diameter for one-half of its
100 mm. Determine the maximum shearing stress in the fillet length and a 4-in. diameter for the other half. If the n1axi-
when the shaft is transmitting a torque of 10 kN - m. mum shearing stress in the fillet between the two portions of
the shaft must he limited to 12 ksi when the maximum shear-
6-93* A fillet with a radius of 0.15 in. is used at the junction in
ing stress in the 4-in. portion is 8 ksi. determine the minimum
a stepped shafi where the diameter is reduced from 4.00 in. to
radius needed at the junction between the two portions of the
3.00 in. Determine the maximum shearing stress in the fillet
shaft.
when the shaft is transmitting a torque of 4000 lb - ft.
6-94 The small portion of a stepped shaft has a diameter of
50 mm. The radius of the fillet at the junction between the Challenging Problems
large and small portions is 4.5 mrn. If the maximum shearing
6-98* A shallow crack has been located in a 100-mm-diameter
stress in the fillet must be limited to 40 MPa when the shaft is shaft. The crack will be removed by turning down a 200-mrn
transmitting a torque of 614 N - m, determine the maximum length ofthe shaft surrounding the crack with a tool bit that has
diameter that can be used for the large portion of the shaft. a 5-mm radius. If the maximum shearing stress in the 5-mm
6-95 A fillet with a radius of 1/8 in. is used at the junction in fillet must be limited to 60 MPa when the shaft is transmitting
a stepped shaft where the diameter is reduced from 8.00 in. a torque of 3.27 kN - m, determine the minimum allowable
to 6.00 in. Determine the maximum torque that the shalt can diameter for the reduced section.
transmit if the maximum shearing stress in the fillet must be
6-99 A 2-in.-diameter shaft contains a U2-in. deep U-shaped
limited to 12 ksi.
groove that has a 1/4-in. radius at the bottom of the groove.
Intermediate Problems The shaft must transmit a torque of 500 lb - in. If a factor of
safety of 3 with respect to failure by yielding is specified, de-
6-96* A semicircular groove with a 5-mm radius is required in termine the minimum elastic strength in shear required for the
a 110-mm diameter shaft. If the maximum shearing stress in shalt material.
6-10 mnusrrc BEHAVIOR or TORSIONAL rmnmans 325
6-10 INELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF TORSIONAL MEMBERS

One of the limitations of the torsion formula (Eq. 6-6) is that stresses must be less
than the proportional limit of the material. In some design situations, a limited
amount of inelastic action can be permitted; therefore, the analysis presented in
Section 6-3 will be extended ir1 this section to include some inelastic action ir1 the
Inaterial. In Section 6-2, the assumption was made that a plane section remains
plane and a diameter remains straight for circular sections under pure torsion. This
assumption led to the development of Eq. 6-3,
J/p = fr» (6-3)

which states that the shearing strain at any point on a transverse cross section of
a circular shaft is proportional to the distance of the point fiom the axis of the
shaft. Equation 6-3 is valid for elastic or inelastic action provided the strains are
not too large (tan y E y). Once the shearing strain distribution is known, the law
of variation of the shearing stress r with radius p on the transverse plane can
be determined from a shear stress-strain diagram for the material. As an aid to
the thought sequence, it is suggested that sketches be drawn of y vs. p, then r
vs. y, and finally r vs. p, as illustrated for two typical examples in Fig. 6-26.
For both examples, Fig. 6-26a shows that the shearing strain 1/ varies linearly
with the radius p of the circular shaft or tube. One example, Figs. 6-26b and c,
represents a material behaviorthat strain sofiens (after the yieldpoint is reached, the
shear modulus decreases at the strain increases). The second example, Figs. 6-26d
and e, represents a material behavior that is elastolastic. The resisting torque (or
other unknown if the torque is known) can then be evaluated by substituting the
Y TC’ __,i'i=Kil§Pl“
12- ---- "'1
"e =G1_;;p
D we“Es
“*1;
I - has-5:51:
M-
_T= Q -e
-e
7',-
(rl) (5) (*1)
-5 T
1:},
I __ _ T
| r—G§P
1 , Qp
‘i
"eO '1
:_
at‘:
'-_r=Gl" C p
l’
Ty
(d) (8)
Figure 6-26
expression for 1: in terms of p into Eq. 6-1:
TL = f prpdA (6-1)
3183
The procedure is illustrated in the following Example Problems.
1 Example Problem 6-14 A solid circular steel Shflfi 4 in. in diameter

is subjected to a pure torque of 7:1 kip - ft. Assume the steel is elastoplastic (see
Fig. 6-26d), having a yield point 1.’), in shear of 18 ksi and a modulus of rigidity
G of 12,000 ksi. Determine the maximum shearing stress in the shaft and the
magnitude ofthe angle of twist in a 10-ft length.
SOLUTION
Assume first that the maximum stress is less than the proportional limit. In this
case, if the material is homogeneous and isotropic, the expression r = Gy applies
<1»: =pd@dp over the entire cross section (see Fig. 6-26d), and the 1: vs. ,0 diagram would appear
as like the y vs. ,0 diagram (Fig. 6-26a), with yc replaced by rc, making the equation
___? /Q
of the curve 1: = (tr/c)p. Substituting this expression for 1: into Eq. 6-1 (dA is
l'|
\\\ .' |
shown in Fig. 6-27a) yields
4'
P ‘Kr’:
dp -K
m12>= L2Fp(§p)(pdpd@>= fu2p(%p)<2=rpdp>=m(§)
(H)
fi'om which 1.1, is 21 ksi, which is greater than 18 ksi. Therefore, the assumption
is not valid, and the stress distribution curve should be as in Fig. 6-262 with the
maximum shearing stress
Q‘\\“"l:'0,
rm, = ry = 18 ksi Ans.
\l"|I
"'é“ ""lnn\‘
'#|ln\\0 \.\\ Observe that the first integration above replaces the original dA with an annular
area of width ajo, as shown ir1 Fig. 6-27b. In the future, dA will be written in this
~dA = Zrtpdp
form.
(b) To obtain the angle of twist, Eq. 6-2 will be rewritten as
Figure 6-21
L
6:L:L L (a)
p r
where the shearing strain at the yield point yy equals 17,1‘ G = 18! 12,000 =
0.0015 rad and r is the radius of that part of the cross section that is deforming
elastically (Fig. 6-26e). The value of r will be found by means of Eq. 6-1. Thus,
r 2
n= L p(‘r—Sp)(2npdp)+ p(18><2npdp>
The first integral represents that portion of the torque carried by the part of the
shafi that is deforming elastically (0 5 p 5 r), and the second integral represents
6-10 mnusrrc ssruvron or TORSIONAL rnmmrns 327
the portion of the torque carried by the part of the shaft where the shearing stress
is constant (r 5 p 5 c). Thus,
3 3
71:02) = 216-8) +2n(1s)(% -
from which r3 = 4.000 and r = 1.5873 in. Nova from Eq. (a), the magnitude of
the angle of twist is
e__ 0.0015(10)(12) _
15873 _0.ll34rad Ans.
1 Example Problem 6-15 A straight Shaft with a hollow circular

cross section with outside and inside diameters of 3 and 2 in., respectively, is
made of a magnesium alloy having the shear stress-strain diagram of Fig. 6-28
Determine the torque required to twist a 5-ft length of the shaft through
0.24-0 rad.
r, ksi
an ---------------------- - - y
643 --------- -- ""F= 77-47°“ 6
~t__ T = 422 70.74;

l
l 7’, rad
0.0035 0.00?
Figure 6-Z8
SOLUTION
The shear strains at the outside and inside surfaces are obtained fi'om Eq. 6-2.
Thus,
_ p9 _ (1.5)(0.240) _
yu, = ‘°_0 = L
1 0.240 = 0.004rad
L 5(12)
Since both the minimum and maximum shear strains lie within the right-hand
portion of the curve of Fig. 6-28, the shear stress-strain fimction given for this
curve applies for the entire cross section. Thus the y vs. p function is
0.006
y = Ep = it): 0.004;;
c 1.5
328 CHAPTER 6 ronsronu LOADING or srurrs
The 1: vs. p function then becomes
1; = 17.4 y"-‘*4 = 77.4(0.004p)°-4‘ = s.s1sp°-‘"

Substituting this expression into Eq. 6-1 yields
15 15
Tr = f p(s.s1sp°-“)(2np dp)=l2.453p3'M:|
1-0 1.0
fi'om which
T=T,=37.Bkip-in. Ans.
1 PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems 3-m length. The shaft is made of an elastoplastic steel (G = 80
GPa) that has a yield point in shear of 140 MPa. Determine
6-100* A solid circular 100-rm-n-diameter shaft is made of an
elastoplastic steel (G = 80 GPa) that has a shearing yield point a. The maximum shearing strain in the shaft.
of 120 MPa. Determine b. The magnitude of the applied torque.
c. The shearing stress at a point on a cross section at the inside
a. The torque required to initiate plastic action in the shaft. surface of the shaft.
b. The percent increase in torque required to produce plastic
action over the entire cross section ofthe shaft. (Note: There 6-105 A solid circular 4-in.-diameter shaft is twisted through an
will always be some elastic action near the axis of the shaft; angle of5" in a 5-it length. The shaft is made of an elastoplastic
however, this effect is so small that it can be neglected with- steel (G = 12,000 ksi) that has a yield point in shear of 18 ksi.
out producing significant error.) Determine
a. The maximum shearing strain in the shaft.
6-101* A solid circular 4-in.-diameter shaft is made ofan elasto-
b. The magnitude of the applied torque.
plastic steel (G = 12,000 ksi) that has a shearing yield point of
c. The shearing stress at a point on a cross section lf2 in. from
24 ksi. Determine
the axis of the shaft.
a. The applied torque when the plastic zonebegins at r = 1.5 in.
(see Fig. 6-26e). Intermediate Problems
b. The applied torque when the plastic zone begins at r = 1 in.
6-106* A solid circular 50-mm-diameter shaft is l m long. The
6-102 A hollow shaft has an inside diameter of 50 mm and an shaft is made of an aluminum alloy that has a shearing stress-
outside diameter of 100 mm. The shaft is made of an elasto- strain diagram that can be approximated by the two straight
plastic steel (G = 80 GPa) that has a shearing yield point of lines shown in Fig. P6-106. Determine
140 MPa. Determine
a. The torque required to develop a maximum shearing stress
a. The applied torque when the plastic zone begins at r = of 230 MPa in the shaft.
40 mm (see Fig. 6-26e). b. The angle of twist when the torque of part a is applied.
b. The applied torque when the shearing stress at a point on
the inside surface of the shaft reaches the yield point. 'r, MPa
6-103* A solid circular 3-in.-diameter shaft is made ofan elasto-

230 ----------- --
210 —————— —-
plastic steel (G = 12,000 ksi) that has a shearing yield point
of 24 ksi. When the plastic zone begins at r = 314 in. (see Fig.
6-26e), determine
a. The shearing strain at the surface of the shaft.
b. The torque applied to the shaft.
o 1-, 10-1 rad
6-104 A hollow shaft with an outside diameter of 100 mm and an o 74_Lll ~ p_ LII
inside diameter of 50 mm is twisted through an angle of 8*‘ in a Figure P6-106
6-10 mn1.ts'nt: BEHAVIOR or TORSIONAL MEMBERS 529
6-107* A hollow shaft has an inside diameter of 2.5 in., an out- T
side diameter of 4 in., and is 3 ft long. The shaft is made of 'r= tr”
an aluminum alloy that has a shearing stress-strain diagram
that can be approximated by the two straight lines shown in
Fig. P6-107. Determine
a. The torque required to develop a shearing stress of 30 ksi
at a point on a cross section at the inner surface of the T
shaft. Figure P6-I09
b. The angle of twist when the torque of‘ part a is applied.
t, ksi
33 - — - — - - — - — - - —- 6-110* Two 80-mm-diameter steel (G = 80 GPa) and bronze
30 - — - — — - —- (G = 45 GPa) shafts are rigidly connected and supported as
shown in Fig. P6-l 10a. The shearing stress-strain diagram for
the steel is shown in Fig. P6-ll0b. The bronze has a pro-
portional limit in shear of 84 MPa. Determine the torque re-
quired to produce a maximum shearing stress of 60 lt/[Pa in the
bronze.
, 104 d
00 7.5 12.5 T fa
Figure P6-107
A 1.5 m -__,,_,_____-__
, ' 2.5 m -»_______
6-I08 A solid circular 80-mm-diameter shaft is made of a mag- . B i
nesium alloy that has the shearing stress-strain diagram shown
in Fig. P6-108. Determine the torque required to twist a 2-m c It
' ,/ I\ _.L
length of the shaft through 0.300 rad. SIBBI J T /I I 80 mm
Annealed bronze --’ _“||"
1 |
1:, MPa (<1)

60.1 ———————————————————————
1:, MPa
44.3 ----" —- -“ —r \__, I = 533 70"“ 120 e
Y, 10“ rad
I5
- 1 = 2910 "r‘”“
(5)
, =1 Figure P6-I10
00 0.0035 0.0010 T“
Figure P6-108
6-111" The composite shaft shown in Fig. P6-11 la consists of a

hollow steel cylinder with a 6-in outside diameter and a 4-in
6-I09 The stress-strain curve for a polymeric material used for
inside diameter over a solid 2-in.-diameter cold-rolled brass
small gears and shafts is shown in Fig. P6-109. If the material
core. The two members are rigidly connected to barAB at the
is used for a circular shaft ofradiusR that is to transmit a torque
right end and to the wall at the left end. The shearing stress-
T, develop expressions for
strain diagram for the steel is shown in Fig. P6-1 l lb. The brass
a. The angle of twist in terms of T,‘ R, k, and length L. (G = 5000 ksi) has a proportional limit in shear of 30 ksi. De-
b. The maximum shearing stress in the shaft in terms of T termine the torque required to rotate bar AB through an angle
and R. of 0.30 rad.
330 cmwrsn 6 ronsroxu noxontc or sums
“-'- 4 ft -_a
. 60 in. ._______ A - ‘-- 4 it ’—~__
1
v ___ - I -— 3 it _-
' | B W
V -___:_:_.:1-“-*_-_-_.____ _ _ ~ __ 6 in. . c
-_
—-_'-__-______ -. __ -___-___
__-."_-;_____ __
--._-_-_ it;
\I‘-'4: ___
, _ I|‘ 5 D
' --___‘-_____~_.
-. - -"
I
_‘~-::-lr- . ~' 1"
A
1 4 -—-___};-_“_—_—f—___
-_-:-_- ---- 4 in. Sm / T /. _
is-.
ifE.
4:-—- It-I-_
Bronze 0
(tr) Figure P6-1 13
'r, ksi
6-114 The 100-mm-diameter shaft shown in Fig. P6-1 14 is com-
18 — posed of a brass (G = 40 GPa} segment and a steel (G =
80 GPa) segment. The steel is elastoplastic and has a yield
point in shear of 120 MPa. The brass has a proportional limit
,10-‘ad in shear of 60 MPa. Determine the magnitude ofthe torque, ap-
15 Y ' plied as shown, that is required to produce a maximum shearing
(5) stress in the brass of 50 MPa.
Figure P6-ll l
T600 mm _ _
6-112 The 160-mm-diameter steel shaft ofFig. P6-112 has a 100- A . -600 mm _ _
mm-diameter bronze core inserted and securely bonded to the - I “600 mm __,
. I, B C '
steel (G = 80 GPa) in 3 m of the right end. The steel is elasto-
plastic and has a yield point in shear of 120 MPa. The bronze . I . D
has a modulus of rigidity G of40 GPa and a proportional limit I‘ I
in shear of 240 MPa. Determine 100 mm \ B T

rass
Steel
a. The maximum shearing stress in each of the materials.
b. The rotation of the free end of the shaft. Figure P6-1 14
___ 2 0 Computer Problems

. m -___ ___
A ' T 1-5 m '-—>--_l5m-- 6-115 A 4-in.-diameter solid circular steel shalt is subjected to
' s a torque T. Assume that the steel is elastoplastic (see Fig. 6-
. c , 26d), having a yield point -Cy in shear of 18 ksi and a modulus
. . t D /Bronze
of rigidity G of 12,000 ksi. Calculate and plot
1'
. ti -___ .
I
' 200 kw-m 125 kN-m t

.'____T6ii"
\ "—-I,-mm a. The location ofthe yield surface r, as a function ofthe torque
160 mm Steel ‘
T(05 T525kip- ft].
b. The maximum shearing stress r in the shaft as a function of
Figure P6-112 the torque T(0 5 T525 kip - ft).
c. The angle oftwist 6 ina 10-ft length ofthe shalt as a fimction
ofthetorqueT(05 T525kip-ft).
6-113 The circular shaft of Fig. P6-113 consists of a steel
6-116 A 120-mm-diameter solid circular shaft is made of a mate-
(G = 12,000 ksi) segment ABC securely connected to a bronze
rial that has a shear stress-strain diagram similar to Fig. 6-26b.
(G = 6000 ksi) segment CD. Ends A and D of the shaft are
IfG = 16.66 GPa, Ty =-14.3 MPa, and r = 602y°"“‘ MPa when
securely fastened to rigid supports. The steel is elastoplastic
r > r,., calculate and plot
and has a yield point in shear of 18 ksi. The bronze has a pro-
portional limit in shear of 35 ksi. When the two equal torques a. The torque T required to rotate a 3-m length of the shalt as
T are applied, the section at B rotates 0.072 rad in the direction a function of the angle of twist 6 (0° 5 6 5 25°).
of T.’ Determine b. The location of the yield surface r_,. as a function of the angle
of twist 9 (0° 5 6 5 25°).
a. The magnitude of the applied torque T
c. The maximum shearing stress r in the shaft as a fimction of
b. The rnaximmn shearing stress in each of the materials.
the angle oftwist 6 (0° 5 6 5 25°).
6-11 ronsrort or rtoscrncunut sscnoss 331
6-117 A 1-in.-diameter aluminum alloy shaft and a l!2-in.- 6-118 A 20-mm-diameter aluminum alloy shaft and a 25-rnm-
diameter steel shaft are rigidly connected and supported as diameter steel shaft are rigidly connected and supported as
shown in Fig. P6-117a. The shear-strain diagrams for the alu- shown in Fig. P6-118a. The shear stress-strain diagrams for
minum alloy and the steel are shown in Figs. P6-l 17b and the aluminum alloy and the steel are shown in Figs. P6-1 18b
c, respectively. Compute and plot the rotation 6 for a section and c, respectively. Compute and plot the rotation 6 for a sec-
at B as a fimction of the torque T applied at B (0 5 T 5 tion at C as a function of the torque T applied at C (0 5 T 5
750 lb - ft). 475 N - m).
_10 in.
. A '—__—‘_l"""'""
T B 30'1n._-________1
0
. _ I A T" 300mm.__ __
Alurninur11——*’] Steel J ' .' TB 250m-E‘
T
(Q) - 't
I ksi Steel 7-’

I .
Aluminum-
j
Almninutn (Q)
33 ————————— ~-
30 ———— —-
I’ MP8 Aluminum alloy
230 ————— ~-
2t0 ----
0.0075 P°_______.- Mut 1', rad

(1,) 0.0075 0.0125 7, rad
(bl
.ks'
I I Steel 'r MPa
18 ————— — —
Steel
|-s ts)D
0. 001 S Y. rad
0.0015 7, rad (C)
(C) Figure P6-118
Figure P6-117
6-11 TORSION OF NONCIRCULAR SECTIONS

Prior to 1820, when A. Duleau published experimental results to the contrary,
it was thought that the shearing stresses in any torsionally loaded member were
proportional to the distance from its axis. Duleau proved experimentally that this
is not true for rectangular cross sections. An examination of Fig. 6-29 will verify
Duleau‘s conclusion. If the stresses in the rectangular bar were proportional to the
distance from its axis, the maximum stress would occur at the comers. However,
332 CHAPTER 6 TORSIONAL LOADING or SHAFPS
it
\_n>~§ ;____
--.I
1
.~ \
'rdA \ \
/ / \
I
I
'
~.
\ -.
\
~. ~.
\
<>
b
\
\
\‘~ \-\ 1/
\ ‘*- \,\’;I' T
/ I\
/
/
__.1 »-- \ Q;
I \l____
/ \‘I
1 \
I \
I \
L_ \
(<1)
Figure 6-29
if there was a stress of any magnitude at the comer, as indicated in Fig. 6-29a, it
could be resolved into the components indicated ir1 Fig. 6-29b; if these components
existed, the two components shown dashed would also exist. These last components
cannot exist, because the surfaces on which they are shown are fi'ee boundaries.
Therefore, the shearing stresses at the comers of the rectangula.r bar must be
zero.
The first correct analysis of the torsion of the prismatic bar of noncircular
cross section was published by Saint-Venant in 1855; however, the scope of this
analysis is beyond the elementry discussion of this book.“ The results of Saint-
Venant’s analysis indicate that, in general, except for members with circular cross
sections, every section will warp (not remain plane) when the bar is twisted.
For the case of the rectangular bar shown back in Fig. 6-3d, the distortion
of the small squares is maximum at the midpoint of a side of the cross section
and disappears at the corners. Since this distortion is a measure of shearing strain,
Hooke’s law requires that the shearing stress be maxi.mum at the midpoint of a side
of the cross section and zero at the comers. Equations for the maximum shearing
stress and angle of twist for a rectangular section obtained from Saint-Venant’s
theory are
T
Tm“ = $5
TL
0 = flaw; (s14)
where a and b are the lengths of the short and long sides of the rectangle, respec-
tively. The numerical factors or and ;S can be obtained fi'om Fig. 6-30.
‘A complete discussion of this theory is presented in various books, such asMa1he.-nation! Theory of
Elastici1y,I. S. Sokolnikoff, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1956, pp. 109-134.
6 12 ronsros or="r|m WALI.ED’l‘lJBES—SHEAll FLOW 333
0:, [3
0.35
0.30
4*"
0.25
°' T
0.20 ‘B b Q’ . Tm‘
0.15
iLl
0.10 bfa
1 3 5 7 9 11 =-=-
Figure 6-30
6-12 TORSION OF THIN-WALLED TUBES—SHEAR FLOW

Although the elementary torsion theory presented in Sections 6-1, 6-2, and 6-3 is
limited to circular sections, one class of noncircular sections that can be readily
analyzed by elementary methods is a thin-walled section such as the one illustrated
in Fig. 6-31a that represents a noncircular section with a wall ofvariable thickness t.
A useful concept associated with the analysis ofthin-walled sections is shear
flow q, defined as the intemal shearing force per unit of length of the thin section.
Typical units for q are pounds per inch or newtons per meter. In terms of stress,
q equals rt, where r is the average shearing stress across the thiclcness t. It will
be demonstrated that the shear flow on a cross section is constant even though
the thickness of the section wall varies. Figure 6-3 lb shows a block cut from the
member of Fig. 6-31a between A and B, and as the member is subjected to pure
torsion, the shear forces V1 -~ ' V4 alone (no normal forces) are necessary for
equilibrium. Summing forces in the x-direction gives
Vi = V3
"7 in
i -‘it t-"'1 i\'“‘\
| B _V1_~ E H7
y /I/_. "'1 w J V4"! V2

is
,/ 1". v
I ‘ \\. VI ‘A
*1
,~.____ ‘.-.
\ 1. . .1‘.
(H) (b)
Figure 6-31
334 crmrrrn 6 TORSIONAL LOADING or srrrrrs
or
qldx = q3dx
from which
91:93
and,asq=rt,
T151 = Tits ("J
The shearing stresses at point A on the longitudinal and transverse planes have the
same magnitude; li.kewise, the shearing stresses at pointB have the same magnitude
on the two orthogonal planes; hence, Eq. (a) may be written
TAIA = T313
OT
qA=qb‘
which was to be proved.

An expression for the resulting torque on a section can be developed by con-
dF=qdsr ‘\. sidering the foroe dF acting through the center of a differential length ofperimeter
\ . ds, as shown in Fig. 6-32. The resisting torque T, is the resultant of the moments
t ’\ ""M°‘1‘““ of the forces dF; that is,
IIIC
\
“dd \\
1
. Il /
*~i n=f(dF>p=f<qds)p=qfpds
0 ,'
___ /W I
/‘T ,1
\
\
This integral may be diflicult to evaluate by formal calculus; however, the quantity
\ I»
~.
p ds is twice the area of the triangle shown shaded in Fig. 6-32, which makes
the integral equal to twice the area enclosed by the median line A. The resulting
Figure 6-32 expression is
Tr = q(2A) (6-15)
or, in terms of stress,
1: 5: (6-16)
where r is the average shearing stress across the thickness I (and tangent to the
perimeter) and is reasonably accurate when t is relatively small. For example, in
a round tube with a diameter-to-wall thickness ratio of 20, the stress as given by
Eq. 6-16 is 5 percent less than that given by the torsion formula. It must be em-
phasized that Eq. 6-16 applies only to “closed” sections—that is, sections with a
continuous periphery. If the member is slotted longitudinally (see, for example,
Fig. 6-33), the resistance to torsion would be diminished considerably from that
Figure 6-33 for the closed section.
6-12 TORSION or THIN-WALLED rnsns-snare now 335
1 Example Problem 6-16 The alumi.num alloy (G = 4000 ksi) bar

shown in Fig. 6-34 is subjected to a torque T = 2500 lb - in. Determine the
maximum shearing stress and the angle of twist for the 12-in. length.
~ ‘R‘X.
ix
/ii
i“\ 3 in.
“12 16.
~.._\> ,-
‘M.
“'-t
,/
\T’i"/%‘in.
Figure 6-34
SOLUTION
Once or and 5 are lorown, Eqs. 6-13 and 6-14 can be used to calculate the maxi-
mum shearing stress and the angle of twist. Since bla = 31/(1/2) = 6, the values
of or and ,8 from Fig. 6-30 are
6=6=am
and thus,
T
Tm“ : uazb
= =11,l11psi§l1,110psi Ans.
O.30(l/2) (3)
and
TL
6=—i
fla3bG
=L 2500 12 = 0.06661 rad 2 0.0661666 Ans.

0.30(1/2) (3)(4000)(10 )
I EXHIIIPIO 6-17 A rectangular box section of aluminum

alloy has outside dimensions 100 X 50 mm, as shown in Fig. 6-35. The plate
thickness is 2 mm for the 50-rrmi sides and 3 mm for the 100-mm sides. If the
maximum shearing stress must be limited to 95 MPa, determine the maximum
torque that can be applied to the section. Neglect stress concentrations.
3 mm
l.
2mm 50mm
i. 100mm 6
il
Figure 6-as
SOLUTION
The maximum stress will occur in the thinnest plate; therefore,
P Recall that the shear flow qr = rt is con-
stant. Therefore, as the section thickness de-
creases, the shear stress must increase, and
q = n = 9s(10‘)(2)(1o-3) = l9O(lO3)N/III
the maximum shear stress will occur in the
thirmest portion of the section. The torque that can be transmitted by the section is given by Eq. 6-15 as
P The areaA is the area enclosed by the T 2qA

median line of the section. In this case, A is
the area ofthe rectangle (100-l-1) mm wide 2(l90)(103)(100 — 2)(50 — 3)(10_6)
and (50-1.5-1.5) mm tall. 1750N - m Ans.
1 PROBLEMS
6-119* The allowable shearing stress for the aluminum alloy 6-120* Thetwobars shown in Fig. P6-120aremade ofaluminum
(G = 4000 ksi) bar shown in Fig. P6-119 is 12 ksi. Determine (G = 28 GPa). The cross sectional areas and lengths ofthe two
the maximum permissible torque that may be applied to the bars are identical. Ifthe maximum shearing stress must be lim-
bar. ited to 25 MPa., determine
a. The maximum permissible torque that may be applied to
each bar.
Qiqil in. b. The angle of twist for each bar when the torque of part a is
being applied.
in.
Figure P6-119
6-12 roasros ormnr-wxrranruans-snrmr now 337
6-123 A torque of 125 kip - in. will be applied to the hollow, thin-
f'_'\
T1.-J walled, aluminum alloy section shown in Fig P6-123. If the
maximum shearing stress must be limited to 8 ksi, determine
400 mm the minimum thickness required for the section.
4-0mm
L-Smm
T1-J
CW ‘
l31'.n.iI Sin. 'l'3in.

Figure P6-123
6
6-124 A 500-mm-wide x 3-mm-thick x 2-m-long aluminum
Figure P6-121] sheet is to be formed into a hollow section by bending through
360° and welding (butt-weld) the long edges together. Assume
6-121 Two aluminum alloy bars {G = 4000 ksi) ofidentical length a median length of 500 mm (no stretching of the sheet due to
are rigidly attached to fixed supports at one end. One bar (see bending). If the maximum shearing stress must be limited to
Fig. P6-121a) is square. The second bar was machined from a '75 lV[Pa, determine the maximum torque that can be carried by
square bar of the same dimensions as the first bar, as shown in the hollow section if
Fig. P6-l2lb. If the maximum shearing stress must be limited a. The shape of the section is a circle.
to 12 ksi, determine h. The shape of the section is an equilateral triangle.
a. The maximum permissible torque thatmay be applied to the c. The shape of the section is a square.
free end of each bar. d. The shape of the section is a 150 x 100-mm rectange.
h. The angle of twist for each bar when the torque of part a is
being applied if the bars are 3 ft long.
6-125* A solid rectangular bar of aluminum alloy (G =
1.5111.
Eiiiiiiiiiif
_________ __ L J
4000 ksi) is subjected to the torques shown in Fig. P6-125.
IfT| = 10,000 lb - in., T; = 30,000 lb -
and L1 = L; = 30 in., determine
a = 2in., b = 3 in.,
a. The maximum shearing stress in the bar.

(H) (5)
h. The rotation of end C with respect to the support atA.
Figure P6-121
6-122* A torque of 2.0 kN - m will be applied to the hollow,

thin-walled, aluminum section shown in Fig. P6-122. If the
maximum shearing stress must be limited to 40 MPa, deter-
mine the minimum thickness required for the section.
T 12
ir L, zl L C
2-—-_-
Figure P6-125
l— 100 mm —=l 6-126* The torsion member shown in Fig. P6-125 has the cross
Figure P6-122 section shown in Fig. P6-126. If T; = T1 = 2T, a = 75 mm,
338 cruumarr 6 ronsroxu mxnrsc or sums
b = 100 mm, and L1: L2 = 800mm, determine the maxi- Challenging Problems
mum torque T that may be applied to the bar if the maximum
shearing stress in the bar must be limited to 80 MPa. 6-129* A torque box from an airplane wing is shown in
Fig. P6-129. Curves AB and CD are 40.2 in. long. The mean
depth of the box is 12.5 in. The box is made of an aluminum
alloy with an allowable shearing stress of 8 ksi. Determine the
maximum torque that can be applied to the box.
10mm
F’ 5.
75 mm in
5 mm l -“-3 _ B
l.
13 tn.
.
0.05 in.
.
0.04111.
.1"
10 rn.
i 0.0-1 in. L
1 ., D C
l001'rnni1l
Figure P6-126 +40 in. A
Figure P6-129
6-127 Two torsion members (see Fig. P6-127) made of the same
material have the same length and the same weight. For the 6-130 A cross section of an airplane fuselage made of alu-
same allowable shear stress, determine minum alloy is shown in Fig. P6- 130. For an applied torque of
200 kN - m and an allowable shearing stress of 50 MPa, deter-
a. The ratio of the torque that can be carried by the circular bar mine the minimum thickness of sheet (constant for the entire
to the torque that can be carried by the square bar. periphery) required to resist the torque.
b. The ratio of the angles of twist when the torques of part a
are being carried by the two sections.
5.. . \
lfl O
|"T‘|
B
IDID __ _
6*o
15°
Figure P6-127
Figure P6-130
6-128 The 50 >< 50-mm square torsion member shown in
Fig. P6-128 is made of an aluminum alloy (G = 28 GPa). If the
maximum shearing stress must not exceed 80 MPa and the ro- 6-131 The 1.5 x 1.5-in. square bar of aluminum alloy (G =
tation ofendD with respect to end/I must not exceed 0.035 rad, 4000 ksi) shown in Fig. P6-131 is rigidly attached to supports
determine the maximum torque T that can be carried by the bar. at A and D. Determine the reactions at the supports if T1 =
8000lb-in., T; =0,andL1=L; =L; = 1.5 it.
e
400Trnm T
400 mm 37
B
400 rnrn
,1 l..l,,lL§~,.
6-15 nssrss PROBLEMS 359
6-15 DESIGN PROBLEMS

Design, withina limited context, has beendiscussed previously in Chapter5. In that
chapter, design was linrited to axially loaded members and to pins. This chapter
will extend design to solid or hollow circular bars subjected to static torsional
loading. Design of these bars will be limited to proportioning a torsionally loaded
member to perform a specified frmction without failure. In this chapter, failure will
refer to failure by yielding or failure by fi'acture.
Furthermore, design will be limited to circular bars made ofductile materials
for which the significant failure stress is the shearing stress at yield or fracture.
This book will not address the important issue of fatigue loading. That topic is
covered in later courses.
For many materials the yield strength in shear is not given in tables such as
Tables B-17 and B-18. It will be shown in Chapter 10 that, for ductile materials,
the yield strength in shear is either 0.5 or 0.577 times the tensile yield strength,
depending upon the criterion selected for failure. For the present, the more con-
servative value of 0.5 will be used. Design for combined loading will be discussed
in Chapter 7.
1 Example Problem 6-18 A 56161 circular shalt 4 ft long made 6f

2014-T4 wrought aluminum is subjected to a torsional load of 10,000 lb ~ in.
If failure is by yielding and a factor of safety (FS) of 2 is specified, select a
suitable diameter for the shafi if 2014-T4 wrought aluminum bars are available
with diameters in increments of l/8 in.
SOLUTION
The failure criterion is (refer to Chapter 5)
Strength 3 (Factor of safety)(Stress)
For a torsionally loaded circular shaft, stress refers to the magnitude ofthe shear-
ing stress r,, = T,0/J . For a failure mode ofyielding, strength is the yield strength
in shear 1:,-, which for 2014-T4 wrought aluminum is listed in Table B-17 as
24 ksi. Thus,
T, T 16 S T
1,, > F5(7c) =1=5(%/2) =fl
T rrr rrd3
Solving for the diameter,
d > [l6(FS)(T):|'/3 _ [16(2)(10,000)]"’

- 1:1,. :rr(24)(l03)
d 3 1.619 in.
Since bars are available in 1/'8-in. increments, the smallest permissible bar is
5
dmh, = lg in. Ans.
340 CHAPTER 6 rorrsronm LOADING or srnrrs
1 EXHIIIPIC Pl'Ol.')l6lI1 6- 1 9 A solid circular shaft 2 m long is to transmit

1000 kW at 600 rpm. Failure is by yielding, and the factor of safety is 1.75. If
the shaft is made of structural steel, select a suitable diameter for the shalt if bars
are available with diameters in increments of 10 mm.
SOLUTION
Since failure is by yielding, the strength is the yield strength in shear. Table B-
18 lists the yield strength in tension as 250 MPa, but does not give a value for
the yield strength in shear. According to the discussion in Section 6-13, 17,. will
be taken as ayr'2. Thus r_,, = 250f2 = 125 MPa. Using the results of Example
Problem 6-18,
l6(FS)(T) ‘/3
_ H (11)
d > l Tv i
The torque may be formd using Eq. 6-ll
Power = Tm = T(2:rrN)
or
Power
T= 7 b
2rrN ( )
Combining Eqs. (a) and (b) gives
a, > 8(FS)(Power) “'3

_|: rr2Nr_,, :|
d," M600/60)(125)(10‘)
d 3 0.1043m = l04.3mm
Since bars are available in 10-mm increments, the smallest permissible bar is
dm-,,, = 110 mm Ans.
i EXHIIIPIC P1‘OlJlBlIl 6-20 A stepped shaft is subjected to the torques

shown in Fig. 6-36. Both segments of the shaft are made of 6061-T6 wrought
aluminum. For a factor of safety of 2.0 against failure by yielding, determine the
required diameters for the two segments of the shaft.
SOLUTION
For failure by yielding, the significant strength in the shaft is the shearing yield
strength. From Table B-17, the shearing yield strength for 6061-T6 wrought
615 DESIGN PROBLEMS 341
12,000 lb-in.
1000 lb-in. _
I
A-.
A
13,000 lb-in. B C
Figure 6-36
aluminum is 26 ksi. Using the results of Example Problem 6-18,
dam
16(FS)(T) ‘/3
l J1’ Ty i
For segment AB,

I13
dxa Z |¥6(2)(100:]):| = 0.7317 in.
:1-(26)(10 )
For segment BC,

P Of course, a fillet will be necessary at
the change of diameter to reduce the stress
162 12,000 ‘/3
a‘,,¢> L =1.675in. concentration. If the fillet radius r is about
_l I(Z5)(l03) l 0.7(0.732 in.) 2 0.5 the stress concen-
tration factor would be about 2, and the ac-
The minimum diameters are then tual slzress at the change of diameter would
be 2 (13 ksi) = 26 ksi = r,,-,|d.
d,;B = 0.732 in. Ans.
dgc = 1.675 in. Ans.
1 Example Ptfllllfllll 6-21 A steel pipe will be used as a shaft to

transmit 100 kW at 120 rpm. Failure is by yielding (cry = 250 MPa), and the
factor ofsafety is 1 .5. Determine the lightest-weight standard steel pipe that can
be used for the shaft.
SOLUTION
The failure criterion
Ty 2
can be solved for (J/c) to yield
J FS(T)
_2_r=m
FS(Power)
c ry ry (2rr N)
Substituting the given numerical values
5> 1.s(100)(103)
6 - 125(106)(2n')(120/60)
O1‘
1 3 95.4900-°) 1113 = 95.4-9(lU3)11111'13

C
where
5 = Ti > 95 49(103) 1111113 (0)

c Zrg _ I
Equation (a) can be satisfied for an infinite number of hollow pipes having
different radius ratios. Table B-14 can be used to select a pipe that satisfies the
requirement that J/c 3 95 .49(103) n1m3. However, Table B-14 lists the properties
I and S, where I is the rectangular second moment of area with respect to a
diameter of the pipe, and S is the section modulus, S = I/c. Since J = 21 for
circular sections (either solid or hollow), the required section modulus for the
PIIJC 1S
P Recall that the polar second moment of 3

area of a cross section is equal to the sum s = 1 = ll 2 i95'49(1°) = 47.75(lO3)m1I13 (b)
of the second moments relative to the x-and c 2 c 2
y-a.xes,J = I, +1_,. Since I, = I, = U4 :rrr4
for a circular section, J = 21 = 21} = 21,. = The lightest-weight standard pipe in Table B-14, with s 3 47.7500’) 111m3, is
l/2 rrr4. a 102-mm-nolninal-diameter pipe. Any pipe in Table B-l4 that has a section
modulus greater than S = 47.75(103) 1111113 would satisfy the stress requirement,
but the 102-mm pipe is the lightest, since it has the smallest cross-sectional
area.
1 PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems b. If solid structural steel shaits are available with diameters
in increments of 10 mm, determine the minimum diameter
6-132* A motor is to transmit 150 kW to a piece of mechanical that can be used.
equipment. The power is transmitted through a solid structrual c. Compare the weights of the two shafts.
steel shafi. Failure isby yielding, and the factorofsafety is 1.25.
The designer has the freedom to operate the motor at 60 rpm 6-135 A shafi is to transmit 100 hp at 200 rpm. The designer
or at 6000 rpm. For each case, determine the minimum shaft has a variety of solid bars and standard steel pipes to se-
diameter. Shafls are available with diameters in increments lect from. Both the bars and the pipes are made of structural
of 5 mm. If weight is important, which speed would be steel, the failure mode is yielding, and the factor of safety
used? is 2.
6 133* A 3-ft-long steel pipe is subjected to a torque of 1200 lb-ft a. Select the lightest standard-weight steel pipe that can be
at each end. The pipe is made of 0.2% C hardened steel, failure used.
is by yielding, and the factor of safety is 1.5. Determine the h. Select a suitable solid shaft if they are available with diam-
nominal diameter of the lightest standard-weight steel pipe that eters in increments of U8 in.
can be used for the shafl. c. lfweight is critical, which shalt should be used?
6 134 A standard-weight structural steel pipe must transmit
150 kW at 60 rpm. The failure mode is yielding and the factor
of safety is 1.5. Intermediate Problems
a. Select the lightest standard-weight steel pipe that can be 6-136* The motor shown in Fig. P6-136 supplies a torque of
used. 1000 N - m to shaft ABCDE. The torques removed at C,
D,andEare500N-m,300N-m,and200N-m,re- f— zso mm —»
spectively. The shaft is the same diameter throughout and is
made of 0.4% C hot-rolled steel. For a factor of safety of
3 and failure by yielding, select a suitable diameter for the
shaft if shafls are available with diameters in increments of
10 mm.
’\
.- .-
_ Him A B C
‘Ts. |=IE
-1°" s- e Ii
Figure P6-138
50 mm
600 mm
P
Figure P6-136
6-139 The motor shown in Fig. P6-139 supplies a torque of

380 lb - it to shaft BCD. The torques removed at gears C
and D are 220 lb - ft and 160 lb - ft, respectively. The shaft
6-137 A torque of 30,000 lb - in is supplied to the factory drive
BCD has a constant diameter and is made of 0.4% C hot-
shaft of Fig. P6-137 by a belt that drives pulley A. A torque
rolled steel, failure is by yielding, and the factor of safety is 2.
of 10,000 lb - in. is removed by pulley B and 20,000 lb - in.
Determine
by pulley C. The shaft is made of structural steel and has a
constant diameter over its length. Segment AB of the shafl is a. The minimum allowable diameter of the shaft if shafts are
3 ft long, and segment BC is 4 it long. Failure is by yielding, available with diameters in increments of 1/8 in.
and the factor of safety is 2.25. Select a suitable diameter for b. The minimum allowable diameter of the bolts used in the
the shaft if shafts are available with diameters in increments of coupling, if eight bolts are used, the material is structural
1/8 in. steel, the mode of failure is yielding, and the factor of safety
is 1.5. The diameter of the bolt circle is d 1 = 3.5 in., and the
bolts are available with diameters in increments of 1/16 in.
A
C 15‘
-- /Bearing
l!i|g’|'!l!i|%i|l.—
' - o " 0
FigureP6-137 Q9
= - — = 4 4,
o __ 0
Challenging Problems it
6-138* The band brake shown in Fig. P6-138 is part of a hoist- ,Z\/ C
. . . . . p \
mg machine. The coeflicient of friction between the 500-1nm- ‘ t
.-.
diameter drum and the fiat belt is 0.20. The maximum actuating
force P that can be applied to the brake arm is 490 N. Rotation
A l '0 T §.r|\.l5i.r||..
_ fi—_
='
_.
.-
of the drurn is clockwise. What miniminn-size shalt should be i_
used to transmit the resisting torque developed by the brake

to the machine if the shaft is to be made of 0.4% C hot-rolled
steel? The factor of safety is 3 for failure by yielding. Circular
steel bars are available with diameters in increments of 5 mm. Figure P6-139
344 CHAPTER 6 TORSIONAL LOADING or SHAFPS
6 140 A shaft used to transmit power is constructed by joining dc

two solid segments of shaft with a collar, as shown in Fig. 1' d
P6-140 The collar has an mside diameter equal to the diame- 1'17 “ ‘- » ‘ _ __ ,’
ter of the shaft and both the collar and the shaft are made of “'/- - ..'./ii I T _ ‘I
the same material The collar is securely bonded to the shaft -. T T “‘ -
segments Determine the ratio of the diameters of the collar i .'
and shaft such that the splice can transmit the same power as Figure P6440
the shaft and at the same maximum shearing stress level. Is the
solution dependent on the material selected‘?
SUMMARY
The problem of transmitting a torque (a couple) fi'om one plane to a parallel plane
is frequently encountered in the design of machinery. The simplest device for
accomplishing this fiinction is a circular shaft. The resisting torque is statically
equivalent to the sum of the torques produced by the shear stresses
T}=\/i pdF=/i p1.'pdA (6-1)

BIBB flffii-1
where p is the distance from the axis ofthe shaft to the element of area dA. The law
of variation of the shearing st1'ess on the transverse plane (1: as a fimction of radial
position p) must be known before the integral of Eq. 6-1 can be evaluated. If the
assumption is made that a plane transverse cross section before twisting remains
plane after twisting and a diameter of the section remains straight, the distortion
of the shaft can be expressed as
c9 p9
ye = I and yp = T (6'2)
O1‘
1*
a=ip
C
we
The angle 8 is called the angle of twist. Equation 6-3 indicates that the shear-
ing strain is zero at the center of the shaft and increases linearly with respect to
the distance p from the axis of the shalt. This equation can be combined with
Eq. 6-1 once the relationship between the shearing stress r and the shearing strain
y is known. Since no assumptions have been made about the relationship between
the stress and the strain or about the type ofmaterial of which the shaft is made, Eq.
6-3 is valid for elastic or inelastic action and for homogeneous or heterogeneous
materials, provided the strains are not too large (tan y E 7/). If the assumption is
made that Hooke’s law (r = Gy) applies (stresses must be below the proportional
liriiit of the material), Eq. 6-3 can be written
r
e=fp we
When Eq. 6-4 is substituted into Eq. 6-1, the result is
Ti‘ "D
rp = 7 and 17, =
-:;* (6-6)
SUMMARY 345
where J is the polar second moment of the cross-sectional area of the shaft. Equa-
tion 6-6 indicates that the shearing stress rp, like the shearing strain y,-,, is zero at
the center ofthe shaft and increases linearly with respect to the distance p from the
axis of the shaft. Both the shearing strain y and the shearing stress 1: are maximum
when p = c. Equation 6-6 is known as the elastic torison formula and is valid for
both solid and hollow circular shafts.
Frequently, the amount of twist in a shaft is important. Equations 6-2, 6-6,
and Hooke’s law (tr = Gy) can be combined to give
L L
e=yL=l or TL
e=# (6-711,11)
p pG GJ
The angle of twist determined from the above expressions is for a length
of shaft of constant diameter (J = constant), constant material properties (G =
constant), and carrying a torque T,. Ideally, the length of shaft should not include
sections too near to (within about one-half shaft diameter of) places where me-
chanical devices (gears, pulleys, or couplings) are attached. Forpiactical purposes,
however, it is customary to neglect distortions at connections and to compute angles
as if there were no discontinuities.
If T,, G, orJ is not constant along the length of the shaft, Eq. 6-7b takes the
form
n Tril-1
0=2 GM,
_ (6-7C)
where each term in the summation is for a length L where T,, G, and J are constant.
If T,., G, 01.)’ is a fimction ofx (the distance along the length of the shaft), the angle
of twist is found using
LT,dx
9= fa i
G1 <6-7di
For a shaft in pine torsion (as in this chapter), the maximum shearing stress
occurs on both transverse and longitudinal planes and is given by the elastic torsion
formula, Eq. 6-6. Maximimi normal stresses occur on planes oriented at 45° with
the axis of the shaft and perpendicular to the surface of the shaft. On one of
these planes, the normal stress is tension, and on the other the normal stress is
compression. Furthermore, the magnitude of the maximum normal stresses is the
same as the maximum shearing stress given by Eq. 6-6.
One ofthe most common uses ofa circular shalt is the transmission ofpower.
Power is defined as the time rate of doing work, and the basic relationship for work
done by a constant torque T is Wk = T¢, where W}, is work and ¢ is the angular
displacement of the shaft in radians. The derivative of W), with respect to time t
gives
Power: w = T? = Tm (6-11)
where dW;,fdt is power, T is a constant torque, and w is the constant angular velocity
of the shaft (in radians per second). In the SI system of imits, power is given in
watts (1 W = I N - m/s). In the U.S. customary system of units, power is usually
CHAPTER 6 TORSIONAL LOADING OF SIIAFTS
given in units of horsepower (1 hp = 550 lb - fi/s = 33,000 lb - filmin). Equation

6-ll shows that for a fixed amount of power, the torque that can be transmitted
by a shafi decreases with rotation rate. Conversely, for a fixed torque, the power
required to rotate the shaft increases with angular rotation rate.
Ifa circular shaft is pulled and twisted at the same time, the combined loading
produces both a nonnal stress and a shearing stress at a point on the transverse
cross section of the shalt. As long as the strains are small, these stresses can be
computed separately (using Eqs. 2-2 and 6-6) and superimposed on the element.
Once these stresses are known, the normal and shearing stresses on other planes
through the point can be determined using the stress transformation equations or
Mohr's circle. The maximum norrnal stresses and the maximum shearing stresses
at the point can be found using the methods described in Section 2-10.
One of the limitations of the elastic torsion formula (Eq. 6-6) is that stresses
must be less than the proportional limit of the material. In some design situations,
however, a limited amount ofinelastic action can be permitted. Equation 6-3 , which
states that the shearing strain at any point on a transverse cross section of a circular
shafi is proportional to the distance of the point from the axis of the shaft
no = $0 (6-3)
is valid for elastic or inelastic action provided the strains are not too large (tan y
E y). The variation of the shearing stress must be determined from a shear stress-
strain diagram for the material. Finally, the resisting torque can then be evaluated
by substituting the expression for 1: in terms of ,0 into Eq. 6-1
T. = f prim
UB3
(6-1)
and integrating over the cross-sectional area of the shaft.
Although the elementary torsion theory is limited a circular sections, one
class of noncircular sections that can be readily analyzed by elementary methods
is a thin-walled section. In such sections, the shear flow q (defined as the internal
shearing force per unit of length of the thin section) is constant even though the
thickness of the section wall varies. The resisting torque T, is the resultant of the
moment of the shear force
T, = 2qA (6-15)
where q = rt is the shear flow, r is the average shearing stress across the thickness
t, and A is the area enclosed by the median line. Solving for the shear stress gives
T
1: TL (6-16)
REVIEW PROBLEMS
6-141* A steel (G = 12,000 ksi) shaft is loaded and supported as b. The rotation of a section at the right end with respect to im
shown in Fig. P6-141. Determine no-load position.
c. The rotation of a section 7 ft from the left end with respect
a The maximum shearing stress in the shafl. to its no-load position.
ruzvrsw PROBLEMS 347
85 kip'fi T
/"
B 1
-,§_ I; ‘ 22kN~rr1
A q. ___ T"|~\_______ H I
, ‘5___‘§>;' so kip-it
I I I
.4, _ ,
Bfi C ‘W'“-,3};
"" 2 m -,..___ ___ 4 B A ' g _ . -
I ~n-__;"_;_._'.,;.-
=11,.
M... m _____-_~‘:;__/1 C r
4fi )1 rm’, 15 kip ft
' ‘---3 m ___’,/-' ,_
21-I .-2 kip-ft
‘i./"
t
\..-".
LII =0
.1‘
"a
‘\
*=~\..5
E-1%-‘5. ’
it
."‘-I Figure P6-144
U
\.
to :1: . \
‘~\
"“t
Figure P6-141
6-145 A solid circular aluminum alloy (G = 4000 ksi) shaft is

2.5 in. in diameter and 3 ft long. The maximum permissible
6-142* A torque of 12.0 kN - m is supplied to the driving gear B of
angle of twist is 0.052 rad, and the allowable shearing stress is
Fig. P6-142 by a motor. Gear/1 takes off 4.0 kN - m of torque,
10 ksi. Determine the maximum horsepower that this shaft can
and the remainder is taken off by gear C. For an allowable
deliver when rotating at 500 rpm
shearing stress of 80 MPa, determine
6-146 A solid circular stepped steel (G = 80 GPa) shalt has the di-
a. The minimum permissible diameters for the two shafts.
mensions and is subjected to the torques shown in Fig. P6-146.
b. The angle of twist of gear/1 with respect to gear C if both
Determine
shafts are made of steel (G = 80 GPa) and have diameters
of 75 mm. a. The maximrun tensile stress in section AB of the shaft.
h. The maximum compressive stress in section BC ofthe shaft.
c. The rotation of a section at C with respect to its no-load
A B C
position.
'5 at ‘;' 4, '5
!'||1'||!
2 !'| '| !
E; \—Bearing E
A T2 = 40 kN-nit,-1
< Im > 2 rn __/’
<( . 150 mm
Figure P6-142 \\ ./- /|_
300 mm B
RX \"<-.
/_
6-143 An aluminum alloy (G = 3800 ksi) tube will be used to Kex T1 = rs kN-m
/.
transmit a torque in a control mechanism. The tube has an
outside diameter of 1.25 in. and a wall thickness of 0.065 in. ‘Xxx /I 100 mm
Because of the tendency of thin sections to buckle, the maxi-
400 rum
'\._\__\\‘ X ‘I '_/
mum compressive stress inthe tube must be limited to 8000 psi. .3/, C
Determine
Figure P6-146
a. The maximum torque that can be applied.
b. The angle of twist in a 3-ft length when a torque of 1000
lb - in. is applied.
6-144* The hollow circular steel (G = 80 GPa) shalt of 6-147" The inner surface of the aluminum alloy (G = 4000 ksi)
Fig. P6-144 is in equilibrium under the torques indicated. sleeve A and the outer surface of the steel (G = 12,000 ksi)
Determine shaft}? ofFig. P6-147 are smooth. Both the sleeve and the shaft
are rig-idly fixed to the wall at D. The 0.500-in. diameterpin C
a. The minimum permissible outside diameter d if the maxi- fills a hole drilled completely through a diameter of the sleeve
mum shearing stress in the shaft is not to exceed 100 MPa. and shaft. If the average shearing stress on the cross-sectional
b. The rotation of a section at D with respect to a section at A area of the pin at the interface between the shaft and the sleeve
for the shaft with an outside diameter of 120 mm. must not exceed 5000 psi, determine
348 cnsrran 6 TORSIONAL noxnrrtc or srrxrrs
a. The maximum torque T that can be applied to the right end 6-150* A cross section of the leading edge of an airplane wing is
of the steel shalt B. shown in Fig. P6-150. The length along the curve is 660 mm,
b. The maximum shearing stress in the aluminum alloy sleeve and the enclosed area is 53,000 mm2. Sheet thicknesses are
A when the torque of part a is applied. shown on the diagram. For an applied torque of 12 kN - m,
c. The rotation ofthe right end ofthe shalt when the maximum determine the magnitude of the maximum shearing stress de-
torque T is applied. veloped in the section.
1.3mm A
K-—Alurninum
' D |' C‘ L I ,
-' \ _. /22-1 -Steel 3 "1
4.$4 -E at
. _ ’ / T
Boimm
B
Figure P6-150
“flu '_'1':€ta----~7// "B
Figure P6-147 6-151* The motor shown in Fig. P6-151 delivers 200 hp at 300
rpm to a piece of equipment at B. The shalt is made from
0.4% C hot-rolled steel (G = 11,600 ksi), which is available
6-148 The 160-mm-diameter steel (G = 80 GPa) shalt shown in with diameters in increments of 1/8 in. The length of the shalt
Fig. P6-148 has a 100-mm-diameter bronze (G = 40 GPa) core between A and B is 3 ft. Determine the shaft diameter required
inserted in 3 m of its right end. The bronze is securely bonded if the maximum shearing stress in the shaft must not exceed
to the steel. Determine 15.9 ksi and the angle of twist between A and B must not
exceed l.5°.
a. The maximum shearing stress in each of the materials.
b. The rotation of the ftee end of the shaft.
160 mm
160 kN-m
if —l rtrisitmntt
r. m'1[e|nE]ni'1 *
2-Om "1,’“~,_ rs kN-m -- ':’ --
5' “‘~. ‘-__: _ \ 100mm
1.5m ~ ~, ‘~~_ ~—- Flgure P6-151
. c '\\ _ '~-K"
, Steel
‘\_ Bronze
1.5 m --/
_ D 6-152 The 100-mm-diameter segmentABC of the shaft shown in
Fig. P6-152 is initially not connected to the 60-mm-diameter
Figure P6-148 segment CD. Torque TB = l 5 kN - mis applied at section B, and
a secure connection between the two segments is then made at
C, after which the torque TB is removed. Determine the result-
6-149 A torque of 1850 lb - ft will be applied to the hollow, thin- ing maximum shearing stress in segment CD after the torque
walled, aluminum alloy section shown in Fig. P6-149. If the T5 is removed. The moduli of rigidity are 40 GPa forABC and
maximum shearing stress must be limited to 8 ksi, determine 80 GPa for CD.
the minimum thickness required for the section.
, . T3=l5kN-m
1
\
. s. \
' - ._:_ _
l‘ 1.2 m -xi“ L -
_ 1 rn-__
" 1.6 m .__fil

Chapter 7
Flexural Loading: Stresses in Beams
7-1 INTRODUCTION
A member subjected to loads applied transverse to the long dimension of the
member and which causes the member to bend is a beam. The beam, or flexural
member, is fiequently encountered in structures and machines, and its elementary
stress analysis constitutes one of the more interesting facets of mechanics of mate-
rials. For example, Fig. 7-1 is a photograph of an I-beam, AB, simply supported in
a testing machine and loaded at the one-third points. Figure 7-2 depicts the shape
(exaggerated) of the beam when loaded.
Before proceeding with a discussion of stress analysis for flexural members,
it may be well to classify some of the various types ofbeams and loadings encoun-
tered in practice. Beams are frequently classified on the basis of their supports or
reactions. A beam supported by a pin, roller, or smooth surface at the ends and
having one span is called a simple beam (Fig. 7-3a). A simple support (a pin or
roller) will develop a reaction normal to the beam but will not produce a couple.
If either or both ends of the beam project beyond the supports, it is called a simple
beam with overhang (Fig. 7-3b). A beam with more than two simple supports is a
Cb
-ff
\\\
\\
Figure 7-1 Setup for measuring longitudinal strains in a beam.

SSO crntrrsrt 1 rrsxurur. r.oxn11~1c- srrrsssas [N saws
~?it,T“"r,i
Figure 7-2
continuous beam (Fig. 7-3c). A cantilever beam is one in which one end is built
into a wall or other support so that the built-in end can neither move transversely
nor rotate (Fig. 7-3d). The built-in end is said to be fixed if no rotation occurs
and restrained ifa limited amount of rotation occurs. The supports shown in Figs.
7-3d, e, and f represent fixed ends unless otherwise stated. The beams in Figs.
7-3d, e, andf are, in order, a cantilever beam, a beam fixed (or restrained) at the
left end and simply supported near the other end (which has an overhang), and a
beam fixed (or restrained) at both ends.
Cantilever beams and simple beams have only two reactions (two forces or
one force and a couple), and these reactions can be obtained fi'om a free-body
diagram of the beam by applying the equations of equilibrium. Such beams are
Prep‘ ”
lllllilllllllllll
(5
.
—'*—Ax
..
U.. I: 4441
(<1) (5) P
n
r 1
n
‘
I | |
| = | |
(C) (4)
P P
. I l
to (D
Figure 7-3
7-1 IN’l'RODUCI‘l0N 351
said to be statically determinate since the reactions can be obtained fi'om the equa-
tions of equilibrium. Beams with more than two reaction components are called
statically indeterminate because there are not enough equations of equilibrium to
determine the reactions. The beams shown in Figs. 7-3a, b, and d are statically
determinate, whereas the beams shown in Figs. 7-3c, e, andf are statically indeter-
minate.
All of the beams shown in Fig. 7-3 are subjected to both concentrated loads
and to uniformly distributed loads. Although all of the beams shown in Fig. 7-3
are shown as horizontal, beams may have any orientation. The loads are assumed
to act in a plane of symmetry. Distributed loads will be shown on the side of the
beam on which they are acting; that is, if drawn on the bottom of the beam, the
load is pushing upward and if drawn on the right side of a vertical beam, the load
is pushing to the lefl. Deflection curves (greatly exaggerated) are shown beneath
the beams of Fig. 7-3 to assist in visualizing the shapes of the loaded beams.
A fi'ee-body diagram of the portion of the beam of Fig. 7-3a between the
left end and plane a—a is shown in Fig. 7-4a. A study of this diagram shows that a
transverse force V, and a couple M, at the section and a force R (a reaction) at the left
support are needed to maintain equilibrium. The force Pl is the resultant force due to
the shearing stresses acting on the section (on plane a—a) and is called the resisting
shear. The couple M, is the resultant moment due to the normal stresses acting on
the section (on plane a—a) and is called the resisting moment. The magnitudes and
senses of V, and M a.re obtained from the equations of equilibrium SF, = 0 and
EMQ = 0 where O is any axis perpendicular to the xy-plane. The reaction R must
be evaluated from a free-body diagram of the entire beam.
J’
P
,1, b
Y
x M, Z
O
-— — :>
-id;
Q} s\
I 1}-‘—p1ane is a plane
of symmetry for the
qr. n_¢__ beam and loading
R
(=1) (5)
1; Plane a-a
\ .
‘\?1A_.°~
"10 in. (C)

Figure 7-4
352 crnrrtn 7 rmxrnuu. LOADING: smsssas [N BEAMS
The normal and shearing stresses 0, and 1,, on plane a—a are related to the
resisting moment M and the resisting shear V, by the equations
V,=—f r,,,dA (7-la)

area
A&=—f ymd4 (aw)

GIEB
The resisting shear and moment (K and M,), as shown on Fig. 7-4a, will be defined
as positive quantities later in Section 7-5. The normal and shear stresses 0, and
13,, as shown on Fig. 7-4c, are defined as positive stresses. The minus signs in
Eqs. 7-la and 7-lb are required to bring these two definitions into agreement. It
is obvious fi"om Eqs. 7-l that the laws of variation of the normal and shearing
stresses must be known before the integrals can be evaluated. Thus, the problem
is statically indeterminate. For the present, the shearing stresses will be ignored
while the normal stresses are studied.
3
W-
7-2 FLEXURAL STRAINS
\
A segment of the beam of Fig. 7-4a, between planes a—a and b—b, is shown ir1
\
I \ Fig. 7-5 with the distortion greatly exaggerated. When Fig. 7-5 was drawn, the
a‘ ‘i.
P —>= assumption was made that a plane section before bending remains a plane after
P .-Y’ ~ _, _,.1
\t bending. For this to be strictly true, it is necessary that the beam be bent only with
as
"ll ' Y_ — _ -7 ‘t
I‘ ' \ couples (no shear on transverse planes). Also, the beam must be so proportioned
that it will not buckle and the loads applied so that no twisting occurs (this last lini-
itation will be satisfied ifthe loads are applied in a plane of symmetry—a sufficient
though not a necessary condition). When a beam is bent only with couples, the
deformed shape ofall longitudinal elements (also referred to as fibers) is an arc ofa
circle.
Precise experimental measurements indicate that at some distance c above
Figure 1-s the bottom of the beam, longitudinal elements undergo no change in length. The
curved surface formed by these elements (at radius p in Fig. '7-5) is referred to as
the neutral surface of the beam, and the intersection of this surface with any cross
section is called the neutral axis ofthe section. All elements (fibers) on one side of
the neutral surface are compressed, and those on the opposite side are elongated.
As shown in Fig. 7-5, the fibers above the neutral surface of the beam of Fig. 7-4-a
(on the same side as the center of curvature) are compressed and the fibers below
the neutral surface (on the side opposite the center of curvature) are elongated.
The xy-axes of Fig. 7-4c lie in the plane of symmetry; the origin of the coordinate
system lies on the neutral surface.
Finally, the assumption is made that all longitudinal elements have the same
initial length. This assumption imposes the restriction that the beam be initially
straight and of constant cross section; however, inpractice, considerable deviation
fi'om these last restrictions is ofien tolerated.
The longitudinal strain 6, experienced by a longitudinal element that is
located a distance y fi'om the neutral surface of the beam is determined by using
the definition of normal strain as expressed by Eq. 3-1. Thus,
€_§_q-n
"_r_ L,-
7-2 rrrrxnrrxr. s'r'rtu1ts 553
4
T I Top of beam
Lo)
\ \
. lfliinae
X 7.5 kip 7.5 kip
21
@ @\ \
1 1 7.0 in.
\
\
"\\ ' 2n 211 2n '

t-r l \
‘ \
\
O
\
\
G web
\
\
\
it
\
>-r 1 \
\
\
fiom
beam,
Discenttanceroin.f \
0
\
2l \
1 \
\
\
0
‘ \
3 l \\
t \ ~. \| flange
p T" Bottom of beam
4 comp. rs 10 5 0 5 10 15 Ten.
Strain, iniin. (10)-4
Figure 7-6
where L; is the final length of the fiber after the beam is loaded and L,- is the initial
length of the fiber before the beam is loaded. From the geometry of the beam
segment shown in Fig. 7-5,
_ Ax‘ — Ax _ (p — J/)(A9) — pt/18) _ 1

éx — AI — W39) — “fly (7-2)
Equation 7-2 indicates that the strain developed in a fiber is directly propor-
tional to the distance of the fiber from the neutral surface of the beam (recall that y
is measured fi"om the neutral surface). This variation can be demonstrated exper-
imentally by means of strain gages attached to an I-bearn, as shown in Fig. 7-1.
The strains, as measured by gages on two different sections, are plotted against the
vertical position of the gages on the beam in Fig. 7-6. Curve I represents strains
on a section at the center of the beam where pure bending occurs (no transverse
shear), and curve 2 shows strains at a section near one end of the beam where both
flexural (nornral) stresses and transverse shearing stresses exist. These curves are
both straight lines within the limits of the accuracy of the measuring equipment.‘
IA more exact analysis using principles developed in the theory of elasticity indicates that curve 2
should be curved slightly. Note: Other experiments indicate that a plane section of an initially curved
beam will also remain plane after bending and that deformations will still be proportional to the distance
ofthe fiber from the neutral surface. The strain, however, will not be proportional to this distance, since
each deformation must be divided by a different original length.
354 crntrrrrt 1 rtsxtrrmr. r.ornrsc= srrtsssss IN starts
Note that Eq. 7-2 is valid for elastic or inelastic action so long as the beam does
not twist or buckle and the transverse shearing stresses are small. Problems in this
book will be assumed to satisfy these restrictions.
7-5 FLEXURAL STRESSES

With the acceptance of the premise that the longitudinal strain ex is proportional to
the distance ofthe fiber from the neutral surface ofthe beam, the law ofvariation of
the nonnal stress 0, on the transverse plane can be determined by using a tensile-
compressive stress-strain diagram for the material used in fabricating the beam.
For many real materials, the tension and compression stress-strain diagrams are
identical in the linearly elastic range. Although the diagrams may differ somewhat
in the inelastic range, the differences can be neglected for most real problems. For
beam problems in this book, the compressive stress-strain diagram will be assumed
to be identical to the tensile diagram unless otherwise noted.
For the special case of linearly elastic action, the relationship between stress
tr, and strain 5, is given by Hooke ‘s law, Eq. 4-10 (since the state of stress is
uniaxial) as
ax : Esx ('1)
Substituting Eq. 7-2 into Eq. (a) yields
E
Us : E51‘ : _';y (7'3)
J’ Equation 7-3 shows that the normal stress 0, on the transverse cross section of the
beam varies linearly with distance y fi'om the neutral surface. Also, since plane
cross sections remain plane, the normal stress 0,, is uniformly distributed in the
z-direction (see Fig. 7-4c).
Fv.
@£— With the law of variation of flexural stress known, Fig. 7-4 can now be
redrawn as shown in Fig. 7-7. The forces FL: and Fr are the resultants of the
x
compressive and tensile flextnal stresses, respectively. Since the sum of the forces
-2, in the x-direction must be zero, FC is equal to FT; hence, they forrrr a couple of
magnitude M,.
The resisting moment M, developed by the normal stresses in a typical beam
l I fa with loading in a plane of symmetry but of arbitrary cross section, such as the one
R shown in Fig. 7-8, is given by Eq. 7-l as
Figure 7-7
ll-f,=—LydF=—j;y01d/1 (bl
Since y is measured from the neutral surface, it is first necessary to locate this
surface by means of the equilibritmr equation SF, = 0, which gives
2fl=LH=LqM=O @
7-3 rtsxttrutsrrtsssss 355
Jiz J’
M —i, dy
Neutral surface -
|i"-1
x Z N ea
Ai _|_
_ _
Figure 7-8
Substituting Eq. 7-3 into Eq. (c) yields
/W-/ta)“
A A
Ef
=———
P
P Ay dA=——pyc A=0
E
(7-4J
whereyg is the distance from the neutral axis to the centroidal axis c—c ofthe cross
section that is perpendicular to the plane of bending. Since neither (E/p) norA is
zero, yc must equal zero. Thus,forflexural loading and linearly elastic action, the
neutral axis passes through the centroid of the cross section.
Since the nornral stress 0, varies linearly with distance y from the neutral
stnface, the maximum normal stress crmx on the cross section can be written as
E
am, = — —c (7-5)
P
where c is the distance to the surface of the beam (top or bottom) farthest from
the neutral surface. Ifthe quantity (E/p) is eliminated between Eqs. 7-3 and 7-5, a
useful relationship between the maximum stress am, on a transverse cross section
and the stress crx at an arbitrary distance y from the neutral surface is obtained.
Thus,
@=3%m=3Q we
c c
Substitution of Eq. 7-6 into Eq. (b) yields
M=-fyQm=-fiffim an
A 6‘ A
in which am, = 0,, (equals 0,, evaluated at y = c). The integral fyz ¢iA is called
the second moment ofarea. Second moments of area of several common shapes
are given in Table A-1, Appendix A. Second moments ofmore complex areas can
usually be derived (without integration) from combinations ofthese simple shapes,
as shown in the next section. A discussion ofsecond moments of area is presented
in Appendix A.
356 crntrrsrt 1 rtsxtrrmr. rmnrsc srrtsssss IN starts
7-4 THE ELASTIC FLEXURE FORMULA

When the integral [A yz dA in Eq. 7-7 is replaced by the symbol I, the elasticflexure
fimnula is obtained as
M
at = -77’ <1-81
where 0, is the normal flexural stress on a transverse plane, at a distance y from
the neutral surface, M, is the resisting moment of the section, and I is the second
moment of area of the transverse section with respect to the neutral axis. Recall
that the neutral axis passes through the centroid of the area.
At any section of the beam, the flexural stress, or normal stress, will be
maximum (have the greatest magnitude) at the surface farthest from the neutral
axis (y = c), and Eq. 7-8 becomes
M, M,
0...... = 7° =F (1-9)
where S = I/c is called the section modulus of the beam. Although the section
modulus can be readily calculated for a given section, values (magnitudes) of the
section modulus are often included in tables to simplify calculations. Observe that
for a given area, S becomes larger as the shape is altered to concentrate more of
the area as far as possible fi'om the neutral axis. Commercial rolled shapes such
as I- and WF-beams and the various built-up sections are intended to optimize the
area-section modulus relation.
Thus far, the discussion of flexural behavior has been limited to straight
structural members with symmetric cross sections that are loaded in a plane of
symmetry. Many other shapes are subjected to flexural loadings, and methods are
needed to determine stress distributions in these nonsyrnmetric shapes. The flexure
formula (Eq. 7-8) provides a means for relating the resisting momentM, at a section
of a beam to the normal stress at a point on the transverse cross section. Further
insight into the applicability ofthe flexure formula to nonsymmetric sections can be
gained by considering the requirements for equilibrium when the applied moment
M does not have a component about the y-axis of the cross section. Thus, fiom
Eq. 7-6 and the equilibrium equation EM, = 0,
0 cr 0
h/"!zaXdA=>/’.Iz?cydA=?c’/"'zydA=?“I,,=O (a)
The quantity I,1 is commonly known as the mixed second moment of the cross-
sectional area with respect to the centroidal y- and z-axes. Obviously, Eq. (a) can
be satisfied only if In — 0. For symmetric cross sections, 1,, = 0 (see Appendix
A) when the y- and z-axes coincide with the axes of symmetry. For nonsymnretric
cross sections, I,2 = O when the y- and z-axes are centroidal principal axes (see
Appendix A) for the cross section. Thus, the flexure formula is valid for any cross
section, provided y is measured along a principal direction, I is a principal second
moment of area, and M is a moment about a principal axis. Problems of this type
will be discussed in Section 7-9.
7-4 rrnr rnxsnc r=r.sxuruz rortrrum 557
I EXHIIIPIB Problem 7-1 A timber beam consists of four 2 x 8-in.

planks fastened together to forrri a box section 8 in. wide x 12 in. deep, as shown
in Fig. 7-9a. If the resisting moment at the section is M = —200(l03) lb - in.
determine
‘$.-
I"-IUr
(a) The flexural stress at point A of the cross section.

_i
4 m
(b) The flexural stress at point B of the cross section.
cc-l=~
(c) The flexural stress at point C of the cross section. 8 in.
(d) The flexural stress at point D of the cross section.
H! 4%eel
SOLUTION
The resisting moment M is assumed to act in the vertical plane of symmetry
tn Fri
(11)
5'5
of the cross section. The neutral axis passes through the centroid of the cross
y
section and is perpendicular to the plane of the resisting moment. As a result of
symmetry, the centroid is at the geometric center ofthe cross section. The second
moment of area for the cross section with respect to the neutral axis is found by
subtracting the second moment ofarea for the hollowpart ofthe section (4 x 8 in.) I
s.
from the second moment of area for the solid part of the section (8 x 12 in.).
The equation listed in Table A-1 for the second moment of area of a N
to -
rectangular section is I = bh3/12. Thus, for the cross section shown in
Fig. 7-9a,
5"
ut
T
,_. .5._
Lel“Ja5'5‘
(bl
mg inn; strz)‘ 4(8)‘ , 4 Figure 7-9(a-b)
I_ 12 _ 12 _ 12 _ 12 _981'3m'
The distance y, positive upward, from the neutral surface is shown in Fig. 7-9b.
Thus,
(a) The flexural (normal) stress at A is
P Since the resisting moment M is negative,
M, = -%
0,, = -% -200 10 3 +6 = +1222.9 lb/1n.2
, =1223
N PS1, (T)
the flexural stress 0, has the same sign as y.
When y is positive (the upper portion of the
' Ans. beam), the stress is positive (tension). When
y is negative (the lower portion ofthe beam),
(b) The flexural stress at B is
the stress is negative (compression).
M -200 10 3 -4 , N .
Use = —%y” = —$ = —8l5.2lb/111.2 = 815 p51 (c)
Ans.
(c) The flexural stress at C is
M, = -%
5,6 = -% -200 to 3 2 = +4016 lb/in.2 2 408 PS1. (r)
Ans.
(d) The flexural stress at D is
M, -200(10 it-5 , ~ _
ow = -% = -M = -1019.1 lb/m.2 = 10191351 (c)
981.3
Ans.
358 crrrrrrs 7 rtsxtrruu. r.ornrsc= srrrsssrzs us BEAMS
T A 1223 psi (T)

6 in. C
N cc 408 psr. (T)
6 ill. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __B 815 psi (C)

l 0 1019 psi (c)
(=1)
Figure 7-9(c)
The flexural stress varies linearly with the y-coordinate (see Fig. 7-9b) and
is constant with respect to the z-coordinate. The variation of flexural stress over
the depth of the beam is shown in Fig. 7-9c.
Altematively from Eq. 7-8, note on a given cross section that
M M
o,=—i or fi=——r=constant
I y I
Therefore, if the stress is known at a point on the cross section, it can be deter-
mined at any other point without knowing either the resisting moment M, or the
second moment of area I for the cross section. Thus,
Uni Wm (EC OED
YA Yb‘ PC YD
-4 .N .
(b) a,,,,- = ;—je,,, = R(+1222.9) = -2215.3 PS1: 815 pS1(C) Ans.
ye +2 . ~ .
(c) axC —
— W 0x A -
— W (+1222 - 9) —
- +407 - 6 psr —
— 4-08 psr (T) Ans '
y, +6
-s
d 0,9 = J20“ = —(+l222.9 = —lOl9.l si E 1019 si (C Ans.
ya +6 P P
fmimi _l EXZIIIPIB 7-2 The maximum flexural stress at a certain

I section (Fig. 7-10) in a beam with a rectangular cross section 100 mm wide x
1..
__,
200 mnr deep is 15 MPa. Determine
“'1
(a) The resisting moment M, developed at the section.
150 mm
(b) The percentage decrease in ML if the dotted central portion ofthe cross section
-_
L____
50mm
l shown in Fig. 7-10 is removed.
SOLUTION
The normal stress 0,, at a distance y from the neutral surface on a transverse cross
Figure 7-10 section of a beam is given by Eq. 7-8 as
M I
ox=—Try or M,=—%
7-4 rrnr ELASTIC r=r.11xt11uz FOIIMUIA 359
(a) For the original cross section, P As a result ofsymmetry, the centroid is the
geometric center of the cross section. The
100 200 3 = 66.67(10°)mm‘ = 66.67(10 _ °)pr‘ neutral axis is the horizontal axis passing
1,, = # through the centroid.
IM, I __ Q __ _m__.
1s(10°)(66.67)(10"°)
C 100(10-3)
=10.00(l03)N-m =10.00kN-m Ans.
(b) For the modified cross section,
P Note that removing 38 percent of the area

IN, = il00(1Z00)3 - L30? = 52.60006) mm‘ = s2.60(10-6) m4 of the beam (near the neutral axis) resulted
in a 21 percent reduction in M. If the same
,1 15(10*'=)(s2.60)(10-6)
|M.|=‘5-= C 100(10-3)
amount of area had been removed from the
top and bottom of the beam, the reduction
in M would have been 61 percent!
= 7.89(l03)N ~ m = "/.s91<1-1 - m
10.00 - 139
Percent decrease = D = W(100)= 21.1% Ans.
1 IiX3.IIl])1B P1‘Ol11€lIl 7-3 A beam has the cross section shown in

Fig. 7-1 la. On a section where the resisting moment is —75 kN ~ m, determine 50mm
(a) The maximum tensile flexural stress.
(b) The maximum compressive flexural stress. 150mm
25mm
SOLUTION
The neutral axis is horizontal and passes through the centroid of the cross section. Zlilm
The centroid is located by using the principle of moments as applied to areas. l-—200mm—>
The total areaA of the cross section is (*1)
Centroid
A = 200(25) + 150(25) + 50(75) = 12,500 mmz ofA —
I. Xc.-1
ya, = 105 mm
The moment of the area MA about the bottom edge of the cross section is
x.
MA = 200(25)(12.5) + 25(150)(100) + 75(50)(200) = 1,187,500 mm3

Centroid
of section 91”“
‘Q-g
The distance yc fi'om the bottom edge of the cross section to the centroid is
(b)
_ 14, _ 1,187,500 _ 95 Figure 7-1l(a-b)
y°_ A _ 12,500 _ mm
as shown in Fig. 7-1 lb.
Since the centroid of the cross section is not located at the centroid of
any of the individual parts (three rectangles), the second moment of the cross
section with respect to the horizontal centroidal axis (neutral axis) is found using
the parallel axis theorem (see Appendix A). In equation form, the parallel axis
360 cnamztt 7 rtsxtnuu. LOADING: smsssas [N BEAMS
theorem for a part of the cross section (one of the rectangles) is
1,’ = rm + Adj
where I,» is the second moment of area of the part with respect to the horizontal
centroidal axis of the total cross section, I,5 is the second moment of area of the
part with respect to its horizontal centroidal axis, A is the area of the part, and dy
is the perpendicular distance between the horizontal centroidal axis of the total
cross section and the horizontal centroidal axis of the part. In this example, Ip
will be found for each of the three parts and added together to find Ixv for the
complete cross section.
For part A shown in Fig. 7-llb,
1,1,, = 116,4 + A,1dj,, = Q + 15(so)(10s)2 = 42.13(10°) mm“
Similarly, for parts B and C of Fig. 7-l lb:
3
I,-B = Lea + Afldjg = w + 2s(1s0)(s)1 = "/.13(10°)mm“
2 2o0(2s)3 2 6 _,
1,,-C = Lac + Agdyc = € + 200(2s)(-32.5) = 34.2900 )mm
P Since the resisting n1omentM, is negative,
the top portion of the beam is in tension (tr, Adding the second moments of area for the three parts gives the second moment
positive) and the bottom portion of the beam of area for the cross section as
is in compression (0, negative). The flexural
stress varies linearly with distance from the
neutral axis. Therefore, the maximum ten- 1,‘ = 1,.-A + In, + 1,-C = 42.13(10°)+ 7.13(10°) + 34.29(10*")
sile fiexural stress occurs at the top surface = s3.55(10°) mm“ = s3.s5(10-°)m4
of the beam and the maximum compressive
flexural stress occurs at the bottom surface
of the beam. (a) Since the resisting moment Ill, is negative, the maximum tensile flexural stress
occurs at the top of the beam and is
U = _M,y, = _-1s(103)(130)(1o-3)
M‘ I s3.5s(10-6)
Y
= +ll6.70(l0")N/ml E 116.7 MPa (T) A115-
|ll6.7 MPa
[b) The maximum compressive stress occurs at the bottom of the beam and is
130 mm
I gm“ = —
M,y;,
I = —
-15(101)(-95)(1o-3)
_fi
95 mm
s3.s5(10 )
= -ss.2s(10°)N/ml 2 s5.3 MPa (c) Ans-
85.3 MPa
(C) The linear variation of flexural stress over the depth of the beam is shown
Figure 7-11(6) in Fig. 7-1 lc.
7-4 1'11]: sutsrlc 1=1.sxutuz rotutrum 361
1 EXHIIIPIB Pfflblfllll 7-4 Determine the largest positive bending mo-

ment that can be applied to a WT9 x 38 structural T-beam if the allowable flexural
stresses are 20 ksi in tension and 25 ksi in compression.
T
1.80 in.
x . x
7.305 in.
Figure 1-12
SOLUTION
Cross-sectional dimensions of the WT9 x 38 section are given in Table B-11.
The X—X axis is the horizontal centroidal axis. Pertinent dimensions are shown
in Fig. 7-12. For a WT9 x 38 tee section, yr = 1.80 in. Since the depth of the
tee is 9.105 in., the distance from the neutral axis to the bottom of the section is
9.105 — 1.80 = 7.305 in. The moment acts in the vertical plane of symmetry;
thus, the second moment of area is IX_X = 71.8 in.‘ Solving Eq. 7-8 for the
moment gives
Mr : -0,]
J’
At the top of the section, y = + 1.80 in. and ax is negative
— -25 (71.3) . .
Mr = Z ' 111.
At the bottom of the section, y = -7.305 in. and 0,, is positive:
M, = = l96.6kip-in.
7.305
Therefore the largest positive bending moment is
M, = 196.6 kip - in. Ans.
1 PROBLEMS
MecMovie Activities and Problems
MM7.l The Centroids Game - Learning the Ropes. Game. Ap- MM7.2 The Moment ofInertia Game—Starting from Square One.
plying the centroid calculation procedure to shapes made up of Game. Calculation procedure for moments of inertia applied
rectangles. to shapes comprised of rectangles.
362 CHAPTER 7 FLEXURAL 1.oxn11~1c= smsssss [N BEAMS
MM7.3 Bending stresses in a flanged shape. Example; Concept 7-4* A timber beam consists of three 50 >< 200-mm planks fas-
checkpoints. Use the flexure formula to determine bending tened together to form an I-beam 200 mm wide x 300 mm
stresses in a flanged shape. deep, as shown in Fig. P7-4. If the flexural stress at point A of
the cross section is 7.5 MPa (T), determine
Ml\'17.4 Moments and bending stress. Concept checkpoints. Re-
lating bending moment values to beam tension and compres- a. The flexural stress at point B of the cross section
sion bending stresses. b. The flexural stress at point C of the cross section.
c. The flexural stress at point D of the cross section.
7-1* The maximum normal stress on a transverse section in a
beam with a rectangular cross section 4 in. wide >< 6 in. deep F A
200mm -
l _T_
is 1000 psi. Determine the resisting moment M transmitted by
the section. 100 IIIITI. _ 50mm
7-2* Determine the maximum tensile flexural stress if a resisting

moment M, of -10 kN - m is applied to a beam having the
div I
cross section shown in Fig. P7-2. 200 mm
.3
T5 200 mm r
50 mm
salllll soim
Figure P7-4
200 mm
50 mm 7-5 A timber beam is made of three 2 x 6-in. planks fastened
l together to form an I-beam 6 in. wide x 10 in. deep. If the
maximum tensile flexural stress must not exceed 1200 psi, de-
termine the maximum resisting moment M that the beam can
" T support.
Figure P7-2 7-6 The beam of Fig. P7-6 is made of a material that has a ten-
sile and compressive yield strength of 200 MPa. Determine
the maximum resisting moment that the beam can support if
7-3 Determine the maximum tensile and compressive flexinal yielding must be avoided.
stresses if a resisting moment M’, of +4000 lb - ft is applied to
a beam having the cross section shown in Fig. P7-3.
Fm rear,
50mm
6in.
200 mm
2 in. 37.5 mm
l
' 6 in. i
1-4 1'11]: sutsrlc mzxutts FOIIMUIA 563
7-7* The maximum flexural stress on a transverse cross section 7-10* Two L102 x 102 x 12.7-mm structural steel angles
of a beam with a 2 x 4-in. rectangular cross section must not (see Appendix B for dimensions) are attached back to back
exceed 8 ksi. Determine the maximum resisting moment M to form a T-section, as shown in Fig. P7-10. Determine the
that the beam can support if the neutral axis is maximum resisting moment M that can be supported by
the beam if the maximum flexural stress must be limited to
a. Parallel to the 4-in. side.
120 MPa.
b. Parallel to the 2-in. side.
7-8 A beam has the cross section shown in Fig. P7-8. On a section
where the resisting moment is — 10 kN - rn, determine
a. The maximum tensile flexural stress.
b. The maximum compressive flexural stress.
'—l00 rn.m—* Figure P7-10
gs
7-ll An I-beam is fabricated by welding two 16 >< 2-in. flange

plates to a 24 x 1-in. web plate. The beam is loaded in the
plane of symmetry parallel to the web. On a section where the
200 mm resisting moment M. = 1000 kip - ft, determine the maximum
flexural stress.
25 mm 7-12* Determine the maximum tensile and compressive flexu-
ral stresses on a section where the resisting moment M =
-3 l<N - m if the beam has the cross section shown in Fig.
Figune P1-8 P7-12. The beam is loaded in the plane of symmetry parallel
to the web.
7-9* The load-carrying capacity of an S24 x 80 American stan- r-—100mm—*|
dard beam (see Appendix B for dimensions] is to be increased
by fastening two 8 >< 3f4-in. plates to the flanges of the beam, 25 mm
as shown in Fig. P7-9. The maximum flexural stress in both
the original and modified beams must be limited to 18 ksi.
Determine
a. The maximum resisting moment that the original beam can 200mm
support.
b. The maximum resisting moment that the modified beam can
25mm
support.
25 mm
iii
ii200nmi-
Figure P7-12
7-13 Determine the maximum tensile and compressive flexu-

ral stresses on a section where the resisting moment M =
—20,000 lb - in. if the beam has the cross section shown
in Fig. P7-13. The beam is loaded in the vertical plane of
Figure P7-9 symmetry.
564 cnarrstt 7 FLEXURAL 1.oxn11ve= sntassrs [N saws
produces a flexural strain of + 1200 ,u.m/m at a point on the top

3 in. surface of the beam. Determine
a. The maximum flexural stress at the point.
b. The resisting moment M developed in the beam on a trans-
verse cross section through the point.
Figure P7-13 7-17 A steel (E = 29,000 ksi) bar with a rectangular cross sec-
tion is bent over a rigid mandrel (R = 12 in.) as shown in
Fig. P7-17. If the maximum flexural stress in the bar is not to
7-14 Determine the maximum resisting moment M that can exceed the yield strength (0,, = 36 ksi) of the steel, determine
be supported by a beam having the cross section shown in the maximum allowable thickness h for the bar.
Fig. P7-14 if the maximum flexural stress must be limited to
110 MPa.
rh
T MU R QM
I _ \
TS Him
so
ii!-20mm-ti 25?“
Figure P7-17
i@—25rrun—i'—25 mm—*i 7-18* An aluminum alloy (E = 73 GPa) bar with a rectangu-

Figure P7-14 lar cross section is bent over a rigid mandrel as shown in Fig.
P7-17. The thiclcness h of the bar is 25 rmn. If the maximum
flexural stress in the bar must be limited to 100 MPa, determine
the minimum allowable radius R for the mandrel.
7-19 The cantilever beam shown in Fig. P7-19 is subjected to
7-15* A beam has the cross section shown in Fig. P7-15. On a a moment M = 15,000 lb - in at its free end. The beam has a
section where the resisting moment is -30 kip - ft, determine 2 x 2-in. square cross section. Determine the maximum tensile
a. The maximum tensile flexural stress. flexural stress in the beam.
b. The maximum compressive flexural stress.
Ti 4in.
M = 15,000 lb-in.
1111. 15 in. Ii
tin.
Figure P7-19
-isin.i=|—;
Figure P7-15
7-20 Determine the maximum flexural stress on a section where

the resisting moment M = +100 kN - m if the beam has the
7-16* A hardened steel (E = 210 GPa) bar with a 50-mm square cross section shown in Fig. P7-20. The beam is loaded in the
cross section is subjected to a flexural form of loading that vertical plane of symmetry.
7-4 THE ELASTIC rmxutts rottiuuut 365
rm" 250 mm Computer Problems

25 mm |v
7-23 A beam with a hollow circular cross section (see Fig. P7-23)
is being designed to support a maximum moment of 100 kip -
25mm in. If the wall thickness is fixed (r = r, ~ r,- = 0.25 in.),
150mm a. Calculate and plot the maximum flexural stress in the beam
as a function of the outside diameter do (2.5 ir1. 5 do 5
mm 6 in.).
b. What is the smallest outside diameter that can be used if
100mm the maximum flexural stress in the beam must not exceed
40 ksi?
Figure P7-20
7-21* A steel pipe with an outside diameter of 4 in. and an inside

diameter of 3 in. is simply supported at the ends and carries two
concentrated loads, as shown in Fig. P7-21. On section A-/t,
which is 5 ft from the right support, determine
Figure P7-23
a. The flexural stress at point A on the cross section.
b. The flexural stress at point B on the cross section.
7-24 A beam with a solid rectangular cross section (see
Fig. P7-24) is being designed to support amaximum moment of
1000 lb 2000 lb 6 kN - m. Ifthe height of the beam is to be twice the width of
the beam (h = 217),
a. Calculate and plot the maximum flexural stress in the beam
as a function of the height (50 mm 5 h 5 400 mm).
c """"""" “
ll ll ll ll ll .|_L
.0 H @>- b. What is the smallest height that canbe used ifthe maximum
i % Section A—A flexural stress in the beam must not exceed 20 ksi?
:x_:-_:_:x
2 ii
Figure P7-21
7-22 The cantilever beam shown in Fig. P7-22a is subjected to

a moment M at its free end. The cross section of the beam is
shown in Fig. P7-22b. Ifthe allowable stresses are 90 MPa (T) J1
and 140 MPa (C), determine the maximum moment that can
be applied to the beam.
Figure P7-24
|*120 rmni
2&1 7-25 An S 4 x 9.5 structural steel beam is carrying a moment

M that produces a maximum flexural stress of 20 ksi. The mo-
120 mm ment M must be increased by 75 percent, but the maximum
K flexural stress must not be increased. In order to strengthen the
1.2 m i —’ i*— beam, rectangular steel plates are to be attached to the top and
40 rrnn bottom flanges as shown in Fig. P7-25. If the thickness t of
the plates must not exceed 1/2 in., prepare a design curve that
(a) (bl shows the acceptable values of plate width b as a fimction of
Figure P7-22 plate thickness t(0 in. 5 t 5 1/2 in.).
366 crnrrrx 7 rtaxuiuu. LOADING: smsssss nv BEAMS
I b 15 and plot the percent increase in load-carrying capability (MM)

of the beam as a function of the thickness (t) of the flanges.
5
i-‘Z150 111111?‘
30mm _,,
S4><9.5 W I
' W
-E
Figure P7-25 200 mm 200 mm
7-26 A beam with a solid rectangular cross section (Fig. P7-26a)

is being redesigned as an I-beam (Fig. P7-2 6b) having the same
weight per meter (the same cross-sectional area). If the maxi-
mum flexural stress in the beam must not exceed 150 MPa and (H) (bl
the thickness of the web must not be less than 6 mm, compute Figure P7-26
7-5 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS IN BEAMS

The method for determining flexural stresses outlined in Section 7-4 is adequate
if one wishes to determine the flexural stresses on any specified transverse cross
section of the beam. However, ifthe maximum flexural stress is required in a beam
subjected to a loading that produces a resisting moment that varies with position
along the beam, it is desirable to have a method for determining the maximum
resisting moment. Similarly, the rnaximum transverse shearing stress will occur at
a section where the resisting shear (V, of Fig. 7-4a) is maximum and a method for
determining such sections is likewise desirable.
In the following section equations for the resisting shear V, and the resisting
moment M will be obtained using equilibrium equations. l.n Section 7-6, relation-
ships will be developed between loads applied to the beam and the resisting shear
V, at a section and between the resisting shear V, at a section and the resisting
moment 1M, at that section.
7-5-1 Shear Force and Bending Moment: An Equilibrium

Appfflflfiil When the equilibrium equation SF, = 0 is applied to the freebody
diagram of Fig. 7-4a, the result canbe written as
R—wx—P—V,=O
fi"om which the resisting shear maybe determined. The resisting shear is frequently
called shear or transverse shear.
The resultant ofthe flexural stresses on any transverse section has been shown
to be a couple (if only transverse loads are considered) and has been designated as
M. When the equilibrium equation EMQ = 0 (where O is any axis parallel to the
neutral axis of the section) is applied to the fi"ee-body diagram of Fig. 7-4a, the
result can be written as
2
RI—%—P[x—h)—M,=0
7-5 snnm roucss AND assume murmurs [N nsmus 367
Vi 1V
V VI
+ Shear — Shear
(4)
P1»; KIA,
+ Shear
(bl
M M
CM M)
+ Moment — Moment
(6)
5&5 ii-55
(4)
Figure 7-13
from which the resisting moment may be determined. The resisting moment is
frequently called bending moment.
The variation of V, and M, along the beam can be shown conveniently by
means of equations or by means of shear and bending moment diagrams (graphs
of V} and M, as functions of x).
A sign convention is necessary for the correct interpretation of results ob-
tained fi'om equations or diagrams for shear and moment? The following conven-
tion will give consistent results regardless of whether one proceeds from lefi to
right or from right to lefi along the beam. By definition, the shear at a section is
positive when the portion of the beam to the left of the section (for a horizontal
beam) tends to move upward with respect to the portion to the right of the section,
as shown in Fig. 7- 13a. Then for a positive shear force, the transverse shear pushes
up on the portion of the beam to the lefi of the section while the resisting shear
pushes downward on the section, as shown in Fig. 7-13b. The converse applies
when the portion ofthe beam is taken to the right ofthe section. Also, by definition,
the bending moment in a horizontal beam is positive at sections for which the top
of the beam is in compression and the bottom is in tension, as shown in Fig. 7-13c
Then for a positive bending moment, the bending moment acting on the portion of
the beam to the left ofthe section must act clockwise while the resisting moment
on the section must act counterclockwise, as shown in Fig. 7-13d. Observe that
2This sign convention difi"ers from the one presented earlier for resisting forces on a section. The sign
convention discussed in this section is the traditional sign convention for beam calculation problems.
368 cmvrsn 1 rmxuim. LDADING: snuassss nv BEAMS
the signs of the terms in the preceding equations for V, and M, agree with these
definitions (sign conventions).
Since M, and V, va.ry withx (Fig. 7-4a), they are functions ofx, and equations
for M, and V, can be obtained from fiee-body diagrams of portions of the beam.
The procedure can be summarized as follows:
' The beam is sectioned at an arbitrary location x.

I A free-body diagram is drawn for the portion of the beam to the left (or for the
portion to the light) of the transverse cross section. The shear force and bending
moment must be drawn according to the sign convention established earlier.
l Equilibrium equations EFy = O and BMW; = 0 are written fi'om the free-body
diagrams and solved to get the shear force and bending moment at the location
x. The equations obtained for V,.(x) and M,[x) with be valid for a range of x for
which the nature of the loading does not change. That is, if the beam is sectioned
in a region ir1 which there are no concentrated or distributed loads, the equations
will be valid for the entire region x;_ < x < xR where x;_ is the location of the
nearest load to the left of the section and xg is the location of the nearest load to
the right of the section. No matter where in the region x;_ < x < xg the beam is
sectioned, the fiee-body diagram will look exactly the same and the equations
will be exactly the same.
I The process must be repeated for each different segment of the beam.
Example Problem 7-5 will illustrate the procedtue to calculate the shear
force and the bending moment for any section of a beam.
1 Example Problem 7-5 A beam is loaded and supported as shown

in Fig. 7-14a. Write equations for the shear force V, and the bending moment M,
for any section of the beam
(a) Ir1 the interval AB.
(b) Ir1 the interval BC.
(c) In the interval CD.
SOLUTION
A free-body diagram, or load diagram, for the beam is shown in Fig. 7-14b.
The reactions RA and RD shown on the load diagram are determined fi"om the
equations of equilibrium.
+ 2114,, = 0; R,,(8) - 400(s)(3) - 2000(2) = 0

+ EMA = 0; R1_)(8)— 400(c)(5) - 2000(0) = 0
Solving yields
RA = 1400 lb and RD = 3000 lb
(a) A fi"ee-body diagram of a portion of the beam from the left end to any section
between A and B is shown in Fig. 7-14c. The bending moment M, and the
1-5 sums roncss AND BENDING MOMENTS [N nnuus 569
2000 lb
400 lhffi 3"
A i j D
, (B C , A OD
l
. 2n T. 4:1 .1 2:1 4
. ‘ Vt
1400 lb
(4)
2000 lb
400 lbffi |
A B C D
R_4=14O01b RD=300Olb
(11)
Figure 7-l4(a-c)
transverse shear V, are shown as positive quantities. From the equilibrium

equation EF,, = 0,
+TEF,,=0: 1400—Vr=0
Solving yields
V,,=1400lb (0<x<2ft) Ans.
From the equilibrium equation EM0 = 0,
+ EMg=0: -14-00(x)+M, =0
Solving yields
M, = 1400:: lb - ft (O < x < 2 ft) Ans.
Thus, in the interval AB (0 < x < 2 ft), the shear force V, is constant and the
bending moment M varies linearly with x.
(b) A free-body diagram of a portion of the beam fi'om the lefi end to any section
between B and C is shown ir1 Fig. 7-14d. The equations of equilibrium for
this portion of the beam are
+1‘EFy=0: l400—400(x—2)—V,=0
-2
+ EMO = 0: —l400(x)+4-00(x — 2)(%) +M,. = 0
Solvingyields
V, = -400; + 220011» (2 rt < 1 < 6 ft) Ans.

M, = -200;’ +2200; - 8001b - it (za < I < ea) Ans.
370 CHAPTER 7 FLEXURAL LOADING: smassas 11v BEAMS
Y 400 lbffi 20°" lb

Hi M, y 400|b(n
AI NJ.
1400 lb
.13.. A lb,. 1400 lb
.
§
t X - R 20 1-2
(d) ' an if—x 6
i ,
(8)
Figure 7-1 4(d,-e)
In the interval BC (2 ft < x < 6 ft), the shear force V, varies linearly with x
and the bending moment M varies with the square of x.
(c) A fi'ee-body diagram of a portion of the beam from the left end to any section
between C and D is shown in Fig. '7-l4e. The equations of equilibrium for
this portion of the beam are
+t 25:0; l400—400(x—2)—2000— P, =0
-2
+ 2M0 =0 ; —l400(x)+400(x - 2)(xT) +2000(x - 6) + M, = 0
400 lbfft Solving yields

M, V,-
K, = -4002: + 200 lb (6fi < x < 8 ft) Ans.
(IO M,=_200x2+200x+11,2001b-it (6ft<x<8fi) Ans.

3000 lb
S —x
In the interval CD (6 it < x < 8 ft), the shear force V, varies linearly withx
and the bending moment M, varies with the square of x.
(ll An alternate fi'ee-body diagram for interval CD is shown in Fig. 7-14f.
Figure 7-14(1) The equations of equilibrium for this portion of the beam are
+1‘2F,.=0: V,—400(8—x)+3000=0
s
P Either the free-body diagram of the por-
+ EMU =0; —M,—400(8—x)(Tx) +30UO(3—x)=0
tion of beam to the left of the section or the
free-body diagram of the portion of beam Solving yields
to the right of the section may be used. The
shorter section or the section with the fewest K=—400x+200lb (sn<1<sa) Ans.
forces is mo st easily solved. Although a sec-
tion out of the middle of the beam (for ex- M,=—200x2+200x+1l,200lb-it (6ft<x<8fl) Ans.
atnple,fromBtox,2ft<x< 6ft)could
also he used, it is not recommended. which are identical to the results obtained using the free-body diagram shown
in Fig. 7-l4e. This is to be expected, since the values of V, and M, in Figs.
7- l4e and 7-14f are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, according
to Newton’s third law.
7-5 sums roucss AND BENDING MOMENTS [N mamas 371
1 Example Problem 7-6 An s1s2 >< 19 steel beam is loaded and

supported as shown in Fig. 7- 15a. On a section 3 m to the right ofA, determine
(a) The flexural stress at a point 25 mm below the top of the beam.
(b) The maximum flextnal stress on the section.
SOLUTION
The reaction at A is found using the free-body diagram shown in Fig. 7-15b and
the equation of equilibrium ZMB = 0. Thus,
+ EMB = 0: 20(2) + 8(6)(7)+10(l2)— RA(8) = 0
from which
RA = 62 kN
The flexural stresses are required at a specific section ofthe beam; therefore,
bending moment equations for the complete beam are not needed. On a section
3 m to the right ofA, the bending moment can be fotmd by using the free-body
diagram shown in Fig. 7-15c and the equation of equilibrium EM0 = 0. Thus,
+ EMU = 0: M, + 8(5)(2.5) — 62(3) + 10(7) = 0
from which
M, = +16 kN - m
10 kN 20 l-LN 10 l-LN
8 kNfm 8 kNfm M
P
n_
i~-—2m ----*!—2fr1—i'i4n1 %2ml--- 2m—-:»IQ‘—B film‘
D
Q‘/'
1i4m i-‘til-mi!
(11) (C)
t “T
1 (5)
.1
Figure 7-l5(a-c)
372 cnnrrsn 7 FLEXURAL LOADING: sritsssas [N saws
y The cross section for the b eam 15
' shown in Fig. 7-15d. The X—X—axis is the
neutral axis. For an S152 x 19 section (see Appendix B).
H I = 9.20(10° )nnn‘* = 9.20(10"‘)n14

X -- - -X S= 12l(l03) n1m3 = l2l(l0'°) m3
H a'=l52.4mm=O.lS24m
Y (a) At a point 25 mrnbelow the top of the beam,

(4') d 152.4
1-'igm~¢7.15(¢|) y= E —25= T —25=51.2mrn—0.05l2m
U, __ _M,y
_ __ _1s(10‘)(0.0s12)
L
I 9.20(10-6)
= —89.04(1U6)N/H12 2 s9.0 MPa ((1) Ans.
(b) The maximum flexural stress is
M 1s(103)
am, = K’ = g = 132.23(10**) N/I112
5 132.2 MPa (T) (on the bottom) Ans.
E 132.2 MPa (C) (on the top) Ans.
—l PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems any section of the beam in the interval 0 < x < 2 m. Use the
_ _ _ _ coordinate system shown.
7-27* For the cantilever beam shown 111 Fig. P7-27, write equa-
tions for the shear force I/L and the bending moment M, for
any section of the beam m‘ theinterval0 <x<4ft.Usethe
coordinate system shown.
)’
i 21-tNfm
" Illlllllllllli
1000 lb AL 2 B
I11 ' '
Jr
A
B rt P7-28
i 4 ft gm
Figure P7-27
7-29 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P7-29.
Using the coordinate axes shown, write equations for the shear
7-28* For the cantilever beam shown in Fig. P7-28, write equa- force V, and the bending moment M, for any section of the
tions for the shear force V; and the bending moment M, for beam in the interval 0 < x < 10 ft.
7-5 suasu roucas AND sssnutc MOMENTS [N ssms 373
y
500 lb
200 lb/ft Zw
-_
vi
-i llll Ax 0 ll};
as be
lp) ::t=
F-ai—-rw
|—1 C)
i -.:n
wi“W
hi ::= L
I-ii.
Figure P7-32
Figure P7-29
7-33* The beam shown in Fig. P7-31 has a solid rectangular

7-30* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P7-30. cross section that is 3 in. wide and 8 in. deep. Determine the
Using the coordinate axes shown, write equations for the shear maximum tensile flexural stress on a section at x = 10 It.
force K and the bending moment M, for any section of the
7-34 The beam shown in Fig. P7-30 is an S254 x 52 steel section
beamintheintervalfl <x < 4rn.
On a section at x = 5 m, determine the maximum tensile and
compressive flexural stresses.
Y
i 15 kblfm
7-35* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P7-35.
A ix force Z and the bending moment M, for any section of the
B
beam
4 tn i- 4m a. Intheinterval -3 f‘t<x < 0.
Figure P7-3|] b. Intheinterval0<x<2lt.
c. Intheinterval2ft<x<8fl.
d. Intheinterval8fl <x< I0 fi.

force K and the bending moment ML for any section of the 2000 lb
beamintheinterval4ft <x < 8ft. y 1000 lblft
A
QIEEU3331 l
,
mim min
' 3fl E2 ft —= 6fi L 2 ft
Figure P7-35
A ————x
B
L 4n i 4n i 4n é
Figure P7-31 Using the coordinate axes shown, write equations for the shear
force K and the bending moment M for any section of the
beam
7-32 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P7-32. a. In the interval —2m <x < 0.
Using the coordinate axes shovm, write equations for the shear b. Intheinterval0<x<4m.
force K and the bending moment M, for any section of the c. Intheinterval4m<x<6m.
beamintheintervalfl <x <L. d. Intheinterval6m<x<10ni
374 cnavrax 1 rrsxutuu. LOADING: smsssss 11v sums
7-39 An S8 x 23 steel beam (see Appendix B) is loaded and
T 24 kN
supported as shown in Fig. P7-39.
12 kN-int
a. Using the coordinate axes shown, write equations for the
shear force I6 and the bending moment M, for any section
ix ofthebeamintheinterval6fl <x < 10 ft.
B‘
b. Determine the flexural stress at a point l in. below the top
ofthe beam on a section at x = 3 It.
iI2m 4m I 2m is 4m
c. Determine the maximum flexural stress on a section at
Flgl1l'eP7-36 Jr = 3 fl.
;v
7-37 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P7-37. | s00 lbfft
S00 lbffi
Using the coordinate axes shown,
a. Write equations for the shear force V, and the bending mo- A E
ment M, for any section of the beam
b. Determine the magnitudes and locations of the maximum
shear force and the maximum bending moment in the E 6R i 4 It 5 It i
beam. Figure P7-39
7-40 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P7-40. On

J, I500 lbffi a section 3 m to the right of supportA, determine the maximum
tensile and compressive flexural stresses if w = 3.0 l-(N/m.
ix
A B
w kN/‘m 120 mm
—ai
12 it = B l llijflmm
Figure P7-37 A I i |_T|tF1_nm
Eb-— —~— It>
2m it 2m = 40 mm
Section A—A
7-38* An S178 x 30 steel beam (see Appendix B) is loaded and
supported as shown in Fig. P7-38. Figure P7-40
a. Using the coordinate axes shown, write equations for the
shear force V; and the bending moment M, for any section Challenging Problems
ofthebeamintheintervalflfim <1 < 2.5 m.
b. Determine the flexural stress at a point I5 mm above the
bottom ofthe beam ona section atx = 1.5m
c. Determine the maximtnn flextnal stress on a section at x = a. Write equations for the shear force V, and the bending mo-
1.5 m. ment M. for any section of the beam.
shear force and the maximum bending moment in the beam.
9000 N
w = 1000 sin (M110) lbfft
y 15,000 Nfm
B
I
/Ii ] A1 A x B
~ 1.0m :05 mT 2.0m as mt

10 ft
7-5 sums mucus AND assume MOMENTS [N BEAMS 375
7-42* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P7-42. 7-45 Two C10 >< 15.3 steel channels (see Appendix B) are
Using the coordinate axes shown, placed back to back to fonn a 10-in.-deep beam, as shown in
Fig. P7-45a. The beam is 10 fl long and is simply supported
a. Write equations for the shear force V; and the bending mo-
at its ends. The beam carries a tmiformly distributed load of
ment M; for any section of the beam.
1000 lblfl over its entire length and a concentrated load P at
the center of the span, as shown in Fig. P7-45b. Ifthe allow-
able fiexural stress on the section at the center of the span is
16,000 psi, determine the maximum permissible value of the
J’ concentrated load P.
I w = 25 cos (1m‘8) kNfm
A X B
l 1000lbffi
4m 1
Figure P7-42 A H C

Using the coordinate axes shown, (H)
. . T ...‘?
(bl
a. Write equations for the shear force V; and the bending mo- Figure P7-45
ment .M, for any section of the beam.
Computer Problems
w = 10x2 lbffl
7-46 An overhead crane consists of a carriage that moves along
a beam as shown in Fig. P7-46. If the carriage moves slowly
{-7'
along the beam, compute and plot
A x B
a. The bending moment M(x) in the beam for b = 1 m, 2 rn,
and 2.75 mas a functionofx(0 < x < 5 m).
10 ft
h. The bending moments M5 under the lefl wheel and M(-
Figune P7-43 under the right wheel as a function of b (0.25 m < b <
4.75 m).
c. What is the largest bending moment in the beam? When and
7-44 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P7-44. where does it occur?
a. Write equations for the shear force V; and the bending mo-
ment M, for any section of the beam. Y
h. Determine the magnitudes and locations of the maximum Sm
250 250
shear force and the maximum bending moment in the beam. mm mm
J’
I w=64—x21(N/In
' 4.. '_‘

A x B
Figure P7-44
8m
Figure P7-46
I
7%]
376 crnmzrt 7 I-nzxmuu. LOADING: STRESSES [N BEAMS
7-47 The supports for the beam shownin Fig. P7-47 are symmet- 7-48 The lefi support of the beam shown in Fig. P7-48 is fixed
rically located. If the distance d from the supports to the ends at 1 m from the end while the location of the right support is
of the beam is adjustable adjustable.
a. Compute and plot the bending moment M(x) in the beam a. Compute and plot the bending moment M(x) in the beam
ford=2 fl,3 fi,and4fiasafunctionofx(0 <x <15 ft). ford: 1.0 m, 1.5 m, and2 m as afunctionofx (0 <:x <
b. Compute and plot the maximum bending moments (Mm,,,,),,g 6 m).
in segment/1B and (Mm,,),5-C in segment BC as functions of b. Compute and plot the maximum bending moments (Mm,,,),15
d (0 < d < 6 ft). in segment AB, (Mm,,,);;;; in segment BC, and (Mm,,,)¢-D in
c. What value ofd gives the smallest Mm, in the beam? segment CD as fimctions of d (0 < d < 6 m).
c. What value of d gives the smallest Mm in the beam?
J’ J‘
1200 lbfft | 1s kNJ'm
_._x A ..x
¢ d d .1111. qidis
6m P
Ffigurg P747 Figure P7-48
7-6 LOAD, SHEAR FORCE, AND BENDING MOMENT

RELATIONSHIPS
The equilibrium approach is a fairly simple and straightforward method of ob-
taining equations for the shear force and bending moment in a beam. However,
if the loading on the beam is complex, the equilibrium approach can require sev-
eral sections and several free-body diagrams. An alternative approach is to derive
mathematical relationships between the loads acting on the beam and the shear
forces in the beam and relationships between the shear forces and bending moments
in the beam.
Consider the beam loaded and supported as shown in Fig. 7-16a. At some
locationx, the beam is acted on by a distributed load w, a concentrated load P, and a
concentrated couple C. A fi'ee-body diagram of a segment of the beam centered at
the location x is shown in Fig. 7-16b. The upward direction is considered positive
for the applied loads w and P, the resisting shears and moments shown are positive
according to the sign convention established earlier, and Ax, AV, and AM may
be large or small. The element must be in equilibrium, and force equilibrium
(+1‘EF,. = 0) gives
VL +w,,,,gAx + P — (VL + AV) = 0
from which
AV = P + WWEAX (7-10(1)
Four important relationships are obtained from Eq. 7-10a. First, if the
concentrated force P and the distributed force w are both zero in some region
1-6 tom, srrrrut roses, mo nnvomc nosnwr RELATIONSHIPS 377
P
‘IA
‘ii
ix .
7.4
'
P?
C
(£1)
P‘
W
V nnnlfllllllllliii
M, 1- MR = M, - nu
<11;
miter
Figure 7-16 (M
of the beam (Ax large or small), then
AV = 0 or V,_ = V3 (7-10b)
That is, in any segment of a beam where there are no loads, the resisting shear
force is constant.
Second, if the concentrated load P is not zero, then in the lirriit as Ax —> 0,
AV=P or V3: V;_+P (7-10c)
That is, across any concentrated load P, the shear force graph (shear force ver-
sus x) jumps by the amount of the concentrated load. Furthermore, moving from
lefi to right along the beam, the shear force graph jumps in the direction of the
concentrated load.
Third, if the concentrated load P is zero, then in the limit as Ax —> 0,
AV =w,,,gAx —> O
and the shear force is a continuous function at x. Dividing through by Ax then

gives
l' AV dV 710
AiI—I}0Ax_dx_w (- d)
That is, the slope of the shear force graph at any location (section) x in the beam
is equal to the intensity of loading at that section of the beam. Moving fi'om left
to right along the beam, if the distributed force is upward, then the slope of the
378 crnrrsrt 1 rrsxuruu. LOADING snuassss [N BEAMS
shear force graph (dV/nix — w) is positive and the shear force graph is increasing
(moving upward). If the distributed force is zero, then the slope of the shear force
graph (dV/dx = 0) is zero and the shear force is constant.
Finally, in any region of the beam in which Eq. 7-10d is valid (any region
in which there are no concentrated loads), the equation can be integrated between
definite limits to obtain
V1 I3
V2—V|=f dV=f wdx (7-10¢)

V| er]
That is, for any section of the beam acted on by a distributed load w and no
concentrated force (P = 0), the change in shear between sections at x1 and x2 is
equal to the area tmder the load diagram between the two sections.
Similarly, applying moment equilibrium (+ ZMMIB, = 0) to the free-body
diagram of Fig. 7-16b gives
A
(ML + AM) - M, - c - I/L7’-(V, A + a(wa,.gAx) = 0
+ AV)?‘
0r
Ax
AM = c + V,_Ax + AV? - a(w,,,Ax) (7-11¢)
inwhich % <a< % andinthe lirr1itasAx—>0,a—>0audw,,.g—>w.
Three irriportant relationships are obtained fi'om Eq. 7-1 la. First, if the con-
centrated couple C is not zero, then in the limit as Ax —> 0,
AM=C or M;¢=ML+C (7-llb)
That is, across any concentrated couple C, the bending moment graph (bending
moment versus x) jumps by the amount of the concentrated couple. Furthermore,
moving fi"om left to right along the beam, the bending moment graphumps upward
for a clockwise concentrated couple and jumps downward for a counterclockwise
concentrated couple.
Second, if the concentrated couple C and concentrated force P are both zero,3
then in the limit as Ax —> 0,
A —a(w,,vgAx) -> 0
AM = VLAx + AV;
and the bending moment is a continuous function of x. Dividing through by Ax
then gives
, AM
A1510 Ax _ an
dx _ V (7-11¢)
That is, the slope of the bending moment graph at any location x in the beam is
equal to the value of the shear force at that section of the beam. Moving fi'om left
31f the concentrated force P is not zero, the bending moment will still be continuous at x but it will not
be continuously differentiable at x. For a point slightly to the left of R dM/dx = VL while for a point
slightly to the right of}? dill/ctr = liq.
1-6 LOAD, srnrrut rortcrs, AND assume MOMENT RELATIONSHIPS 379
to right along the beam, if the shear force is positive, then dM/dx = V is positive
and the bending moment graph is increasing.
Finally, in any region of the beam in which Eq. 7-1 lc is valid (any region in
which there are no concentrated loads or couples), the equation can be integrated
between definite limits to obtain
M: .r:
M2-M,=f aM=f Vdx (7-1171)
.'r!| X|
That is, for any section of the beam in which the shear force is continuous (C =
P = 0), the change in bending moment between sections at x1 and X2 is equal to
the area rmder the shear force graph between the two sections.
Note that Eqs. 7- 10 through 7-1 1 were derived with the x-axis positive to the
right, the applied loads positive upward, and the resisting shear and moment with
signs as indicated in Fig. 7-13. If one or more of these assumptions are changed,
the algebraic signs in the equations may need to be altered.
Equations 7- l 0 through 7-1 l can be used to draw shear and bending moment
diagrams and to compute values of shear and moment at various sections along a
beam.
7-6-1 Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams Shear and bending

moment diagrams provide a convenient method for obtaining maximum values
of the resisting shear and bending moment. A shear diagram is a graph in which
abscissas represent distances along the beam and ordinates represent the transverse
shear at the corresponding sections. A bending moment diagram is a graph in which
abscissas represent distances along the beam and ordinates represent the bending
moment at the corresponding sections.
Shear and bending moment diagrams can be drawn by calculating values of
shear and moment at various sections along the beam and plotting enough points to
obtain a smooth curve. Such a procedure is rather time-consuming; therefore, other
more rapid methods will be developed using the load, shear force, and bending
moment relationships developed in this section.
A convenient arrangement for constructing shear and bending moment dia-
grams is to draw a fi"ee-body diagram of the entire beam and construct shear and
bending moment diagrams directly below. Two methods of procedrne are used.
The first method consists of writing algebraic equations for the shear force
K and the bending moment ill, and constructing curves from the equations. This
method has the disadvantage that unless the load is uniformly distributed or varies
according to a lcnown equation along the entire beam, no single elementary ex-
pression can be written for the shear V, or the bending moment M, that applies to
the entire length of the beam. Instead, it is necessary to divide the beam into inter-
vals bounded by the abrupt changes in the loading. An origin should be selected,
positive directions should be shown for the coordinate axes, and the limits of the
abscissa (usually x) should be indicated for each interval.
Complete shear and bending moment diagrams should indicate values of
shear and moment at each section where the load changes abruptly and at sections
where they are maximum or minimum (negative maximum values). Sections where
the shear and bending moment are zero should also be located.
The second method consists of drawing the shear diagram from the load
diagram and the bending moment diagram from the shear diagram by using
Eqs. 7- 10 and 7-1 1. This latter method, though it may not produce a precise curve,
380 crmrrsn 7 rrsxuim. LDADING smsssss IN BEAMS
is less time-consuming than the first and it does provide the information usually
required.
When all loads and reactions are known, the shear and bending moment at
the ends of the beam can be determined by inspection. Both shear and bending
moment are zero at the free end of a beam imless a force or a couple is applied
there, in which case, the shear is the same as the force and the bending moment the
same as the couple. At a simply supported or pinned end, the shear must equal
the end reaction and the bending moment must be zero. At a built-in or fixed end,
the reactions are the shear and the bending moment values.
Once a starting point for the shear diagram is established, the diagram can
be sketched by using the definition of shear and the fact that the slope of the
shear diagram can be obtained fi'om the load diagram. When positive directions
are chosen as upward and to the right, a positive distributed load (acting upward)
produces a positive slope on the shear diagram. Similarly, a negative load (acting
downward) produces a negative slope on the shear diagram. A concentrated force
produces an abrupt change in shear. The change in shear between any two sections
is given by the area under the load diagram between the same two sections. The
change in shear at a concentrated force is equal to the concentrated force.
A bending moment diagram is drawn from the shear diagram in the same
manner. The slope at any point on the bending moment diagram is given by the
shear at the corresponding point on the shear diagram, a positive shear produces
a positive slope and a negative shear produces a negative slope, when upward and
to the right are positive. The change in the bending moment between any two
sections is given by the area under the shear diagram between the two sections.
A concentrated couple applied to a beam at any section will cause the bending
moment at the section to change abruptly by an amount equal to the moment of
the couple.
The choice of which method to use depends on the type of information
needed. Ifonly the maximum values of shear force or bending moment are needed,
then the second method usually gives these values more easily than the first. If
equations of the bending moment are needed (they will be needed in Chapter 8 for
finding the deflected shape of the beam), then the equilibrium approach must be
used.
Example Problems 7-7 and T-8 illustrate the two methods for drawing shear
and bending moment diagrams.

in Fig. 7-17a
(a) Write equations for the shear and the bending moment for any section of the
beam in the interval AB.
(b) Write equations for the shear and the bending moment for any section of the
beam in the interval BC.
(c) Draw complete shear and bending moment diagrams for the beam.
SOLUTION
A fi'ee-body diagram for the beam is shown in Fig. 7-17b. It is not necessary to
compute the reactions on a cantilever beam in order to write shear and bending
moment equations or to draw shear and bending moment diagrams; however, the
1-6 mm, samn roncs, mo assume MOMENT rmmrronsnrrs 381
Y
I
15 00 lb 200 lbfft
I
(8)
IL B‘
-A J1 i 6ft
_ _"
l5 00 lb zoolbm
ML‘
l ) (b)
I4:
500 lb
(C)
|
>4 -Q1 i \_ZI%_____
{Q
___.. &
sou lb 200 lbffl
M,
(4)
A
4 fiiii x—4:{0 lV,)
+-
V,, lb 0 (B)
500 “T J 1700
+-
M,, lb-fi 0 (D
2000
8600
Figure 1-11
reactions provide a convenient check. Thus,
+1‘EFy=0: —500—200(6)—V¢=0
+ ma; = 0; s00(10) + 200(s)(3) + MC = 0
from which
Vg = —l700 lb and Mg = -8600 lb ~ ft

382 CHAPTER 7 rtsxuim. LDADING: sntsssss IN BEAMS
(a) A fi"ee-body diagram of a portion of the beam from the left end to any section
betweenA and B is shown in Fig. 7- 17c. The resisting shear V, and the resisting
moment M a.re shown as positive values.
From the equilibrium equation SF, = 0,
+1‘ZF,,=0: —500—V,=0
V, =—500lb 0<x <4-R Ans.
From the equilibrium equation EMU = 0,
+ EMU =0 500(x)+M, =0
M,=—500xlb-it 0<x<4ft Ans.
(b) A fi'ee-body diagram of a portion of the beam fiom the lefi: end to any section
between B and C is shown in Fig. 7-17d. From the equilibrium equation
BF, = 0,
+1‘ZI§.=0: —500—200(x—4)—V}=0
V; =300—200xlb 4-<x < 10ft Ans.
From the equilibrium equation EMU = 0,
-l- EMO = 02 500(1) -l-200[I — 4-)[X — 4)/2 -l- M, = 0

M, =—l00x2+300x—l600lb-ft 4<x < l0fi ABS-
(c) The equations for V} can be plotted in the appropriate intervals to give the
shear diagram of Fig. 7-17e. Likewise, the equations for M, can be plotted to
give the bending moment diagram of Fig. 7-17f.
The shear and bending moment diagrams can also be drawn from the
P The shear graph “moves” in the direction load diagram of Fig. 7-17b without writing the shear and moment equations.
of the load. If a concentrated load acts up- The shear just to the right of the 500-lb load is -500 lb. The slope of the
ward, the shear graph jumps upward (when
shear diagram is equal to the distributed load, and since no distributed load is
moving from left to right along the beam).
The amount of the jump is the magnitude applied between A and B, the slope of the diagram is zero between A and B,
of the concentrated load. If a distributed From B to C the distributed load is uniform; therefore, the slope of the shear
load acts downward, the shear graph slopes diagram is constant between B and C. The change of shear from B to C is
downward (when moving from lefi to right equal to the area under the load diagram between B and C [AV = 200(6) =
along the beam). The total change in shear 1200 lb]; therefore, the shear at C is -1700 lb. This shear is the same as the
is equal in magnitude to the area under the reaction at C, which provides a check.
load diagram. The bending moment is zero at the fiee end A. FromA to B the shear is
constant (-500 lb); therefore, the slope of the bending moment diagram is
constant, and the bending moment diagram is a straight line between A and
B. The shear increases from -500 lb at B to -1700 lb at C; therefore, the
slope of the bending moment diagram is negative from B to C and increases
uniformly in magnitude. The change in bending moment fiom./1 to B is equal
to the area under the shear diagram and is AM = 500(4) = 2000 lb - ft. The
area under the shear diagram from B to C is AM = (l/2)(500 + l'700)(6) =
6600 lb - ft. Thus, the bending moment at C is -2000 + (-6600) = -8600
lb - it. This bending moment is the same as the reaction at C.
1-6 tom, snssn macs, AND BENDING MOMENT RELATIONSHIPS 383

in Fig. 7-18a.
(a) Write equations for the shear and the bending moment for any section of the
beam ir1 the interval CD.
(b) Draw complete shear and bending moment diagrams for the beam.
(c) If the beam is an S457 x 104 American standard steel beam, determine the
maximum tensile and compressive flexural stresses in the beam, and state the
section(s) where they occur.
SOLUTION
The reactions are determined by using the free-body diagram ofthe beam shown
in Fig. 7-18b From the equilibrium equations,
+ EMD = (1 R,;(5)+4—4(7)(l.5)—8(l.5)=0
+ EMA = Q Rn(5) — 4 — 4(7)(3.5) — 8(3.5) = 0
from which
R,1=l0kN and RD=26kN
(a) A free-body diagram of a portion of the beam fi'om the left end to any section
between C and D is shown in Fig. 7-18c.
From the equilibrium equation EFJ, = 0,
+1‘EF,. 0: 10—4(x)—8—F'}=0
P§=—4x+2kN 3.5<x <5m Ans.
From the equilibrium equation EM0 = 0,
+ EMO —o —l0(x)+4(x)(x/2)—4+8(x—3.5)—l-M, =0
M,=—2x2+2x+32kN~m 3.5<x<5m Ans.
(b) The equations for V, and M, in the other intervals can be written in the same
manner, and the shear and the bending moment diagrams (Fig. 7-18d and
e) can be obtained by plotting these equations. In this example, the shear
diagram will be drawn directly from the load diagram (Fig. 7-1811.). The
shear just to the right of A is 10 kN. From A to C the shear decreases at a
constant rate of 4 kN1’m. Thus, the shear just to the left of C is
Vg = VZ1 +AV = 10- 4(3.5) = —4kN
The concentrated downward load at C causes the shear to change suddenly

from -4 kN just to the left of C to -12 k.Njust to the right of C. From C
to D the shear continues to decrease at a constant rate of 4 kN/m. Thus, the
shear just to the left ofD is
VD = V5-+AV= —l2—4(l.5)= —l8kN

QM‘))))
M‘0
w
A Wm |¥0
Film D 5|,
LP 3 m 15 m l? 2m
5
I II
4. M
I
mu h__
AA
ym
IIJdR __
0AIWw1 W4‘3 II I|IR
m
I|I I IIlom
D
M Bll l
8F
‘Il?‘
mlm1 5m
‘IL MU
WC I 5H‘ P M)
G
__B_' ly
I .‘I'l|i_II I I I I>I I I I I ||_|l '
Ml Fllsll: xC \ O
5
_ J].
44_\
+0'!“
lI IlI lIl IlI l!+ll
H 25 m 4_)__:I:|_IIIIIII‘
__
~1
l_
W? mgM;MDH amtmt“ mlC‘ WMU4 cgman “mmmnmkw:ME“ _m%mmWm gm mm

mmm “mm
tC mt cFu d me
mt
t
_d W
H __ Um + A V __ + _ 4 m __ 0 8
1-6 LOAD, snnut FORCE, AND assume MOMENT RELATIONSHIPS 385
Since the distributed load is uniform over the entire beam, the slope of the P Point F can also be located using the area
shear diagram is constant. Points of zero shear, such as point F in Fig. 7-18d, under the load diagram. The task is to find
are located from the geometry of the shear diagram. For example, the slope how much area is necessary to cause the
of the shear diagram is 4 kN!m. Therefore, shear graph to change from 10 kN to 0; that
is, 10 kN = (4 kNfm) x (b m), which gives
11 = 10/4 = 2.5m b — 2.5 m.
The moment is zero at A , and the slope ofthe bending moment diagram (equal
to the shear) is 10 kN - mfm. From A to C the shear and, hence, the slope
of the bending moment diagram decrease uniformly to zero at F and to -4
at C. The abrupt change of shear at C indicates a sudden change of slope
of the bending moment diagram; thus, the two parts of the bending moment
diagram at C are not tangent. The slope of the diagram changes from -12
at C to — 18 just to the left of D. From D to E the slope changes from +8 to
zero. The change of moment fromA to F is equal to the area imder the shear
diagram from A to F; therefore,
Mp‘ = MA + AM = 0 + l0(2.5)/2 = l2.5kN s m
Similarly,
VB = V,, +AV= 10-4(3)= —2kN

M, = M,t- + AM =12.5 -2(0.5)/2 =12.0kN-m
The 4-kN - m concentrated couple is applied at B. Since the bending moment
just to the left ofB is positive and the couple contributes an additional positive
moment to sections to the right of B, the bending moment changes abruptly
from +12 kN - m to +16 kN s m. In a similar manner bending moments at
C, D, and E a.re determined from the shear diagram areas as
MC = MB + AM =1e.0 - (4 + 2)(0.s)/2 =14.s kN . m

MD = MC + AM = 14.5 - (12 +1s)(1.s)/2 = —8.0kN ~ m
M, = MD + AM = -3.0 + 8(2)/2 = 0
There is no moment applied at end E of the beam, and ifthe bending moment
at E is not zero, it indicates that an error has occurred. The point G, where
the bending moment is zero, can be determined by setting the expression
for the bending moment fi'om part (a) equal to zero and solving for x. The
result is
x2 = 0.5 :l: -\/ 16.25 = 4.531 m E 4.53 m Ans.
Note in this example that maximum and minimum bending moments may
occur at sections where the shear curve passes through zero. In general, the
shear curve may pass through zero at a number ofpoints along the beam, and
each such crossing indicates a point of possible maximum bending moment
(in engineering, the bending moment with the largest absolute value is the
maximum bending moment). It should be emphasized that the shear curve
does not indicate the presence ofabrupt discontinuities inthe bending moment
curve; hence, the maxirrium bending moment may occur where a couple
586 CHAPTER 7 ELEXURAL LOADING: STRESSES [N saws
is applied to the beam, rather than where the shear passes through zero.
All possibilities should be examined to determine the maximum bending
moment.
Since the flexural stress is zero at sections where the bending moment
is zero, if a beam must be spliced, the splice should be located at or near such
a section.
(cJ The depth ofan S 457 x 104 American standard steel beam is 457.2 mm
(Table B-4). The second moment of area is 358(l06) mm“, and the section
modulus is 1690003) rnm3. Since the beam is symmetric with respect to
7.7
the X—X-axis (NA), the maximum tensile and compressive flexural stresses
are equal in magnitude. They occur at a section where the resisting moment
has the largest magnitude. From Fig. 7-18e, the largest resisting moment is
+16 kN - m. Thus,
_Mr
0,: Ty
7.8
457.2
which for y= = :i:228.6 nmi gives
7.9 G _ 16(10‘)(22s.6)(10-3)
"_ 3ss(10-6)
= 10.217(106)N/mz
2 10.22 MPa (r or c) Ans-
7.10 These stresses occur on a section at B.
1 PROBLEMS
MecM0vie Activities and Problems Introductory Problems
N[M'7.5 Rules for constructing shear & moment diagrams. 7-49* Draw complete shear and bending moment diagrams for
hiteractive examples. Exercises to develop skills needed the beam shown in Fig. P7-49.
to successfiilly construct shear force and bending moment
diagrams.
MM7.6 Shear force and bending moment diagrams: follow- 2000lb 60001b
ing the rules. Game. Five-round game emphasizing the six
rules needed to construct shear force and bending moment
diagrams. is
Bl Cl D
MM7.7 Extruded aluminum beam. Example; Concept check-
points. Determine maximum bending moments given allow- ha i -It =9 mi Q J1 mi 8‘
=9
able tension and compression stresses.
Figure P7-49
N[M'7.8 Determine maximum bending stress. Example; Con-
cept checkpoints. Determine bending moment diagram and
maximum tension and compression bending stresses for a 7-50* Draw complete shear and bending moment diagrams for
t-shape. the beam shown in Fig. P7-50.
1-6 mm, sassn roitcs, mo BENDING MOMENT RELATIONSHIPS 387
. . 1. .
15kN J" 20kN 7-54 Draw complete shear and bending moment diagrams for the
beam shown in Fig. P7-54.
1..fi'.. 1;?‘ A
is
20 kN
B C
30 k.N1"m
7-51 Draw complete shear and bending moment diagrams for the
beam shown in Fig. P7-S1. i‘ 2m * 2111 i 4m
FigureP7-54
.V S000 lb
I 2000 lbffi
7-55* Draw complete shear and bending moment diagrams for
A B C D the beam shown in Fig. P7-55.
i
Figure P7-51
1211 l l Y
1500 lb
I 250 lbtft
B C
7-52* Draw complete shear and bending moment diagrams for A j 100011:-it _ D
the beam shown in Fig. P7-52.
li—5fi—i—5fi ion‘-i
Figtu-e P7-55
10kN 20kN 15kN
. .1, .1 . .
‘i:;l..l;t..4
7-56 Draw complete shear and bending moment diagrams for the
Figure P7-52
10 kN y 20 an
i 1 k.Nfm
_. ml
(<-H-
7-53 Draw complete shear and bending moment diagrams for the A B D E
i '3m 6m
2000 lb
Flg|u'e P7-56
300 lbffi l 400 lbffi
A B C D E
ix
1.. 1 ti
Figure P7-53
l 7-57* The beam shown in Fig. P7-57a has the cross section shown
in Fig. P7-57b. Determine the maximum tensile and compres-
sive flexural stresses in the beam.
388 CHAPIER7 ELEXURALLOADING: STRESSESINBEAMS
y 3000 lb 10,000 lb 5000 lb
‘ mmm
400 lbffi L‘:FA RI Q U
Y L L F1
B C ii
-
F +4} D ._- 0 =8 -1 E ‘£9 e._,_i q . Us ‘:9 . t_3 7.511
Sfi l0fi Zfi
@ 1m.
((1) _.I._
+1"
2 111.
18in.
i 6 111.
-_-—u'— —I-—
zmzmzm
L10
(bl
Figure P7-57 (5)
Figure P7-59
7-6|] A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P7-60a.

7-58* A W 102 x 19 wide-flange beam is loaded and supported Two 250 x 25-mm steel plates and two C 254 >< 45 channels
as shown in Fig. P7-58. Determine the maximum tensile and are welded together to form the cross section shown in Fig.
compressive flexural stresses in the beam. P7-60b. Determine the maximum tensile and compressive
flexural stresses in the beam.
3kN y 40 kN
Y I 30 kN/m
smm I Sm“
sis o
B c ._
mix
kl! B 6mm ya -Alva I< 4m I‘ 2m >I 2m
‘ 2m '=I‘ 2m -IFQO 2m = 2m I (=1)

Figure P1-ss 25mm
__L
7-59 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P7-59a.

Two 10 >< l-in. steel plates are welded to the flanges of an L—250nMn—d_;;:Fn
S 18 x 70 American standard I-beam to form the cross section
shown in Fig. P7-59b. Determine the maximum tensile and (b)
compressive flexural stresses in the beam. Figure P7450
1-6 mm, snout roitcs, mo BENDING MOMENT RELATIONSHIPS 389
7-61 A WT8 >< 25 structural steel T-section is loaded and sup- Challenging Problems
ported as shown in Fig. P7-61. Determine the maximum tensile
and compressive flexural stresses in the beam. 7-64* Draw complete shear and bending moment diagrams for
the beam ABCD shown in Fig. P7-64.
6000 lb
100016111 __
1.5m Rlgldbar
A B
BRN/m
| an I is
I~ 6fl T 6ft ‘I 3 C
l Ri ‘db
Figure P7-61 ,, gl W D
7-62* A C254 x 30 structural steel channel is loaded and sup-
I .
— ui-—-I*~—-1m—-- -—1m-—--"
5 kN
lrn
ported as shown in Fig. P7-62. Determine the maximum tensile
and compressive flexural stresses in the beam. Figure P7'64
Jr‘
3 "N 1-65* An s 15 >< 50 American standard steel beam (see Ap-

4 kN-m pendix B) is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P7-65. The
D I total length ofthe beam is 1s 11. Ifthe allowable flexural stress
x I
I l I is 15,000 psi, determine the maximum permissible value for
A lm ' B lm C the distributed load w.
Figure P7-62
—T
7-63 An 8 x 8-in. nominal size structural timber (see Appendix B) W lb/3
is supported by two brick colurrms, as shown in Fig. P7-63.
Asstune that the brick colunms transmit only vertical forces A '1' C
to the timber beam. The beam supports the roof of a building $-
through three timber columns. Columns A and C transmit JFB 7 J
forces of 1.8 kip to the beam; column B transmits a force of Lfi 21‘ fi
23 kip_ Figure P7-65
a. Draw complete shear and bending moment diagrams for the
beam.
b. Determine the maximum tensile and compressive flexural 7_65 Draw complete shear and bending moment diagmms for
stresses in the beam segments AB and CD of the structure shown in Fig. P7-66.
A B C 3 ‘(N
A B
1.5 kN.~’n1 0.75 m
1.5 11] I 1.5 m C

390 cmwrsn 1 ELEXURAL LOADING: STRESSES [N muss
7-67* MemberAB supports a 55-lb sign, as shown in Fig. P7-67. 7-69 A tractor is moving slowly over a bridge, as shown in
Determine Fig. P7-69. The forces exerted on one beam of the bridge by
the tractor are 4050 lb by the rear wheels and 1010 lb by the
a. The maximum tensile flexural stress in the 1/2-in.-nominal-
front wheels. Determine the position x of the tractor for which
diameter standard steel pipe AB (see Appendix B).
the bending moment in the beam is maximum.
b. The normal stress in the 3/16-in.-diameter wire BC.
c. The shearing stress in the 1/4-in.-diameter pin at A, which
is in double shear.
4050 lb 1010 lb
35 in.
V 16in. ‘ 32111. -1 16111.

e tr1;'7 I
..
A
..
I
. ~q
B
I 1
Figure P7-69
40 it
;.I .;-
first
7-70* A body with a mass of 1500 kg is supported by a roller
on an I-beam, as shown in Fig. P7-70. The roller moves slowly
along the beam, thereby causing the shear force K and the
bending moment M, to be functions ofx.
a. Draw complete shear and bending moment diagrams when
Figure P7-67 the roller is at position x.
b. Determine the position of the roller when the bending mo-
ment is maximum.
7-68 An S457 x 81 American standard steel beam (see Ap-

pendix B) is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P7~68.
The segments of the beam are connected with a smooth pin 10m
at D.
a. Draw complete shear and bending moment diagrams for the
In
beam.
b. Determine the maximum tensile and compressive flexural A B
stresses in the beam.
1500 kg
so kN/m /I Sm°°‘h pi“ 40 k.N1‘m Figure P7-70
40l(.N/tl'l E‘
1'
1.5m 1! 2m C1 1 B .;,:)t._ 1.5m (E 1.5m 7-71 Two beams AD and EH are spliced, as shown in Fig. P7-71.
T T T T
Draw complete shear and bending moment diagrams for beam
Figure P7-68 CF.
1-1 SHEARING SIRESSES [N BEAMS 391
10 kip
B c
A 'r= iii D rs =1 H
C 11- -1| _ P
— V —*
L 10ft >5 5fi—-ii 7.511 5ft i lOfi
Figur'eP7-71
7-7 SHEARING STRESSES IN BEAMS

The discussion of shearing stresses in beams was delayed while flex1n'al stresses
were studied in Section 7-3. This procedure seems to be in keeping with the his-
torical record on the study of beam stresses. From the time of Coulomb’s paper,
which contained the correct theory of the distribution of flexural stresses, ap-
proximately seventy years elapsed before the Russian engineer D. J. Jourawski
(1821-1891), while designing timber railroad bridges in 1844-1850, developed
the elementary shear stress theory used today. In 1856, Saint-Venant developed a
rigorous solution for shearing stresses in beams; however, the elementary solution
of Jourawski is the one in general use today by engineers and architects because
it yields adequate results and is much easier to apply. The method requires use of
the elastic flexure formula in its development; therefore, the formula developed is
limited to elastic action. The shearing stress evaluation discussed ir1 this section is
used as follows:
1. For timber beams, because of their longitudinal plane of low shear resistance.
2. In design codes for shear stresses in the webs of I-beams.
3. For the evaluation of principal stresses at the junction between the flange and
the web in certain wide-flange beams.
If one constructs a beam by stacking flat slabs one on top of another with-
out fastening them together, and then loads this beam in a direction normal to
the surface of the slabs, the resulting deformation will appear somewhat like that
in Fig. 7-19a. This sanre type of deformation can be observed by ta.king a pack
of cards and bending them, and noting the relative motion of the ends of the
cards with respect to each other. The fact that a solid beam does not exhibit this
relative movement of longitudinal elements (see Fig. 7-19b, in which the beam
is identical to that of Fig. 7-19a except that the layers are glued together) indi-
cates the presence of shearing stresses on longitudinal planes. Evaluation of these
shearing stresses will be determined by means of equilibrium and the fi"ee-body
diagram of the short portion of a beam with a rectangular cross section shown in
Fig. 7-20a.
The normal force dF acting on a differential area dA = t dy on a cross
section of the beam is equal to a,dA. The resultant of these differential forces is
F = faxdzl integrated over the area of the cross section, where 0,, is the flexural
stress at a distance y from the neutral surface and is given by the expression 0, =
—M,y/I. Therefore, the resultant normal force F1 on the left end of the segment
392 ctr.-urrss 7 FLEXIJRAL LOADLYG: sntsssrs mt BEAMS
Figure 7-19
from y] to the top of the beam is“
M M C
F1=——fydA=——f y(rdy)
I A I V1
dy Similarly, the resultant force F1 on the right side of the element is
Mcafella Al V—AV
.l’i.l’ C
F2 = -L
+IAM)fCy(rdy)
These forces are shown on the free-body diagram of Fig. 7—20b. Also shown on the
free-body diagram of Fig. 7—20b are the resultants of the vertical shear stresses on
Ax . - I 1
the left VL and right VR sides ofthe element and the resultant ofthe horizontal shear
(H) stress VH on the bottom of the element. A summation of forces in the horizontal
V, VR direction yields
F,‘_I+:}l_’i-,
i AM ‘
lj,=rrAx V5=F1—F1=—Tf yfldy)
HV
(5)
Figure 7-20 The average shearing stress rm.-g is the horizontal shear force V” divided by the
horizontal shear area A, = I Ax between sections A and B. Thus,
V AM C
Tavg: :_fij;|y(tdy)
‘if M is positive, then the normal stress above the neutral axis (where y is positive) will be negative
(eotnpression) and the force 1"; will be a compressive forcer lf.-14 is negative, then the normal stress
above the neutral axis will be positive (tension) and the force I-'1 will be a tensile force as drawn.
1-1 srrrtuuuc srrusssss [N BEAMS 393
l.nthelimitasAx—>O
_ AM 1 C a‘M 1 '°
Y = £E»1oE(_i7r)_£, ’>"’>’-niwilf, ’Y"Y (“J
The shear K at the beam section where the stress is to be evaluated is given by
Eq. 7-1 1c as K = dM/dx. The integral of Eq. (a) is the first moment of the portion
of the cross-sectional area between the transverse litre where the stress is to be
evaluated and the extreme fiber of the beam. This integral is designated Q, and
when values of V} and Q are substituted into Eq. (a), the formula for the horizontal
(or longitudinal) shearing stress becomes
m=—%§ cm
The minus sign in Eq. (b) is needed to satisfy Eq. 7-la and is consistent
0
with the sign convention for shearing stresses (Fig. 7-4c). At each point in the
beam, the horizontal (longitudinal) and vertical (transverse) shearing stresses have
6»
the same magnitude (1.3, = 13,); hence, Eq. (b) also gives the vertical shearing
stress at a point in a beam (averaged across the width).5 For the balance of this
chapter, magnitudes of V, and Q will be used to determine the magnitude of the
Eii
shearing stress ‘r and Eq. (b) will be written as
Neutral axis
1.’ = T
KQ (7-12)
rial
The sense of the stress 1: will be determined fi'om the sense of the shear V, on (H)
transverse planes and fi"om rxy = 'r_,,, on longitudinal planes.
Because the flexure formula was used in the derivation of Eq. 7-12, it is l—'—‘l
dyg
subject to the same assumptions and limitations as the flexure formula. Although
y C
the stress given by Eq. 7-12 is associated with a particular point in a beam, it is Yr
averaged across the thickness t and hence is accurate only if t is not too great.
The variation of shearing stress on a transverse cross section of a beam will
be demonstrated by using the rectangular cross section shown in Fig. 7-21a. The
transverse shearing stress at any point of the section at a distance yl from the
neutral axis is from Fig. 7-21b and Eq. 7-12, (bl
KQ Vf Vf‘
Y It n,,y 1:,/‘y
V '1/2 V rt’
=—IL yc=—21 —-vi l @
Equation (c) indicates that the transverse shearing stress on a rectangular cross
(C)
L
l'!1.E.X
section has a parabolic distribution, as shown in Fig. 7-21c. The shearing stress
Figure 7-21
acts in the direction of the shear force V that produces the stress. The maximum
51f the shear force of V is positive (downward on section B), then the horizontal shear stress will be
negative (to the right on the bottom of the element) and the vertical shear stress will also be negative
(downward on section B—in the same direction as the shear force).
394 CHAPTER 7 rrnxrnuu. LOADING: snrsssss [N snuirs
shearing stress occurs when yl = O (at the neutral axis) and has a magnitude
Vhz Vhz 3V 3V
¢m,=_=m=__=__ (7-13)
L 81 8(lh /12) 2th 2A
T1
i
The maximum shearing stress given by Eq. 7-13 (Fig. 7-22) exists on both the
transverse plane and the longitudinalplane along the neutral surface. This equation
1; _
is useful in the design oftimber beams with rectangular cross sections since timber
1:»'=T.v=r= ML» ls: has a low shearing strength parallel to the grain.
Figure 1-22 Equation 7-13 is valid for a rectangular section and should not be used
for other sections. For a rectangular section the maximum shearing stress is
1.5 times the average shearing stress (ravg = V/A). For a rectangular section having
a depth twice the width, the maximum stress as computed by Saint-Venant’s more
rigorous method is about 3 percent greater than that given by Eq. 7-13. If the beam
is square, the error is about 12 percent. Ifthe width is four times the depth, the error
is almost 100 percent, from which one must conclude that, ifEq. 7-12 were applied
to a point in the flange of an I-beam or T-section, the result would be worthless.
Furthermore, if Eq. 7-12 is applied to sections where the sides of the beam are
not parallel, such as a triangular section, the average transverse shearing stress is
subject to additional error because the variation of transverse shearing stress is
greater when the sides are not parallel.
A second illustration ofthe variation of shearing stress on a transverse section
7.12 of a beam will be demonstrated by using the inverted T-shaped beam shown in
Fig. 7-23a. For this section,
yc : 2(10)(7) + 10(2)(1) Z 4m
2(l0) + 10(2)
c1 = 8 in. and C2 = 4 in.
Note that in Eq. 7-12, V and I a.re constant for any section, and only Q and I
vary for different points in the section. The transverse shearing stress at any point
in the stem of the section a distance yl from the neutral axis is from Fig. 7-23a
2 in.
L
C‘ .
1 y 10 Ill.
Y1 _
V Neutral axis ___
C2 yc 2 in V
ii 10 in. ii :_.
§_§,E'§u
to (B)
Figure 7-23
1-1 srrauunc srrutssss [N cams 395
and Eq. 7-12,

V,Q
=?—-=-—-
V!“ d
r rt Ir,,y'y
V V
= ,—,<ci -Vi) = its’ -ii’) (-2 < yr < sin->
An expression for the average shearing stress in the flange can be written in a
similar manner and is
V V .
I = 2—I(¢% —yi) = Z-,(42 -14?) (-4 < yi < -2 H1-J
These are parabolic equations for the theoretical stress distribution, and the results
are shown in Fig. 7-23b. The diagram has a discontinuity at thejunction ofthe flange
and stem because the thickness of the section changes abruptly. The distribution
‘St
7.13
in the flange is fictitious because the stress at the top of the flange must be zero
(a free surface). From Fig. 7-23b and Eq. 7- 12, one may conclude that, in general, is ‘Pm
the maximurnfi longitudinal and transverse shearing stress occrus at the neutral “T
surface at a section where the transverse shear V, is maximum. There may be
exceptions such as a beam with a cross section in the form of a Greek cross with
Q/t at the neutral surface less than the value some distance from the neutral surface. 206 mm
Another example of importance is the determination of the shearing stress
in an I-beam. Consider the W203 x 22 section [I = 20.0(10") mm“] shown in 6.2 mm
Fig. 7-24a, and let the shear Ff, on the section be 37.5 kN. Equation 7-12 may be _.l
used to calculate the shearing stress at various distances yi fi'om the neutral axis
_i)l8n'nn
of the beam. For example, at the neutral axis (yl = O) 102 mm
QM = 102(8)(99) + 95(6.2)(47.5) = 108.76(103) rnm3 = l08.76(10_°)m3 W 203 X 22 section
(a)
TNA = V'Q””
1:, = 37'5(103)(l08'76)(l0_6)
20.0(10-‘=)(s.2)(10-3) = 32.89(10")N/m2 2 32.9 MPa ,1 = 1.485 MPa
1 = 24.4 MPa
Similarly, at the junction between the web and the flange with 1‘ = 6.2 mm (in the
web),
rm“ = 32.9 MPa
Q; = 102(8)(99) = 80.78(103) mm3 = 80.78(10_") m3
1 = I/‘Q’ = 37'5(w3)(80'78)(l0‘6) = 24 43(1O6)N/m2 2 24 4MPa

"' 11,. 20.0(1o-@)(6.2)(10-3) ' '
The shearing stress distribution for the complete cross section ofthe beam is shown Ll, ll’
‘tug = 1-;:b= 31.8 MP3
in Fig. 7-24b. Equation 7-12 gives r = 1.485 MPa at the junction of the web and
flange with t = 102 mm (in the flange). However, this result is incorrect because the Shearing stress
bottom surface of the top flange (or the top surface of the bottom flange) is a free distribution
surface and thus 1.’ = 0. A similar result was obtained for the inverted T-section,
(bl
shown in Fig. 7-23. More advanced methods of the theory of elasticity must be
Figure 7-24
used to derive a correct solution.
“In this book the term maximum, as applied to a longitudinal and transverse shearing stress, will mean
the average stress across the thickness I at a point where such average has the maximum value.
396 cinirrrir 7 rrnxrnuu. LOADING: snrsssss [N nnuns
J’ The variation of shearing stress over the depth of the web is small, and the
shearing stresses in the flanges are small compared to those in the web. As a result,
the majority of the shear force V, is carried by the web. In the design of I-beams,
the maximum shearing stress calculated by using Eq. 7-12 is approximated by
Neutral dividing the shear force V, by the area of the web, that is,
axis
V1
rm = T (7-14)
web
Z ‘
For the example being considered,
(<1) 3
tavg = AL = = 31.83(10°)N/m2 E 31.8 MPa
web 6.2(l0 )(l90)(l0 )
J’
The maximum and average shearing stresses differ by approximately 3 percent.
For commercial I-beams, the maximurri difference is approximately 10 percent.
Equation 7—l4 should only be used to calculate shearing stresses in I-beams," it
Ixy=T,u. should not be usedflrr 71, rectangular; or other sections. Equation 7-14 is specified
Z in design codes for I-beams.
As a final example, consider a beam with a circular cross section. This type
of beam is important in the transmission of power, for example, a shaft between a
motor and a piece of equipment. Bending loads are induced in shafis by forces at
gears, bearings, and pulleys.
Consider a beam with a solid circular cross section subjected to a shear load
(5) V, as shown in Fig. 7-25a. According to Eq. 7- 1 2, a shear force V causes a shearing
stress 171,. in the direction of V, as shown in Fig. 7-2 5b. This shearing stress at point
.v A can be resolved into normal (n) and tangential (t) components, as shown in
fl
\A Fig. 7-25c. However, Eq. 2-11 requires that rm = rm (where rm is the shearing
stress in the x-direction on a plane with outward normal in the n direction). The
outside surface ofthe shafi (beam) is a free surface; therefore, rm = 1:," = 0, which
X,
T In 1:,“ 0
I indicates that any shearing stress at point A must be tangent to the surface of the
Z
shaft (beam) and not in the direction of the shear force V as required by Eq. 7-12.
At the neutral axis, the shearing stress 1:,“ is in the direction of shear force V and
I
Eq.7-12 gives
I/Qt»-,1 V(J'rrZ/2)(4r/3:-r) 4V 4V
(C) rm“ = 7”" = r:_.,:,, = (JIF4/4-](2f) = 3Jrr2 = SI (H5)
Figure 1-25
0 whereA is the cross-sectional area ofthe beam. The maximum shearing stress given
by Eq. 7-15 differs from the maximum shearing stress given by the mathematical
theory of elasticity? by approximately 5 percent.
7.14
Example Problem 7-9 A W254 >< 33 wide-flange beam is loaded

9 and supported as shown in Fig. 7-26a. At section A—A of the beam, determine
sh
7.15
the flexural and shearing stresses and show both stresses on a stress element
(a) At point a on the top surface of the flange.
(b) At point b in the web at the junction of the web and the flange.
(c) At point c on the neutral axis.
7 The Mathematical ilheory ofEla.m'ciry. A. E. H. Love, Dover Publications, 4th ed., New York, 1994.
1-1 srrnuunc srrmssss [N BEAMS 397
SOLUTION 40 l£.N
A fi'ee-body diagram ofthe beam is shown in Fig. 7-26b. The reactions at supports
B and C are determined by using the equilibrium equation EM = 0. Thus, Ala l an
+ 2M6 = 0; 40(2) - 123(5) = 0 4. .

lJ
+ EM3 = 0; RC-(5) - 40(3) = 0 3 it

from which .F'1.5mi*l.5m 2m—i
(H)
R3=lfil(N and R(_-=24-l(N
40k.N
A free-body diagram of the part of the beam to the left of section A—A is
shown in Fig. 7-260. The shear V, and moment M, transmitted by section A—A are
determined by using the equilibrium equations BF, = 0 and EM0 = 0. Thus,
+¢ni=,,=o is-V,=0 B C
+ 2M0 —o M,—l6(l.5)=0 RB RC
from which (b)
V,=16kN and M,=24kN-m l)M, = 24 kN-m
(a) Fora W254 x 33 section: I = 49.l(10°) mm4, a‘ = 258 mm

0 V, = 16 tot
wf = 146mm, if = 9.1 mm, tw = 6.ln1m
16 kN
The flexural stress at point a is givenby Eq. 7-8 as (C)
_ _@ _ _24(10’)(129)(10-3)
G“ _ I _ 49.1(10-6) _..._ MPa
= —63.05(l06)N/m2 2 63.1 MPa (c) Ans-
(10
The shearing stress at point a is given by Eq. 7-12. At point a, Q = 0, and Figure 7-26(n-d)
thus r = 0. The stresses on an element at a are shown in Fig. 7-26a’.
(b) Atpointb,y= 129-9.1 1199mm
P At point a the shearing stress is zero.
_ M,y_ 24(103)(119.9)(10-3) Therefore, am = 63.1 MPa (C) is a principal
°”’__ I __ 49.1(10-6) stress. The other principal stresses are both
= —58.61(l0"')N/ml 2 53.6 MPa(C) Ans. zero, and the rnaximinn shear stress is cw,
= 31.6 MPa and occurs on surfaces inclined
at 45" to the axis of the beam. It can also
At point b, the first moment Q5 of the area above the point is be shown that these stresses are larger than
the principal stresses and maximum shear
Q, = yg/1 = 124.4s(14s)(9.1) = 165.34-(103)1I1rn3 = 1ss.34(10-°)m1 stress at any other point on this section of
the beam.
Yb : V,Q,, : 1s(103)(1ss.34)(10-6)
I~,,r,, 49.1(10-‘)(s.1)(10-3)
= 8.832(10E')N/m2 2 ass MPa Ans.
The stresses on an element at b are shown in Fig. 7-262.
398 CHAPTER 7 rrizxriruu. LOADING: smsssss [N nrmrs
.i (c) Since point c is on the neutral axis, the flexural stress is zero. The shearing
stress is maximum, and an approximate value is given by Eq. 7- 14 as
58.6 MPa
l T _ V, _ 16(103)
i- s.s3 MPa ‘"“" _ Aw... _ 6.100-3)(239.s)(10-3)
(B)
= 10.93s(10°) N/m2 2 10.94 MPa Ans-
\ 10.94 MPa
(I)
The stresses on an element at c are shown ir1 Fig. 7-26f.
The shearing stress at point c can also be obtained using Eq. 7-12. At
point c, the first moment Q, of the area above the point is
Figure 7-26(e-1) Q. = y¢A = 124.4s(146)(9.1)+s9.95(119.9)(6.1)

= 2O9.2(lO3)mm3 = 209.2(1O_°)m3
= V.Q. = 16(103)(209 ' 2)(10-°) =l1.176l0°N 2'£l1.l8MPa
t‘ .{..,,:,,, 49.1(10-°)(e.1)(10-3) ( J/m
The percent difference between the two values of shearing stress is
ll.176— 10.938
D = = 2.13 pCI'CCI1t
P= 1800 lb 1 EXHIIIPIB Pfflbifilll 7-10 A beam is simply supported and carries a

concentrated load of 1 800 lb at the center ofa 15-ft span, as shown ir1 Fig. 7-27a.
Ifthe beam has the T cross section shown ir1 Fig. 7-27b, determine
(a) The average shearing stress on a horizontal plane 4 in. above the bottom of
the beam and 6 ft from the lefi support.
- 1.5 n—-l—1.s n—> (b) The maximum transverse shearing stress in the beam.
(=1) (c) The average shearing stress in the joint between the flange and the stem at a
section 6 ft from the left support.
10 his (d) The force transmitted from the flange to the stem by the glue in a 12-in. length
aw’ /‘Tate " of the joint centered 6 fi fi'om the lefi support.
(e) The maximum tensile flexural stress in the beam.
_ __N _‘__A___
\1.~;4=%l1'14
10 in. SOLUTION
8 in. The second moment of the cross-sectional area about the neutral axis is
IN, = ammo)’ + 2(10)(3)2 + é(10)(2)3 +10(2)(3)= = 533.3 in.“

-42 in. -
(5) (a) The shear force V, on a cross section 6 ft fi'om the left support is +900 lb, as
shown on Fig. 7-27c. The first moment Q4 for the bottom 4 in. of the stem
Figure 7-27(a-b)
(see Fig. 7-27e) is
Q4 = yc4A4 = 5(2)(4) = 43iI1-3

1-1 srmuusc srrtsssras [N arms $99
The average shearing stress on a horizontal plane 4 in. above the bottom of + V,=+900lb
the beam is then given by Eq. 7- 12 as
V, 0
V,=-900 lb
1:4 = E = = 40.50 psi E 40.5 psi Ans.
I.\,-At.‘ 533.3(2) (C)
+
(b) The maxi.n1um transverse shearing stress in the beam will occur at the neu-
tral axis on the cross section supporting the largest shear force V}. The first M, 0
Mm = srso 111-11
moment QM for the pa.rt of the stem below the neutral axis is
(<1)
QN/I = 4(2)(3) = 64 in-3
Qt" ‘ we
In the computation of Q, it is immaterial whether one takes the area above -Vcr
or below a transverse line. For example, QM for the area above the neutral
axis is Qflangg + Qmm = 3(10)(2)+1(2)(2) = 64 in.3, which is the same as
that for the part of the stem below the neutral axis. Since the shear force V; yC-1
equals 900 lb on all cross sections of the beam,

Q4-
V}Q.vA 900054) .~ .
= i = i = 54.00 = 54.0 A .
rm“ 1...,,:S 533.3(2) P“ PS‘ "5 (8)
Figure 7-27(1:-e)
(c) The first moment Qy for the flange of the beam (see Fig. 7-27e) is P The definition of Q is the first moment
(relative to the neutral axis) of the portion
of the area of the cross section between the
Qt = MA,» = 3(10)(2) = so in.‘ transverse line where the stress is to be eval-
uated and the top of the beam. However,
(Vt-A)=.... + (1/t'A)1......... = (J/c‘A)w1s1 = 0. since
The average shearing stress on the horizontal plane at the joint between the y is measured from the centroid (the neutral
flange and the stem is then given by Eq. 7-12 as axis). Therefore, the magnitudes of (y(-A),,,,,
and (yCA),,,m,,,, are the same, and the area
below the section can be used instead if it is
_ VrQ]~‘ _ 900(60) _ .~ . more convenient.
1'; - INAIS - 533.3(2) - 50.63ps1_ 50.6ps1 Ans.
(d) The force transmitted from the flange to the stem by the glue is
7.16
Vg = r_;A; = 50.63(12)(2) = 1215.1 lb 5 1251 lb Ans.
(e) The maximum tensile flexural stress in the beam will occur ir1 a fiber at the
bottom ofthe beam because the resisting moment at all cross sections of the
beam is positive. The largest moment occurs at rriidspan, as shown in Fig. 7.17
7-27a‘. The flexural stress is given by Eq. 7-8 as
-M,,,,_.¢ = a=121s.1
-ts"/5o(12)(-8) . 21215 . An.s
arnax=
1 533.3 pm PS1 (T)
7.18
400 CHAPTER r rusxuruu. LOADING: sntsssrs [N BEAMS
1 PROBLEMS
MecMovie Activities and Problems c. The magnitude and location of the maximum transverse
shearing stress on the cross section.
MM7.9 Q-tile: The Q Section Property Game. Identify proper
area needed to compute Q for transverse shear calculations.
Compute Q for various configurations.
.\1[M7.10 Shear stress in a standard steel shape. Example; Try
one. Determine the transverse shear stress at specified points
1‘-1lglj
in a steel t-shape. 12 in
MM7.12 Nailing two box beams. Example; Concept checkpoints.
Determine box beam shear capacity for two cross-section
configurations.
Figure P7-73
.\1[M7.13 Determine nail spacing for U-beam. Example; Concept
checkpoints. Determine nail spacing for beam made up ofthree
boards. 7-74 A W 254 >< 89 structural steel wide-flange beam (see Ap-
pendix B) is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P7-74.
MM7.14 Bolt spacing in built-up steel beam. Example; Concept
Determine the maximum transverse shearing stress at section
checkpoints. Determine maximum bolt spacing for built-up
A—A of the beam
steel beam.
a. Using Eq. 7-12.
b. Using Eq. 7-14.
2SkN 25kN
7-72* A timber beam is loaded and supported as shown in
Fig. P7-72. At section,-1-A of the beam, determine the shearing
stresses on horizontal planes that pass tiuough points a, b, and
-L
c of the cross section. B F3
10lkN
‘i 2 111 J’ 5 i____-__
Figure P7-74
AK B if- i_
‘Q1
itK ‘Q 7-75* A WT 7 >< 34 structural steel beam (see Appendix B) is
B *______ lm as B3 m loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P7-75. Determine the
maximum transverse shearing stress at section A-A of the
2 50mm beam.
C i 501-nm
100 mm Al 1000113711
4
lfi.l
-1 UI Q
be
Figure P7-72
1 to 3
M_
3+ O\ D
#3
7-73* The transverse shear V, at a certain section of a timber
beam is 7000 lb. If the beam has the cross section shown in Figure P7-75
Fig. P7-73, determine
a. The horizontal shearing stress in the glued joint 2 in. below 7-76 A timber beam 3.5 m long is simply supported at its ends
the top of the beam. and carries a uniformly distributed load w of 6 kN/m over
b. The transverse shearing stress at a point 3 in. below the top its entire length. If the beam has the cross section shown in
of the beam. Fig. P7-76, detennine
1-r SHEARING srruzssss rs BEAMS 401
a. The maximum horizontal shearing stress in the glued joints 7-79* The beam shown in Fig. P7-79a is composed of two 1 x
between the web and flanges of the beam. 6-in. and two 1 >< 3-in. hard maple boards that are glued to-
b. The maximum horizontal shearing stress in the beam. gether as shown in Fig. P7-79b. Determine the magnitude and
location of
Wlflflmmfi a. The maximum tensile flexural stress in the beam.

b. The maximum horizontal shearing stress in the beam.
100 mm ."'-."=._}?;; 200 lb
S00 lbffi
Figure P7-76
100 mm
" 40mm m..m..t..1
1160 lb (3) 1040 lb
l in. 1 in.
- /1
7-77 A W10 x 30 strucuiral steel wide-flange beam (see Ap-
pendix B) is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P7-77. At 1.5 in.
section A—A of the beam, determine
6 in. 3 in.
a. The maximum transverse shearing stress due to the 4000-lb
load.
b. The maximum transverse shearing stress due to the 4000-lb
load plus the weight of the beam. (15)
Figure P7-79
4000 lb
7-80 The beam shown in Fig. P7-80a is composed of three pieces

of timber that are glued together as shown in Fig. P7-80b.
ks Determine
.
itsib-
& O
a. The maximum horizontal shearing stress in the gluedjoints.
b. The maximum horizontal shearing stress in the wood.
E
A -A 13> _.- ¥_ 4> 11 ~}6—— \.|-I =9
c. The maximum tensile and compressive flexural stresses in
Figure P7-77 the beam.
6 kN
Intermediate Problems 1 9 kN-m
7-78* A W 203 >< 60 structural steel wide-flange section
(see Appendix B) is used for the cantilever beam shown in it-.
B )
Fig. P7-78. Determine the maximum flexural and transverse $5‘

Ln B
O\ 2.0 m *0.5 mi
shearing stresses in the beam and state where they occur.
(H)
20 RN 100mm
_ l‘—’
50rmn
1401mm >Glued
‘A B 5 mm - joints
+514
I 2.0 m = (5)
402 cnxvrss 7 rusxuruu. LOADING: sntsssrs [N BEAMS
7-81 The lintel beam AB shown in Fig. P7-81a has the cross sec- 7-83 The timber beam shown in Fig. P7-83a is fabricated by glu-
tion shown in Fig. P7-81b and is used to support a brick wall ing two 1 >< 5-in. and two 1 X 4-in. boards together as shown
over a door opening. The brick wall is assumed to produce a in Fig. P7-83b. Determine
triangular load distribution. The total load carried by the beam
a. The maximum horizontal shearing stress in the glued joints.
is 500 lb. Ifthe beam is simply supported at the ends, determine
b. The maximum horizontal shearing stress in the wood.
the maximum flexural and transverse shearing stresses in the
beam and state where they occur.
the beam.
600 lb
200 lbffi
B
A
'G"—""' %iI1- see 311-—3n—l

3°
60° 1
it T (<1)
Ir
l_|
s. B I-— s 1n.—-I 5 Sin.
(5) ivin. >3 in‘ _ 11;.
‘Y-'1»
|||!|!|!|!|!|!|!|'|I|j| | | | | | | | I
IIIIIII
'5
4msn
. }_4fi_4 .
* if -~ Im-
E
t
(4)
Figure P7_8l Figure P7-83
7-84 A laminated wood beam consists ofsix 50 x 150-mm planks

7-82* A timber beam is simply supported and carries a uniformly glued together to form a section 150 mm wide and 300 mm
distributed load of 4 kN/m over the full length of the beam If deep, as shown in Fig. P7-84. If the strength of the glue in
the beam has the cross section shown in Fig. P7-82 and a span shear is 825 kPa, determine
of 6 m, determine
a. The maximum uniformly distributed load w that can be ap-
a. The horizontal shearing stress in the glued joint 50 mm be- plied over the full length of the beam if the beam is simply
low the top ofthe beam and 1 m from the left support. supported and has a span of 4.5 m.
b. The horizontal shearing stress in the glued joint 50 mm b. The horizontal shearing stress in the glued joint 50 mm be-
above the bottom of the beam and 1/2 m from the left low the top of the beam and 0.6 m from the left support
support. when the load of part a is applied.
c. The maximum horizontal shearing stress in the beam. c. The maximum tensile flexural stress in the beam when the
d. The maximum tensile flexural stress in the beam load of part a is applied.
T1—l50 mm—=| A
'-—250mm—1—L 50mm
_,,_
S0mrn
_,._
50rmn
Tm
150mm
50mm
x
50mm
_,_
50mm 50mm
_,_,_
l1S0mm"iiT_ 50mm
v

1-1 srrrruuuc srrmssras [N rrrmnrs 403
Challenging Problems V,--1 by 2 in. welds »-\

l
7 85* A timber beam is fabricated from one 2 x 8-in. and two
2 x 6-in pieces of lumber to form the cross section shown in
Fig. P7-85. The flanges of the beam are fastened to the web
with nails that can safely transmit a shear force of 100 lb. If
the beam is simply supported and carries a 1000-lb load at the Figure P7-87
center of 12-ft span, determine
a. The shear force transferred by the nails from the flange to
the web in a 12-in. length of the beam.
b. The spacing required for the nails. 7-88 A box beam will be fabricated by bolting two 15 x 260-mm
steel plates to two C 305 x 45 steel channels (see Appendix B),
as shown in Fig. P7-88. The beam will be simply supported at
- 6in." - the ends and will carry a concentrated load of 125 kN at the
center of a 5-m span. Determine the bolt spacing required if
the bolts have a diameter of 20 mm and an allowable shearing
stress of 150 MPa.
8 irr.
2 in.
\Nails
téhrmil
Figure P7-85
'7 86* A cantilever beam is used to support a concentrated load of

20 kN at the end of the beam. The beam is fabricated by bolting Figure P7-88
two C457 >< 86 steel channels (see Appendix B) back to back
to form the H-section shown in Fig. P7-86. If the pairs of bolts
are spaced at 300-mm intervals along the beam, determine
a. The shear force carried by each of the bolts. 7-89* A W 21 x 101 steel beam (see Appendix B) is simply sup-
b. The bolt diameter required if the shear and bearing stresses ported at the ends and carries a concentrated load at the center
for the bolts must be limited to 60 MPa and 125 MPa, of a 20-ft span. The concentrated load must be increased to
respectively. 125 kip, which requires that the beam be strengthened. It has
beendecided that two 3/4 x 16-in. steelplates will be bolted to
the flanges, as shown in Fig. P7-89. Determine the bolt spacing
required ifthe bolts have a diameter of 3/4 in. and an allowable
shearing stress of 17.5 ksi.
Figure P7-86
'7-87 A W 18 x 97 steel beam (see Appendix B) will have l/2 x

10-in. cover plates welded to the top and bottom flanges as
shown in Fig. P7-87. A 20-in. length of the beam for which
the shear is constant will be subjected to bending moments of
+4600 kip - in. and +2300 kip - in. at the ends. The fillet weld
has an allowable load of 2400 lb per in. Determine the number
of fillet welds, each 2 in. long, required on each side of the
cover plate. Figure P7-89
404 CHAPTER 7 rrrrxtrrutr. r.orrnr1~1c= s'rrtsssr=s r1v nrmrs
7-90 A W 356 x 122 steel beam (see Appendix B) has a C 381 x 3 k.N."m
74 channel bolted to the top flange, as shown in Fig. P7-90.
The beam is simply supported at the ends and carries a con-
centrated load of 96 kN at the center of an 8-m span. If the A C
pairs of bolts are spaced at 500-nun intervals along the beam, LB
determine t 2m 2m
a. The shear force carried by each of the bolts.
b. The bolt diameter required if the shear stress for the bolts (I1)
must be limited to 60 MPa. |*—100mm—*l
25mm
J‘? —-r-
200 mm
in
251-rtm—I| |\—
Figure P7-90 (bl

Figure P7-92
Computer Problems
7-93 A timber beam is simply supported and carries a uni-
7-91 The transverse shear V, at a certain section of a timber formly distributed load w of 360 lb/ft over its entire 18 ft span
beam is 7500 lb. If the beam has the cross section shown in (Fig. P7-93a). If the beam has the cross section shown in
Fig. P7-91, compute and plot the vertical shearing stress r as Fig. P7-93b, compute and plot the vertical shearing stress r
a function of distance y (-6 in. -< y < +6 in.) from the neutral as a function of distance y fiom the neutral axis for a cross
axis. section 2 ft from the left end of the beam.
‘Tir-
12m.
M
I
l
am.
A
360 lbffi
B
l8fi
_ (I1)
Figure P7-91 “it l;arn.—t
2 in.
l’
7-92 The beam shown in Fig. P7-92a is fabricated by gluing two 2 in.
pieces of timber together to form the cross section shown in
Fig. P7-92b. Compute and plot the vertical shearing stress r as
a function of distance y from the neutral axis for a cross section (b)
0.5 m from the left end of the beam. Figure P7-93
7-s PRINCIPAL srrrsssss nv Fr.r.xu1m|. rtnzrtrnrms 405
7-8 PRINCIPAL STRESSES IN FLEXURAL MEMBERS

Methods for findings the flexural stress at any point in a beam were presented in
Section 7-4. Procedures for locating the critical sections of a beam (maximum
M, and V, were developed in Sections 7-5 and 7-6. Methods for determining the
transverse and longitrrdinal shearing stresses at any point in a beam were presented
in Section 7-7. However, the discussion of stresses in beams is incomplete without
careful consideration of the principal stresses and the maxirrrum shearing stress
at carefirlly selected points on the sections of maximum shear K and maximum
bending moment M,.
The flexural stress is maximum at points on the top or bottom edge of a
section; the transverse and longitudinal shearing stresses are zero at these points.
Consequently, the flexural stresses at points on the top or bottom edge of a given
section are also the principal stresses at these points, and the corresponding max-
imrnn shearing stress is equal to one-half the flexural stress [rm = (0,, — 0)l2].
The longitudinal and transverse shearing stresses are normally maximum for a
given section at the neutral axis, where the flexural stress is zero. Thus, the evi-
denoe presented so far is limited to the extremes in a cross section. One might well
wonder what the stress situation might be between these points. Unforttmatelg the
magnitude of the principal stresses throughout a cross section cannot be expressed
for all sections as a simple function ofposition. However, in order to provide some
insight into the nature of the problem, two typical sections will be discussed in the
following paragraphs.
For a cantilever beam of rectangular cross section subjected to a concen-
trated load, the theoretical principal stress variation is indicated for two sections in
Fig. 7-28. One observes from this figrne that, at a distance from the load of
|0.500/ 1/ 1.000
5 0.467 I 4)-
P O0#0 .- pf
_ C
N I “‘ E I = C
-J’
- rsnrs A
l-I-J
-Ia
0.416 0.s09
-onLn F3 0.499 0.150 A

alsurface
- - F5 P 0.520 0.101
P:
L-A
Disrtaenutcefrrom — e — 0.536] 0.610

MIQ
—I-B
0... = % + §v'0:0’ + (8 -er 1 q

l8 c _ 0 . 52 5 0.559 ———————
_
0 1 .
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Principal stress in terms of P027’!
Figure 7-28
CHAPTER 7 FLEXURAL LOADING STRESSES IN BEAMS
one-fourth the depth of the beam, the maximum normal stress does not occur
at the surface. However, at a distance of one-half the depth, the maximum flexural
stress is the maximum normal stress. For either of these sections, Saint-Venant’s
principle (see Section 5-6) indicates that the flexure (and transverse shearing
stress) formula is inapplicable. Since such a small increase in bending moment is
required to overcome the effect of the transverse shearing stress, the conclusion
may be drawn that, for a rectangular cross section, in regions where the flexure
formula applies, the maximum flexural stress is the maximum nornral stress. Al-
though for the rectangular cross section the maximum shearing stress will usually
be one-half the maximum normal stress (at a surface of the beam), for materials
having a longitudinal plane of weakness (for example, the usual timber beam), the
longitudinal shearing stress may fiequently be the significant stress—henoe, the
emphasis on this stress.
The other section to be discussed is the deep, wide-flange section subjected
to a combination of large shear and large bending moment. For this combination,
the high flexural and transverse shearing stresses occurring simultaneously at the
junction of flange and web sometimes yield a principal stress greater than the
flexural stress at the surface of the flange (see Example Problem 7-1 1). In general,
at any point in a beam, a combination of large Mr, PL, Q, and y and a small t should
suggest a check on the principal stresses at such a point. Otherwise, the maximum
flexural stress will very likely be the maximum normal stress, and the maximum
shearing stress will probably occur at the same point.
A knowledge ofthe directions ofthe principal stresses may aid in the predic-
tion ofthe directions of cracks in a brittle material (concrete, for example) and thus
may aid in the design of reinforcement to carry the tensile stresses. Curves drawn
with their tangent at each point in the directions of the principal stresses are called
stress trajectories. Since there are, in general, two nonzero principal stresses at each
point (plane stress), there are two stress trajectories passing through each point.
These curves will be perpendicular since the principal stresses are orthogonal; one
set of curves will represent the maximum stresses, whereas the other represents
the minimum stresses. The trajectories for a simply supported rectangular beam
carrying a concentrated load at the midpoint are shown in Fig. 7-29, with dashed
lines representing the directions of the compressive stresses and solid lines show-
ing tensile stress directions. In the vicinities of the load and reactions there are
stress concentrations, and the trajectories become much more complicated. Figure
7-29 neglects all stress concentrations.
In order to determine the principal stresses and the maximum shearing
stresses at a particular point in a beam, it is necessary to calculate the flexural
_, - - _"__'_.- ::: :_ T-_I_I _: ::: __'__"'__ ‘R---.___

/T 1’ 4’ .-“" .- —— -.. "‘-~. “‘~. “-- "‘\
,’ ,’ ,’ /' /" / Q \ "R. Ts. "-, “\ \\
, , 1 1 / / 1' \ \ \ \ \ \
/ \
I r _ _ _ _ \ \
F I I T
_tin T1 ‘T 2|:
1 |
t
|
\
t
\
2 5
2 2
Figure 7-29
7-s PRINCIPAL srrrnssss mt FLEXURAL runrusrms 407
stresses and transverse (or longitudinal) shearing stresses at the point. With the
stresses on orthogonal planes through the point known, the method of Section 2-9
or 2-10 can be used to calculate the maximum stresses at the point. Example Prob-
lem 7-1 l illustrates the procedure and provides an example in which the principal
stresses at some interior point are greater than the maximum flexural stresses.
1 Example Problem 7-11 A W610 X 145 cantilever beam [1 =

l243( 10°) mm“, S = 4079( 103) mm3], supported at the left end, carries a uni-
formly distributed load of 160 kN/m on a span of2.5 m. Determine the maximum
normal and shearing stresses in the beam.
SOLUTION
For a cantilever beam with a uniformly distributed load, both the maximum
bending moment and the maximum tlansverse shear occur on the section at the
support. In this case the resisting shear and moment are
W111 1s0(2.5)2
M, =-Tb? =—500kN-m
V, = wL = 1s0(2.s) = 4001<1~1
The upper half of the cross section of the beam at the wall is shown in Fig. 7-300.
The distribution of flexural stress for this half of the section is shown in Fig.
7-30b, and the distribution of the average transverse shearing stress is as shown
in Fig. 7-30c. The vertical stresses cry due to the pressure of the load on the top
of the beam are considered negligible.
Values will be calculated for three points; namely, at the neutral axis, in
the web at the jtmction of the web and the top flange, and at the top surface. Both
the fillets and the stress concentrations at the jtmction of the web and flange will
be neglected. At the neutral axis, the flexural stress is zero; however,
QNA = 304.8(l9.7)(295) + 285.1(11.9)(l42.6) — 2.255(lO5) mm3
‘C = @
It = 4L°°(1°3)(f;]255)(1°_3)
1243(r0 )(0.0119) = 60.98(10°)N/m2 2 61.013/[Pa
‘ti 3M.8mmfi
l 122.6 MPa er 3 MPa 122 0 MPa 19 93..
'= I II _III /'1‘87MP“ IIII
T 114.1 MPa 41.9 MPa "/4 7 MPa \
19-7 mm 61 3 MPa
304.8 mm
11.9 mm
61.0 MPa
ta) (bl (C) (11)

Figure 7-30
408 CHAPTER 1 rrnxurutr. r.o1rnr1vc= srrrsssrzs 11v BEAMS
In the web at the junction with the top flange, the flexural stress is
_ 3
6,, = _@ = _ =114.6B(106)N/m2 2 114.1 MPa (T)
I 1243(10 °)
and the transverse shearing stress is
Q, = 304.s(19.1)(295) = 1.111110“) mm3

1 = Q = 4i°“(1°3)(f;771)(10_3) = 41.s9(10*")N/m2 2 41.9 it/[Pa
1: 1243(10 )(0.0119)
At the top surface, the transverse shearing stress is zero, and the flexural stress is
_ 3
0 = -Q = -% = -Loafing = 122.ss(10")N/1112 2 122.6 MPa (T)
1 s 401900" )
The principal stresses and maximum shearing stresses for each of the three
selected points are shown in Fig. 7-30d. The calculations, from the equations of
Section 2-10, for the point at the junction of web and flange are
0 +a 0 -0 2
ap1,pZ= x 2 y :l:,i(;) +rfy
114.68 0 =6,/W)
= gf 114.62-0 2 +1-41.119)’
= 57.34 zt 74.71
cpl = 57.34 + 74.71= +132.05 MPa '5 132.1 MPa (T)
op; = 57.34 — 74.71: -17.37 MPa E 17.37 MPa (C)
Since cpl and op; have opposite signs, the maximum shearing stress is
rm = ”"““ 2 °“““ =
- - 132.05 -2( -11.31J = 14.11 MPa 2 14.1 MPa (T)
The angle is not particularly important in this case, but it can be obtained from
Eq. 2-14. Thus,
1
0P = 2m“
- 1—’-
_ 213,. 1 _ 2(-41.89) _
<1,-6,. = 2t“
- ‘i114.68-0 = -19.93" =19.93~
P It should be noted that the maximum Comparison of Results
tensile stress of 132.1 MPa at the junction
is 7.75 percent above the maximum tensile Stress Top Edge Jrmction Neutral Axis
flexural stress of 122.6 MPa at the top edge. 11,, 122.6 MPa (T) 132.1 MPa (T) 61.0 MPa ('1)
Also, the maximum shearing stress of 74.7 6,, 0 11.31 MPa (<3) 61.0 MPa (c)
MPa at the junction is 22.5 percent above 1:,,,, 61.5 1'1/[Pa 14.1 MPa 61.0 MPa
the maximum transverse shearing stress of
61.0 MPa at the neutral axis. The other stresses of Fig. 7-30a‘ are obtained by inspection.
1-s PRINCIPAL srnsssas nv rrnxurmr. rtnrrusrrns 409
1 PROBLEMS
MecMovie Activities and Problems P
MM7.l5 Principal stresses in a wide flange beam Example; Try

one. Determine normal and shear stresses at specific point in 40 irr.
1*—10in.—'|
beam, and determine principal and maximum in-plane shear
stresses. L E'-
MM7.l6 Principal stresses in a rectangular tube. Example; Try
>1 ma,‘ >1
one. Determine normal and shear stresses at a specific point in
L.
a beam, and determine principal and maximum inplane shear 21.11.
stresses.
MM7.l7 Principal stresses in a tee beam Example; Try one. L5.
-1
Determine normal and shear stresses at specific point in lin.
beam, and determine principal and maximum in-plane shear
stresses. (K1) (11)
Figure P7-95
Introductory Problems 7-96 The simple beam shown in Fig. P7-96a has the cross sec-
7-94* The steel beam shown in Fig. P7-94a has the cross section shown in Fig. P7-96b. Ifthe allowable stresses are 75 MPa
tion shown in Fig. P7-94b. At point A, which is on a section shear and 120 MPa tension at point A (just above the flange),
just to the right of load P and just above the flange, determine determine the maximum allowable load P.
and show on a sketch the principal stresses and the maximum
shearing stress when P = 20 kN.
250 mm
P ml-'nml*—80nu'rt—i' i
1 T 25mm
0.6 rn ' 1 350mm _l5mm
' 5 mtn
_ 120 nun
0 0 L '44 B
It-I
-
I *
C 1 44 -
25i_nm
2m ; 7 1 rn m —-
10mm
(*1) (5) (<1) (11)

7-95* The cantilever beam shown in Fig. P7-95a has the cross 7-9'7 The timber beam shown in Fig. P7-97a has the cross
section shown in Fig. P7-95b. A concentrated load P = 50 kip section shown in Fig. P7-97b. If the allowable stresses are
is applied at the free end ofthe beam Determine and show on a 200 psi shear and 400 psi compression at point A, which
sketch the principal stresses and the maximum shearing stress is 2 ft from the lefl end of the beam and 2 in below the
at point A, which is in the web of the beam just below the top top surface of the beam, determine the maximum allowable
flange. load P.
410 CHAPTER 7 ruzxtnuu. LOADING: snnassss [N BEAMS
P of the span. If the principal and maximum shearing stresses

in the beam must not exceed 18 ksi and 10 ksi, respectively,
4 in. determine the maximum allowable load P.
1_1n.eHr—i|~l1n.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ A
A 6in. I . Challenging Problems

____________________ __ 1. 2111-
B C —'r
1.1l‘l. 7-102* A W 356 x 179 (see Appendix B) steel beam is loaded
s-- mien {xi} an . and supported as shown in Fig. P7- 1 02. Determine the principal
and maximum shearing stresses in the beam if
(H) (5) a. The load P is 700 kN and the length L is 3 m.
Figure P7-97 b. The load P is 350 kN and the length L is 6 m.
i
7-98* A W 610 x 155 (see Appendix B) cantilever beam with a
length of 3 m carries a uniformly disn-ibuted load of 160 kN/m.
Determine the principal and maximum shearing stresses in the |
beam.
7-99* A W 18 x 60 (see Appendix B) simply supported beam B I C
with a span of 20 it carries a concentrated load of 36 kip at
the middle of the span. Determine the principal and maximum L12 v LE2
shearing stresses in the beam. Figure P7-102
7-100 A W 305 x 97 (see Appendix B) cantilever beam with a
length of 3 m carries a concentrated load P at the free end of
the beam. If the principal and maximum shearing stresses in 7-103 A W 14 x 120 (see Appendix B) steel beam is loaded and
the beam must not exceed 125 MPa and 75 MPa, respectively, supported as shown in Fig. P7-102. Determine the principal
determine the maximum allowable load P. and maximum shearing stresses in the beam if
7-101 A W 24 x 62 (see Appendix B) simply supported beam a. The load P is 160 kip and the length L is 8 it.
with a span of 18 it carries a concentrated load P at the middle b. The load P is 80 kip and the length L is 16 ft.
7-9 FLEXURAL S'I'RESSES—UNSYMMETRI('.AL BENDING

The discussion of flexural stresses to this point has been limited to beams with at
least one longitudinal plane of symmetry and with the load applied in the plane
of symmetry. The work will now be extended to cover pure bending (bent with
couples only; no transverse forces) of (1) beams with a plane of symmetry but
with the load (couple) applied not in or parallel to the plane of symmetry, or (2)
beams with no plane of symmetry. Additional discussion needed for the problem of
unsymmetrical beams loaded with transverse forces will be found in Section 7-12.
Figure 7-31:1 depicts a segment of a beam of unsymmetrical cross section
loaded with an applied couple M at the lefi end of the beam. For the beam segment
to be in equilibrium, there must be an equal but opposite couple M, at the right
end of the beam segment. The resisting couple M, is located by the angle or with
respect to the z-axis, as shown in Fig. '7-3 lb, which is a cross section of the beam.
The origin ofcoordinates is located at the centroid of the cross section. The neutral
axis, which passes through the centroid for linearly elastic action (see Section 7-3),
makes an unknown angle fl with the 2-axis. The beam is straight and of uniform
7-9 FLBXURAL slnsssns-Uusnmtumucal. BENDING 41 1
M lies in the plane

of the cross section
/
\\\ \\.V
Plane
I
w f__ .2: of
I load
I 1 /
/
ll.‘ |-1 2 a any

I
\ '0
/I M
u
g.
___’. 1'
|
>.*—.~
-_._____
0,, dA
57"“. ,1
I
\\ - Neutral
i
0
I
\
I axis
tu'4'
H
‘I
?'~\
I\
'€—\
(<1) (11)
Figure 7-31
cross section, and a plane cross section is assumed to remain plane after bending.
Also, the following development is restricted to linearly elastic action.
The resisting moment M, is the resultant of the moment of the forces pro-
duced by the normal stress 0, acting on the cross section, as shown in Fig. 7-31a.
Since the orientation ofthe neutral axis is not known, the flexural stress distribution
function cannot be expressed in terms of one variable, as in Eq. 7-3 of Section 7-3.
However, since a plane section remains plane, the stress variation can be written as
0,=a+k1y+k;z (a)
where a, k1, and kg a.re constants.

The net resultant force is zero, and the moments of the force or, dA about
the y- and z-axes are equivalent to the components Mg, and Mn, of the resisting
moment M,.Thus,
R = I U1 (IA = 0
A
Mr). = [20, dz! (b)
A
M” = —/i y 0, dA
.4
Substituting Eq. (a) into Eqs. (b) yields
R=a[dA+k1fytiA+kz[zdA=0
A A A
M,y=afzdA+k1fyzdA+k;fz2dA (C)
A A A
M,, = —afydA—k|fy2dA—k;;fyzdA
A A A
Since the origin of coordinates is at the centroid of the cross section,
1‘)/dA=]‘ZdA=0
A A
412 cnxrrrzrt '1 rtsxtnuu. LOADING snrsssss [N BEAMS
The terms
fyzdxt and [flax

A A
are the second moments (also known as area moments of inertia) of the cross-
sectional area with respect to the z- and y-axes (I, and Iy), respectively. The term
fyzdA
,1
is the mixed second moment I}, (also known as the area product of inertia) of the
cross-sectional area with respect to the y- and z-axes. Equations (c) reduce to
R = aA = 0
Mryl =klIyz +kZIy
Mrz = Tkllz _'k2Iyz
Solving Eqs. (d) for a, kl, and kg gives
a =0
kl = _MrzIy* + Mrylyz
1,1, - Ijz (Q)
k2 : Mrylz + MrzI}Iz
1,1, - 1;’,
Substituting Eqs. (e) into Eq. (a) yields the elastic flexure formula for unsymmet-
rical bending. Thus,
U Z _ MI+MI
FZ y ry _VZ y + MI+MI
F)’ Z fl )'Z Z
" [ 1.1, - 1}, ] 1,1, - 1;,

OT
I —I —I +1
“I = .l‘ Z yz Mat J‘ Z yz M" ""71
Since ax is zero at the origin of coordinates ()2 = z = 0), the neutral axis passes
through the centroid of the cross section.
The location of points in the cross section where the normal stress is max-
imum or minimum can be found once the location of the neutral axis is known.
Since :1, is zero at the neutral surface, the orientation of the neutral axis is found
by setting Eq. 7-16 equal to zero. Thus,
—(MrzIy + Mr)-Iyz)y + (Mr)'Iz + MrzI_t‘z)z = 0
01"
‘:M,_,,l, + Mrzlyz}
= L z
y Mar. + Mr,-1.2
7-9 FLliXURALS’l'lll§SSBS—UNSYltlMl§‘I'RICAL BENDING 413
which is the equation of the neutral axis in the yz-plane. The slope of the neutral
axis is dy/dz = tan fl; therefore, the orientation of the neutral axis is given by the
expression
W,, = M,,,I,. + M,._,.Iy, (1-18)

Equations 7-16, 7-17, and 7-18 have been developed by asstnning that the
Z-component Mm of the resisting moment is positive. If the projection of NI, is
in the negative z-direction, then MP1 is negative. The angles or and ,8 (measured
fi"om the z-axis) are positive in the clockwise direction.
In some problems, it will be convenient to select the y- and z-axes such that
they are principal axes Y and Z. The mixed second moment of area I yg is then zero
and Eqs. 7-16, 7-17, and 7-18 reduce to
M,-Y + L
0, = -i‘ M, z ('1-19)
1! 1,
M, 1. 1.
taufl = i = isms (1-20)
MrZIY Ir
Equation 7-20 indicates that the neutral axis is not perpendicular to the plane
of loading unless (1) the angle or is zero, in which case the plane of loading is
(or is parallel to) a principal plane, or (2) the two principal second moments are
equal; this reduces to the special kind of symmetry in which all centroidal second
moments are equal (square, circle, and the like). The following Example Problems
will illustrate the application of Eqs. 7-16 through 7-20.
1 EXHIIIPIB Pfflblfilll 7-12 A beam with the T cross section shown in

J”
Fig. 7-32a is subjected to a couple M, which has a magnitude of 13,600 lb - in.
The resisting couple M, on the cross section makes an angle 01 = 36.87” with 1-? 6 in.
1 \
respect to the z-axis, as shown on Fig. 7-32:1. Determine
(a) The orientation of the neutral axis (show its location on a sketch of the cross
T Q
3in.
2}...
_h_
section). Z I
(b) The maximum tensile and compressive flexural stresses in the beam. ot' \\
SOLUTION \ 6i1'|.
M, \
\
\
(a) Because of symmetry, the y-axis is a principal axis (see Appendix A) of the \
\
cross section; therefore, the z-axis is the other principal axis. The principal Mi-
\
second moments are I; = I, = 136 in.“ and Iy = Iy = 40 in.“ The components L 2 mil \\ Plane
of the intemal moment are of load
(=1)
Figure 7-32(a)
1/1,, = 11,, = —l3,600sin36.87° = -316011» - in.
11,1 = 11,, = +13s00 cos 36.8"/= = +10.ss0 lb - in.
The orientation of the neutral axis is found by using Eq. 7-20. Thus,
M,;/I; -3160036)
M5 = 14,11,
T=A 10380140) = -2.550
414 CHAPTER 7 rtsxuruu. LOADING: snrsssss 11v snares
Y fi'om which
A fi- ,6 = -68.59“ E -68.6“ Ans.
as shown in Fig. 7-32b.

T (b) The maximum tensile and compressive flexural stresses occur at points on
|I
.\'
the cross section farthest from the neutral axis. These points are labeled A
\\
686°‘ and B on Fig. 7-32b. The flexural stresses at these points are found using Eq.
7-19. Thus,
AtpointA,y= 3 in. andz= 3 in.
to M12311 + MrYZA
Figure 7-32(b) U114 — IZ [Y
10,880 3 —8160(3 _ _
= —T() + T) = —852 psr = 852 psr (C) Ans.
AtpointB,y= -5 in. andz= —l in.
MrZ)iB + Mrfzfi
aw _ Ix Ir
_ l0,880(—5) —8l60(—1) _ ,_ _
—- 136 + 40 _ +604 psr _ 604 psr (T) Ans.
That part of the cross section to the left of the neutral axis is subjected to
compressive flexural stresses, and the part of the cross section to the right of
the neutral axis is subjected to tensile flexural stresses.
J‘
Plane -I EXHIIIPIE Pl'0hiClIl 7- 13 A beam with the Z cross section shown in
A of load Fig. 7-33a is subjected to a moment M, which has a magnitude of 300 kip - in.
T 2-‘. . The resisting couple M, on the cross section is in the z-direction, as shown in
Fig. 7-33a. The second and mixed moments of area of the cross section with
4in. respect to the y- and z-axes are 1,, = 135 inf‘, I, = 240 inf‘, and I}, = 108 in.‘
Determine
Z 4in.
(a) The flextual stress at pointA by using the flexure formula for tmsymmetrical
J.
Mr
bending (Eq. 7-16 or 7-17).
2in. (b) The orientation of the neutral axis.
_.‘r_. (c) The maximum tensile and compressive flexural stresses in the beam.
3in. I -\i'/i‘ 3in. '
1.5 in.
('1) SOLUTION
Figure 7-33(a) (a) Since Mn, = 0, Eqs. 7-16 and 7-17 reduce to
Iy—I_ z
ax = —|: ]Mrz (Q)
7-9 rmxtrruisrnsssns-imsrrnurmrcru. ssrmnvc 415
At point A,y = 4 in., z — 4.5 in., and Eq. (a) yields
_ _ 135(4)-10s(4.s)
0”‘ _ i135(240) - (1os)1i(300)
= —0.78l3 ksi E 0.781 ksi (C) Ans.
(b) The orientation of the neutral axis is fotmd using Eq. 7-18, which reduces to
1,,
tanfi - I
Thus,
Iy, 108 y
tan = — = 1 = 0.800
is 1,, 135 NA B
\
t -
fi'om which
,9 = 38.56" '5 3s.'1= Ans. ,8‘,.,__]?*

Z
as shown in Fig. 7-33b. X

(c) The maximum tensile and compressive flexural stresses occur at points on M
the cross section farthest from the neutral axis. These points are labeled B
and C on Fig. 7-33b. The flexural stresses at these points are found using '"\
Eq. (11) ofpart (a). Thus, C
At point B, y = 4 in., Z = -1.5 in., and Eq. (0) yields <1’)
Figure 1-33(1))
135(4 — l08(—1.5
¢n==-[--l——————¥]o0w
135(240) - (103)
= —l0.156ksi’£'10.16ksi(C) Ans.
At point C,y = -4 in., z = 1.5 in., and Eq. (tr) yields
135 -4 -108 1.5

a¢=-[—l~l——l~§}wo
135(240) — (108)
= +10.l56ksi’£10.l6ksi(T) Ans.
Thatpa.rtofthe cross section above the neutral axis is subjected to compressive

flexural stresses, and the part of the cross section below the neutral axis is
subjected to tensile flexural stresses.
1 PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems 20 kN - m. The resisting moment M, on the cross section
_ I I _ makes an angle cr = 10° with the z-axis, as shown in the figure.
7-104* A beam with the T cross section shown in Fig. P7-104 Detemflne
is subjected to a moment M, which has a magnitude of
416 CHAPTER 7 rrnxuruu. 1.o1tn11~1c= smsssrzs 11v sums
a. The orientation of the neutral axis (show its location on a The resisting moment M, on the cross section is in the direction
sketch of the cross section). shown in the figme. The second and mixed moments ofarea for
b. The maximum tensile and compressive flexural stresses in the cross section are I_,. = 4.02(l0°) mm“,I, =16.64(l0°)mm“,
the beam. and 1,: = —6.05(10°) mm“. Determine
a. The flexural stress at pointA.
J’ b. The orientation of the neutral axis (show its location on a
sketch of the cross section).
Y 90 mm -‘ c. The maximum tensile and compressive flexural stresses in
a
the beam.
60 mm i
J’
90 mm
C.‘
I
|-—90mm —11—"L1m11
Z _
180 mm l centroid 7"‘ Mr 90mm

30 mm
Z i ‘L4!
Plane of — — -410°]| 10mm

the loads a"‘ _
Figure P7-104 A
Figure P7-106
7-105* A beam with the I cross section shown in Fig. P7-105 is

subjected to a moment M, which has a magnitude of 10,000 7-107 An 8 x 8 x l-in. angle is used for a beam that is subjected
lb - in. The resisting moment M, on the cross section makes to a moment M, which has a magnitude of 7500 lb - fl. The
an angle or = 36.87“ with the z-axis, as shown in the figure. resisting moment M, on the cross section is in the direction
Determine shown in Fig. P7-107. The second and mixed moments of area
a. The orientation of the neutral axis (show its location on a for the cross section are 1,, = I, = 89.0 in.“ and In = 52.5 in.“
sketch of the cross section). Determine
b. The maximum tensile and compressive flexural stresses in a. The flexural stress at pointA.
the beam. b. The orientation of the neutral axis (show its location on a
1'
a \_ | the beam.
\\ i-7 4 in.‘-| My
J’
1 in. A
_l__
6in. 4 in. z
.1).
\
1 in. \
ii
1 in ',.-—Plane of /___ Centroid Mr
‘mt? '\\ the loads z P
a
Figure P7-105
7-106 A beam with the 2 cross section shown in Fig. P7-106 is 1-3? 1"?
subjected to a moment M, which has a magnitude of8000 N - m. Figure P7-107
7-9 FLliXU1I.t\LS’l'l1l§SSES—UNSYMl\1B'l'RICAL nnrmnvc 417
Intermediate Problems 7-110 A beam with a rectangular cross section 50 mm wide x

300 mm deep is designed for a system of loads that produces
7 108* A beam with the cross section shown in Fig. P7-108 is a moment in the xy-plane (the y-axis is parallel to the 300-mm
subjected to a moment M, which has a magnitude of 2 kN - m. side). In comtruction, the beam is positioned such that the mo-
The resisting moment M, on the cross section is in the direction ment acts in a plane inclined 3° with respect to the xy-plane.
shown in the figure. Determine Determine the increase in the maximum flexural stress pro-
a. The flexrnal stress at point A. duced by the consmiction error.
b. The orientation of the neutral axis (show its location on a 7-111 Determine the minimum moment M, and its orientation
sketch of the cross section). or with respect to the z-axis required to produce a maximrnn
c. The maximum tensile and compressive flexural stresses in flextnal stress of 2000 psi in a beam with a rectangular cross
the beam. section 6 in. wide x 12 in. deep (the y-axis is parallel to the
12-in. side).
30mm -| 60n1rnjA Challenging Problems

7-112* A beam with the cross section shown in Fig. P7-112
60 mm
Mr is subjected to a moment M, which has a magnitude of
z 20 kN - m. The resisting moment M, on the cross section is in
~ Centroid the direction shown in the figure. Determine
120 mm a. The flexural stress at pointA.
b. The orientation of the neutral axis (show its location on a
4-M c. The maximum tensile and compressive flexural stresses in
Figure P7-108 the beam.
7 109* A beam with the cross section shown in Fig. P7-109 is 7»

subjected to a moment M, which has a magnitude of 50 kip - in. -| 17.06 nun 2011"“
The resisting moment M, on the cross section is in the direction “M _ _
shown in the figtne. Determine

A
a. The flexural stress at point A. 92.4 rmn
h. The orientation of the neutral axis (show its location on a
sketch of the cross section). M’
{M z ' C
120 mm
c. The maximum tensile and compressive flexural snesses in '— Centroid
the beam.
Lfiflrmn-iy—~ 60mm -igfmn

Y 20 mm
1.
A 5-2111. Figure P7-112
3% in.
I __ Centroid 7-113* A beam with a triangular cross section is subjected
. M, to a moment M, which has a magnitude of 10 kip - in.
Z
The resisting moment M, on the cross section makes an an-
25 in. gle or = 26.571‘ with the z-axis, as shown in Fig. P7-113.
Determine
|
.
JM 1-ti a. The flexural stresses at pointA, B, andD ofthe cross section.
12in. 12in.'i b. The orientation of the neutral axis (show its location on a
Figure P7-109 sketch of the cross section).
418 cnxrrsn 7 rrnxuruu. LOADING: sursssss as snares
y 7-115 A beam with a Z cross section is subjected to a moment M
M, Do in. 2ir1. 18 which has a magnitude of20 kip - in. The resisting moment VI
if on the cross section makes an angle or = 36.87“ with the z-axis,
as shown in Fig. P7-115. The second and mixed moments of
2 in. area for the cross section are 1,. = 8.83 in.4, I, = 25 4 m 4, and
|' [Z V
z I,., = 11.3 in.‘ Determine
Centroid —' a. The flexural stress at pointA.
4 in. b. The orientation of the neutral axis (show its location on a
c. The maximum tensile and compressive flexural stresses 111
Mun the beam.
A
Figure P7-113
7-114 A beam with a rectangular cross section supports an inter-
nal moment M which is oriented at an angle or with respect to 1
the z-axis, as shown in Fig. P7-114. M, A " -
a. Develop an expression for the maximum flexural stress in
terms ofb, h, M, and tx.
b. Determine or in terms of b and h to produce the maximum
I CC
Centroid
.
flexural stress for a given moment. I 1
c. Use the expression for or obtained in part b and determine C 6 in
the orientation of the neutral axis when h = 2b. 1.
8111.
11, .v
_, "'0 L 3% in.
K Figure P7-115
z I h
Plane of
the loads I
217
p._.
Figure P7-114
7-10 STRESS CONCENTRATIONS UNDER

FLEXURAL LOADINGS
In Section 5-7, it was shown that the introduction of a circular hole or other
geometric discontinuity into an axially loaded member can cause a significant
increase in the magnitude of the stress (stress concentration) in the immediate
vicinity of the discontinuity. This is also the case for circular shafts under torsional
forms of loading (see Section 6-9) and for flexural members.
In Section 7-4 of this chapter, it was shown that the flexural stress 111 a beam
of unifornl cross section in a region of pure bending is given by Eq. 7-8 as
Mr
a,=—Ty rs
7-10 STRESS CONCliNl'RATIONS UNDER FLEXURAL LOADINGS
4 -<~»¥>r
—1ll*—?-Y
...( D . )1
Rad = r ’"Rad=r
K. 5*’ o Kr
o These factors are for ,|,--- % = 1.10 These factors are for flat
>-' 7 = 1-25 flat bars but may be bars but may be used
used for circular shafts ,._-_ g = 1.25 for circular shafis with
with turned grooves. _ ___, 1 = 1 so turned down sections.
D _
/.»~ ? — 2.00
" 1 3.00
I
faConcctocnrraon 2=-
fasc
ctor cncentratioP
n 0 ,-%=3.00 IQ
v-1 in'0
Stres Srcss _%=4_[)g
1.0 ‘ 1.0
0 05 1 0 0 0.5 1.0
Ratio rid Ratio r/Jr
(#1) (bl
I I
-L 5 “T fist
I‘ Rad=r
11315511"
K :-
M|_|_J._
/‘N. E)
P’ O -1
corK, P’ S -. These factors are for
1|
/tr” ._ axial loading but may
be used for bending
._A=g
/
/ r when h1‘2.r > 3.
\»s=1
fStacrctoencossentraK
tion E“0
, fa
Slconronccssntral E‘-1 Q
\ ,-' Probable shape of curve for .£=L
\ ‘I /’ )|<l
__ r 2
Q a 3
\‘\
\
. ‘- -.
MM
-. _5|“_~
-._____
1.0 1.0
0 0.5 1 .0 0 0.5 1.0
Ratio dfb Ratio rib
(B) (4)
Figure 7-34
If a notch, hole, or other type of discontinuity is introduced into the flexural

member, the magnitude ofthe flexural stress in the vicinity ofthe discontinuity will
increase significantly. Similarly, the magnitude of the flexural stress in regions of
abrupt change in a cross section will increase significantly rmless adequate fillets
are introduced to smooth the transition from one size to the other. In these cases,
420 cn1u'rs11 7 FLEXURAL LOADING: snuassss [N BEAMS
the magnitude of the flexural stress at the notch, hole, or fillet can be expressed in
terms of a stress concentration factor K, as
M
“I = ‘Kiiyl (7-2 1)
Since the factor K, depends only on the geometry of the member, curves can be
developed which show the stress concentration factor K, as a function of the ratios
of the parameters involved. Such curves (based on a net section) for fillets, holes,
and grooves in flexural members are shown in Fig. 7-34.
i M
1 Example Problem 7-14 The cantilever spring shown in Fig. 1-35
5 \
—Radr is made of SAE 4340 heat-treated steel and is 50 mm wide. Determine the
_ 75mm _ EM] Q maximum safe moment M if a factor of safety FS of 2.5 with respect to failure
by fracture is specified and
A (a) The radius r is 5 mm.
Figure 7-35 (b) The radius r is 10 mm.
(c) The radius r is 15 mm.
SOLUTION
The ultimate strength 0,, for heat-treated SAE 4340 steel (see Appendix B) is
1030 l\/[Pa. Thus, the allowable stress 0,11 is
U, 1030
= 412 MPa
°““ — FS _ 2.5
The second moment of area I about the neutral axis (of the small section) for
bending of the spring is
rm’ 50 251
I=E= (12 ) = 65.l0(l03)II1II14 = 65.l0(l0—9)II14
The stress concentration factor K, for the fillet is obtained from Fig. 7-34-b. For
r = 5 mm,
w/h = 15/25 = 3, r/h = 5/25 — 0.20, which gives K, = 1.51.
For r = 10 mm,
w/h = 75/25 = 3, rfla = 10/25 = 0.40, which gives K, = 1.28.
For r = 15 mm,
w/h = "15/25 = 3. r/F1 = 15/25 = 0.60, which gives K, =1.1s.

7-10 snuzss coscrmmrross unrostt FLEXIJIIAL LOADINGS 42 1
Using the normal stress 0,, at a point on the bottom surface of segment BC
of the beam as the nominal stress, Eq. 7-21 yields
P As the radius of the fillet increases, the
G I 412(10a)(65 10)(10-9) 2146 stress concentration factor decreases (for a
M, = M = — an = — I = K constant w/F1).
K,y K,-(—l2.5)(l0'3) 1
2146 2146
(a) M=?t=fi=l421.2N-m§l42lN-m Ans.
2146 2146
(b) M=T'=~lfi=l676.6N-m=1677N-m Ans.
2146 2146
(c) M=Tt=fi=l8l8.6N-m§l8l9N-m Ans.
Stress concentration at the wall has been neglected.
1 PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems 7-121 A 3-in.-diameter 0.4% C hot-rolled steel (see
Appendix B) shaft has a reduced diameter of 2.73 in. for 12 in.
1-116* An alloy-steel spring, similar to the one shown in Fig. of its length, as shown in Fig. P7-121. If the tool used to turn
7-35, has a width of 20 mm and a change in depth at section down the section has a radius of 0.25 in., determine the maxi-
B from 75 mm to 60 nun. If the radius of the fillet between mum allowable bending load P that can be applied to the end
the two sections is 6 mm, determine the maximum moment of the shaft if a factor of safety of 3 with respect to failure by
that the spring can resist if the maximum flexural stress in the yielding is specified. Neglect stress concentration at the wall.
spring must not exceed 80 MPa.
7-117* A stainless-steel spring, similar to the one shown in Fig.
7-35, has a width of 3J4 in. and a change in depth at section
P
B fi'om 3f8 in. to 114 in. Determine the minimum acceptable
radius for the fillet if the stress concentration factor must not
exceed 1.40.
1-118 A 100-mm-diameter cold-rolled stainless-steel (see
Appendix B) shaft has a 10-mm-deep groove around the full
circumference of the shaft. If the groove has an 8-mm radius
at the bottom, determine the percent reduction in strength for _ 10 hits 12 ih.—~i
flexural-type loadings.
Figure P7-121
7-119 A stainless-steel bar 314 in. wide x 3/8 in. deep has
a pair of semicircular grooves cut in the edges of the bar
(item top to bottom). If the grooves have a 1/16-in. radius,
determine the percent reduction in strength for flexural-type
loadings.
7-122* A 0.4% C hot-rolled steel (see Appendix B) bar with a
rectangular cross section will be loaded as a cantilever beam.
Intermediate Problems The bar has a depth h of 200 mm and has a 25-mm-diameter
hole drilled from top to bottom of the beam on the centerline
7-120* A timberbeam 150 mm wide >< 200 mm deep has 25-mm- of a cross section where a bending moment of 50 kN - m must
diameter hole drilled from top to bottom of the beam on the be supported. If a factor of safety of 4 with respect to failure
centerline of a cross section. Determine the percent reduction by yielding is specified, determine the minimum acceptable
in strength produced by the presence of the hole. width b for the bar.
422 CHAPTER 7 FLEXURAL LOADING: sntsssss [N BEAMS
7-123 A load of 5000 lb is supported by the beams shown in Computer Problems

Fig. P7-123. The beams are 2 in. wide >< 4 in. deep. The holes
for the threaded rods have a 5E8-in. diameter. If the maximum 7-124 A steel bar with a rectangular cross section will be loaded as
tensile flexural stresses in the beams must not exceed 20 ksi, a cantilever beam. The bar has a 10-mm-diameter hole drilled
determine the maximum permissible span for the top beam. from top to bottom of the beam on the centerline ofa cross sec-
tion where a bending moment of 10 kN - m must be supported
without exceeding a stress of 200 MPa. Prepare a curve show-
I
Li us Ins 1./cl
.‘-1 Lo .17.
‘T
ing the acceptable combinations of beam width b and beam
tr-'1— depth h. Limit the minimum depth of the beam to 30 mm so
E. . z
that the ratio of the beam depth h to the hole diameter d is
greater than 3.
7-125 Two beams with rectangular cross sections, similar to the
:
ones shown in Fig. P7-123, support a concentrated load P of
4.5 kip. The top beam has a span of 42 in. If the maximum
tensile flexural stress in the top beam must not exceed 15 ksi,
prepare a curve showing the acceptable combinations of beam
width b and beam depth I1 ifthe hole diameters are 314 in. Limit
P
the minimum depth of the beam to 2.5 in. so that the ratio of
Figure P7-123 the beam depth h to the hole diameter d is greater than 3.
7-1 1 INELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS

A large proportion of structural and machine designs are based on elastic analysis,
for which the flexure formula is applicable. However, for some designs, particularly
when the weight of the structure is important (aircraft design, for example), the
limitation requiring stresses to remain below the proportional limit of the material
results in uneconomical or ineflicient designs. Therefore, this limitation is some-
times discarded and higher stress levels are tolerated in the design. This section is
concemed with the analysis of stresses in instances in which the proportional limit
of the material is exceeded or the material does not exhibit a linear stress-strain
relationship. In both of these cases, Hooke’s law does not apply.
The basic approach to problems involving inelastic action is the same as
that outlined in Sections 7-2 and 7-3 for linearly elastic action. A plane section is
assumed to remain plane; therefore, a linear distribution of strain exists. If a stress-
strain diagram is available for the material, it can be used with the strain distribution
to obtain a stress distribution forthe beam. The stress and strain distributions shown
in Fig. 7-36a and b are for a beam of symmetrical cross section made of a material
6 = Mo’!
G
mu Iii7 0 y 6°
N.S. l
E 7 E
I
\Q
I
I
/
I
/ I
1
I
‘—“‘.1—‘
BE OT
(0) (-5) (C)
Figure 7-36
we
7-11 INELASTIC BEHAVIOR or FLEXl]RAL MEMBERS 423
Jr’ J’ J’ J“
Neutral surface __
(11) (b) (C)

Figure 7-37
having the stress-strain diagram shown in Fig. 7-36c. If an equation can be written
for the stress distribution, the resisting moment can be obtained by using Eq. 7-1.
If it is not practical to obtain an equation for the stress distribution, the beam
depth can be divided into layers of finite thickness and the stress associated with
each layer determined. The method of Section 7-3 can then be used to evaluate
the resisting moment. As a simplifying technique, the stress-strain diagram can be
approximated by a series ofstraight lines resulting in a simplified stress distribution
diagram and a reduction in the amount of work involved.
If the material is elastoplastic (see Section 5-7), the large strains associated
with yielding will permit plastic action to take place as indicated in Fig. 7-37. The
stress distribution for fiilly elastic action is shown in Fig. 7-37a, for partially plastic
action in Fig. 7-3 7b, and foressentially complete plastic action in Fig. 7-370. There
must always be a slight amount of elastic action if the strain at the neutral surface
is zero. The plastic action shown in Fig. 7-37¢: is idealized in Fig. 7-3 7d; this is
the assumed distribution used for plastic analysis of structural steel beams.
In members subjected to inelastic action, the neutral axis does not necessarily
coincide with a centroidal axis as it does when the action is elastic. If the section
is symmetrical and the stress-strain diagrams for tension and compression are
identical, the neutral axis for plastic action coincides with the centroidal axis.
However, if the section is unsymmetrical (for example, a T-section) or if the stress-
strain relations for tension and compression differ appreciably (for example, cast
iron), the neutral axis shifts away from the fibers that first experience inelastic
action, and it is necessary to locate the axis before the resisting moment can be
evaluated. The neutral axis is located by using the equation
):F,=f 0,4/i=0 (11)

3183
and solving for the location ofthe axis where 0, is zero. II1 Eq. (a), x is perpendicular
to the cross section of the beam.
The following Example Problems illustrate the concepts of inelastic analysis
as applied to the pure bending of beams that are loaded in a plane of summetry.
EXHIDPIB P1‘Ol]lCIIl 7-15 A beam having the T cross section of

Fig. 7-38 is made of elastoplastic steel (E = 200 GPa) with a proportional limit
(equal to the yield point) of 240 MPa. Determine
424 CHAPTER 7 rtsxmuu. LOADING: smsssrs [N sntnts
f—l00mm*' 1 (a) The bending moment (applied in the vertical plane of symmetry) that will
25rn.m produce a longitudinal strain of —0.00l2 mfm at point B on the lower face of
B the flange.
(b) The bending moment required to produce completely plastic action in the
beam.
200 mm
SOLUTION
25 mm (a) The strain distribution, stress-strain, and stress distribution diagrams are
shown in Figs. 7-39:1, b, and c, respectively. Because of the inelastic action
and tmsyrnmetrical section, the location ofthe neutral axis must first be deter-
Figure 7-38
mined by using Eq. (a), the stress distribution diagram shown in Fig. 7-390,
J’ o,MPa y
_::lzs mm 25......1"
I a 240 — — -e
NS. ' +240
___ Em 240 0, MPa
‘m
—0.00l2 H - _Q 2:0 y
e Lm
G y
--- Q = zoo ooo E II IIII
1,”,i
200-2a
s, 5
0.0012 m L______
(H) (b) (<1)
Figure 7-39
and areas from Fig. 7-38. Thus,
P The centroid of this section is 87.5 mm I 0 at = -24o(10°)(0.02s)(0.100) - (a)(0.025)

below the top of the beam. As the bottom of A
6
the beam begins to yield, it carries propor-
tionately less of the moment than it would + (a)(0.025) + 240(l0°)(0.200 — 2a)(0.025) = 0
if it hadn’t yielded. Therefore, the neutral
axis shifts upward until the top of the beam fi'om which
also begins to yield. When the yield surface
has reached the bottom of the flange (Fig. a = 0.050m = 50mm
7-39c), the neutral axis has shifted up to a
point only 75 mm below the top of the beam. Once the neutral axis is located, the easiest way to find the moment is to use
the free-body diagram shown in Fig. 7-40. Moment M must be balanced by
the moments of forces F1, F;, F3, and F4 about the neutral axis. Each force
represents a volume (stress times area) from the stress distribution diagram
240MPa
of Fig. 7-39c. Each force passes through the centroid of the part of the area
25mm 4---F1
4- . of the stress distribution diagram used to determine the force. For example,
NS 50mm --F2 F | (which results from the stress over the flange of the section) is
M _-_;._..+....
50mm ___>F3
F1 = U1-"Air = 240(10“)[0.100(0.025)] = 600(l03)N
100mm I I lb F4 Force F1 acts at a distance d1 = 50+ 12.5 = 62.5 mm above the neutral
surface. The moment of F1 with respect to the neutlal axis is
Figure 7-40 M. = Ftdl = 600(10’)(62.s)(10-3) = 37.5(l03)N ~ m

r-11 INELASTIC BEHAVIOR or FLEXURAL MEMBERS 425
Proceeding in a similar manner for the remaining forces yields
M, = F|d1+ Fzdz + F30‘; + F4d4

= 24-0( 1 0")(0. l00)(0.025)(0.0625)
1 2
+ E(240)(10°)(0.050)(0.025)(5) (0.050)
1 6 2
+ i(240)(10 )(0.050)(0.025) 5 (0.050)
+ 24-0(l0°)(0.l00)(0.025)(0.l00) = l07.5(l03)N - m
fi"om which
M: M, = 107.51-cN-m,asshown Ans.
(b) In this case, the stress distribution diagram would be similar to the diagram
shown in Fig. 7-3 7d. If the distance fi'om the neutral surface to the bottom of
the stem is designated as distance a, Eq. (a) yields
f ax dA = 240(10°)(0.025)(a) — 240(l0°)(0.025)(0.200 — a)
A
— 240(l05)(0.l00)(0.025) = 0
From which a = 150 mm; therefore, the neutral surface is 75 mm below

the top of the flange. The plastic moment obtained by using the free-body
diagram method is
M, = 240(10*)(0.1o0)(0.02s)(0.0e25)
+ 240(10‘=)(0.0s0)(0.02s)(0.025)
+ 240(10*)(0.1s0)(0.02s)(0.01s) = l12.5(103)N-m
Therefore,
Mp = M, = 112.5 kN - m Ans.
1 Example Problem 7-16 A beam having the cross section of

Fig. 7-41a is made of magnesium alloy having the approximate stress-strain
diagram of Fig. 7-4-lb. Determine the magnitude of the bending moment ap-
plied in the vertical plane of symmetry necessary to produce a flexural stress of
magnitude 14.4 ksi at point A, which is at the lower surface of the top flange.
SOLUTION
Because of symmetry, the neutral axis coincides with the centroidal z-axis; there-
fore, the strain and stress distribution diagrams are as shown ir1 Figs. 7-41c and
d. Since the specified stress is 14.4 ksi at the lower surface of the top flange (y =
2 in.), the strains (from Fig. 7-4-lb) at y = 2 in. and y = 3 in. are 0.0035
in./in. and 0.00525 in./in., respectively. Thus, the first stress-strain fiinction (see
426 CHAPTER 7 nsxuruu. LOADING: srusssss [N sntnrs
Y
,,. 0', ksi

1 in
11.2 ------------------- - -
A
1i.n. 14.4 ---------- --
I ' = 9.50 an M-I
Z 4 111- L.~--a_Q. .5 5 E 5 6.0
‘~~ 0 = 6.90 e"-5“

lin.
0SeS3§
__\L_. “___ “___ As 104
is -4111. --l 3.5 6.0 E11‘ )
(“J (5)
Y Y
NA. 3.50 5.25 14.4 _

e tr, ksi
I | =_1i_s
-L rn Q =-6.90 [3,+5y)D'5D
3in. _ __"._
| | | | | | I‘<1| | | | | | | | | | | I | | l .
_r___ .--0 = -9.50 (’§y]°-3’
—___(c)— — — — — _ — _ _ _ _ _ — — — _ — _ — _ __(d)————
Figure 7-41
Fig. 7-41b) is valid for the entire web and the second fimction is valid for the
entire flange. Once the stress distributions are known, Eq. 7-1 can be used to
calculate the bending moment. Thus,
V For clarity on Fig. 7-41, a factor of 10-3

was left off of the strain e in the equa- M, = f ax y dA
A
tions on the figures. When the 10-3 is in-
cluded, the equations on the figure become
405((gy)o159(y)(l dy) + f3 93.l(@y)0-33(y)(4 dy):|
6 = 0.0035
—i—y; O’ = s.90(1000€)"-5° = 2
3
405e°-5" = 405 (0'0235y)°'5", where 0 5 e 9.s69y1-5° dy+ f 45.83'7y"33dy:|
fifi
CO 2
5 0.0035 in./in.; and tr = 9.50(1000E)fl'33
9.509%-5° 2+2 45.837y2‘33 3
= 93.15"-33 = 93.l(@y)°"33, where l\-IIQl\-I
li lil il 2.59 0 2.33 2
0.0035 5 6 5 0.006 in./in.
= 44.49 + 311.00 = 355.49 kip - in 355 kip - in. Ans.
Example Problem 7-17 A beam is to be fabricated from three 6 X

l-in. plates that will be welded together to fonn a symmetrical I-section, half
of which is shown in Fig. 7-42b. Determine the maximum elastic and plastic
bending moments (Me and Mb) that the beam can support if the material is
r-11 ntautsrrc BEHAVIOR or FLEXURAL MEMBERS 427
60
50 _ __
40 Ix .
I
L40 Q
_.
Srcss
ks
20
10
00 2 4 6 8 10 12
Strain, ir1.fi.n.(1 0)'3
(H)
Figure 7-42(0)
(a) Elastoplastic steel with a proportional limit (equal to the yield point) of
40 ksi.
(b) An aluminum alloy with the stress-strain diagram shown in Fig. 7-4-2a.
Assume the diagram is the same in tension and compression and limit the
strain to 0.010.
SOLUTION
(a) For the elastic moment, the flexure formula 0, = M,c/I applies. The second
moment of area I about the neutral axis is 166 in.“ Therefore, P Since the stress is essentially constant
over the entire section, the moment of the
0,1 4-0(166) _ , stress on the top flange is just the stress times
Me = T = T = lfifioklp - 1I1. ADS. the area times the distance to the centroid of
the area. Similarly, the moment of the stress
For this material, the ideal stress distribution of Fig. 7-37d may be assumed on the upper half of the web is the stress
when computing the plastic moment, which is times the area times the distance to the cen-
troid of the area. The moment of the stress
on the bottom flange and on the bottom half
Art, = [40(6)(l](3.5) + 4-0(3)(l)(l.5)](2] = 2040 kip - in. Ans. of the web are identical to that of the top.
To check the degree of approximation involved in assuming the ideal stress

distribution forthis section, the maximum strain before strain hardening takes
place will be assumed to be 16 times the elastic strain (a reasonable value for
structural steel). When this strain is reached in the outer fibers, the maximinn
elastic strain occurs at (1/l6)(4) or 1/4 in. above and below the neutral surface;
this means that the actual stress distribution diagram is like that of Fig. 7-37c,
the distance fi"om the neutral s1n'face to the point where the stress is constant
being U4 in. This distribution makes the moment of 2040 kip - in. computed
428 crnrrrrr 7 rtaxuruu. LOADING: snuassrs [N BEAMS
50.0 49.0
I l in.
48.0 49.0
I
l in.
T
43.3 1%in.
1 in.
V
E 1%in.+
Neutral axis 1m‘ L
Flexure stress — ksi
(5) (C) (4)
Figure 7-42(b-d)
above too large by the amotmt
AM, = (1) (2) = 0.833 kip - in.
or 0.04 percent.
(b) The elastic moment is given by the flexure formula, where 0 is the propor-
tional li.mit that, from Fig. 7-4-2a, is 35 ksi. Then,
M,=il=@=1453ki -in.
I 1 Ans.
c 4 p
The plastic moment will first be determined with the aid of the stress distri-
bution diagram of Fig. 7-42c that was obtained fi'om Fig. 7-42a by assuming
the maximum strain in the beam to be 0.010, and since the strains are propor-
tional to the distance from the neutral surface of the beam, the stress for any
point in the cross section may be read from the diagram of Fig. 7-42a. With
the assumption that the curve in Fig. 7-42c is a series of chords connecting
P Connecting the points at l-in. vertical in- the points at 1-in. vertical intervals, the following solution is obtained:
tervals on the stress diagram of Fig. 7-42c
with straight lines results in a series oftrape- M; = 2l6(1)(4s)(- +(s0- 4s)G)(6)(1)(3 +
zoids. Each trapezoid can be replaced with
a rectangular distributed load and a triangu-
lar distributed load. The moments of each + 43.4(1)(1)(-tout (43 - 43.96) (2 + +2e.s(1)(1)G)
ofthese pieces are then calculated byreplac-
2 6.5 3
ing the distributed loads with a concentrated
force equal in magnitude to the area under
the load and acting through the centroid of
+(43.3—26.5) —
l( l 2 (ill
/"“\ -._.Mv—~/t“+
“'1,
= 2414 kip-in.; 2410 kip-in.
2
l+§ +
Ans.
the load distribution.
This result will be checked by assuming the curve below the flange to be
a parabola. The flange moment will be the same as above and equals 2060
kip ~ in. Then,
M}, = 2060 + §(4s)(3)(1 (3)(2) = 2420 kip - in. Ans.
One more technique willbe applied to this problem. The stress-strain diagram
ofFig. 7-42a will be approximated by the dotted lines shown, and the resulting
7-11 lNELAS'l‘lC BEHAVIOR or Frsxlnm. MEMBERS 429
stress distribution diagram for the beam will be as in Fig. 7-42d. With the
use of this diagram, the plastic moment becomes
M.»--laws)+~»<2>~>@-1)
+i"—i">(%)(%)<1>(%+1)+4"(%)e~»<:> 01
= 2422 kip - ill. 2 2420kip ~ in. Ans.
The last three results indicate that any of the three techniques is adequate for
this problem.
From the preceding discussion and examples, one may observe that, if the
load capacity of a beam is based on the plastic moment rather than the elastic
moment, a considerable savings in material may be realized (with the same factor
ofsafety). Furthermore, in the design ofstatically indeterminate beams and fi'ames,
the plastic method of analysis is considerably less tirne-consurning than the elastic
analysis. This is not to say that the elastic method of analysis should be discarded
as outmoded, for there are many designs that must be based on elastic action, and
for some situations, particularly when repeated loading is involved, the application
of plastic analysis may be dangerous.
Further discussion ofplastic design may be found in Fundamentals ofStruc-
tural Steel Design.“
1 PROBLEMS
7-126* Determine the maximum elastic and plastic bending mo- 7-131* Determine the ratio of the plastic moment to the maxi
ments for a W203 x 60 steel beam having a proportional limit mum elastic moment for a beam of elastoplastic material with
(equal to the yield point) of 250 MPa. the cross section shown in Fig. P7-131.
'7-127* Determine the maximum elastic and plastic bending mo-
ments for a W33 x 201 steel beam having a proportional limit
(equal to the yield point) of 36 ksi.
fill in.l|?8in. i.~2ir1.|H
7-128 Determine the maximm-n elastic and plastic bending mo-
ments for a W762 x 196 steel beam having a proportional limit
(equal to the yield point) of 250 MPa.
'7-129* Determine the ratio of the plastic moment to the maxi- ST
mum elastic moment for a beam of elastoplastic material with
a rectangular cross section.
7-130 Determine the ratio of the plastic moment to the maxi- 2in
_J._
mum elastic moment for a beam of elastoplastic material with _
a circular cross section. Flgure P7431
8Fw1d'amenta£s ofStructural Steel Design, William T. Segui, PWS—Kent Publishing Boston: Co., I989.
430 CHAPTER 7 rtaxuruu. 1.0401110: srusssss [N BEAMS
7-132* Determine the ratio of the plastic moment to the maxi-

l .
—120 1‘t‘l.t'rt—*
mum elastic moment for a beam of elastoplastic material with
a square cross section if 40mm TI
a. The neutral axis is located as shown in Fig. P7-132a. 47 a
b. The neutral axis is located as shown in Fig. P7-l32b.
120mm ;V--- ------L-A
40mm
I
40 mm
is 4,1 4, l*°“‘“‘i
Figure P7-134
(R) (5)
Figurg P7-131 7-135* A beam of elastoplastic material (yield point of 36 ksi)
has the cross section shown in Fig. P7-135. Determine
a. The location of the neutral axis when the stress in the outer
fibers of the top flange reaches the yield point.
7-133 A beam ofelastoplastic material (yield point of 36 ksi) has b. The moment required to produce the condition of part a.
the cross section shown in Fig. P7-133. Determine c. The ratio of the plastic moment to the maximum elastic
moment for this cross section.
a. The location of the neutral axis when the stress in the outer
fibers of the top flange reaches the yield point.
b. The moment required to produce the condition of part a.
c. The ratio of the plastic moment to the maximum elastic
moment for this cross section. T '4in.*~‘
:4
_l
10 ixii
la
lin.
Sin.
81.13.. N— —————-[-11
a 1.5 in.
lin.
I imfi in-7’ Figure P7-135

Figure P7-133
7-136 A WT305 x 70 steel beam of elastoplastic material has

7-134 A beam of elastoplastic material (yield point of 240 M1-"a) a proportional limit (equal to the yield point) of 250 MPa.
has the cross section shown in Fig. P7-134. Determine Determine
a. The location of the neutral axis when the stress in the outer a. The location of the neutral axis when the stress in the outer
fibers of the top flange reaches the yield point. fibers of the top flange reaches the yield point.
b. The moment required to produce the condition of part a. b. The moment required to produce the condition of part a.
c. The ratio of the plastic moment to the maximum elastic c. The ratio of the plastic moment to the maximum elastic
moment for this cross section. moment for this cross section.
'7'-12 SHEARING STRESSES IN 'I'HlN-WALLED OPEN C'I'IONS—SI[BAlI
CENTER
Challenging Problems 7-138 A beam having the T cross section shown in Fig. P7-1 380 is
made of a magnesium alloy that has the stress-strain diagram
7 137* A beam ofrectangular cross section is made ofa material shown in Fig. P7-138b. The beam is subjected to a bending
for which the stress-strain diagram in tension can be repre- moment that produces a maximum flexural stress of 99.3 MPa
sented by the expression 0 = Ke 1-*2. The shape of the diagram ('1). When this moment is applied, the neutral surface is located
is the same in tension and compression. Develop an expression at the junction of the flange and stem. Determine
similar to the flexure formula for relating flexural stress and
applied moment. a. The dimension c.
b. The bending moment applied to the beam.
[ 100 mm W 0, MP8
fir _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
50mm 99_3 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ o = 642E"-11

N—— -——i'-—A
C ~- o = 27924"-5°
25 mm
it-_ i El
I‘ ii
0.0035 P 8»- 3.
(*1) (bl
Figure P7-I38
7-12 SHEARING STRESSES IN THIN-WALLED OPEN

SECHONS%HEM CENTER
One of the assumptions made in the development of the elastic flexure formula
was that the loads were applied in a plane of symmetry. When this assumption is
not satisfied, the beam will, in general, twist about a longitudinal axis. It is possible,
however, to place the loads in such a plane that the beam will not twist. When any
load is applied in such a plane, the line of action of the load will pass through
the shear center (also known as the center offlexure or center oftwist). The shear
center is defined as the point in the plane of the cross section through which the
resultant of the transverse shearing stresses due to flexure (no torsion) will pass
for any orientation of transverse loads. For cross-sectional areas having tvm axes
of symmetry, the shear center coincides with the centroid of the cross-sectional
area. For those sections with one axis of symmetry, the shear center is always
located on the axis of symmetry. If a beam having a cross section with one axis
of symmetry is positioned such that the plane of symmetry is the neutral axis for
flextnal stresses, the plane of the loads must be perpendicular to the neutral axis
but cannot pass through the centroid if bending is to occur without twisting. The
channel is a common structural shape with one axis of symmetry. It is normally
used with the axis of symmetry as the neutral axis since the section modulus is
relatively large in this position.
Thin-walled open sections such as channels, angles, wide-flange sections,
and the like develop significant shearing stresses during bending. Since the shear-
ing stresses can be assumed to be uniform through the thickness, procedures
based on longitudinal equilibrium similar to those of Section 7-7 can be used
432 cmwrsn 7 rrrxnmtr. LOADING" snurssrs [N arms
P
e’l Z
i "--- . /4-Q\as
L “-~________.‘ I: A
. _ ~_._____
Y -\.' _ ‘ -H\_"‘-.
. ‘ll .~-,____ FC
8 l
. I .1
to N
S/T“ /‘_‘%—"‘Ax
F1
_ B
re‘
71st .71
Figure 7-43
to establish shearing stress distributions and to locate the shear centers for these
sections.
Consider a cantilever beam of arbitrary cross section but constant thickness
(see Fig. 7-43a) loaded in aplane parallel to one ofits principal planes. The normal
stress ox in any longitudinal fiber is then givenby the elastic flexure formula as 0,, =
—M,y/I. The shearing stresses on section a—a can be determined by considering
longitudinal equilibrium of the small block B shown in Fig. 7-43a. An enlarged
free-body diagram of the block is shown in Fig. 7-43b. Since the moments on
sections at the ends of the block are M and M + AM, the resultant forces F1 and
F2 are
F1=f cr,dA=—f M
T’ya4=-f ‘M
Ty(tds)
.145 A5 0
and
Fi=Lqa.d.4=_Ls aA=_£ (ids)
where AS is the area ofthe cross section between the fiee edge ofthe block and the
longitudinal plane b—b at a distance s from the free edge. A summation of forces
in the longitudinal direction on the block of Fig. 7-43b yields
I/..=F.-a=-[A w(dA)=—¥£J/(Ids)
7-12 SHEARING STRESSES IN THIN-WALLED OPEN CTIONS—SHIEAll
CENTER
The average shearing stress on the longitudinal plane b—b is VH divided by the
area. Thus,
1.'= lirn [ydA=% —l fydxi
=a».;.>/W»
A-*7-'0 AI It AS dx If AS ()
(1
dM l S
where dM/dx equals I4, the shear at the section where the shearing stresses are to
be evaluated.
Equation (a) is identical i.n form to Eq. (a) of Section 7-7, and the terms have
identical meanings. The integral is the first or static moment with respect to the
neutral axis of the cross-sectional area to one side of the longitudinal plane b—b.
This integral is usually referred to as Q5. Thus,
which is identical in form to Eq. (b) of Section 7-7. The minus sign in Eq. (b) is
needed to satisly Eq. 7-la and is consistent with the sign convention for shearing
stresses (see Fig. 7-4c). At each point ir1 the beam, the longitudinal and transverse
shearing stresses have the same magnitude [since 1;, = tyx); hence, Eq. (b) also
gives the transverse shea.ring stress at a point in a beam (averaged across the width).
As was done in Section 7-7, magnitudes of V, and Q, will be used to determine
the magnitude of the shearing stress 1:, and Eq. (b) will be written as
1.’ =
V (7-22)
The sense of 1: will be determined from the sense of the shear V, on transverse
planes and from tn, = ry, on longitudinal planes. The shearing stresses are uniform
through the thickness and act tangent to the surface ofthe beam. This same shearing
stress acts on the transverse cross section at a distance s from the free edge of
the section. The stresses on the transverse cross section “flow” in a continuous
direction, as shown ir1 Fig. '7-43a, and at the neutral axis they have the same sense
as the shear V,. The shearing force per unit length of cross section is fiequently
referred to as the shear flow q. Shear flow was previously discussed in Section P
6-12.
The procedure for locating a shear center will be illustrated by considering e
a channel section loaded as a cantilever beam (see Fig. 7-44). Since all fibers in a
1\ b \ I F4
flange can be considered to be located at a distance M2 fi'om the neutral axis, the V, “~11 11/
shearing stress distribution obtained from Eq. (a) is \.
\ h
r=%£sy(tds)=%fo‘s (g)(tds)=% (c) \/

z
ts
This result shows that the horizontal shearing stress in the flange varies linearly H
fi"om zero at the outer edge to V§hbx'(2I) at the web. The resultant shearing force Figure 7-44
454 CHAPTER 1 rtsxnim. LDADING: snrsssss IN BEAMS
on the bottom flange is
F3 = (tavg)(aIea) = (%)<b:1> = V1?" rd)

as shown in Fig. 7-4-4. A similar analysis indicates that the force F4 on the upper
flange is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to F3. These two forces
constitute a clockwise twisting moment that must be balanced by the resultant
force in the web and the applied load if the beam is not to twist.
The resultant of the shearing forces in the web is V, and must be equal to
the applied load P for equilibrium. It is assumed that the vertical shearing force
transmitted by the flanges is small enough to neglect (see Section 7-7). The forces
V, and P will provide a coimterclockwise couple to balance the couple due to F3
and F4 if P is located a distance e fi'om the center of the web, as indicated in Fig.
7-44. When the moments of these two couples are equated, the result is
Pg:
11,1851 Palbl
fi'om which
h2b2
e : 41:1 (6)
If the load P of Fig. 7-44 were applied in the z-direction, the forces corre-
sponding to F3 and F4 (entirely different magnitudes) would be equal, and both
would be directed to oppose the load P. There would also be two shearing forces
ir1 the web (parallel to the web) of equal magnitude and oppositely directed; hence,
a moment equation would establish the fact that the shear center lies on the z-axis
of symmetry. If there is to be no twisting of the beam (buckling is assumed not to
occur), any load must pass through the intersection of this axis of symmetry and
the line of action of force P of Fig. 7-44. If the load is inclined, it may be resolved
into components parallel to these axes, and the stresses may be determined using
the principle of superposition.
J’ 1 EXRIIIPIE P1'0l)l6lIl 7- 18 A channel section is being used for a can-

I
5 in. '1l tilever beam that supports a load P at the fiee end. Centerline dimensions for the
channel are shown in Fig. 7-45a. All metal in the channel section is 1/'2 in. thick.
P
Assume that all of the section is effective in resisting flexural stresses and that
8
9in only the web resists vertical shearing stresses.
in- (a) Locate the shear center of the section with respect to the center of the web.
9in. (b) Prepare a sketch showing the distribution of shearing stress on the cross
section when the vertical shear at the section is 12 kip.
_L
(H)
Figure 7-45(a) SOLUTION
(a) The location of the shear center for a thin-walled channel section is given by
Eq. (e) as
P Figure 7-45a is similar to Fig. 7-44; that
is, Fig. 7-45a is a two-dimensional represen- hzbzr
tation of Fig. 7-44. e=i
4!
7-12 SHEARING STRESSES IN 'l'HlN-WALLED OPEN SECTIONS—S[[EAll CENTER
For the given channel section,

P For thin sections it is customary to neglect
the first term in brackets for the flanges; that
I — i(1/2)(l8)3 + 2 i(5)(l/2)3 + 5(l/2)(9)2 — 648in 4 is, the term (5)(1:‘2)3fl2. Then, the second
_ 12 12 — ' moment of area I = 648 in.‘ This will be
done in subsequent problems. All calcula-
withh=l8in.,b=5in.,andt=l/2in. tions are done using centerline dimensions.
2 2 2 2
e = L’t = so(5) (1/2) = 1.5625m '= 1.563111. Ans.
41 4(64s)
.s
(b) The shearing stress at any point in a flange of the channel section at a distance .1-‘W
s from the outer edge of the flange (see Fig. 7-45b) is given by Eq. 7-22 as P
_I\i.A.
T _ V,Q, _ V,(st)(h/'2) _ V,hs ‘ ,3
— It — It — 2I
which indicates that the stress distribution ir1 the flange is linear. At the outer (5)
edge of the flange, s = 0; therefore, 'r = 0. At point A (the intersection of the
A
centerlines of the flange and web), s = 5 ir1.; therefore, _|_
s
_L
r = L“ = slsxs) =0 8333 ksi = 8331351 N.A.
" 21 2(s4s) ' _ B
Thus, the shearing stress in the top flange varies ir1 a linear manner from 0 at
the outer edge to 833 psi at the centerline of the web.
The first moment Q, for a point in the web at a distance s (see (B)
Fig. 7-45c) from the centerline of the top flange is Figure ‘T-45(b-c)
Q3 = Q; + Qt = 5(l/2)(9) + (1/2)(s)(9 — 0-5s)

= 22.5 + 4.53 - 0.2532
Since V,, I, and t are constants, the shear stress distribution in the web is
quadratic (parabolic) with the maximum shearing stress occurring at point B
(the neutral axis). Thus,
At point A at the top of the web (s = 0):
Q, = 22.5 in.‘
V, S 12 22.5 _~ ,
1,4 = T? = 6 = O.3333ks1 = B33ps1
At point B at the neutral axis (s = 9 in.):
Q5 = 22.5 + 4.5(9) — 0.25(9)2 = 42.75 in.3

_ V,Q, _ l2(42.75) _ .,,, .
1:5 - kw - 6480/2) - l.5833ks1_1583ps1
CHAPTER 7 FLEXURAL LOADING: STRESSES [N BEAMS
833 P534' The distribution of shearing stresses on the cross section is shown in Fig.
833 ps' 7-45d. The stresses “flow” in a manner to oppose the applied load P as
indicated in Fig. 7-45d.
The resultant shear force F1 in the top flange (see Fig. 7-452) is
1ss3 pE. -35
Q":
1
Ft = ravgzlf = 5(0.8333)(5)(l/2) = l.0416kip
833 psi ,
833 psi
I|" The resultant shear force F2 in the lower flange is equal in magnitude and
(4') opposite in direction to F1, as shown in Fig. 7-45e. The resultant shear force
F3 in the web (since the distribution is parabolic) is
Pe "1’=>,_~,
.
F3 F3 = 833(l8)(1/2) + §(l583 — 833)(l8)(l/2) = 11,997 E 12 kip

B
which shows that the force in the web is approximately equal to the applied
_ F2 force.
(B) Applying the equilibrium equations SF). = 0 and EM3 = 0 to the
part of the beam between the free end and the section shown in Fig. 7-45a
Figure 7-45(d—e)
yields
P Since the distribution ofshear stress in the
flanges is linear, the average stress isj ust half
the maximum stress rm = 0.833/2. Mul- +‘[‘EF,.=0: F3—P=ll.997—l2=—0.003E0
tiplying this average stress times the area + EMB = 0: Pe — F|h = l2(l.5fi25) — l.04l6(l8) = 0.0012 E 0
of the flange gives the resultant shear force
in the flange Fl. The distribution of shear
stress in the web is parabolic, and the resul- which verifies the accuracy of the above results and the assumption that only
tant shear force F; is calculated as the area the web resists vertical shearing stresses.
under the stress diagram. The resultant ofthe
rectangular portion of the load in the web is
the stress (833 lb/in?) times the area it acts
on (18 in. x 1/2 in.). The resultant of the
parabolic portion of the load in the web is
two-thirds of the stress (1583 - 833 lbfin.2) 1 EXHIIIPIE Pl'OlJl8lI1 7-19 All metal in the cross section shown
times the area of the web (I8 in. x H2 in.). in Fig. 7-46a is 5 rr1rr1 thick. The dimensions shown are centerline dimen-
sions for the flanges and the webs. Assume that all of the section is effec-
tive in resisting flexural stresses and that only the web resists vertical shearing
stresses.
(a) Locate the shear center of the cross section with respect to the center of the
1'ight web forP =15 kN.
(b) Determine the maximum shearing stress produced on the cross section by a
vertical force P of 15 kN.
SOLUTION
(a) The shearing stress at point A (see Fig. 7-46b) in the top flange of the cross
section is given by Eq. 7-22 as
1.'=TQVrr
'1'-12 SHEARING sritnssss IN THIN-WAI.LED omzn sscnons-sums csnrrsrt 437
P
yl 7? Tl?
B fsli
F1
-Ff .4
9 75 mm C
F] F4
Z D E iii
75 mm
A F2
P75 mm Hi»-~75 mm —*
(<1) (bl (=1)
Figure 7-46
For the total cross section,
1 1
I = -(5)(150)’ + —(s)(150)3
12 1 12 I > Neglecting the third and ssh terms ofthe
+ + + BX]3l'6SSlOI1 forlglvesl Z T111114.
= 7.034(l0°) mm‘ = 7.034(l0“') m‘
For point A in the top flange,
Q, = 5(s1)(75) = 375s1mm3 = 375s1(l0_g)m3

1,, = % = = 0.15994s,(10°)N/m2
At point B in the top flange (s1 = 75 mm),
1,, = 0.15994(75)(10°') = l2.00(106)N/m2 = 12.00 MIPa

Thus, the shearing stress in the top flange varies in a linear manner from 0
at the outer edge to 12.00 lV[Pa at the centerline of the web. The resultant
shearing force on the top flange (see Fig. 7-46c) is
F1 = ('r,,,g)(area) = é(12.00)(l0°)(75)(5)(l0_5) = 2250N
A similar analysis indicates that the force F2 on the lower flange (see Fig.
7-46c) is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to F1-
For point C in the left web [see Fig. 7-46b),
Q, = 5(s2)(75 - 0.5.12)
= (37532 - 2.5s§)mrn3 = (315.12 - 2.5s§)(10-“)m3
Since V,,, I, and t are constants, the shear stress distribution in the web is
parabolic with the maximum stress occurring at the neutral axis. At the top
ofthe left web s2 = 0; therefore, Q, = 0 and r = 0.
438 CHAPTER 7 rrrxtnuu. LOADING: sntsssss [N BEAMS
At point D at the neutral axis (s2 = 75 mm),
Q5 = 137505) - 2.50511] = l4.063(l03)rr1m3 = 14.063(10-61:11’

V,Q, _ 15(103)(14.0s3)(10-6) _
= _ 5.99310‘ N 2§6.00MP
T” 1:, 7.034110-‘=)(5)(10-1) ( ) /m a
Since the stress distribution in the left web is parabolic, the resultant shearing
force in the left web is
F3 = €(5.998)(106)(5)(150)(l0'£‘) = 2999N Z 3.00 kN
P The resultant of the stress distribution

Summing moments about point E in the right web yields
in the lefi web F3 is the “area” under the
parabola, which is two-thirds of the “base”
(5 mm >< 150 mm) times the “height” (5.998 + EM1-=0: Pe—F1(l50)—F3(75)=0
MPa).
fi'om which
e = F1(150);—F;(75) = 2250(l5f;,;)l—0f)999(75) : 37-5 mm Ans-
(b) At point B in the right web,
Q, = 5(75)(75) = 2s.13(103) mm3 = 2s.13(10-@111-E

V 15103 28.13 10-“
:5 = ’—Q=
1: L1.034(10 )(5)(l0 ) = 11.997110‘) N/mz 2 12.00 MPa
At point E in the right web,
Q, = 5(75)(75) + 5(75)(37.5) = 42.19(l03)mm3 = 42.l9(10‘6) m3

_ _ V,Q, _ l5(l03)(42.l9)(l0_")
Te" — Trim — i — m
It 7.034(l0 )(5)(l0 )
= l7.994(10") N/m2 '5 17.99 MPa Ans.
As a check on the above results,
2 _
F4 = l2.00(106)(5)(l50)(10'°) + 5(l7.99 — l2.00)(10i')(l50)(5)(10 6)
P The resultant of the stress distribution = ll,995N '5 l2.00kN
in the right web F4 is the “area” under
the parabola, which is two-thirds of the The resultant vertical shearing force V, from the two webs is
“base” (5 n1n1 x 150 mm) times the “height”
(17.99—l2.00 MPa) plus the “area” under
the rectangle, which is equal to the “base” V, = F3 + F4 = 2.999 + 11.995 = 14.99 kN
(5 mm x 150 mm) times the “height”(12.00
MPa). which verifies the accuracy of the above results and the assumption that only
the web resists vertical shearing stresses.
1-12 SHEARING sntrssrs IN THIN-WALLED ores sscrross-snnut CENTER 439
1 PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems 1 in.
7-139* A channel is to be fabricated with a depth of 7 in, a

web thickness of 1/4 in., and a flange width of 4 in. Structural
considerations require the shear center of the channel to be lo-
cated 2 in. from the center of the web. Determine the required
12 in.
thickness of the flanges.
7-140* All metal in the cross section shown in Fig. P7-140 has 1 in.
a thickness of 2.5 mm. The dimensions shown are centerline
dimensions for the flanges and the web.
a. Locate the shear center of the section with respect to the ljiI.'—3 iu—'P7 m.4
center of the web. Figure P7-141
b. Determine the shearing stress at point O when the vertical
shear at the section is 2.5 kN.
7-142 Two 14-mm-thick plates are to be welded to the flanges of
a channel (see Fig. P7-142) that is 460 mm deep overall, has
flanges that are 100 mm wide >< l6 mm thick, and has a web
that is 14 mm thick. Determine
a. The width b of the plates if the shear center of the section
r 50mm must be located at the center of the web.
b. The maximum vertical shearing stress at the section when
T the vertical shear at the section is 40 kN.
25mm
>
' r—2_§mm 25mm l ” l
0 it
25mm
>
25 mm
.l
Figure P7-140
liiil
Figure P7-142
7-141 An eccentric H-section is made by welding two l ><
10-in. steel flanges to a 1 x 12-in. steel web, as shown in
Fig. P7-141. The section is used as a 5-it cantilever beam
that carries a concentrated load of 100 kip at the free end.
Asstu-ne that all of the section is effective in resisting flex- 7-143" All metal in the cross section shown in Fig. P7-143 has
ural stresses and that only the web resists vertical shearing a thickness of lf4 in. The dimensions shown are centerline
stresses. dimensions for the flanges and the web.
a. Locate the shear center of the section with respect to the a. Locate the shear center of the section with respect to the
center of the web. center of the web.
b. Prepare a sketch showing the distribution of shearing stress b. Determine the shearing stress at point O when the vertical
throughout the cross section. shear at the section is 1500 lb.
440 CHAPTER 7 PLEXURAL LOADING: sritsssas [N sntnrs
7-146* A tl1in-walled cylindrical tube cut longitudinally to make
a semicylinder is used as a cantilever beam. The load acts par-
u11
allel to the cut section as shown in Fig. P7-146.
Oc-
a. Locate the shear center of the section with respect to the
center of the tube (dimension e).
b. Determine the shearing stress at point A if the radius R of
the section is 25 mm, the thickness t is 2.5 mm, and the load
Q-ric-
12* P is 440 N.
t 4 in. —-l
Figure P7-143
P T2 __ _
7-144* Locate the shear center for the cross section shown in
Fig. P7-144 and determine the maximum shearing stress pro- ‘II
duced on the cross section by a vertical shear of 6 kN.

Shear " A
center
T
90mm
2.l
6n1rn 60mm
8
Figure P7-146
so rnrn
90 mm l
7-147* A thin-walled slotted tube is used as a cantilever beam.

The beam is loaded as shown in Fig. P7-147.
ii 90mm -i 90mm
Figure P7-144 center of the tube (dimension e).
b. Determine the shearing stress at point A if the radius R of
the section is 2 in., the thickness I is 0.10 in., and the load
7-145 A thin-walled box section (see Fig. P7-145) is used as a P is 110 lb.
cantilever beam. Locate the shear center of the section with
respect to the center of the web.
P
dB _-
I
A/ \
\.
\.A
\
“En ii
A L 1. A or
Small
Small
l*u—-F B
7-13 I~‘l.l1XURAL srnassas uv BEAMS orrwo MA'l'liRIAl.S 441
7-148 A cantilever beam with the cross section shown in 7-149 Locate the shear center for the cross section shown
Fig. P7-148 is subjected to a vertical concentrated load of 4 in Fig. P7-149 and determine the maximum shearing stress
kN at the free end. The section has a constant thickness of 4 produced on the cross section by a vertical shear force of
mm. 300 lb.
center of the web.
h. Prepare a sketch showing the distribution of shearing stress
throughout the cross section. The dimensions shown in Fig.
P7-148 are centerline dimensions for the flanges, web, and
extensions. Assume that all of the section is effective in re-
sisting flexural stresses but that the vertical shearing force %in
\
resisted by the flanges is negligible. The vertical shearing
2 in
force in the 20-mm extensions is not negligible.
.r
'<-
T—4omm—»=~—40mm~l ‘M gin
—1- 4 in. xx
201m-n
4mm ‘lit
10'“ Figure P7-149
20rn.m
20 mm
_L
Figure P7-148
7-15 FLEXURAL STRESSES IN BEAMS OF TWO MATERIALS

The method of flexural stress computation covered in Section 7-4 is sufficiently
general to cover symmetrical beams composed of longitudinal elements (layers) of
difierent materials. However, for many real beams of two materials (often referred
to as reinforced beams), a method can be developed to allow the use of the elastic
flexure formula, thus reducing the computational labor involved. The method is
applicable to elastic design only.
The assumption ofa plane section remaining plane is still valid, provided the
different materials are securely bonded together to provide the necessary resistance
to longitudinal shearing stresses. Therefore, the usual linear transverse distribution
of longitudinal strains (6,, = — y/p) is valid.
The beam of Fig. 7-47, composed of a central portion of material A and
two outer layers of material B, will serve as a model for the development of the
stress distribution. The section is assumed to be symmetrical with respect to the xy-
and xz-planes, and the moment is applied ir1 the xy-plane. The strains at point a in
materialA and point b in material B are related using the linear strain relationships;
ea = —a/p and Q, = —b/p or
b
Q, = —€a
G
442 cnsrrrrr 7 rurxrrruu. LOADING: smsssss [N stuns
J’
Lil.’/‘(bfa)6a
1. Br
P1 at
6.
tn >1
Figure 7-47
As long as neither material is subjected to stresses above the proportional limit,

Hool-te‘s law applies and the linear strain relationship gives
ob _ b 0,,
E3 — G EA
Thus,
From this relation it is evident that, at the jtmction between the two materials where
distance a and b are equal, there is an abrupt change in stress determined by the
ratio rt = E5/EA of the two moduli.
IfEq. (a) is used, the normal force on a dilferential end area of an element
of material B is given by the expression
dF5=o;,dA=n(€-)(0,,)dA= (E-a,,)(nt)dy 0,4 gygr.-5
where t is the width of the beam at a distance b from the neutral surface. The first
factor in parentheses represents the linear stress distribution in a homogeneous
material A. The second factor in parentheses may be interpreted as the extended
width of the beam fi'om y = c,| to y = C3 if material B were replaced by material
A, thus resulting in an equivalent or transformed cross section for a beam of
9 homogeneous material. The transformed section is obtained by replacing either
vb
7.19
material by an equivalent amount of the other material as determined by the ratio
n of their elastic moduli. The location of the neutral axis (through the centroid)
and the second moment of area for the transformed section (one material) can be
found in the usual way. In addition, the flexure formula can be applied to determine
the flexural stresses in the transformed section. The stress in the material that was
transformed is found using Eq. (a).
vb
7.20
The method is not limited to two materials; however, the use of more than
two materials in one beam would be unusual. The method is illustrated by the
following example problem.
7-15 rraxuruu. srrurssrs rrr enurs orrwo rrrmuuus 443
1 Example Problem 7-20 A timber beam 4 in. wide >< s in. deep
has a 3.5-in.-wide x 1/2-in.-deep aluminum alloy plate securely fastened to
its bottom face, as shown in Fig. 7-48:1. The moduli of elasticity for the
timber and 8.ll.1II1l]111II1 alloy are 1250 ksi and 10,000 ksi, respectively. Deter-
mine the maximum flexural stress in each material if the applied moment is
75 kip-in.
lf—4in.—'1 |*—4in.—\ R
c—~—-—
% a = 5.293 in.
-—»~ 7::
b = 3.20‘? in.
‘IIe.
5"*2,51BlL15 in.*| li~w=s(s.s)=2sin.g.~|
(11) (1')
Figure 1-4s
SOLUTION
The ratio of moduli for the aluminum and timber is
n_EB_E,,_l0,000_8
_E,,_E,_1250 '
The actual cross section (timber A and aluminum B) and the transformed timber
cross section are shown in Figs. 7-4 8a and b, respectively. The neutral axis ofthe
transformed section is located by the principle of moments as
EM 2s(1/2)(1/4) + 4(s)(4.s)
= = =3.2U7' .
yc EA 2B(l/2) + 4(8) "1
above the bottom of the section. The second moment of area of the transformed P Ifthe aluminum alloy plate were replaced
timber cross section with respect to the neutral axis is with a piece of wood 8 x 3.5 in. = 28 in.
wide, the force and moment on the wooden
flange would be the same as the force and
I = l13(2s)(1/2)’ + 2s(1/2)(2.9s7)’ moment on the aluminum plate even though
the stresses at points on the wooden flange
+ 113(4)(s)’ + 4(s)(1.293)2 = 34-6.9in.4 would be only one-eighth the stress at an
equivalent point on the aluminum plate.
The maximum flexural stress in the timber is
Mc _ 7s(10 3 )(s.293) _1 1444 10,

Urmax
T-fir ‘ )1“
r\:
1 144 psi Ans.
444 cnsmzrr 7 rrrxuruu. LOADING: srrrsssrs [N sruuus
and for the aluminum is
11 12,, 3.201
cam,‘ = ;(E)a,mx = 5293 (8)(ll44.4)
"5 5550 psi Ans.
I PROBLEMS
MecMovie Activities and Problems of the materials if the composite beam is simply supported and
carries a concentrated load 30 kN in the center of the beam.
MM7.18 Introducing the transformed area method. Example; Try
one. Determine bending stresses in a composite beam using the 7-153 A 4-in-wide x 6-in-deep timber cantilever beam 6 it long
transformed area method. is reinforced by bolting two 112 x 6-in. structural steel plates
to the sides of the timber beam, as shown in Fig. P7-153. The
.\l[M7.19 Aluminum and brass composite beam. Example; Try moduli of elasticity for the timber and steel are 1600 ksi and
one. Given allowable stresses for two materials, determine the 29,000 ksi, respectively. Determine the maximum tensile flexu-
largest allowable moment that can be applied to the beam cross ral stress in each ofthe materials whenacoupleM = -10 kip - ft
section. is applied to the free end of the beam.
7-150* A timber beam 150 mm wide x 350 mm deep has a 150-
mm-wide x 15-mm-thick steel plate fastened securely to its
top face. The moduli of elasticity for the timber and steel are
l0 GPa and 200 GPa, respectively. Determine the maximum 6 in.
flexural stress in the timber when the maximum flexural stress
in the steel is 75 MPa (T).
7-151* A timber beam 6 in. wide x 12 in. deep has a 6-in.-wide
>< l/2-in.-thick steel plate fastened securely to its bottom face. §m._r| |r—4rn._-l i_§m.
The moduli of elasticity for the timber and steel are 1500 ksi
and 30,000 ksi, respectively. Determine the maximum flexu- Figure P7-153
ral stress in the steel when the maximum flexural stress in the
timber is 1250 psi (C).
7-152 A composite beam 225 mm wide x 300 mm deep x 4 m Intermediate Problems
long is made by bolting two 100-mm-wide x 300-mm-deep 7-154* A 50-mm-wide >< 80-mm-deep wood (E = 10 GPa) beam
timber planks to the sides of a 25 x 300-mm structural alu- will be reinforced with 3-mm-thick structural aluminum (E =
minum plate, as shown in Fig. P7-152. The moduli of elasticity 70 GPa) plates on its top and bottom faces. A maximum bend-
for the timber and aluminum are 8 GPa and 73 GPa, respec- ing moment of3 kN-m must he resistedby the composite beam.
tively. Determine the maximum tensile flexural stress in each If the allowable flexural stresses are 15 MPa in the wood and
135 MPa in the aluminum, determine the minimum width re-
W‘ k 25 mm quired for the aluminum plates.
7-155 A cantilever beam 6 ti long carries a concentrated load of
4000 lb at the free end. The beam consists of a 4-in.-wide x
10-in.-deep timber section reinforced with 4-in.-wide x 3/4-
300 n1.rn in.-thick steel plates on the top and bottom surfaces. The moduli
ofelasticity for the wood and steel are 1600 ksi and 30,000 ksi,
respectively. Determine the maximum flexural stresses in the
wood and in the steel.
7-156 A 50-mm-wide x 125-mm-deep polymer (E = 1.40 GPa)
l 100 mml L100 mrrrl beam will be reinforced with a 6-mm-thick brass (E = 100
Figure P7-152 GPa) plate on its bottom face. If the allowable flexural stresses
1-14 rraxrrmri srruzssrrs IN ruunrroxcrrn coscrurnz sums 445
are 6 MPa in the polymer and 60 MPa in the brass, determine are 12 GPa and 200 GPa, respectively. If the allowable flexural
the width ofbrass plate required to have the allowable stresses stresses are 10 MPa in the wood and 75 MPa in the steel, de-
in the two materials occur simultaneously. termine the maximum load P that can be applied at the center
of a simply supported beam having a span of 4 m.
Computer Problems
7-157* A timber beam 8 in. wide x 15 in. deep has an 8-in.-
wide x 1/2-in-thick steel plate securely fastened to its bottom 7-161 A timber beam 8 in. wide >< 15 in. deep is to be strength-
face. The beam will be simply supported, will have a span of ened by adding 8-in.-wide x t-in.-thick steel plates to its top
16 ft, and will carry a uniformly distributed load over its en- and bottom faces. The moduli of elasticity for the wood and
tire length. The moduli of elasticity for the wood and steel are steel are 1600 ksi and 30,000 ksi, respectively. If the allow-
1600 ksi and 30,000 ksi, respectively. If the allowable flexural able flexural stresses are 2.4 ksi in the wood and 18 ksi in the
stresses are 1600 psi in the wood and 18,000 psi in the steel, de- steel,
termine the rnaximmn allowable magnitude for the distributed
a. Determine the maximum moment that can be carried by the
load.
beam without the steel plates.
7-158* A 150-mm wide x 300-mm-deep timber beam 5 m long h. Compute and plot the percent increase in moment-carrying
is reinforced with 150-mm-wide >< 15-mm-thick steel plates capacity of the beam gained by adding the steel plates, for
on the top and bottom faces. The beam is simply supported and 0 5 t 5 2 in.
carries a uniformly distributed load of 20 kN/m over its entire c. Compute and plot the maximum stresses in the wood and in
length. The moduli of elasticity for the timber and steel are the steel when the beam is loaded to capacity for 0 5 t 5 2
13 GPa and 200 GPa, respectively. Determine the maximum in.
tensile flexural stresses in the timber and in the steel.
7-162 A timber beam 150 mm wide x 300 mm deep is to be
7-159 A 6-in-wide >< 12-in.-deep timber (E = 1500 ksi) beam strengthened by fastening 50-mm-thick x w-mm-wide alu-
will be reinforced with steel (E = 30,000 ksi) plates on its minum alloy plates to its top and bottom faces. The moduli
top and bottom faces. The beam will be simply supported, will of elasticity for the wood and aluminum alloy are 13 GPa and
have a span of 20 ft, and will carry a concentrated load of 5000 73 GPa, respectively.
lb at the center ofthe span. Ifthe allowable flexural stresses are
a. If a maximum bending moment of 75 kN - m must be re-
1 ksi in the wood and 10 ksi in the steel, prepare a curve showing
sisted by the composite beam, compute and plot the maxi-
the acceptable combinations ofplate width and plate thickness.
mum flexural stresses in the wood and in the aluminum for
Limit the plate thicknesses to values less than 3r'4 in.
0 5 w 5 150 mm.
7-160 A timber beam 200 mm wide x 350 mm deep has a 200- b. If the allowable flexural stresses are 15 MPa in the wood
mm-wide x 16-mm-thick steel plate securely fastened to its and 135 MPa in the aluminum alloy, determine the mini-
bottom face. The moduli of elasticity for the wood and steel mum width w for the aluminum alloy plates.
7-14 FLEXURAL STRESSES IN REINFORCED

CONCRETE BEAMS
Concrete is widely used ir1 beam construction because it is economical, read-
ily available, fireproof, and exhibits a reasonable compressive strength. However,
concrete has relatively little tensile strength; therefore, concrete beams must be
reinforced with another material, usually steel, that can resist the tensile forces.
The design of reinforced concrete beams is beyond the scope of this book.
According to MacGregor,g reinforced concrete beams are designed when the struc-
ture reaches a limit state (when the structure or an element ofthe structure becomes
unfit for its intended use). The limit state is divided into two groups: one leads to
collapse of the structure; the second does not cause collapse of the structure. The
second limit state is referred to as the serviceability limit state and is based on a
“Reinforced Concrete Mechanics and Design, 3rd ed., J. G. McG1-egor, Upper Saddle River, N. J.
Prentice Hall, 1997.
446 CHAPTER 7 FLEXURAL LOADING STRESSES IN BEAMS
linear distribution of strain, as in Section 7-13. Thus, at the service load the beam
acts elastically.
The transformed section method of Section 7-13 provides a satisfactory
procedure for analyzing reinforced concrete beam problems for the serviceabil-
ity state. The transformed section used for these problems consists of the actual
concrete on the compression side of the neutral axis plus the equivalent amount
of hypothetical concrete (which is able to develop tensile stresses) on the tension
side of the neutral axis required to replace the steel reinforcing rods. The actual
concrete on the tension side of the beam is assumed to crack to the neutral surface;
therefore, it has no tensile load-carrying ability and is neglected.
The solution for maximum stresses in a given beam or for the maximum
bending moment with given allowable stresses consists of three steps.
1. Locate the neutral axis for the transformed section.
2. Determine the second moment of area of the transformed section with respect
to the neutral axis.
3. Use the flexure formula to determine the required stresses or moment.
In the design of a reinforced concrete beam to carry a specified moment

with a balanced design (a balanced design means that the allowable stresses in
the two materials are reached simultaneously), the following four equations can
be written in terms of four unknown properties of the cross section and solved
simultaneously.
1. The flexure formula for the allowable stress in the concrete.
2. The flexure formula for the allowable stress ir1 the steel.
3. The moment equation for the location of the neutral axis.
4. The equation for the second moment of area of the cross section with respect
to the neutral axis.
The design ofa reinforced concrete beam also requires consideration ofother
factors such as the bond (shearing) stresses between the concrete and reinforcing
steel, the diagonal tensile stresses that may be developed, and the amount of con-
crete that is needed beyond the reinforcing bars. Discussion of such topics can be
found in textbooks devoted to reinforced concrete design.
The procedure for analyzing or designing reinforced concrete beams using
the transformed section method is illustrated in the following examples.
i EXEIIIIPIC P1‘0b1€1Il 7-2 1 A simple reinforced concrete beam carries

a uniformly distributed load of 1500 lb/ft on a span of 16 ft. The beam has a
rectangular cross section 12 in. wide x 21 in. deep, and 2 in.2 of steel reinforcing
rods are placed with their centers 3 in. from the bottom of the beam, as shown in
Fig. 7-49a. The moduli of elasticity for the concrete and steel are 2500 ksi and
30,000 ksi, respectively. Determine the maximum flexural stress in the concrete
and the average normal stress in the steel.
SOLUTION
The ratio of the moduli of elasticity is
n Z
E.
i Z
30,000 Z
12
E, 2500
7-14 HBXIIRAL STRESSES IN REINFORCED CONCIIBTE BEAMS
'*—l2m.H *—l2in.—<1|
‘.3... T T-
13 in c - ‘—-'=.-S1313 C
___ 1"“ ml’ w= 1500 lbffi
l ._-.':.»_.-' 1l_iT2in_ ‘W?
,1.‘ .v,uu
1 1 |
- _I-Q:-O_-_O_ — i 3 F! mi Vr
3in. . .
R = SW
(<1) (5) (0)
Figure 7-49
which means that Aim = n/15 = 12(2) = 24 in.2 of hypothetical concrete that resists
tension is required for the transformed cross section. The actual and transformed
cross sections are shown in Figs. 7-49a and b. The transformed steel area is at the
same point in the cross section as the actual steel area. The principle ofmoments
with respect to the centroidal axis for the transformed cross section gives
l2h(h/2) = 24(l8 — h)
from which
h =6.718in. and 18—h= 1l.282in.
The second moment of area of the transformed cross section with respect to the
neutral axis is
1 1
I = Eblh-1‘ + 24(11.2s2)2 + E(12)(6.71s)3
+ 12(6.718)(6.718/2)2
where bl and hl are the base and height, respectively, of the transformed steel.
It is usually assumed that the term b1h13fl2 is negligible compared to the other
terms in the expression for I. Thus
I = 4268 in.4
For a simple beam with a uniformly distributed load, the maximum moment
occurs at the center of the span and, from the fi'ee-body diagram of Fig. 7-49c, is
M, = BW(8) — 3w(4) = +32w lb~fi
The flexure formula applied to the transformed cross section gives the maximum
stress in the concrete as
M,h 32(l500)(12)(6.718) _ N _
ac = —T = — = —906.6 psr = 907 psr (C) Ans.
Since the stresses in the transformed cross section of the beam have a linear
distribution, the average stress in the steel is [Eq. (a) of Section 7-13]
l8—h 11.282 (12)(906.6) = 13,270 psr. (T) Ans.

5‘ = T(“)°" = 6 718
448 CHAPTER 7 rtsxrnur. LOADING: snrsssss 11v BEAMS
‘I EXHIIIPIE Pl‘0l)1€Ill 7-2 2 Determine the distance from the top of the
beam to the centerofthe steel and the area of steel required for balanced design of
a reinforced concrete beam that is to be 10 in. wide and that must resist a bending
moment of 600 kip~in. The allowable stresses in the concrete and steel are 1000
psi and 18,000 psi, respectively. The moduli of elasticity for the concrete and
steel are 2500 ksi and 30,000 ksi, respectively.
SOLUTION
The ratio of the moduli of elasticity is
|‘—l0irt.—' |‘7l0in.—'
T_ n_§£_30,000_l2
1'-1-::': C ‘j g
d °‘— ~'“"."*
1 '. .
rr ——— —
_ E.‘ 2500 _
' v .'- >
} ' The actual and transformed cross sections for the beam are shown in Figs. '7-50a
*_'-1 .;; M .\ and b. The four unknown quantities are d, h, A, and I for the transformed section
F 9:";T'_- where A is the area of the steel. The four available equations involving these fo11r
unknowns are as follows:
(=1) (5) 1. The flextne formula for the maximum stress ir1 the concrete is
Figure 1-so
=_@=_1m0,... 3
2. The flexure formula modified for the average stress in the steel is
a‘—h 60010312 d—h

0, = T(n)0, = = 18,000 psi
3. The principle of moments with respect to the neutral axis gives
10h(h/2): 12A(d — h)
4. The second moment of area with respect to the neutral axis is
I = %(10)h3 + l2A(d - 11)’

Simultaneous solution of these four equations yields
h = 7.4-4 in. d = 18.61 in. A = 2.07 in.2 Ans.
I PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems ratio of the modulus of elasticity of the steel to that of the eon-
crete is 12. If the allowable stresses are 1000 psi in the concrete
7-163* A reinforced concrete beam (see Fig. P7-163) is 10 in. and 18,000 psi in the steel, determine the maximum moment
wide with a depth to the center ofthe steel of 18 in. The tension that the beam can support.
reinforcement consists of three 1-in.-diameter steel bars. The
1-14 rmrxtrmu. snuzssns or rrrmtroncrn coscrumz nrmrs 449
t“>&~_§iv
0
0
r~1_@f~§~—1
~ _ - a
~ 1 .
v a >
1.
, n '-
|5' a
.91
‘ |-1 @ 5. 0 --
_ 0 1. - Q
u ‘ 0 ‘-1.
Q s -
er '-u
. "‘ 1
0-
s
_o._i'4 ‘
_ Z’ -‘I :2.s in.
Figure P7-163
Figure P7-165
7 164* A reinforced concrete beam (see Fig. P7-164} has a Intermediate Problems
200-mrn-wide x 350-mm-deep cross section with four 15-
mm-diameter steel bars placed 75 mm from the bottom of 7-166" A simply supported reinforced concrete beam 200 mm
the beam. The maximum moment supported by the beam is wide with a depth to the center of steel of 300 mm has a span
15 kN-m. The moduli of elasticity of the concrete and steel of 4 m. The tension reinforcement consists of three 16-min-
are 15 GPa and 200 GPa, respectively. Determine the max- diameter steel bars. The ratio of the moduli of elasticity is 12.
imum average tensile stress in the steel and the maximum If the allowable stresses are 6.5 MPa in the concrete and 120
compressive stress in the concrete at the section of maximum MPa in the steel, determine the maximum load per meter of
moment. length that can be uniformly distributed over the middle half
of the beam.
7-167 A simply supported reinforced concrete beam is 8 in. wide
and has a span of 12 it. The tension reinforcement, which is
located 16 in. below the top surface of the beam, consists of
three 7/8-in.-diameter steel bars. The moduli ofelasticity of the
concrete and steel are 2400 ksi and 30,000 ksi, respectively. If
i2°°“"“l >.
the allowable stresses are 1000 psi in the concrete and 16,000
psi in the steel, determine the maximum load per foot of length
- u '-
\ ‘ .s that can be uniformly distributed over the full length of the
->
¢
s
\ beam.
1.
".\ -'
- ' 1
no '
..,
s,
.-
‘
. -
n i '
. ' . . —r 75 mm 7-168* A steel reinforced concrete beam of balanced design has

a width of 300 mm and a depth to center of steel of 500 mm.
Figure P7-164 Use 16.5 GPa and 198 GPa for the moduli of elasticity of the
concrete and steel, respectively. If the allowable stresses are
7 MPa in the concrete and 125 MPa in the steel, determine
a. The required cross-sectional area for the steel rods.
b. The maximum moment that can be resisted by the beam.
7-1 69 A steel reinforced concrete beam of balanced design is
7 165 A simply supported reinforced concrete beam carries a
needed to support a uniformly distributed load of 1000 lblfi
uniformly distributed load of 820 lblfl on a span of 13 ft.
on a simply supported span of 16 ft. The width of the beam
The beam has a rectangular cross section 10 in. wide ><
must be 10 in., and the allowable stresses are 800 psi in the
18 in. deep. The tension reinforcement consists of three 31'4-
concrete and 16,000 psi in the steel. The moduli ofelasticity of
in.-diameter steel bars placed 2.5 in. from the bottom of the
the concrete and steel are 2400 ksi and 30,000 ksi, respectively.
beam, as shown in Fig. P7-165. The moduli of elasticity of the
Determine
concrete and steel are 2200 ksi and 30,000 ksi, respectively. De-
termine the average tensile stress in the steel and the maximum a. The required cross-sectional area for the steel rods.
compressive stress in the concrete at the section of maximum b. The depth from the top surface of the beam to the center of
moment. the steel rods.
450 CHAPTER '1 rrrxtrrmr. LOADING snrsssss IN BEAMS
7-15 FLEXURAL STRESSES IN CURVED BEAMS

One of the assumptions made in the development of the flexural stress theory in
Section 7-2 was that all longitudinal elements ofa beam have the same length, thus
restricting the theory to initially straight beams of constant cross section. Although
considerable deviation from this restriction can be tolerated ir1 real problems, when
the initial curvature of the beam becomes significant, the linear variation of strain
over the cross section is no longer valid, even though the assumption of the plane
cross section remaining plane is valid. A theory will now be developed for a beam,
subjected to pure bending, having a constant cross section and a constant or slowly
varying initial radius of curvature in the plane of bending. The development will
be limited to linearly elastic action.
Figure 7-51a is the elevation of part of such a beam. The xy-plane is the
plane ofbending and a plane of symmetry. The radius of curvature (distance to the
center of curvature) of the neutral surface is R and the radius of curvature to some
other surface in the beam (located at a distance y from the neutral surface) is p.
Since a plane section before bending remains plane aflter bending, the longitudinal
deformation of any element will be proportional to the distance of the element
fi"om the neutral surface, as indicated in Fig. 7-51a, from which
5;
5 = 5}’ (11)
The tmstrained length ofany longitudinal element is p9; therefore, Eq. (a) in terms
of strain becomes
I";6€|'
"961 = T1’
_,->-\‘\‘
_./' I,}\..
_/ r" .,‘
.\
\
R. '0 '1 J " -. t»-- _

__\ T‘-._
\ \Q1‘
\ L-an___
\
\
,.- /, ..\ /.-’ /1
J?
;\
‘Q:
__
1;‘
._ “\
i._.
1-.
M-\
\- .|'4‘\
1\- " _,¢ 2" I II I II IIIII I I__rn.I
/
\'\
Q‘?!
A
'-=-| ‘fl
- X - — — - — -— 61-?
1
‘ '1
I
I
1M, a
I
I
— _\ _ — _ — — — — — — — _ _ — _ _ -.
50 an
(H) (5)
Figure 7-51
7-15 FLEXURAL srttsssas or CURVED BEAMS 451
fi"om which the expression for the longitudinal strain distribution becomes
P','€;y T16; y
=—-——-—=———--i— b
G’ b p b R—y U
which shows that the strain does not vary linearly with y (Fig. 7-51b), as was the
case for the initially straight beam. Since the action is elastic, Hooke’s law applies;
therefore, 6, = cr,,fE (for cry = 0, = 0), which when substituted into Eq. (b) yields
,_m2_'g Y (C,
x— b p— b R—y
which indicates that the flexural stress distribution as well as the strain distribution
is not linear with y.
The location of the neutral surface is obtained fi"om the equation SF, = 0;
thus,
[a,d.4='@f JldA=0
A P AP
Since y=R— p, whereRis the radius of the neutral surface,
R-PdA=0
5 A P
Since r,», 0;, and b are not zero, it follows that
I EM = 0 (7-23)
A P
Equation 7-23 may be written
R—p dA
f_a1=Rf__fd.1=o
A P A P A
OI"
R = fii (7-24)
A P
l.n general, Eq. 7-23 or 7-24 should be solved for R for each specific problem;
however, the general solution for a rectangular cross section of width I is easily
obtained as follows:
r,, R _ rd r,
f Jtdp=f IE4 tdp=0
rt P rt P rr
Since R is a constant,
R ln(r.,/r,-) — (ro — r,-) = O

452 CHAPTER 7 rirzxtrrmr. LOADING snrsssss IN BEAMS
fi'om which the radius of the neutral surface is
To — I’;
R:
l11(n»/rt) (d)
d/1
The term f — ir1 Eq. 7-24 is tabulated and shown in Table B-20 for several cross
P
sections. A
The resisting moment in terms of the flexural stress is obtained from the
equilibrium equation EM = 0; thus,
1' 2 11 R— 2
M,=—L(vldA)y=—}%_L%dA=_’%_L%dA re)
The value of R for a given problem, obtained from Eq. 7-24-, can be substituted ir1
Eq. (e) and a solution for M thus obtained. However, it will, in general, be found
more convenient to write Eq. (e) in the following form:
M,.=%[j;I(R—p)dA—RL$dA:|
From Eq. 7-23, the second integral inthe brackets is zero, and when R—p is replaced
by y in the first integral, the resisting moment is given by the expression
M,=mf,,d,,=u,.,,C 0.,
b ,1 b
where yg is the y-coordinate ofthe centroid of the cross-sectional area A measured

fi"om the neutral axis NA. For a positive moment, yg must always be negative,
indicating that the neutral axis of the cross section is always displaced from the
centroid toward the center of curvature. Replacing (r,-0,-)/b in Eq. (f) by (p0,)/y
from Eq. (c) and solving for 0,, gives
U My
= L = L My (7- 25)
X Myc (R — y)Ay-:;-
which is the expression for the elastic flexural stress at any point in an initially
ctnved beam.
The preceding development is for pure bending and neglects radial com-
pressive stresses that occur within the material. These compressive stresses are
usually very small. If the beam is loaded with forces (instead of couples), addi-
tional stresses will occur on the radial planes. Because the action is elastic, the
principle of superposition applies and the additional normal stresses can be added
to the flexural stresses obtained from Eq. 7-25.
The application ofEqs. 7-23 and 7-25 is illustrated in the following examples.
Example Problem 7-23 A segment of a curved beam (see

Fig. 7-52a) of high-strength steel which has a proportional limit of 95 ksi has
the trapezoidal cross section shown i.n Fig. 7-52b. The beam is subjected to a
moment M of —l00 kip ~ in.
7-15 rmxtrrutr. sntsssrs [N currvsn nrmrs 453
Jr‘
1- 1 n.—"— 1 111.41
.i|
/./'
3 III.
/. _ 3 - ’/fll
/ R
f7i\\ \
|
|
\
\
z
’.’
III
Is T
yL 3
in.
\I M ‘ \ 1 ‘M
\\ \\ I.‘ p Qldfi;/’
\ \\ -:[__..~ In
\ \“__ r,’
1
-5!-I5..
('1) (5)
Figure 7-52
(a) Determine the flexural stresses at the top and bottom surfaces.
(b) Sketch the flexural stress distribution in the beam.
(c) Determine the percentages of error if the flexure formula for a straight beam
(Eq. 7-8) were used for part (a).
SOLUTION
The first step will be to locate the neutral surface by using Table B-20 of Ap-
pendix B. The cross-sectional area is
2 1
A = %(s-3) =4.5in.2
and
f. @=@);@1n§-2+1=107941n
p 6-3 3 ' '
The value of R is found using Eq. 7-25:
A 4.5 .
A .9
The radial distance from the center of ctnvature to the centroid of the cross-
sectional area is
3(4+1)+s(2+2)
~= is =4-3333
, _
r‘ s(2+1) m
Therefore,yg = R — rc = 4.1683 — 4.3333 = —O.1645 in.
454 CHAPTER 7 rrrxrrruu. LOADING: snrsssss 11v BEAIHS
(a) The required stresses from Eq. 7-25 are

At the bottom ofthe beam (y = —l.83l2 in. and p = r,, = 6 in.):
M,y —100(—1.8312)
0,5 = — = L = -41.23 ksi E 41.2 ksi(C) Ans.
pAyC 6(4.5)(—0.1645)
At the top ofthe beam (y = +1.688 in. and p = r,- = 3 ir1.):
+52.6 my -100(+1.16ss) W ,
= — = 4
G” p/iyg 3(4.5)(-0.1645) = -t-52.631-ts ' = 52.6ks 1 (T) Ans.
1.169 in.
N.A. These stresses are well below the proportional limit of the material.
or ksi
(b) Plotting the two stresses from part (a) and zero stress at the neutral surface
1.83 1 in. will indicate that the curve must be shaped as in Fig. 7-53.
(c) The cross-sectional second moment of area with respect to the centroidal axis
41.2 parallel to the neutral axis is
Figure 7-53
1 = %(1)(s)3 + 1(s)(0.1ss7)2 + %(1)(s)’
+ %(1)(3)(0.3333)1 = 3.25 tn.‘
At the bottom of the beam (12 = —1.6667 in.):
M,y —100(—l.6667) _~ ,
U)-3 = —T = — = —51.28I(S1 = 51.3 I(51(C)
At the top ofthe beam (y = +1.3333 in.):
M,y —100(+1.3333) _~ ,
G)-7' = —T = — = -I-4I.02I(Sl = 4-1.0I(S1(T)
Therefore, the errors are
51.2341-2341.23 (100) = +2-4.37 2 24.4%high atbottom

41.02 — 52.63
(100) = -22.05 2 22.1%low at top Ans.
52.63
i EXHIIIPIB PFOITIIEIII 7-24 The elevation and cross section of a

segment of a punch press frame are shown ir1 Fig. 7-54. The fiame is made of
a gray cast iron that has a proportional limit in tension of 100 MPa. Determine
the maximum tensile and compressive flexural stresses produced by a moment
M of —40 kN~m.
SOLUTION
Assume that the neutral axis of the cross section is to the right of the flange and
apply Eq. 7-24; thus, using Table B-20 results in
A = Z [00, - 7,-)1 = 240(s0) + 40(240)

= 24,000 mm:
7-15 risxtrrutr. smsssrs [N currvsn rams 455
NA.
-71 my_;‘_ii?
_
?-O
—300mm
—-—
i 90m.ttl—i
I, 120mm
\
\
\ _ /Oentroid
more
A /\ =300 ‘ t y ~ 40mm
I\ ,._‘?' - - 4<
11
*7 120mm
M
\, l_ 7
till 240 rmn
. . . 60 n1.m
Dimensions in mm
Figure 7-54
and
dA
_= r, =2401n—+401
b1r1— 360 600
_
IA p ii .7,] 300 "360
= 64.190mm
Therefore,
A 24,000
A P
Therefore, the assumption about the location of the neutral axis is correct.
The location of the centroid of the cross section with respect to the center
of curvature is found using the principle of moments for areas. Thus,
_ s0(240)(3s0) +40(240)(4s0) _
"' _ e0(240) + 40(240) _ 390 mm
The distance fi'om the neutral axis to the centroid is
yc = R —rC = 373.89 -390 = —l6.l1rnrn
From Eq. 7-25 the stresses are:

At the outside ofthe stem ()2 = —226.11 mm and p = 600 mm):
U _ M,y _ -40(10’)(-226.11)(10"‘)
"° — pziyg _ 600(10-‘)(24,000)(10-‘=')(-16.11)(10-3)
= -3s.99(10='=) N/H12 '5 39.0 MIPa (c) Ans.
456 CHAPTER 7 rrrxtrrutr. LOADING: snrsssrs 11v BEAMS
At the inside ofthe flange ()1 = +73.89 mm and p = 300 mm):
U__ M,y _ -40(10’)(+73.s9)(10-1)

’“ _ ,0AyC _ 300(10-3)(24,000)(10-‘=)(-16.11)(10-3)
= 25.48(106)N/m2 E 25.5 MPa (T) Ans.
The low stresses indicate elastic action.
1 PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems All dimensions
in millimeters
7-170 A curved rectangularbeam with a width 7, a depth d (in the m@ i% El
radial direction), and an inside radius r,- of 10d is subjected to ' -
a moment M in the plane of curvature. Show that the error in l
computing the maximum flexural stress by Eq. 7-8 (the flex-
ure formula) instead of Eq. 7-25 (the curved beam fonnula) is ‘
approximately 3.7 percent low.
7-171* A curved beam having an inside radius of 6 ir1. has the M M Cross section
cross section shown in Fig. P7-171. The beam is subjected to a Figure P7472
momentM in the plane of curvature. Determine the dimension
b needed to make the flexural stress at the inside curved surface
equal in magnitude to the flexural stress at the outside cruved _ _ _ _
surface of the beam 7-173* Determine the maximum tensile and compressive flexural
stresses in the curved beam of Fig. P7-173 if the magnitude of
the moment M shown in the figure is 30 kip - ft.
8 in.—>;
M 2 in. M 8 in-
f ' am-A 1;,,_ / "‘ 2in.4m2in.
T 2 in.
b 8 in.
ts-7
M Cross section l in. \ C1-055 section
Figure P7-171 M
Figure P7-173
7-174* The curved beam ofFig. P7-174 is subjected to a bending
7-172 Determine the maximum tensile and compressive flexural moment M in the plane of curvature, as shown in the figure.
stresses in the curved beam of Fig. P7-172 if the magnitude of Determine the maximum permissible magnitude for M if the
the moment M shown in the figure is 20 kN - m. flexural stress is not to exceed 35 MPa (T) or 140 MPa (C).
7-16 COMBINED LOADING: AXIAL, PRESSURE, FLEXURAL, AND TORSIONAL
|- 300 mm -‘ L‘ _ L
_1m11n._2m‘
w
f¢———~
"‘~.
Y
.5= 24m
L
\
\
\
,,_ iii.
\
1
/
,-- 5\
/ I’, -hm
P
R
[ I \/ S
I I
,tw/\8 _- 43*-.
' »a‘_ 50mm 1 in.Z N. A. Mr mi
\_-3' 751-am \-/ I-—25 50mm
M M Cross section
if Centroid
Figure P7-174 2 in. '
'7-175 The cross section of a segment of a crane hook is shown

in Fig. P7-175. The curvature and loading are in the xy-plane.
Determine the flexural stresses at the inside curved surface and
at the outside curved surface if the magnitude
‘ y _of the
_ resisting Figure P7-175
moment M. shown on the cross section IS 70 kip - in.
7-16 COMBINED LOADING: AXIAL, PRESSURE,

FLEXURAL, AND TORSIONAL
The stresses and strains produced bythe fundamental types of loads (axial, pressure
of thin-walled vessels, torsional, and flexural) have now been analyzed. Many
machine and structural elements are subjected to a combination of any two or
all four of these types of loads, and a procedure for calculating the nomial and
shearing stresses resulting from such loads at a point on a given plane is required.
The procedure used to solve such problems is the same as that previously developed
for axial and torsional loads.
First, the member is sectioned to expose a cross section normal to the axis
of the member, and a fi"ee-body diagram of the part of the member to one side of
the section is drawn. Then, the internal forces at the section are found using the
equations of equilibrium. The internal forces may be a combination of an axial
force, a shear force, a torque, or a bending moment. Using the formulas previously
developed, the normal and shear stresses are then calculated separately at the point
of interest on the cross section for each of the internal forces. Normal stresses due
to the axial force, the internal pressure, and the bending moment are then added
(or subtracted) to obtain the normal stress at the point. Similarly, the shearing
stresses at the point due to the shear force and torque are added (or subtracted) to
obtain the shearing stress at the point. Once the normal and shearing stresses at a
point are known, the stress transformation equations (Eqs. 2-12 and 2-13) can be
used to determine normal and shearing stresses on other planes through the point.
Principal stresses and maximum shearing stresses at the point and the planes on
which they act can be determined by using Mohr’s circle or Eqs. 2-14 through 2-18.
The combined normal and shearing stresses at a point on a cross section 0
can be determined using the above procedure (method of superposition), provided
the combined stresses do not exceed the proportional limit of the material. The 4» 7.21
following example problems illustrate the procedure.
EXHIIIPIB Pfflblfllll 7-25 The solid 100-mm-diameter shafi shown

in Fig. 7-55a is subjected to an axial compressive force P = 200 kN and a vertical
force V = 100 kN. For point/1 on the outside surface of the shaft, determine
458 cnsrrsx 7 rrsxtnuu. LOADING: STRESSES [N snms
J‘
Z it
V
t
All
,
‘ 500mm P an
\.
Vr (-11)
100 l-{N
in
4i
MI’
2001-:N Jr a
25.5 MPa
16.98 MPa
(0) (d) (e)
Figure 7-55
(a) The x- and y-components of stress.

SOLUTION
(a) Since point A is on the outside surface (a free surface) of the shafi, a state of
plane stress exists at the point. The coordinate system is selected as shown
in Fig. 7-55b. This is the same coordinate system for which the equations
in this chapter were developed. Passing a transverse plane through point A
and isolating the segment of the shafi to the right of point A results in the
free—body diagram shown in Fig. 7-55c. The intemal forces on the transverse
cross section are an axial compressive force F = 200 kN, a shear force I/Z =
100 kN, and a moment M, = 50 kN ~ m. The directions of the stresses on the
lefi face of the element are in accordance with the directions of the forces
that produce the stresses, that is, in the directions of the intemal forces.
These stresses are shown in Fig. 7-55d. The magnitudes of the stresses are
determined as follows.
F 200(10*) 6 2
0, = Z = ii, = 25.46(10 )N/m = 25.46 MPa
(rr/4)(0. 100)
V ‘L E
_ I/,Q _ Vvbm-A) _ 2 _ 4V»
r— It — It — (J'rr4) — 3 JT?'2
4 tr)
— 2
= 4L2)
100 10 3 = 16.97"/[10°)N/m2 = 16.917 MPa
3:rr(0.050)
There is no normal stress due to M since pointA is on the neutral axis.
7-16 cosmnnm tomato: AXIAL, Passscns,r|.sxuiui1., mo rossiotw. 459
The x- and y-components of stress on the element at A are
0,, = 25.46 MPa "5 25.5 MPa (C) ABS-
r,,. = -16.97? MPa E -16.98 MPa ADS-
There is no normal stress ir1 the y-direction (the circumferential direction),

since there is no force to cause such a stress. The shear stresses on the four
sides of the element have the same magnitude. The shear stresses that meet
at a comer either both point toward the comer or both point away from the
corner. These stresses are shown on the element of Fig. 7-55e.
(b) Equation (2-15) is used to calculate the principal stresses. The stresses for
use in this equation are
0, = —25.461\/[Pa 0,, = 0 1:“, = -16.97? MPa
Substituting these stress components into Eq. 2-15 yields
_a,,+o,,i ox—a,, 2 2
Upl.p2 — T T +1-'xy
-25.46 0 1 I -25.46-0 2 +(-16.97102

= pf
= -12.73 :t 21.22
GP] = -12.73 + 21.22 = +8.490 MPa '5 8.49 MPa (T) Alls-
crp; = -12.73 — 21.22 = -33.95 MPa '5 34.0 MPa (C) Alls-
gp3 = 6, = 0 Ans.
Since the two in-plane principal stresses are of opposite sign and op; =
oz = O,
amax _ Umin
rm“ = 5
_ s.490 - (-33.95)
_ 2
= 21.2 l\/[Pa Ans.
1 EXHIIIPIB Pl‘0b1€Ill 7-26 The cast iron frame of a small press is

shaped as shown in Fig. 7-56.-:1. The cross section a—a of the flame is shown in
Fig. 7-56b. Axis c—c passes through the centroid of the cross section. For a load
Q of 16 kip, and assuming linearly elastic action, determine
460 cnsrrss 7 rmxmm. LOADING: snrsssrs [N BEAMS
J’
M -E.
r—1Ii8in.
Q 15 in. la
Q A B
G
‘ 18in.
16kip a—4_— if/—a—x
5'5"55'
u|4lt4L_u|
\ My I
_ i
.4 Q F
to 5.
(Q) (11) (C)
Figure 7-56(a-e)
(a) The normal stress distribution on section a—a.

(b) The location of the neutral axis (line of zero stress).
(c) The principal stresses for the critical points on section a—a.
SOLUTION
(a) The frame is sectioned at a—a, and a free-body diagram for the part of the
frame above the section is shown in Fig. 7-56c. Since the load acts in a plane of
symmetry, there are three independent equations ofequilibrium. The intemal
forces at the section are fotmd using the equations of equilibrium as follows:
+_>2F,,—0; V,=0 V,-=0

+1“EF,,=0: l6—F=0 F=l6kip
+ 2M.-,=0= M,— 1s(1s)=0 M, =288kip-in.
Thus, there are two intemal forces on the section, an axial force F which
produces a constant normal stress 0,1 = F/A over the section, and a bending
moment M,, which produces a linear variation of normal stress 0,2 = —M,.x/I
over the section. The cross-sectional area A and the second moment I of the
cross-sectional area with respect to the centroidal axis c—c are
A = 12(2) + 8(2) = 40 in.2

1 = 1lE(12)(2)’ + 12(2)(2)’ + %(2)(s)’ + 2(s)(3)1 = 333.3 in.4
The stresses o',,| and 0,2 due to the internal forces are
F 16,000 _ ,
o,.| = I = T =+400ps1= 4-00ps1 (T)
which is constant over the cross-sectional area. The maximum tensile flexural
stress occurs at the left edge of section a—a (point A) and is
M 283 101 -3 , ,
0,2,, = -% = -% = +2592 pS1 = 2592 p51 (T)
The maximum compressive flexural stress occurs at the right edge of section
a—a (point B) and is
M1 2ss(10’)(+7) , ,
0y2;,- = —'TB = T = —6049ps1 = 6049ps1 (C)
The distributions of stresses 0,4 and 0,; are shown in Figs. 7-56d and e,
respectively. Superirnposing the normal stresses at points A and B gives
0,,,, = 0,4,, + 0,2,, = 400 + 2592 = +2992 psi E 2990 psi (T)
0,3 = 0,13 + 0,23 = 400 — 6049 = -5649 psi '5 5650 psi (C)
The distribution of normal stress on section a—a is shown in Fig. 7-56f.
(b) The location of the neutral axis (line of zero stress) can be determined as the
place where the compressive flexural stress is 400 psi because this stress will
just balance the axial tensile stress of 400 psi. Thus,
M,x 288(lO3)(x) . P The normal stress due to bending varies

“» = -T = -W = -“°°P=“ I-tom zero at the centroidal axis (c-c on Fig.
7-56b) to a maxiinurn at the edges of the
from which “beam.” The neutral axis (the line of zero
stress) lies 0.463 in. to the right of the cert-
I = 3i33'3(400) = 0.4629 in. 2 0.463 in. Ans. troidal axis.
2ss(103)
to the right of the centroidal axis of the cross section.
(c) With no shearing stresses on section 0-0, the normal stresses are principal
stresses, and the critical points, as observed from the stress distribution of
Fig. 7-56f, are the left and right edges of the section.
The principal stresses for the right edge are
0,, = 5650 psi (C) and 0 Ans.
The principal stresses for the lefi edge are
0,, = 2990 psi (T) and 0 Ans.

The principal stresses are shown on elements A and B of Fig. 7-56g.
_ 2-0453 in.
|"3in.*'[>
2990 psi 5650 psi
|
_. - __ _. __ I A
x 2990psi 400p§i i E
_P _ Mx
“P7 "2"-T 5650 psi
(4) (=1) (D (3)
Figure 7-S6(d-g)
462 CHAPTER 7 rrsxurur. LOADING snrsssrzs [N BEAMS
‘I EXHIIIPIB PTOIJIBIII 7-27 A gray cast iron compression member is

subjected to a vertical load Q = 100 kN, as shown in Fig. 7-570. Determine the
normal stresses at each comer of section ABCD.
SOLUTION
Since stresses are required at points A, B, C, and D, the member is sectioned
through these points, and a fi'ee-body diagram of the portion of the member
above the section is drawn, as shown in Fig. 7-57b. In general, the internal forces
acting on a section of a member consist of shear forces P} and I/Q, an axial force
F, a torque I} = 114,, and bending moments M, and 114,. The six equations of
equilibrium used to determine these internal forces are
zF,=. =0 =0
BF, = -100=0 =—100kN=100kN(C)
zF,— 99¢ .N'~q>F=0 51$ =0
EM, = M; — lU0(0.06U) = 0 My = 6kN-II1
EMy = =0 T, =0
Q9Q M, — l00(0.075) = 0 M, = 7.5 kN - m
Thus, there are three internal forces on the section: (1) an axial force F
which produces a constant normal stress 01 = F/A over the section; and (2) two
bending moments M, and AL each of which produces a linear variation of normal
stress 0 = Mc/I over the section. The cross-sectional area A and the second
moments L, and L, of the area with respect to the centroidal x and z axes are
A = 1s0(120) = 18.O0(l03)mm2 = l8.0O(1O_3)1'n2

1
1, = E(1s0)(120)3 =21.60(10‘)mm“ = 21.60(10 _ ‘)m“
1
I, = E(l20)(150)3 = 33.75(10‘)mm“ = 33.7'5(1O_6)m4
Q y 100104
5
“=1 Q.
Bs>5Q
375rmn
XE‘
\F_______
1 “--___ C I K“-___
/ I‘ I -
\
A :-T.‘-‘q 1,11 _"'~ A I ___‘ C
' ' FT“-"

B V “‘\-.
. . ._ _ . - 2/ .1/V:
M F B X Mx \__-‘I
N \
(<1)
~,_“_""‘
_\i ‘_‘_‘_‘_-_-_?.1"-
@
Figure 7-57(a-b)
The axial force F produces a uniformly distributed compressive stress on

plane ABCD. The magnitude of the stress is
3
6, = 5 = ii = s.556(10“')N/ml = 5.556 MPa
A 1s.00(10 )
This stress is shown in Fig. 7-57c.
The bending moment M, produces a normal stress that varies linearly with
respect to z and is zero on the neutral axis (the x-axis). Along line AB, the
normal stress is tensile; and, along line CD, the normal stress is compressive.
The magnitude of these stresses is
62 = @ = gfimll = 16.66"/(lO5)N/m2 =16.667MIPa

1,, 21.60(10-°)
These stresses are shown in Fig. 7-57d.
Similarly, bending moment Mf, produces a compressive stress along edge
BC ofplane ABCD and an equal tensile stress along edge AD. The magnitude of
these stresses is
63 —— E
1, —— 33."/5(10-6) —-16 ' 667(l06)N/m2 —— 16 ' 6671vn=a
These stresses are shown in Fig. 7-57e.
The normal stresses at the corners of section ABCD are found by super-
imposing the component stresses shown in Figs. 7-57c, d, and e. The maximum
compressive stress occurs at C and is
0_,,¢ = -5.556 — 16.667 — 16.667 = -38.89 MPa E 38.9 MIPa (C) Ans.
The maximum tensile stress occurs at A and is
0,4 = -5.556 + 16.667 + 16.667 = +27.78 MPa '5 27.8 MPa (T) Ans.
1
‘e\_ __ __ -__‘ 1' I --___
\
C
\
.-s.__
\e\_ __-_ _ I . I I I -__ I
\\b
§_ _ __. _ I I
I I’
('5
r I ~.,_
A /1 ”».__ $5 A 11 "--._ . . A ,/ I .
B _ B F IV /B
llnll
e,=s.ss6M1=a '
0; = 16.667 M.Pa 03 = 16.667 MPa
(B) (4) (8)
Figure 7-57(c-e)
464 casrrrsrr 7 rrsxrrrur. 1.o11n11vc= snrsssrs 11v BEAMS
The stresses at the remaining two comers are
ayfl = -5.556 -1-16.667 — 16.667 = -5.556 MPa Z 5.56 MPa (C) Ans.
0,9 = -5.556 — 16.667 + 16.667 = —5.556MPa E 5.56 MPa (C) Ans.
i Example Problem 7-28 A 100-mm-diameter shaft is loaded and

supported, as shown in Fig. 7-580. Determine
(a) The normal and shearing stresses at points A, B, C, and D on a section at the
wall. Neglect stress concentrations.
(b) The principal stresses and maximum shearing stresses at points A, B, C, and
D of section ABCD.
SOLUTION
A fi'ee-body diagram of the part of the shafi to the left of section ABCD is shown
in Fig. 7-58b. The internal forces acting on section ABCD are shear forces Vy and
K, an axial force F, a torque T, = Mx, and bending moments 1% and 114,. The six
equations of equilibrium used to determine these internal forces are
ZFx= F—I50=U =l50kN

2F_,,= I I/,,—5=O =5kN
EFZ = V, = O =0
EM,,= T;-+5(O.fiOO)=O ~’."i.“‘<$3"1=—3kN'lI1
EM}, — . My O My U
EM; = 2 <= ?9s=. = s; M; + 5(0.750) = O M; = -3.75 l(N - III
,/ /
5kN 5 ltN
600 mm 0.600 in
151] k.N ' z 150 IKN T

’ '1’ J M, y
__,. -' My/
,/'/ B 2' ,/’ X b
.4’ .-
D9 A ""~~---_- 0.750 m '5

We - F
750 mm ' \T ‘KR
'---=___ , I ‘~-- r
'—-__________,//-' C _ "7 .____y___.- ‘GI n"'~ x
V,
(6) 100 mm (11)
Figure 7-58
7-16 COMBINED LOADING: AXIAL, PRESSURE, , AND TORSIONAL
Thus, there are four internal forces on the section: (1) an axial force F
t hat produces a constant tensile stress over the section, (2) a shear force K, that
P ro duces shearing stresses at points B and C of the section but zero shearing
stre sses at points A and D, (3) a torque T, that produces the same shearing stress
at all surface points of the shaft, and (4) a bending moment M2 that produces a
ten sile stress at point A and an equal compressive stress at point D. The cross-
sec tional area A, the first moment Q, the second moment I, and the polar second
mo rnent J are
rr Jr _
A = Z(d)2 = Z000)’ = 7854 mm” = 7s54(10 °)m1
4 2 2
Q = ;i(r)2(§) = 50)‘ = §(50)3 = 83.33(1O3)mm3 = s3.33(10-‘um’
7’ 4 = 77
1 = 1(7) Z(50) 4 =4.909(10 6 )mm4 =4.909(10 -6 )m4
J1.’ J1
J = 501)“ = 509)“ 9.81"/(106) mm4 = 9.s17(10-‘)m‘*
(=1) The magnitude of the normal stress produced by axial force F is
3
6, = 5A = w
7s54(10 ) = 19.099(10°)N/m2 = 19.099 MPa
The magnitude of the normal stress produced by moment M, is
M- 3.75 103 50 10-3

“C = L = 38.l95(l06)N/m2 = 3s.1951vn=s
G2 = 4.909(10"°)
The magnitude of the shearing stress produced by torque T, is
T 3 103 50 10-3
:1 = i
J mg)
= 9.s17(10 ) = 15.2s0(10°)N/ml = 15.280 MPa
The magnitude of the shearing stress produced by shear force V3, is
1 = VYQ = 5(103)(83'33)(10_6) =0 8487(l06)N/m2=O84-B7 MPa

2 11 4.909(10-6)(100)(10~3) ' '
These component stresses are shown in Fig. 7-59 for points A, B, C, and
D. The state of stress at eachpoint is plane stress. Therefore, the superimposed
466 crnurrsrr 7 rurxrrruu. 1.0110010: srrrsssas 11v stuns
Z Z
'~\ Z ____>
H --
\ A c,‘ U]
I2 G1 \ ‘-4 2
B x A x
B.
M’ ' 1»
7; .4
\°¢;;.JT"\\x
. \ .
-1. H \1 ,1
15.28 MPa
.,_ _
1,|_
57.3 MPa
0 2;’
.9\- -=>< O1}
1":1 IQ
._,,;
-=></
ll Figure 7-59
(<1)
y states ofstress forpoints A, B, C, andD canbe represented on two-dimensional
I 16.13 MPa stress elements, as shown in Figs. 7-600, b, c, and d, respectively. Ans.
I‘ 19.1% (b) The principal stresses at each of the points is obtained by using Eq. 2-15.
ii I Thus, for pointA shown in Fig. 7-600,
(5) Ux +5: 6.: _ Us 2
J’
= "T * "T “F
|_ 57.3 0 :1: / 57.3 -0 2 +(-15.23)’
= -2+
1C|_ 19.10 MPa
= 28.65 :1: 32.47
ll 0P1 = 28.65 + 32.47 = +6l.l2 MPa E 61.1 MPa (T)
14.43 MPa 0_,,2 = 28.65 — 32.47 = -3.820 MPa E 3.82 MPa (C)
(C)
0_,,3 = 0,, = 0
Since 0p, and 0p; have opposite signs, the maximum shearing stress is given
in
by Eq. 2- 1 8 as
I 19.101v11>s
Tmax = 0"“ -2 °“““- = 61.12 - 5 -3.820 ) = 32.47 Mrs; 32.5 MPa
15.28 MPa
(4) Proceeding in a similar fashion for the remaining points yields the principal
Figure 7-60 stresses and the maximum shearing stress as
7-16 COMBINED LOADING: AXIAL, PRESSURE, FLEXURAL, AND TORSIONAL.
Point 0p, 0p; Up] rrnax
61.6 MP6 (T) 3.82 MPa (c) 32.5 MPa Ans.

23.3 MP6 (T) 9.20 MPa (c) 18.75 MPa Ans.
26.9 MP6 (T) 7.75 MPa (c) 17.30 MPa Ans.
Ufiwik 3.47 MP6 (T) 27.6 MPa (c) coco 18.02 MPa Ans.
This Example Problem illustrates that it may be necessary to determine

stresses at a number of points in order to locate the most severely stressed
point.
1 PROBLEMS
MecMovie Activities and Problems 7-177 " The T-section shown in Fig. P7-177 is used as a short post
to support a compressive load P = 150 kip. The load is applied
MM7.20 C-clamp normal stresses. Example; Try one. Combined on the centerline of the stem at a distance e = 2 in. from the
normal stresses due to axial force and bending moment. centroid of the cross section. Determine the normal stresses at
MM7.2l Precast concrete beam and corbel. Example; Try one. points C and D on section AB.
Combined normal stresses due to axial force and bending
moment.
MM7.22 The tree—combined axial and bending. Concept check-
points. Determine axial force, bending moment, moment of P
inertia, axial stress, bending stress, and combined stress values
for a simple tree structiu-e. ‘T
MM7.23 Jib crane boom. Example. Try one. Combined normal _ F6111.-‘ '*—2in.
stresses due to axial force and bending moment.
M)/17.24 Beams bending about two axes. Two examples; Con-
1 j_ _'
2in.C D 6in.
cept checkpoints. Combined normal stresses due to bending
moments about two axes plus transverse shear stress.
Section A-B
21.- c____ __B__
7-176* A hollow shaft 1 m long with an outside diameter of
400 mm and an inside diameter of 300 mm is subjected to both Figure P7-177
a horizontal load V = 500 kN and an axial tensile load P =
1500 kN, as shown in Fig. P7-176. Determine the principal
stresses and the maximum shearing stress at point A, which is
on the outside surface of the shafi next to the wall.
7-178 A human femur is modeled as shown in Fig. P7-178. The
abductor muscle force is M = 4060 N, and the femoral load is
J = 5210 N.
. ' ' 4001661
* ,-1-___ 1' 3001-rim a. Determine the maximum tensile and compressive stresses
I ‘-- |
at section a-a if the section is modeled as a solid circular
.11 ~-__ section 27 mm in diameter.
‘ ‘J *\- V=500kN
~~~~~-- .3 b. Determine the maximum tensile and compressive stresses
‘ .“_‘_"“~- P=l500lrN at section a—a if the section is modeled as a hollow
cylinder of outside diameter 27 rmn and inside diameter
Figure P7-176 16 mm.
468 CHAPTER T FLEXURAL LOADING: STRESSES [N BEAMS
16 mm
11
‘
‘-N 37mm
i
T sum ET
L
fl1.D'\
l
_l_ I F
Ct 5lJn:ml—- i30n't:rt'|+#—l
20mm
Section M‘-.\'
| l (a)
Figure P7-180
' 7-181 A structural member with a rectangular cross section sup-

ports a 15 kip load, as shown in Fig. P7 181. Determine the
distribution of normal stress on section AB of the member.
1s kip
Figure P7-178 Ff 18 in.
7-179* A 4-in.-diameter shaft is subjected to a torque of

30 kip - an axial tensile load of 50 kip, and a vertical load of
5 kip, as shown in Fig. P7-179. Determine the principal stresses
and the maximum shearing stress at pointA on the surface ofthe
30 in.
4——
B
————
MTS --
IF*;—.}*\
‘
shalt. The transverse section through A is 24 in. from the right 12m.
end of the shaft. Section A-B
Figure P7-181
, ¢
1
\ ‘so kip-in.
. | 7-182* The cross section of the steel member shown in
I ,_,- Fig. P7-182 is a rectangle 100 mm wide x 150 mm deep
.
I
"
I
/' /'“*so|<1p Determine the maximum normal stress on a vertical section at

the wall. Neglect stress concentrations.
Skip
Figure P7-179
' 1.25 m +1
1,§0 mm ' .
7-180 The cross section ofthe straight vertical portion of the coil-
1 '—'—‘—‘—'—'—I ' IoE
loading hook shown in Fig. P7-180a is shown in Fig. P7-l80b. 25 kN ii 2
The horizontal distance from the line of action of the applied
load to the inside face CD of the cross section is 600 mm.
Determine the maximum tensile and compressive stresses on 30 m
section CDEF for a 40 kN load. Figure P7-182
7-16 COMBINED LOADING: AXIAL, PRESSURE, FLEXURAL, AND 'llORSIONAI..
7-183* The estimated maximum total force P to be exerted on 3in.

the C-clamp shown in Fig. P7-183 is 450 lb. If the normal
stress on section A—A is not to exceed 16,000 psi, determine
the minimum allowable value for the dimension h of the cross
section.
.
it _ l in
-;2;:=a_-;=_;;_a;=1;a ",_:,_=;;_t;;,-'= gs ;f_t:_i_l:.| 4
-:i.==%u:a| mi -- 1--3-5a'i='i2!?‘-?t:\"s:€9-2e'1i=i
1:; __t_;_:‘:._:_:,;_:3_=_-A-Zr l»-\»l-,I._<‘|;.-_.‘;=_=_. |_=;_f§§f;l_.;g;;_\;
-
==';=':"x'--Z-u1\i'.t;tt=.I;t_-==.== F‘-‘ _a
5* -' 1'55?-‘En! !e."'i-" ‘ ._':';'=-:-‘c=.'e'7I3.=:. rs
. '-;.;= =-;,.; ti. 2;! -J, \ la;-:15 1
Threaded —- §§_
stem 3 in. -1;
-
-l3
ea‘
A -—A §_-
_:-
Q; A
11%“-
P LL] Li 1- Z»
Section A-A Figure P7-185
Figure P7-183
7-186* A 150-mm-diameter shaft will be used to support the
7-184 Determine the magnitudes of the maximum tensile and axial load, the torsional loads, and the shear load shown in
compressive normal stresses on the transverse plane B—B in Fig. P7-186. Determine the principal stresses and the max-
the straight portion of the structure shown in Fig. P7-184. The imum shearing stress at point A on the top surface of the
member is braced perpendicular to the plane of symmetry. shaft.
vs mmL
.,
100mm
S0 mm S0 mm
150 mm
D3
4
so an
1200mm
_//1
/3/Ila-"----'7/’
mm
100 mm
'
r
—
/,
___
"-600 mm.
5.6 kN*m 150 mm
t
,"
1
14 kN<m
78° KN
Section B-B ‘W750 mm l 10 kN
B1 '_B
|0 Figure P7-186
Figure P7-184
7-187* A 30-lb force P is applied to the brake pedal of an au-

tomobile as shown in Fig P7-187. Force Q is applied to the
7-185 The clamp of Fig. P7-185 is used to hold two boards. Ifthe brake cylinder. Determine the maximum tensile and compres-
clamping force is 80 lb, determine the maximum tensile and sive normal stresses on section a—a, which is midway between
compressive stresses at section a—a. The clamp has a U2 >< points A and B. Section a—a may be modeled as a 3/16 x l-in.
3/16-in. rectangular cross section. rectangle.
470 cmwrsn 7 rmxumu. LOADING: srssssrs uv mums
P
‘P///~ H
30°’
55 ' - -
.
151 lin.
1 in 3 A Jl
1 §st____-f£.-_ \'_'\\\‘
_
5-|\.l»- II! “\
i‘iQ’A in L\6m“i1,A in.

4 in__,. Figure P7-189
Figure P7-187
7-190 A cylindrical pressure vessel is 6 in long and is simply

supported at the ends, as shown in Fig. P7-190. The inside
7-188 An automobile engine with a mass of 360 kg is supported diameter of the vessel is 1200 mm, and the wall thickness is
by an engine hoist, as shown in Fig. P7-188. Determine the 4 mm. The vessel and contents weigh 10 kN/m, and the con-
maximtun tensile and compressive normal stresses on section tents exert a uniform internal pressure of 200 kPa. Determine
a-a ifmember ABC is a hollow square 100 x 100-mm section the principal stresses and maximum shear stress at pointsA and
with a wall thickness of 20 mm. B on the outside surface of the vessel.
\ y
4-"rd-zJ‘\
/1270 mm ‘- 2 mC_-|B ya
_- c
soomnf \ ../' ,3
530 Z-"—'6°
' 3 - I vi
1 J A I ' : Z
.1;
i—
A :- 1 I-L--~.-Q:
"1 :11
-_-‘it
‘ ll
L iii
atr Figure P7-190
6m
380 mm i T 1930 mm
510 mm
Figure P1’-188 7-191 The output fioma strain gage located on the bottom surface
of the hat section shown 1'.n Fig. P7-191 will be used to indi-
cate the magnitude of the load P applied to the section. The
hat section is made of altuninum alloy (E = 10,600 ksi and
v = l/3) and is 1 in. wide. When the maximmn load P = 110 lb
7-189* A short post supports a vertical force P = 9600 lb and a is applied to the section, the strain gage should read e = +1000
horizontal force H = 800 lb, as shown in Fig. P7-189. Deter- pm/m. Plot a curve showing the combinations of thickness
mine the vertical normal stresses at corners A, B, C, and D of t and height h that will satisfy the specification. Limit the range
the post. Neglect stress concentrations. of h from 0 to 2 in.
7-16 COMBINED LOADING: AXIAL, PRESSURE, FLEXURAL, AND 'llORSIONAI..
I 7-194* Determine the normal stresses on a transverse section

at points A, B, C, and D of the rectangular post shown in
Gage
Fig. P7-194. Neglect stress concentrations. Also, locate the
neutral axis for the section.
ii
P P 15 kN 75 kN
Figure P7-191 ‘I /, 50mm
'7 192* Determine the normal stresses on a transverse section

at points A, B, C, and D of the rectangular post shown in
Fig. P7-192. Neglect stress concentrations.
500mm
75kN
50mm
\., / -
'\ A’
.
1
d'\
K
"sf:
\
.-__._:Y,j__
I‘-Hf
500 mm
Figure P7-194
A I» ‘c\
§— — — —-—
I
J7
s__
7-195 The homogeneous sign shown in Fig. P7-195 weighs 55 lb
. '~~. Q the weight of other members is negligible. The cross section of
member AB is a rectangle 1 in. deep and 2 in. wide. Determine
\ 3 /, the principal stresses and maximum shear stress
200111111 150mm
a. At the top of member AB at section a-a, which is midway
Figure P7-192 between the points of attachment of the sign.
b. At the bottom of member AB at section a-a.
c. Halfway between the top and bottom of member AB at sec-
7 I93 A short post supports a vertical force P = 4000 lb, a hor- tion a—a.
izontal force H = 500 lb, and a horizontal force Q = 400 lb
as shown in Fig. P7-193. Determine the normal stresses on a C
transverse section at comers A, B, C, and D of the post. Neglect
stress concentrations.
P
36 in.
V 16in. L 32111. -i 16in. ‘
IO
/7\.
. \I
/ts i. |
. .
l
S
t ./ 2' 1111. A Q - B
I 2-;
In \ \\
‘;s=_ I I I
K4.§.€..
I

472 ciutvrux 1 FLEXIIRAL LOADING: smsssrs uv BEAMS
Challenging Problems and the maximum shearing stress at point A on the top surface
of the shaft.
7-196* Four strain gages are mounted at 90° intervals around the
circumference of a 100-mm-diameter steel (E = 210 GPa and
v = 0.30) bar, as shown in Fig. P7-196. As a result of axial and
flexural loading, the four gages indicate longitudinal strains of
cl = -200 pimfm, e; = +820 urnlin, e3 = +600 um/m, and soo mm
e., = -420 um/m. Determine the axial load P and the two ,_ 400 mm
moments My and M,
Q' _g ' soo mm
. I ’/‘ soo mm
.3’ so kN \ \
0’?
ff My‘ g _.
Gage 1 5 13*‘
P mi:4" ‘: ---
Gage2:[___|Gage4 j Pix 3gkN '
' 1. 5 kN
Gage 3
Figure P7 193
My /Ml
Z
Figure P7-196
7-199* Three strain gages are mounted on a l-in.-diameter alu-
minum alloy (E = 10,000 ksi and v = 1/3) rod, as shown
7-197* Determine the principal stresses and the maximum shear- in Fig. P7-199. When loads P and Q are applied to the rod,
they produce longitudinal strains e_.; = +550 ,u.in./in., E3 =
ing stress at points on the top and bottom of section a-a of
the pipe system shown in Fig. P7-197. The pipe has an outside +400 ,u.in.1'in., and ea = -300 pin./in. Determine the magni-
tudes of loads P and Q and the location x of load P.
diameter of 1 in. and a wall thickness of 1/8 in.
Z 50 lb
7 in.’
A
tit
B
tit i
l0 in.
/
t §—-.J\ig\ ..
_"—-__';D
Figure P7-199
l_..e_.-.l
C t
Q
if
. Q
( \ 111.--1|
"""-- If
7-200 A thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel with an inside di-
___“-~ 14 in. _____%
-/0! ameter of 500 mm is fabricated by butt-welding 15-mm-thick
plate with a spiral seam as shown in Fig. P7-200. The pres-
Figure P7-197 sure in the tank is 2500 kPa. Additional loads are applied to
the cylinder through a rigid end plate as shown in Fig. P7-200.
Determine
7-198 A steel shaft 120 mm in diameter is supported in flexible a. The normal and shearing stresses on the plane of the weld
bearings at its ends. Two pulleys, each S00 mm in diameter, at point B on the outside surface of the tank.
are keyed to the shaft. The pulleys carry belts that produce the b. The principal stresses and the maximum shearing stress at
forces shown in Fig. P7-198. Determine the principal stresses point A on the outside surface of the tank.
7-16 coiuauum LOADING: AXIAL, ritsssu1ts,r|.sxu1uu., mo TORSIONAI. 473
P = 125 kN
H ' __
Rigid plate
V= 50 kN - $§© G x Q-
|
I €\,/ R3
'§g'OQ'/
4
at
’ 4
A
9-3 1" urn i rt
900 mm VF D
i
0.5 m
ZUUm.tt1:"‘
0 e I
. _-.4.
4 I '
. 0.1 nr£_.-/ 0.2 TD 0.2 In
Figure P7-202
Figure P7-200
7-203* Four strain gages are mounted at 90° intervals aroimd the
circumference ofa 4-in.-diameter steel (E = 29,000 ksi and v =
7-201 A solid shait4 in. in diameter is acted on by forces P and Q, 0.30) shaft, as shown in Fig. P7-203. All of the gages are ori-
as shown in Fig. P7-201. Determine the principal stresses and ented at an angle of45° with respect to a line on the surface of
the maximum shearing stress at points A and B on the surface the shaft that is parallel to the axis of the shaft. Determine the
of the shaft. torque T, shear V, andmomentM at the cross section where the
gages are located if cg = +450 rein.»/in., er = +325 ,uin.!in.,
ec = +550 uin./in., and er, = +675 ,uin./in.
. B P=2.25 kip
I
\ Gage B T
12 in‘ 24 in.
Gage c, 45" M
36in.
’
/ at
.
i/J =l8ki
(I 1)
4in. Q P Gage D /
7-202* A bag of potatoes is resting on a chair, as shown in

Fig. P7-202. The force exerted by the potatoes on the fiame 7-204 The homogeneous advertising billboard shown in
at one side of the chair is equivalent to horizontal and verti- Fig. P7-204 has a mass of 250 kg and is subjected to a wind
cal forces of 24 N and 84 N, respectively, at E and a force of load of 1.5 kPa (assumed uniformly distributed over the area of
28 N perpendicular to member BH at G. Determine the maxi- the billboard]. The billboard is supported by a pipe of outside
mum tensile and compressive nonnal stresses on a section mid- diameter 900 mm and wall thickness 10 mm. Determine the
way between pins C and F. Member BH has a 10 x 30-mm principal stresses and maximum shear stresses at points A and
cross section; the 30-mm dimension lies in the plane of the B on the outside surface of the pipe. Neglect the weight of the
page. pipe and stress concentrations.
474 CHAPTER 7 FLEXURAL manure: s'i'ssssr.s [N BEAMS
that of an I-beam 240 mm tall by 120 mm wide, as shown in

,,, ,,A the figure. For the transverse section a-a
Z
a. Calculate and plot the normal stress tr, and the shear
.-.” , stress :4, as functions of the position y (-120 mm < y <

120 mm).
b. Where is the normal stress equal to zero (measured relative
to the neutral axis of bending)?
3m lm c. Calculate and plot the principal normal stresses op, and O-P2
and the maximum shear stress rm, as functions of the posi-
tiony(—l20mm <y < 120 mm).
— 7.5 m
J 120 rrmi
a , 30 mm
1. 150mm T 30mm |
10. <
—-—-—-—-—j-- - L 240mm 180mm
Figure P7-204
e
u
'
3
. 450m-1 L mu
-1-
ii-is0uuui> 30mm
G
7-205 The frame shown in Fig. P7-205 is constructed of 4 x

4-in. timbers. Determine and show on sketches the principal Figure P7-206
and maximum shearing stresses at points G and H.
7-207 As the C-clamp shown in Fig. P7-207 is tightened, the web

ofthe C-section is subjected to flexural stresses as well as axial
s tensile stresses. Ifthe web of the section has a width ofh = l in.
.\
and a thickness of b = U4 in., and the clamp has a capacity of
...
1/1.1 . __
._
d = 3 in.
/- T. a. Calculate and plot the maximum tensile and compressive
135011, 6.5n stresses on section a—a as a function of the clamp force P
(0 lb < P < 500 lb).
b. Determine s, the distance from the inside edge of the web
:' ' it.-‘i
to the point where the normal stress is zero. Is s a fimction
1",-1'" ti; 15ft of P?
1, E <—i-670 lb
Q -1 ‘
‘-
G ' J sn
oiko
~”\§
.1 .-
iii ..t ‘
Figure P7-205
i a— -0
1.
Computer Problems ill ++

7-206 The bracket shown in Fig. P7-206 is loaded in a plane of Section a-a
symmetry. At section a—a the cross section of the bracket is Figure P7-207
1'-1': DESIGN PROBLEMS 475

Again in this chapter, design will be limited to proportioning a member (in this
case, a straight beam) to perform a specified fimction without exceeding specified
levels of stress. Failure by excessive deformation (excessive elastic deflection) will
be discussed in Chapter 8. Design problems involving combined loading will be
presented in Chapter 10. Failure by yielding or failure by fracture, which results
fi"om excessive normal (flexural) stresses or shearing stresses, must be considered
when designing beams. The elastic flexure formula and the shearing stress formula
developed in Sections 7-4 and 7-7 and used to calculate flexural stresses and
transverse (or longitudinal) shearing stresses in beams are
M,c M, V, Q
am _ I _ S and 1: _ It
To determine maximum normal and shearing stresses in beams, sections must be

located where M, and V, are maximum (critical sections). A shear force diagram
is used to locate the critical section of the beam where V, is maximum. The critical
section for flexure, the section where M, is maximum, is found fi'om a bending
moment diagram. In general, the absolute maximum value ofM, is used for design
purposes. However, care must be exercised for beams with cross sections that are
nonsymmetrical with respect to the neutral axis (such as T-beams) and beams made
of materials with different properties in tension and compression. In these cases,
both the largest positive and the largest negative values of M, must be considered.
Beam design consists of finding a cross-sectional shape so that flexural and
shearing stresses do not exceed permissible values, called allowable values. For a
safe design
Strength 3 (Factor of safety) (Stress) (a)
where strength is a material property and stress is computed using either Eq. 7-9
or 7-12. Equation (a) may be written
Strength
L S b
Factor of safety 2 HESS ( J
where (StrengthfFactor of safety) is the allowable stress. If the symbol 0,“ is used
for allowable stress, Eq. (b) may be written for flexure as
(Tun 2 M = Y
M,
(1-26)
and
V.
1... 2 T9 <1-27>
for shear.
Experience indicates that beam design is usually govemed by flexural
stresses. Thus, a beam is usually designed for flexure using Eq. 7-26, and then
checked for shearing stress using Eq. 7-2'7. Ifthe shearing stress is less than the al-
lowable shearing stress, this procedure is adequate. Ifthe allowable shearing stress
has been exceeded, the beam is redesigned and the process is repeated. However,
the shearing stress (longitudinal) may be the controlling factor for beams made of
timber. The Example Problems that follow illustrate the procedures for designing
straight beams loaded in a plane of symmetry.
Other design factors, such as local web yielding, web crippling, and side-
sway web buckling for steel beams may be found in Steel Structures Design and
Behavior. 10 For wood beams, additional design factors such as load duration,
moisture content, temperature, and beam stability are discussed in Design of %0d
Structures. 11
1 Example Problem 7-29 An air-dried Douglas fir beam of rectan-

120 lbffl gular cross section is to support the load shown in Fig. 7-61a. If the allowable
flexural stresses in tension and compression are 1200 psi and the allowable shear-
A B ing stress is 100 psi, determine the lightest weight standard structural timber that
can be used.
- 15ft
(H) SOLUTION
First, load (free-body), shear force, and bending moment diagrams are drawn, as
120 lbifl
shown in Figs. 7-61b, c, and d, respectively. From these diagrams it is determined
A B
that the maximum shear force is 900 lb and the maximum bending moment is
3375 lb - ft. Using the maximum bending moment in Eq. 7-26 yields the required
900 lb 900 lb
minimum section modulus for the beam as
(b)
V» lb 900
Mm, = 33'/s(12)
s2 — l = 33.15 "1, . ,
0,1, 1200
Table B-15 in Appendix B contains a listingofstandard structural timbers together
with values for their section modulus S. Note that the properties listed are for
900 dressed (actual size) timbers. Since the lightest-weight beam is wanted, a beam
(C1 with S 3 33.75 in.3 and the smallest weight per unit length is a 2 x 12-ir1. nominal
size timber. For this beam, the actual values of S and I are 35.8 in.3 and 206 inf‘,
M,,, lb-ll respectively. Equation 7-27 can now be used to see whether or not the allowable
£35 shearing stress requirement is met. The maximum shearing stress for a beam with
D \ a rectangular cross section occurs at the neutral axis and is given by
T4 Q _
r=i F4
—
‘““" 1: A
(d)
Figure 7-61 where V, is the absolute value of the maxinnnn shear force and A is the cross-
sectional area of the beam. Thus,
l/I 900 , .
Tm“ = = = ‘=5. lO0psi
Equation 7-27 is satisfied, since 1:,“ I; rm, or 100 psi > 72.24 psi. The maximum
shearing stress is within the allowable limit; therefore, the beam selected is sat-
isfactory. However, the analysis assumed that the beam was weightless, whereas
]°S:eeI Structures Design and Behavior, 4th ed., C. G. Salmon and J. F. Johnson, Harper Collins,
New York, 1996.
“Design of Hired Structures, 3rd ed., D. E. B1-eyer, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1993.
7-17 nssrcx PROBLEMS 477
the beam selected weighs 5.19 lb,/ft. The bending moment diagram for the uni-
formly distributed weight of the beam is similar to Fig. 7-61d, and Mm“ for the
weight is Mum = 146 lb - ft. Adding the maximum bending moments for the
applied loading and the beam weight gives
Mm“ = 3375 +146 = 3521 lb ~ ft
The required section modulus then becomes
s 3 Lm‘ = L102) = 35.21 in.3

0,1. 1200
Ifthe value ofS (35 .21 in.3 forthis example) had been greater than S for the
original beam selected (35.8 in.3 for this example), the entire procedure would
be repeated based on the section modulus for the beam with the applied loading
plus the weight. Thus, the procedure is a trial-and-error process.
Similarly,
1
Vim»; = 900 + E(5.l9)(15) = 939 lb
Thus,
Vr 939 . .
rm = 1.52 = l.5 = 75.37ps1 <100psr
The original beam selected had a section modulus of S = 35.8 in.3 Thus, the
2 x 12-in. norninalbearnis satisfactory. Ans.
20 kNIm
1 EXHIIIPIC Pl'0l)lCIIl 7-'30 Select the lightest wide-flange beam that
can be used to support the load shown in Fig. 7-62a. The allowable flexural A I B L~
stresses in tension and compression are 160 MPa and the allowable shearing
stress is 82 MPa. 3m 1.5 rn—i
(H)
SOLUTION Figure 7-62(a)
Load (fi'ee-body), shear force, and bending moment diagrams for the beam are
shown in Figs. 7-62b, c, and d, respectively. From these diagrams it is determined
that the maximum shear force is 37.5 kN and the maximum bending moment
is 22.50 kN - m. Using the maximum bending moment in Eq. 7-26 yields the
required section modulus for the beam as
sz ‘l:i:" = %:)2;) = 14-O.63(l0_6)m3 = 140.63(10’)mm’

8
Table B-2 in Appendix B contains a listing of the properties of wide-flange

sections and from this listing it is determined that the lightest section with S 3
l4»0.63(l03) mm3 (with respect to the x—x-axis), is a W203 x 22 section.
When designing wide-flange beams or American standard beams, it is often
assumed that the entire shear load is carried by the web of the beam and that it is
20 kbilm uniformly distributed (see Section 7-7). Thus,
A B C r _ V, _ 37.500’)
22.5 ld\' 67.5 khi "8 _ AW, _ 6.2(10-3)[20s - 2(s)](10-3)
(bl = 31.8(10")N/ml = 31.8MPa
V» KN 30 Since ravg is less than 1:,|1 = 82 lv[Pa, the W203 x 22 section is satisfactory.
22.5
As in the previous example, the weight of the beam should be considered.
The mass per unit length for this beam is 22 kgfm, and thus the weight per unit
ea length is W = mg = 22(9.81) = 215.8 N/m, or 0.2158 kN/m. The weight per
1.125111
unit length of the beam is about 1.1 percent of the applied force per unit length.
-37.5 The actual section modulus S = 193(103) mms is about 27 percent higher than
(C) the required minimum value of Sm“, = 14-0.63 (103) mm3. Thus, the maximum
flexural stress is less than the allowable value even when the weight of the beam
M,., kN-m is considered and the W203 x 22 wide-flange section is acceptable.
/1@9 Since the cross section is symmetric, the maximum tensile stress and the
maximum compressive stress both occur on the section where the magnitude of
the bending moment is a maximum. For a negative bending moment, the top of
the beam will be in tension and the bottom of the beam will be in compression.
—22.S0 The sign ofthe shear force is completely arbitrary, and the largest (absolute value)
(4) shear force is used in the design calculations.
Figure 7-62(b-d) As discussed in Section 7-8, the principal stresses (maximum normal
stress) at the jtmction of the flange and web may exceed the maximum flexu-
ral (normal) stresses at the top and bottom of the beam. Also, the maximum
shear stress at the junction may exceed the maximum shearing stress at the
neutral axis. Design codes set the allowable flexural stress and the allowable
shear stress at a level such that the methods used in the Example Problems are
acceptable.
1 PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems ,,__ 275 kg
n, - I‘ -v
7-208* A 5-m-long simply supported timber beam is loaded JP .,..|
,,'.'|.- Au...
'
with 6700-N concentrated loads applied 2 m from each sup- ‘ ... .-
port. If the allowable flexural stress is 9 MPa and the allow- "" "
able horizontal shearing stress is 0.6 MPa, select the light- '
est standard structural timber that can be used to support the - 1.5 m 625 -
. l1'l
loading.
Figure P7-2 10
7-209* A 20-ft-long simply supported timber beam is loaded
with 1800-lb concentrated loads applied 6 it from each sup-
port. If the allowable fiexrual stress is 1900 psi and the al-
lowable horizontal shearing stress is 90 psi, select the light-
est standard structural timber that can be used to support the Intermediate Problems
loading.
7-211* A 16-ft-long simply supported beam is loaded with a
7-210 The lever shown in Fig. P7-210 is used to lift a 275-kg uniform load of4000 lbffl over its entire length. If the allow-
rocle Select a standard steel pipe to perform the task. The able fiexural stress is 22 ksi and the allowable vertical shearing
allowable flexural stress is 135 MPa. Neglect the effects of stress is 14.5 ksi, select the lightest structural steel wide-flange
shear. beam that can be used to support the loading.
1-17 ossrcx PROBLEMS 479
7-212* A structural steel beam is subjected to the loading shown 7-215 The floor framing plan for a residential dwelling is shown
in Fig. P7-212. If the allowable flexural stress is 152 MPa and in Fig. P7-215. The floor decking is to be supported by 2-in.
the allowable vertical shearing stress is 100 MPa, select the nominal width joists spaced 16 in. apart. Each joist is to span
lightest American standard beam that can be used to support 12 ft and is simply supported at the ends. The floor decking is
the loading. subjected to a uniform loading of 60 lbffll, which includes the
live load plus an allowance for the dead load of the flooring
system. The joists are made of construction-grade Douglas fir
2211:}! 4-0lkN 22ids! with an allowable flexural stress of 1200 psi and an allowable
horizontal shearing stress of 120 psi. Determine the required
nominal depth of the joists.
A B
. I .
1.25m 1.5m 1.5m 1.25m

Figure P7-212
V‘/.--Floor decking
7-213 Select the lightest wide-flange beam that can be used to

support the loading shown in Fig. P7-213. The allowable flex-
ural stress is 22 ksi, and the allowable vertical shearing stress . ..“Y.;.$E -,._:___E=_£ N --.3
is 14.5 ksi.
"ts -,_.__r__ -__,,,» 16 in.
joist ___.» _ Kw l6~$,- 16111.
3000 lb 3000 lb
Figure P7-215
— so L so -31- an —-
Figure P7-213
7-216 A carriage moves slowly along a simply supported I-

Challenging Problems beam, as shown in Fig. P7-216. Select the lightest permissi-
7-214* A 15-kN load is supported by a roller on an I-beam, ble wide-fiange beam to support the loading if the allowable
as shown in Fig. P7-214. The roller moves slowly along the flexiual stress is 165 MPa and the allowable vertical shear-
beam, thereby causing the shear force and bending moment ing stress is 100 MPa. Note that the shear force and bend-
to be functions of x. Select the lightest permissible American ing moment are functions of b, the position of the lefi-hand
standard beam to support the loading. The allowable flexural wheel.
stress is 152 MPa, and the allowable vertical shearing stress is
100 MPa. Neglect the weight of the beam.
8m
. . i
xi» CI"
E-LIE; is
Figure P7-214
E ‘L Figure P7-216
lm... . .1
480 crmrrrx 7 rtsxutrsr. LDADING smsssss IN BEAMS
SUMMARY
A member subjected to loads applied transverse to the long dimension ofthe mem-
ber and which cause the member to bend is known as a beam. A beam supported
by pins, rollers, or smooth surfaces at the ends is called a simple beam. A simple
support will develop a reaction normal to the beam but will not produce a couple.
A cantilever beam has one end built into a wall or other support. The built-in end is
said to be fixed if no rotation occurs and restrained if a limited amotmt of rotation
occurs.
Cantilever beams and simple beams have only two reactions (two forces
or one force and a couple), and these reactions can be obtained fi'om a free-body
diagram ofthe beam by applying the equations ofequilibrium. Such beams are said
to be statically determinate. Beams with more than two reaction components are
called statically indeterminate since there are not enough equations of equilibrium
to determine the reactions.
A free-body diagram of a portion of a beam with a cross section exposed
by an imaginary cut shows that a transverse force l/1 and a couple M at the cut
section are needed to maintain equilibrium. The force V, is the resultant force due
to the shearing stresses. The couple M, is the resultant moment due to the normal
stresses. The magnitudes and senses of V, and Eh’, are obtained from the equations
of equilibrium E17,, = 0 and EMU = 0, where O is any axis perpendicular to the
xy-plane.
The normal and shearing stresses 0 and 1: on a transverse plane of a beam
are related to the resisting moment M, and the shear K by the equations
V, = -f r,,, ax (7-la)
HIGH
M, = -f ya,a‘A (1-11>)
GIEZ
It is obvious fiom Eqs. 7-1 that the laws of variation of the normal and shearing
stresses must be known before the integrals can be evaluated.
The variation of normal stress on a plane is obtained by assuming that a
plane section before bending remains a plane after bending. For this to be strictly
true, it is necessary that the beam be bent only with couples. When a beam is bent
with couples, the defonned shape of all longitudinal elements (also referred to as
fibers) is an arc of a circle. Precise experimental measurements indicate that at
some distance c above the bottom of the beam, longitudinal elements undergo no
change in length. The curved surface formed by these elements is referred to as
the neutral surface of the beam, and the intersection of this surface with any cross
section is called the neutral axis of the section. All elements (fibers) on one side of
the neutral surface are compressed, while those on the opposite side are elongated.
As a result, the normal strain at any point on the plane can be expressed as
1
E,, = --py ( 1-2 1
Equation 7-2 indicates that the strain in a fiber is proportional to the distance of
the fiber fi"om the neutral surface of the beam. Equation 7-2 is valid for elastic or
inelastic action so long as the transverse shearing stresses are small.
sumu1n' 481
Since the longitudinal strain ex is proportional to the distance of the fiber

fi"om the neutral surface of the beam, the normal stress 0', on the plane (for linearly
elastic action] is given by Hooke’s law as
E
0, =Ee,,=——y (7-3)
P
Substituting Eq. 7-3 into Eq. 7-lb yields
E
M,=—]lya,dA=——/~y2dA
A P A
The integral ff, yz (IA is called the second moment of area. When the integral
L, yzd/I replaced by the symbol I, the elastic flexure formula is obtained as
M
<1, = -fy (7-s)
where 0, is the flexural stress at a distance y from the neutral surface and on a
transverse plane, M, is the resisting moment of the section, and I is the second
moment of area of the transverse section with respect to the neutral axis.
At any section of the beam, the flexural stress will be maximum (have the
greatest magnitude) at the surface farthest from the neutral axis (y = c), and Eq.
7-8 becomes
M M
Umax = = Y’ (1-91
where S = Ilc is called the section modulus of the beam. Although the section
modulus can be readily calculated for a given section, values (magnitudes) of the
modulus are often included in tables to simplify calculations. For a given area,
S becomes larger as the shape is altered to concentrate more of the area as far
as possible from the neutral axis. Commercial rolled shapes such as I-beams and
the various b11ilt-up sections are intended to optimize the area-section modulus
relation.
If the maximum flexural stress is required in a beam subjected to a loading
that produces a bending moment that varies with position along the beam, it is
desirable to have a method for determining the maximum moment. Similarly, the
maximum transverse shearing stress will occur at a section where the resisting
shear is maximum. Shear and bending moment diagrams provide a method for
obtaining maximum values of shear and moment. A shear diagram is a graph in
which abscissas represent distance along the beam and ordinates represent the
transverse shear at the corresponding sections. By definition, the shear at a section
is positive when the portion of the beam to the lefl of the section (for a horizontal
beam) tends to move upward with respect to the portion to the right ofthe sections.
A moment diagram is a graph in which abscissas represent distances along the
beam and ordinates represent the bending moment at the corresponding sections.
Also by definition, the bending moment in a horizontal beam is positive at sections
for which the top of the beam is in compression and the bottom is ir1 tension.
The equilibrium approach is a fairly simple and straightforward method of
getting equations for the shear force and bending moment in abeam. However, ifthe
loading on the beam is complex, the equilibrium approach can require several cuts
482 CHAPTER 7 risxurm. LDADING srrrsssrss IN BEAMS
and several free-body diagrams. Alternatively, four simple relationships (which

were developed by using equilibrium considerations) that are used to construct
shear and moment diagrams are
‘g = w (7-104)
X
That is, the slope of the shear diagram at any locationx in the beam is equal to the
intensity of loading at that section of the beam.
-Y:
V2— V. =f wdx (7-10¢)
X1
That is, for any section of the beam acted on by a distributed load w and no
concentrated force (P = 0), the change i.n shear between sections at x1 and X2 is
equal to the area imder the load diagram between the two sections.
dM
— = V 7-ll
dx ( C)
That is, the slope of the bending moment diagram at any location x in the beam is
equal to the value of the shear force at that section of the beam.
X2
M2—M| =f Vdx (7-lld)
1|
That is, for any section of the beam in which the shear force is continuous (C =
P = 0), the change in bending moment between sections at x| and xg is equal to
the area under the shear diagram between the two sections.
At each point in a beam, the horizontal (longitudinal) and vertical (transverse)
shearing stresses have the same magnitude and are given by the expression
r= (7-12)
where Q is the first moment (relative to the neutral axis) of the portion of the area
of the cross section between the transverse line where the shear stress is to be
evaluated and the top of the beam. The sense of the stress r is the same as the
sense of the shear K on the transverse plane and is determined from rxy = ry,
on a longitudinal plane. Because the flexure formula was used in the derivation
of Eq. 7-12, it is subject to the same limitations as the flexure formula. Although
the stress given by Eq. 7-12 is associated with a particular point in a beam, it is
averaged across the thickness I and hence is accurate only if 1‘ is not too great.
The shearing stress given by Eq. 7-12 is zero at the top and bottom of the
beam and varies quadratically between the top and bottom of the beam. Usually,
the maximum shear stress will occur at the neutral axis. However, if there is a
sudden change in the width of the beam, as at the junction between the web and
the flange of an I-beam, there will be a corresponding jump in the shearing stress.
Therefore, if the neutral axis is not the thinnest section of the beam, the maximum
shear stress may occur at the point closest to the neutral axis where the thickness
of the beam changes.
srnururmr 483
Equations 7-8, 7-9, and 7- 12 apply only to linearly elastic action in a beam of
a single material. The flexural stress was assumed to vary linearly from zero at the
neutral axis to a maximum at the edge of the beam. In addition, the flexural stress
was assumed to be constant across the width ofthe beam. Before these formulas can
be applied to a beam of two materials, the section must first be transformed into an
equivalent cross section for a beam of a homogeneous material. The transformed
section is obtained by replacing either material by an equivalent amount of the
other material as determined by the ratio n of their elastic moduli. For example,
the force on an element of area at a distance y from the neutral axis is unchanged if
the “stronger” material is replaced with a piece ofthe “weaker” material that is n =
E,/Ew times as wide as the “stronger” material. The actual stress in the “stronger”
material is then n times larger than the stress calculated at the same point in the
transformed section.
For some designs, the limitation requiring stresses to remain below the pro-
portional limit ofthe material results in uneconomical or inefficient designs. There-
fore, this limitation is sometimes discarded and higher stress levels are tolerated
in the design. The basic approach to solving problems involving inelastic action
is the same as that outlined in Sections 7-2 and 7-3 for linearly elastic action. The
neutral axis is located by using the equation
ZF,=f a,d/{=0
area
and solving for the location of the axis where 0,, is zero. Once the neutral axis is
located, the resisting moment is formd using Eq. 7-lb.
One of the assumptions made in the development of the elastic flexure for-
mula was that the loads were applied in aplane of symmetry. When this assumption
is not satisfied, the beam will, in general, twist about a longitudinal axis. It is pos-
sible, however, to place the loads in such a plane that the beam will not twist.
When any load is applied in such a plane, the line of action of the load will pass
through the shear center (also known as the center of flexure or center of twist).
For cross sections having an axis of symmetry, the shear center is always located
on the axis of symmetry. For cross-sectional areas having two axes of symmetry,
the shear center coincides with the centroid of the cross-sectional area. If a beam
having a cross section with only one axis of symmetry is positioned such that the
plane of symmetry is the neutral axis for flexural stresses, the plane of the loads
must be perpendicular to the neutral axis but cannot pass through the centroid if
bending is to occur without twisting.
Many machine and structural elements are subjected to a combination of
axial, torsional, intemal pressure, and flexural loads. Then, the intemal forces at
a section may be a combination of an axial force, a shear force, a torque, and./or a
bending moment. Ifthe strains are not too large, the stresses at a point of interest on
the cross section canbe calculated separately for each ofthe internal forces. Normal
stresses due to the axial force, the internal pressure, and the bending moment are
then added (or subtracted) to obtain the normal stress at the point. Sirrrilarly, the
shearing stresses at the point due to the shear force and the torque are added (or
subtracted) to obtain the shearing stress at the point. Once the total normal and
shearing stresses at a point are lcnown, the stress transformation equations can be
used to determine normal and shearing stresses on other planes through the point.
Principal stresses and maximum shearing stresses at the point and the planes on
which they act can be detennined by using Mohr’s circle or Eqs. 2-14 through 2-18.
484 cnavrsrt 7 rrrrxuruu. LOADING: srrtsssas [N rnmrs
1 REVIEW PROBLEMS
7-217* A beam has the cross section shown in Fig. P7-217. If the 600 lb
flexural stress at point A is 2000 psi (T) . determine y l
a. The maximum flexural stress on the section.
l 300 lbifl
b. The resisting moment, M, at the section.
B C D
.4 zonrbm
an tort?-;-—srr
2in. 8 in‘ 2i1:t.
7601,, 16401b
Figure P7-2 19
Figure P7-217
t»;-e
t 7-220* A beam is loaded and supported as shownin Fig. P7-220.
a. Draw complete shear force and bending moment diagrams
for the beam.
b. Using the coordinate axes shown, write equations for the
shear force and bending moment for any section of the beam
intheinterval0 <x<41:n.
7-218* A T-beam has the cross section shown in Fig. P7-218. De-
termine the maximum tensile and compressive flexural stresses
on a cross section of the beam where the resisting moment be- 10kN J’ 20104
ing transmitted is 100 kN - m. | 8kN."rn
‘-3 C E
.9: I-J me ~{_ “cam 4m p4 m
|'-lfiflrnrnf
_T_ Figure P7-220
S0 rnm
7-221 The beam shown in Fig. P7-221a has the cross section
shown in Fig. P7-2215. Determine the maximum tensile and
200 rmn
31.5 mm — compressive flexural stresses in the beam.
Figure P7-218 1000 lb

1000 -B 5. >- 5.
ifii‘ _e_
EI29
500 lbifi 500 lbffi “"_
7-219 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P7-219. Sin.
a. Draw complete shear force and bending moment diagrams

for the beam.
‘J5 I’
.-4a an---—sa
4430 lb
D
45701:»
4n- El _
H !5'"T—
b. Using the coordinate axes shown, write equations for the
shear force and bending moment for any section ofthe beam (Q) (-5)
in the interval 0 < x <10 ft. Figure P7-221
ruzvrsw PROBLEMS 485
7 222 A WT 305 x 70 structural tee (see Appendix B) is loaded 7-225* Determine the maximum elastic and plastic bending mo-
and supported as a beam (with the flange on top) as shown in ments for a W14 x 120 steel beam having a proportional limit
Fig. P7-222. Determine (equal to the yield point) of 36 ksi.
a. The maximum tensile flexural stress in the beam. 7-226* Locate the shear center for the cross section shown in
b. The maximum compressive flexural stress in the beam. Fig. P7-226 and determine the maximum shearing stress pro-
c. The maximum vertical shearing stress in the beam duced on the cross section by a vertical shear of 2.5 kN.
d. The vertical shearing stress at a point in the stem just below
the flange on the cross section where the maximum vertical
shearing stress occurs.
10kN
3mm
gs
low 15 k.Nr‘m
_tTLlE 1 tn m 2m 1 In —r mg, Pr
Figure P7-222
Figure P7-226
7 223* An 8 >< S X l-in angle is used for a beam that is sub-

jected to a moment of magnitude 6000 lb - ft. The resisting
moment M, on the cross section is in the direction shown on 7-227 A 2-in.-wide x 3-in.-deep polymer (E = 300 ksi) beam
Fig. P7-223. The second and mixed moments of area for the will be reinforced with U8-in-thick structural aluminum (E =
cross section are I, = I, = 89.0 in.‘ and Iy, = 52.5 in.‘ Deter- 10,000 ksi) plates on its top and bottom faces. A maximum
mine the maximum tensile and compressive flexural stresses bending moment of 10 kip - in. must be resisted by the com-
and state where on the cross section they occur. posite beam. If the allowable flexural stresses are l ksi in the
polymer and 20 ksi in the aluminum, determine the minimmn
width required for the aluminum plates.
Y 7-228 A simply supported reinforced concrete beam carries a uni-

formly distributed load of 10 kNlm on a span of5 m. The beam
Mr has a rectangular cross section 250 mm wide >< 450 mm deep.
Four 20-mm-diameter steel reinforcing rods are placed 50 mm
from the bottom of the beam, as shovtm in Fig. P7-228. The
modulii of elasticity of the concrete and steel are 17 MPa and
200 MPa, respectively. Determine the average tensile stress in
the steel and the maximum compressive stress in the concrete
/,..- Centroid at the section of maximum moment.
Z
1250rrtrnI‘
2.37 in. '.
.-\"\
. a
Figure P7-223 no
1
Q1 ‘
a
‘ 1
> -1 1
\ "-
n Au -
7-224 A steel bar, similar to the bar shown in Fig. 7-34c, is sub- u.‘ .
jected to a bending moment M of 1400 N - m lfh = 75 mm, O‘-O-0'.‘ —*L 50 mm
b = 50 mm, and d = 20 mm, determine the maximum flexural —T
stress in the bar. Figure P7-228
486 CHAPTER 7 FLEXIIRAL LOADING: STRESSES [N BEAMS
7-229* A crane hook has the dimensions and cross section shown 7-231 A steel shaft 4 in. in diameter is supported in flexible bear-
in Fig. P7-229. The allowable stresses on plane a-a are 12,000 ings at its ends. Two pulleys, each 2 ft in diameter, are keyed
psi (T) and 16,000 psi (C). Determine the capacity P of the to the shalt. The pulleys carry belts that produce the forces
hook. shown in Fig. P7-231. Determine the principal stress and the
maximum shearing stress at point A on the top surface of the
shaft.
P
3in. lin.
it ter tIt 1-mt- in. T2 in.

__
Zfi
lfl
T %in.
Section a — a J3 /~/nv
. A \Q
P
400 lb i
l.
25 00 lb
Figure P7-229
2500 lb
400 lb
7-230 The beam shown in Fig. P7-230 has a 75 x 200-mm rectan- Figure P7-231
gular cross section and is loaded in a plane of symmetry. Deter-
mine the principal and maximum shearing stresses at point A.
7-232* Select the lightest pair of structural steel angles (see Ap-
320kN 4 pendix B) that may be used for the beam of Fig. P7-232 if
3 the maximum flexural stress must be limited to 60 MI-‘a. The
/ / angles will be fastened back to back to form a T-section.
400 mm
V 4
1 3 kN
4kN.~‘m
259 mm 50 mm
L . .-. (ABIG 6kN-rn D E

—’ 200 mm 3'1N'm< 1.5m
rm-l 2m 1- 1.5m
18 kN 3 kN
Chapter 8
Flexural Loading: Beam Deflections
8-1 INTRODUCTION
Important relations between applied load and stress (flexural and shear) in a beam
were presented in Chapter 7. A beam design, however, is frequently not complete
rmtil the amount ofdeflection has been determined for the specified load. Failure to
control beam deflections within proper limits inbuilding construction is fiequently
reflected by the development of cracks in plastered walls and ceilings. Beams in
many machines must deflect just the right amotmt for gears or other parts to make
proper contact. In innumerable instances the requirements for a beam involve a
given load-carrying capacity with a specified maximum deflection.
The deflection of a beam depends on the stiffness of the material and the
dimensions ofthe beam as well as on the applied loads and supports. Four common
methods for calculating beam deflections owing to flexural stresses are presented
here: (1) the integration method, (2) the singularity function method, (3) the su-
perposition method, and (4) an energy method.
8-2 THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF THE

ELASTIC CURVE
When a straight beam is loaded and the action is elastic, the centroidal axis of the
beam is a curve defined as the elastic curve. An example ofan elastic curve is shown
in Fig. 8-1. The deflection (displacement) of the elastic curve (measured from the
undeformed centroidal axis) is given the symbol v and is positive when measured
Illllllllll P
ir1 the upward direction (positive y-direction). An enlarged view of a portion of I I
I 1| ¢|
the elastic curve is shown in Fig. 8-2. To find the displacement (deflection) v at Y| '
I
point A in the elastic curve, consider the slope of the elastic curve at A, and the I .-—~_
\_/ T“-___/’
angle 6: i"""— Elastic curve
Figure 8-1
dv
Slope = —
dx = tan 9 (a)
For a small slope, tan 9 Fe 6 (measured in radians), and
dv
9 = dz
— ( b)
487
488 CHAPTER s I-‘LEXIJRAL LOADING: tum! DEFLE(.'l'IONS
J’ The curvature, 1110, from the calculus is

I
L_2 (C,
P — [1 +(dv/M13”
‘\
Since the slope is small, the denominator of Eq. (c) may be written as
‘\
Elastic curve —~., " '9

\ A [1 + (dv/dx)2]3’Q 2 1
ll .
V
Figure 8-2
I and Eq. (c) becomes
1 dz d6
_ = _‘; = _ (4)
p dx dx
Vifhen Eq. 7-3
<1, = Ea, = E(_7y) (1-3)
and Eq. 7-s

—M
“I=%y (7-3)
are combined with Eq. (d), the result is
1 M, dzv
p ' El _ dxz (6)
Thus,
dzv
EI F = M, (8-1)
where dzvfdxz is the curvature (1/p) of the elastic curve, E is the modulus of
elasticity of the beam material, I is the second moment of area of the cross~
sectional area with respect to the neutral axis, and M1. is the resisting moment.
Note that E, I, and M, may be ftmctions of the coordinate x.
J"
M — negative M — positive
The sign convention for bending moments established in Section 7-5 will
C
be used for Eq. 3-l. Both E and I are always positive; therefore, the signs of the
‘ bending moment and the second derivative must be consistent. With the coordinate
div - div - -
axes shown ir1 Fig. 8-3, the slope changes from positive to negative ir1 the interval
E — negative — POSIIIVC
fi'om A to B; therefore, the second derivative is negative, which agrees with the
sign convention for the moment established in Section 7-5. For the interval BC,
both dzv/dxz and M are positive.
Figure 8-3 Figure 8-3 also reveals that the signs of the bending moment and the second
derivative are also consistent when the origin of the coordinate system is selected
at the right end of the beam with x positive to the lefi and v positive upward.
Equations 7-10d, 7-l 1c, and 8-l provide a means for correlating the succes-
sive derivatives of the deflection v of the elastic curve with the physical quantities
s-5 nrrincrronnrmacimrrou 489
that they represent ir1 beam action. Thq; are
Deflection =
Slope = —
E-%“
M OIHCHr Z Eldzv
i (fro In Eq8
. - 1)
dxz
Shear = dM
— (fi'om Eq. 7-1 lc) = E1 d3
—v (forEI constant)
mix dx3
4
Load = g (from Eq. 7-10d) = EI g (forEl constant)
where the signs are as given in Section 7-5.

Before developing specific methods for calculating beam deflections, it is
advisable to consider the assumptions used in the development of the basic rela-
tion, Eq. 8-1. All of the limitations that apply to the flexure formula apply to the
calculation of deflections because the flexure formula was used in the derivation
of Eq. 8-1. It is further assumed that
1. The square of the slope of the beam is negligible compared to unity.
2. The beam deflection due to shearing stresses is negligible (a plane section is
assumed to remain plane).
3. The values of E and I remain constant for any interval along the beam. In case
either of them varies and can be expressed as a ftmction of the distance x along
the beam, a solution of Eq. 8-l that takes this variation into account may be
possible.
8-3 DEFLECTION BY INTEGRATION

Whenever the assumptions of the previous section are essentially correct and the
bending moment can be readily expressed as an integrable function of x, Eq. 8-1
can be solved for the deflection v of the elastic c1n've of a beam at any point x
(R) (11)
along the beam. The constants of integration can be evaluated fi'om the applicable
botmdary or matching conditions.
A boundary condition is defined as a known set of values forx and v, orx
and dv/dx, at a specific location along the beam. One boundary condition can be
used to determine one and only one constant of integration. For example, a roller
or pin at any point in a beam (Figs. 8-4a and b) represents a simple support at
which the beam cannot deflect (unless otherwise stated in the problem) but can (0) (4)
rotate. At a fixed end, as represented by Figs. 8-4c and d, the beam can neither Figure 8-4
deflect nor rotate unless otherwise stated. Thus, a boundary condition is v = 0 at
the pin support of Fig. S-4a, and v = 0 at the roller support of Fig. 8-4b. At the
fixed support shown in Fig. 8-4c (or d), the boundary conditions are v = O and
dv/dx — 0.
Many beams are subjected to abrupt changes in loading along the beam,
such as concentrated loads, reactions, or even distinct changes in the amotmt of
uniformly distributed load. Because the expressions for the bending moment on
the lefi and right of any abrupt change in load are different functions of x, it is
impossible to write a single equation for the bending moment in terms of ordinary
algebraic functions that is valid for the entire length of the beam. This can be
resolved by writing separate bending moment equations for each interval of the
490 crnrrrzn s rrsxnrur. 1.o11nr1vc= BEAM nsrrscrrons
beam. Although the intervals are bounded by abrupt changes in load, the beam is
continuous at such locations; therefore, the slope and the deflection at the junction
of adjacent intervals must match. A matching condition is defined as the equality
of slope or deflection, as determined at the junction of two intervals from the
elastic curve equations for both intervals. One matching condition (for example,
at x equals Lf3, v fi"om the left equation equals v fi"om the right equation) can be
used to determine one and only one constant of integration.
The procedure for obtaining beam deflections when matching conditions are
required is lengthy and tedious. A method is presented in Section 8-5 in which
singularity firnctions are used to write a single equation for the bending moment
that is valid for the entire length of the beam; this eliminates the need for matching
conditions and, accordingly, reduces the labor involved.
Calculating the deflection ofa beam by the double integration method, that is,
integrating Eq. 8-1 twice, involves four definite steps, and the following sequence
for these steps is strongly recommended.
1. Select the interval or intervals of the beam to be used; next, place a set of co-
ordinate axes on the beam with the origin at one end of an interval and then
indicate the range of values of x in each interval. For example, two adjacent
intervals nright be
05x5L/3 and L/'35x5L
2. List the available boundary and matching conditions (where two or more adja-
cent intervals are used) for each interval selected. Remember that two conditions
are required to evaluate the two constants of integration for each interval used.
3. Express the bending moment as a function of x for each interval selected and
equate it to EI(d2v/dxz).
4. Solve the differential equation orequations from step 3 and evaluate all constants
of integration. Check the resulting equations for dimensional homogeneity.
Calculate the deflection at specific points when required.
The following examples illustrate the use of the double integration method
for calculating beam deflections.
9
-J» i EXHIIIPIB Pfflblflfll 8-1 A beam is loaded and supported as shown
in Fig. 8-5a. Determine
J’
(a) The equation of the elastic curve.
i W "‘:_
(b) The deflection at the lefl end of the beam.
lllllllllllli (c) The slope at the lefi end of the beam.
L -
SOLUTION
(H) (a) The beam is sectioned at position x, and a free-body diagram is drawn for
the segment of the beatrr to the left of the section, as shown in Fig. 8-Sb. The
... 5.1») notations I'I.(x) and M,(x) indicate that the shear and bending moment are
functions ofx. The resisting shear force and bending moment are both shown
in the positive directions defined in Chapter 7. Srmmring moments about a
horizontal axis in the plane of the section eliminates the shear and yields
l x Oi V4‘)
(b) wxz
Figure 8-5
s-5 DEFLECIIONBYHWEGRATION 491
fi'om which
2
M,(x)=-‘iii 0515.2
Equation 8-1 then gives
dzv wxz
EI F = -T 05x 5L
where E and I are constant. Successive integration gives
dv wx3
((1)
and
4
Erv = 3% + C|x + Cg (b)

where C | and C; are constants of integration to be determined using the P Boundary conditions are simply condi-
boundary conditions. The available boundary conditions are tions that rnust be satisfied by a function
[in this case v(x)] at the boundaries or ends
dv of the interval. The cantilevered connection
— =0 when x =L (c) at the wall provides whatever force is nee-
dx
essary to prevent vertical motion (v = 0 at x
v=O when x =L (d) = L) and whatever moment is necessary to
prevent rotation (dvfdx = 6 = 0 at x = L).
Substituting Eq. (c) into Eq. (a) and Eq. (d) into Eq. (b) gives
wL3 WL3
U=—— C C =—
15 + ' 1 6
and
wL" wL3 WL4
0=——
24 +—
6 ( L )+ C2 C2 =—i
8
Substituting values of C1 and C; into Eq. (b) gives the equation of the elastic
curve for the beam. Thus,
v=—%(x4—4L3x+3L4) 05x5L Ans.

Note that the elastic curve equation is dimensionally homogeneous.
(b) At the left end of the beam, x = 0; therefore,
w WL4 wl.‘
V
= -_ - L4
2451“) 0+ 3 )
= -_ = _
sat 8151 J’
A“S .
The negative sign indicates that the deflection is downward.
(c) The slope of the elastic curve is given by Eq. (a) as
g=—%(x3—L3) 05x5L
492 CHAPTER s rrsxurur. 1.o11n11vc= tram nnrrrzcnons
fi'om which the slope at the left end of the beam, where x = 0, is
dv w wL3 wL3
—=——0—L3=
dx 6EI( —=—
) +651 6514 An.5
The plus sign indicates that the slope of the beam at the left end is positive
(upward and to the right).
i EXHIIIPIE Pfflbifilll 8-2 For the beam loaded and supported as shown
in Fig. 8-6a, determine
(a) The equation of the elastic curve for the interval between the supports.
(b) The deflection midway between the supports.
(c) The point ofmaximum deflection between the supports.
(d) The maximum deflection in the interval between the supports.
SOLUTION
(a) From a free-body diagram of the beam and the equation EMB = 0,
TEMB =0; R all

L—L—
L2 L
+ 12 WL (2)
- =0
7wL 7wL
R = —=—
A +12 12 T
P The origin of coordinates is ofien placed As indicated in Fig. 8-6b, the origin of coordinates is selected at the left
at the left support to simplify the determi- support, and the interval to be used is 0 5 x 5 L. The two required boundary
nation of the constants of integration. Since
conditions are v = 0 when x = 0 and v = 0 when x = L. From the free-body
the deflection is zero at a support, this choice
diagram of the portion of the beam shown in Fig. 8-6b, Eq. 8-1 yields
makes v = 0 at I = 0, which then makes
C; = 0.
.11 7 L
E1é=M,(x)=%x-'”%-mg)
L2 05x5L
l s
L
12.11 i L l
(<1)
Jr’
I W Mm
l
12
J3
(5)
Figure 8-6
s-5 DEFLECIIONBYHWEGRATION 493
Successive integration gives
dv 7 L
EI— = lx2—Lx— ‘ix3+C1
L2
dx 24 12 6
and
7wL wL2 w
Eli? = F13 — TF2 — £14 +C1X +C2
where C| and C; are constants of integration to be determined using the

boundary conditions. Substitution of the boundary condition v = 0 when
x = 0 gives
C2 = 0
Substitution of the remaining boundary condition v = O when x = L gives
L3
C1 = -“:7
Therefore, the elastic curve equation is
-.» = —%(3x4 - 7L1-’* + 3L2x2 + L31) 05I5L Ans.
(b) The deflection midway between the supports is obtained by substituting x =

L/'2 into the elastic curve equation. Thus,
~»=-e[3(s)“~-(2)3~-e)“-e1]
fi'om which
v = _ wL‘ =_ 7.31 (10 -3 )wL 4 = 1s1(10

. -3 )wL 4 L Am
1281:-:1 EI El
(c) The maximum deflection occurs where the slope dvfdx is zero
g=—%(12x3 —2lLxz+6L2x+L3)=0 051 5 L
fiom which
1213 - 211312 + 6L2x + L3 = 0

, _ , , _ , _ , _ P Th b' ' 1213 — 2lLx2 +
The solution of tlns cubic equanon mx gives the point of maximum deflection 6L;x j_c:£3lc=eq6m:a0§ three room. x
+l.325L. Only the middle root has physi-

x = 0.541 L to the right of the left support Ans. cal significance in this problem.
494 crrsrrrzrt s rmxmur. r.o11n11vc= BEAM nnruzcrross
(d) The maximum deflection can readily be obtained by substituting 0.54 1L for
x in the elastic curve equation. The result is
7.8310-3 L“ 7.38 10-‘ L‘

Vmax = — ( E, )w = ( EI )w .1. Ans.
i Example Probl 8-3 For the beanr loaded and supported as shown
in Fig. S-7a, determine the deflection of the right end.
SOLUTION
From the free-body diagram of Fig. 8-Tb, the equations of equilibrium give
+1*EF,,=0t V,1—w(L/3)=0 V,|=wLf31*

+ at 2114,, = 0; M. - w (L/3)(5L/6) = 0 114,, = 5wL2/18L
In Fig. 8-Tb there are two intervals to be considered, nanrely, the loaded
portion of the beam and the unloaded portion of the beam. The loaded portion
of the beam must be used because it contains the point where the deflection is
required. However, a quick check reveals the absence of boundary conditions
in this interval. It therefore becomes necessary to use both intervals as well as
matching and boundary conditions; hence, the origin of coordinates is selected
at the left end of the beam, as shown. The intervals are
05x52L/3 and 2L/35x5L
The available boundary conditions are
dv
5:0 when x=0
v=0 when x=0
illlllliiill §;»_g M4»)

.1 a <.~ ( I iii
—2Ln “ins 3 L1 x -7-l V.1r1
FL.
(3) (C)
W 5 L2 W
W
1s M1‘)
[ix | 1
L _ _ V x
Figure s-7
s-5 nrzrrncrros BY lNl'EGRA'I‘l0N 495
The available matching conditions when x = 2L/'3 are
dv . dv , .
E fi'om the left equation = 5 fi'om the nght equation
v from the left equation = v from the right equation
where the left equation is for the interval 0 5 x 5 2L/3 and the right equation is
for the interval 2L/3 5 x 5 L. Four conditions (two boundary and two matching)
are sufficient for the evaluation of the four constants of integration (two in each
of the two elastic curve differential equations); therefore, the problem can be
solved in the following manner.
From the fiee-body diagram of Fig. 8-7c where the beam is sectioned in
the unloaded interval, Eq. 8-l yields for 0 5 x 5 2L/3
dzv wL 5wL2
(I1)
From the free-body diagram of Fig. 8-7d where the beam is sectioned in
the loaded interval, Eq. 8-1 yields for 2L/3 5 x 5 L
dzv wL 5wL2 2L x — 2L/3

HF = Md’) = T‘ ' Ts“ ' ”(" ' <5)
Integration of Eqs. (a) and (b) gives
dv L SL2
E1Zx=‘%x1-";Tx+c. 05x52L/3 (c)
dv wt, 5wL2 w 21.’
El5——'€-X ——I~é—x—g(x——§—) -t-C3 2L/GSIEL
Substitution of the boundary condition % = O when x = 0 into Eq. (c) gives
C1 = 0
Since the beam has a continuous slope atx = 2L/3
dv dv
E [from Eq. (c) at x = 2L/3] = E [from Eq. (d) at x = 2L/'3]
which gives
C3 = 0
Integration of the resulting differential equations gives
L
E1v=1x3-Lx2+c2
s L1 05x 52L/3
18 36
L 5 L1 2L “
EIv=wx3— W x2—w(x— +c., 2L/35x5L
1s 36 24 3
CHAPTER 8 FLEXURAL LOADING: BEAM DEFLIEITIONS
Use ofthe remaining boundary condition yields C; — 0. Use ofthe final matching
condition yields C4 = 0.
The deflection of the right end of the beam can now be obtained fi'om the
elastic curve equation for the right interval by replacing x by its value L. The
result is
wL , 5wL2 , w 2L “
EIv_1s(L)— 36 (L)’24 L‘ 3
fi'om which
163 wL4
= —ii = ii
163 wL4 All .
V 1944 EI 1944 El 4’ 5
J, “b -I Example Problem 8-4 DetCl'n'1i.l’1e the deflection at the leit end of

the cantilever beam with variable width shown in Fig. 8-8.
P j, SOLUTION
I Since the width w of the beam varies linearly with respect to position x along the
length of the beam, the second moment of area I ofthe cross section also varies
linearly with respect to position x. Thus, at position x,
Figure s-s ,_*2E_i_(£ (1 _,(£

_12_ 12 _ 12 L*‘L
where IL = bh31'12 is the second moment of area of the cross section of the beam
at the support. This variation in second moment of area I must be included in
the integration process used to determine the equation ofthe elastic curve for the
beam. The equation of the elastic curve for the beam is obtained by successive
integration from Eq. 8-1. Thus,
Ed2v_M,(x)_ Px_ Px _ PL
dx3— 1 _ 1‘ no/L)‘ 1,
Er, dZ: = —PLx + c,

PL 1
Elrv = ——i-x— +C1x+C2
From the boundary conditions,
dv
g=0 when x=L, C1=PL2
PL3
v=0 when x=L, C1=—T
s-5 DEFI.EC'11ONBYlN’l'EGRATION 497
Thus, the equation ofthe elastic c1n've is
v=—— ——
PL (>8 Lx + —
L2
E1, 2 2
At the left end of the beam where x = 0, the deflection is
PL3 SPL3
v=——=—,L Ans.
ZEIL Ebhz
It is also interesting to note how the maximum flexural stress varies along P Equation (a) indicates that the maximum
the length of the beam. From Eq. 7-9, flexural stress does not depend on position
x but is constant along the entire length of
h the beam. This type of beam is fiequently
referred to as a constant stress beam.
Mc P45) 6PL
“W = T = W = W (4)
E I
1 PROBLEMS
MecMuvie Activities and Problems Y
MM8.l Beam bormdary condition game. Determine appropriate

I
w
botmdary conditions necessary to determine beam deflections
using the double integration method.
A B
Introductory Problems L

a. The equation of the elastic curve. Use the designated axes. 8-3 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-3.
b. The deflection at the lett end of the beam. Determine
c. The slope at the lefl end of the beam. a. The equation of the elastic curve. Use the designated axes.
b. The deflection midway between the supports.
c. The slope at the lefl end of the beam.
J’
l ..
ix
Cb A B
.= L
L
Figure P8-l
Figure P8-3
8-2* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-2. 8-4* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-4.
Determine Determine
a. The equation of the elastic curve. Use the designated axes. a. The equation of the elastic curve. Use the designated axes.
b. The deflection at the right end of the beam. b. The deflection at the left end of the beam.
c. The slope at the right end of the beam. c. The slope at the left end of the beam
498 crntvrss s FLEXURAL r.o1tn11~1c= stun nsrrscnons
24 i(N‘t1'l
( A B
iflefl
30mm
A B
ii L L 2 mil
Figure P8-4 to (b)
Figure P8-8
Determine
8-9 The beam shown in Fig. P8-9 is a W10 >< 30 structural
a . The equation of the elastic curve . Use the designated axes. steel (E = 29,000 ksi) wide-flange section (see Appendix B).
b. The deflection midway between the supports. Determine
c. The slope at the right end of the beam.
a. The equation of the elastic c1n"ve. Use the designated axes.
b. The deflection at the lefl end of the beam if w = 2000 lb/ft
J? and L = 10 ft.
l w
L
A
L
B
’|' L1-
2
Figure rs-5
l|||ii|||l1
8-6 For the steel beam [E = 200 GPa and I = 32.0(10°) mm“]
shown in Fig. P8-6, determine the deflection at a section mid-
way between the supports.
n___s it
Figure P8-9
1 A B 1
10ltN 10kN
8-10* A cantilever beam is fixed at the lefl end and carries a uni-
formly distributed load w over the full length of the beam. In
at M» “ta 1
addition, the right end is subjected to a moment of 3wL2/8, as
shown in Fig. P8-10. Determine
a. The equation of the elastic curve. Use the designated axes.
b. The maximum deflection in the beam if] = 2.5 (106) mm‘,
E=210 GPa,L =31n,andw= l§OON:"m.
8-7* For the steel beam (E = 30,000 ksi and I = 32.1 in‘) shown
in Fig. P8-7, determine the deflection at a section midway be-
Y
tween the supports. I
w
7500 lb<fi 7500 lb-ft

3wL2
(sh_. Mn ..quJ
4 B if |
A B ) 8
Figure P8-10
8-11* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-l 1.

8-8 The cantilever beam shown in Fig. P8-8a is fabricated from
Determine
three 30 >< 120-mm aluminum (E = 70 GPa) bars, as shown
in Fig. P8-Sb. Determine the deflection at the left end of the a. The equation of the elastic curve. Use the designated axes.
beam. b. The deflection midway between the supports.
es nmnscnonnrnnmmmnou 499
J’ 11¢:
wL2 | smmm I
T “’ A 1 B c
I
T .
A I B 20m i ljm 1
~ L Figure P8-14
Figure P8-l 1
8-15 Determine the maximum deflection for the beam shown in
Fig. P8-15.
Determine
a. The equation of the elastic curve for the interval between
the supports. Use the designated axes.
453-
- . L DM - .B
~ L L
Figure P8-15
)’
I W 8-16* A boy with a mass of60 kg is standing on a 40 x 300-mm
A B c wood (E = 10 GPa) diving board, as shown in Fig. P8-16. If
___ mi the lengthAB is 0.6 m and the length BC is 1.5 m, determine
5 ' )1a
the maximum deflection in the diving board when the boy is
L ' .5‘ U3 i standing on the end of the board.
Figure P8-12
Determine
a. The equation of the elastic curve. Use the designated axes. A B _
b. The slope at the lefl and right ends of the beam.
c. The deflection midway between the supports. C
‘ u 1¢ n '
a 1 u —*A_
u
Y P Figure P8-l6
A C
8-17 Determine the maximum deflection for the beam shown in
‘+1./'2 QL M27 Fig. P8-17.
Figure P8-13
T w
8-14* A 100 x 300-mm timber having a modulus of elastic-
ity of 8 GPa is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-14. A I B
Determine
a. The deflection at the 7-kN load. L l L
b. The deflection at the flee end of the beam. Figure P8-17
S00 CHAPTER s FLEXIIRAL LOADING: BEAM niiruicnons
W
8-18 A timber beam 150 mm wide x 300 mm deep is loaded and
supported as shown in Fig. P8-18. The modulus of elasticity of A B C
the timber is 10 GPa. Apointer is attached to the right end ofthe I
beam The load acts at the midpoint of the span. Determine
a. The deflection of the right end of the pointer. L U2 =
b. The maximum deflection of the beam. Figure P8-2 1
P = 8900 N _ 6.
8-22* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-22
Determine
a. The equation of the elastic curve. Use the designated axes.
b. The deflection at the lefl end of the beam.
.= 5.5m - 1.5m u‘
Figure rs-1s
w(x)=Icx2- I
8-19* The cantilever beam shown in Fig. P8-19 has a second mo- ‘I’
ment of area of I in the interval AB and a second moment of L.
area of 21 in the interval BC. Determine the deflection at end AL L B
A of the beam.
Figure P8-22
Y
P
I 8-23* Determine the deflection midway between the supports for
beam AB of Fig. P8-23. Segment BC of the beam is rigid.
L1-
A- B‘ C 2
1 L L L C
Figure P8-19 W U2

AI
IIIIIIIIII é B
Determine
a. The equation of the elastic curve of member AB. Use the ee
designated axes. Figure P8-23
b. The slope at the right end of the beam AB.
c. The deflection midway between the supports.
8-24 The beam shown in Fig. P8-24 is a WT 203 >< 37 structural
steel (E = 200 GPa) T-section (see Appendix B). Determine
y P
a. The equation of the elastic curve for the region of the beam
between the supports. Use the designated axes.
A
Rigid b. The deflection midway between the supports if w =
5.5 kNim andL = 3.5 m.
A ‘I é B.
2.Le"3 J‘
Figure rs-20 I W
A B WLZ
Determine
—e IC 1::
a. The maximum deflection between the supports. L E LI3 I
b. The deflection at the right end of the beam. Figure P8-24
s-3 DEFLEC'1‘l0NBY]1\I’l‘EGRATION S01
8-25 The beam shown in Fig. P8-25 is a W8 x 40 structural 8-28 The simply supported beam ABCD shown in Fig. P8-28 has
steel (E = 29,000 ksi) wide-flange section (see Appendix B). a second moment of area of 21 in the center section BC and a
Determine second moment of area of I in the other two sections near the
supports. Determine
a. The equation of the elastic cunre for the region of the beam
between the supports. Use the designated axes. a. The deflection at section B.
b. The deflection midway between the supports if w = 240 lb,/ft b. The maximum deflection in the beam.
and L = 16 fl.
wL=r2 X
( U f A D
e.m.L2.Ie..Lt
0 , B- C 1
U2 L U2 I
Challenging Problems 8-29* Determine the maximum deflection for the beam shown in
Fig. P8-29.
8-26* The cantilever beamABC shown in Fig. P8-26 has a second
moment of area of 21 in the interval AB and a second moment
of area ofI in the interval BC. Determine
J’
a. The deflection at section B. I
b. The deflection at section C.
w
P P
i c
‘LIBLI
A L ‘B AC
Figure P8-29
Figure P8-26
8-27* Abeam/IB is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-27. Determine
The load P is applied through a collar that can be positioned
a. The deflection at the lefl end of the beam.
on the load bar DE at any location in the interval L/4 < a <
31.14. Determine
a. The equation of the elastic Cl..l.1'VB for beam AB.
b. The location of the load P for maximum deflection at )" __-
end B.
W
c. The location of load P for zero deflection at end B.
_‘
y Ali: F c
I ': L .1. 2L 2
ix
A ‘TlB Figure P8-30
' D C E
8-31 The cantilever beam ABC shown in Fig. P8-31 has a second
\_ \
a “~-\- Rigid moment of area of 41 in the interval AB and a second moment
of area of I in the interval BC. Determine
P a. The deflection at section B.
Figure P8-27 b. The deflection at section C.
S02 CHAPTER s FLEXURAL LOADING: arm nrruzcnons
2w ‘"5 8-34 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-34.
Determine the deflection at the lefl end of the distributed
load.
A
L¥B LAC
Figure P8-31
Determine the deflection midway between the supports.
A; —=
' : I L : L '
B
I
I_ITITl Figure P8-34
0 ' Q
8-35 The cantilever beam ABC shown in Fig. P8-35 has a second
Figure rs-32 moment of area of 41 in the interval AB and a second moment
of area of I in the interval BC. Determine
8-33* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-33. a. The deflection at section B.
Determine b. The deflection at section C.
a. The slope at the left end of the beam.
b. The maximum deflection between the supports.
Zw W
A
%.
. L
I
i
xii ; L l L+.
.
B A I1: c
Li~riLi-
Figure rs-as Figure P8-35
8-4 DEFLECTIONS BY INTEGRATION OF SHEAR FORCE

OR LOAD EQUATIONS
In Section 8-3, the equation ofthe elastic curve was obtained by integrating Eq. 8-1
and applying the appropriate boundary conditions to evaluate the two constants of
integration. In a similar manner, the equation of the elastic c1u've can be obtained
from load and shear force equations. The differential equations that relate deflection
v to load w(x) or deflection v to shear force V(x) are obtained by substituting
Eq. 7-1 lc or Eq. 7-1 ld, respectively, into Eq. 8- l. Thus,
dzv
El F = M(x) [8-1)
d3v
4
El g = w(x) (s-3)
When Eq. 8-2 or 8-3 is used to obtain the equation ofthe elastic curve, either three
or four integrations will be required instead of the two integrations required with
s-4 nnrnzcrtons BY mrscmrtos or snssn roan: on mm squtmoss 503
Eq. 8-1. These additional integrations will introduce additional constants of inte-
gration. The botmdaty conditions, however, now include conditions on the shear
forces and bending moments, in addition to the conditions on slopes and deflec-
tions. Use of a particular differential equation is usually based on mathematical
convenience or personal preference. In those instances when the expression for
the load is easier to write than the expression for the moment, Eq. 8-3 would be
preferred over Eq. 3-l. The following examples illusnate the use of Eq. 8-3 for
calculating beam deflections.
1 Example Problem 8-5 A beam is loaded and supported as shown Y

in Fig. 8-9. Determine i W
(a) The equation of the elastic curve.

(b) The maximum deflection of the beam. ,4 |’Fi* 3
- I. - '
SOLUTION
:-it
(a) Since the equation for the load distribution [w(x) = w = constant] is given, Figure 8-9
Eq. S-3 will be used to determine the equation of the elastic curve. In Sec-
tion 7-6 (see Fig. 7-16), the upward direction was considered positive for a
distributed load w; therefore, Eq. 8-3 is written as
dfv
E1 F = w(x) = —w
d3
Elé = V(x)= —wx+C1
d2 2
EIé=M(x)=-‘%+c,x+c2
dv 3 2
E15:-%+c1%+c2x+c,
wx4 x3 x2
EI =__ c- c- c c
V 24+‘6+’2+’x+“
The four constants of integration are determined by applying the boundary P The constant C1 could also have been de-
conditions. Thus, termined from a boundary condition involv-
ing the shear force V. For example, the shear
force jumps upward by wL/2 across the left
At x = 0, v = 0; therefore, C4 = 0 support. Therefore, at x = 0 the shear force
At x = O, M = 0; therefore, C2 = 0 equation gives V = w(0) + C, = wL/2 and
the first constantofintegration is C t = wLf2.
At x = L, M = 0; therefore, C1 = %
3
Atx=L,v=0; therefore,C3=—&
24
Thus,
__ 24EI[x
v_ W 4_ 2Lx 3 +Lx]
3 Ans.
S04 CHAPTER s rmxmm. LOADING: mam nnruzcnonts
(b) The maximum deflection occurs at x = L./2, which when substituted into the
equation of the elastic curve gives
SWL4 SWL4 L Ans

v = —— = — .
mu 384-E1 384-E1
y i Example Problem 8-6 A beam is loaded and supported as shown

I in Fig. 8-10. Determine
-— w(x) = w cos (1m'2L) (a) The equation of the elastic curve.
w (b) The deflection at the right end of the beam.
.1
I I (c) The support reactions IQ and Eli; at the left end of the beam.
A B
La;
SOLUTION
Figure s-10
(a) Since the equation for the load distribution is given and the moment equation
is not easy to write, Eq. 8-3 will be used to determine the deflections. l.n
Section 7-6 (see Fig. 7-16), the upward direction was considered positive for
a distributed load w; therefore, Eq. 8-3 is written as
d4v mc
EYE =w(x) = —w cos E
a‘3v 2wL , rrx

E1‘? =V(x)=—?s1nE+C|
dzv 4-WL2 Jrx

HE = M(I)= TCOSE -l-C1I+C2
dv 8wL3 _ rrx x2
?SlI1iI +C1?+Cg.t+C3
16wL4 rrx x3 x2
EIv=— H4 cos 2L +C16 +C;2 +C3x+C4
The four constants of integration are deterrriined by applying the boundary

conditions. Thus,
l6wL4
At x = 0, v = 0; therefore, C4 = 4
rt
dv
Atx=O,a=O; the1-efore,C3=0
Atx=L,V=0; therefore,C|= w
2 L
rr
2wL2
Atx=L,M=0; therefore,Cg=—T
s-4 onrtscrrons mt lNI'EGRA'l'ION or SHEAR FORCE on roan squmous SOS
Thus,
v = -L 4SL“cosE - 1r3Lx3 + 3rr3L2x2 - 4&1,‘ Ans.

31451 21:
(b) The deflection at the right end of the beam is
v3 = v,:;_ = -3n"%H(-1:31.“ + 31%“ - 4815“)

(219 - 48)wL4 = -0.04795 L 4 E1
= _______ An.
(311451) W / 5
(c) The shear force V(x) and bending moment M(x) at any distance x from the
support are
V(x) = %[1-sin
2wL Jrx
M(x) = ?[2L cos E + rrx - er]
Thus, the support reactions at the lefi end of the beam are
2 L
K1=V,=n=l— Ans.
rr
2[Jr —2)wL2
MA = Mx=0 = -g Ans.
1 PROBLEMS
8-36* For the beam and loading shown in Fig. P8-36, determine w
-L.
a. The equation of the elastic curve.
b. The maximum deflection for the beam. A B
L
Figure P8-3'7
J’
I W 8-38 For the beam and loading shown in Fig. P8-38, determine
A
ti. B
J’
Figure P8-36 ‘ ‘me
W
s-31* Forthebeam and loading showninFig. P8-37, determine f‘ I B

a. The equation of the elastic curve. L
b. The maximum deflection for the beam. Figure P8-38
S06 cnavran s rurxtrruu. LOADING: nun nsruzcnons
19(3) = w.r3fL3 W
Determine _ L
A i B
a. The equation of the elastic curve. . _ L . _
b. The deflection at the left end of the beam.
c. The support reactions Kt; and MI-3. Figure P8-41
Determine
w(x) = wx31'L3 -\ W a. The equation of the elastic curve.
L b. The deflection at the left end of the beam.
| i .1: c. The support reactions VI; and MB.
A B
L
Figure P8-39 .1"

i -- w(.r) = w cos (1txf2L)
W
_L
Determine
A
ti. B
Figure P8-42
a. The equation of the elastic cune.
b. The maximum deflection of the beam.
Determine
c. The maximum deflection of the beam.
y d. The slope at the lefi end of the beam.
I e. The support reactions RA and RB.
wo=)=e1- if
J.
(— w(x) = w sin (rtx."2L}
.
A
L
B
.0 l_ mt
Figure rs-40 A B
I
is
Figure rs-43
8-41 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-41 8-44 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-44
Determine Determine
a. The equation of the elastic curve. a. The equation of the elastic curve.
b. The deflection midway between the supports. b. The deflection midway between the supports.
c. The maximum deflection of the beam. c. The slope at the lefl end of the beam.
d. The support reactions RA and RB. d. The support reactions RA and R5.
s-5 srucumnnrrtmcrross 507
ta we=Wa<"»'
mt L> i
2'. $22 Zi.‘i.§'.". iIi‘.3§..'§f.‘. Z"£3.°.§.‘.‘$‘i}.I,"“’“‘
w
L
A B
y
' L ' Y/— w(x) = w sin (1'l:x:’2L)
'
Figure P8-44
' T
w
8-45 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-45. i
L
Detennine At B
* L
b. The deflection at the left end of the beam. Figure P8-45
8-5 SINGULARITY FUNCTIONS

The double integration method of Section 8-3 becomes tedious and time-
consurriing when several intervals and several sets of matching conditions are
required. The labor involved in solving problems of this type, however, can be di-
minished by making use of singularity functions following the method developed
in 1862 by the German mathematician A. Clebsch (l833—l 872).‘
Singularity functions are closely related to the unit step function used by the
British physicist O. Heaviside (1850-1925) to analyze the transient response of
electrical circuits. Singularity fimctions will be used here for writing one bending
moment equation that applies in all intervals along a beam, thus eliminating the
need for matching conditions.
To illustrate the use of singularity functions, consider the beam loaded as
shown in Fig. 8-l l. The terms RL and RR represent support reactions at the lefi
and right supports, respectively. The moment equations at the four designated
sections are
M1=RLx 0<x<x1
M2=R;_x—P[x—x1) x|<x<x;
M3=R;_x—P[x—I1)+M,1 x;;<x<x3
M4=RLx—P(x—x1)+M,1—lg(x—x3)2 x3<x<L
Note that the origin of the coordinate system is at the lefi end of the beam, with
positivex to the right. Each time a section “jumps over” a discontinuity in load (at
xl , X2, and x3), an additional term appears in the moment equation. For example,
in section 2 the moment equation involves all loads to the lefl of the section; the
same is true for section 3 and section 4.
First, consider the moment equation
Mg=R;_x—P(x—x|) x1<x<x;
The moment equation for both M1 and M2 can be represented by a single moment
equation
M=RLx—P(x—x|)1 0<x<x;
ll-‘or a rather complete history of the Clebsch method and the numerous extensions thereof, see
"Clebsch's Method for Beam Deflections,” Walter D, Pilkey, Journal ofEngineering Education, January
1 964, p. 1'10.
S08 CHAPTER s rtsxurutr. LOADING BEAM osrmrcnons
Y P (3) W
-:1: 1 * *
3 <53-
:
),_e
.
e 3* 2: W
i$1
H_ "-—t~»:
L
Figure 8-11
where (x — x1)1 is ignored when x < x| and replaced by parentheses (x — x1)'

whenx 2 x|. That is, the bracket (x — x|}1= 0 whenx < x1 and (x — x1)‘ =
(x — x1)1 whenx 3 x|. Therefore
M=M1=RLx O<x<x|
M=M2=RLx—P(x—x1) x1<x<x;
The exponent l in (x — x1)' has the same meaning as the exponent 1 [which is not
usually written) ir1 (J: — x1).
For a section at 3, the moment equation can be written
M=M3=R;_x—P{x—x1)1+M,,{x—x2)° 0-<x<x3
Forx < I1, the term (x — x2)“ is zero, and forx 3 I3 theterm (1 —x;}° = (x —x;)° =
l, that is, the zero power ofthe (x — x;)0 term is unity forx 3 I2.
Proceeding in a similar fashion, the moment equation for the entire beam
can be written using a single expression
M=M4=R;_x—P(x—x|)1+M,,(x—x;)°— %{x—x3)2 0-cx <1:

The terms {x — x1)‘, (x — x2)“, and (x — x3)2 are called singularityfurrcfions.
A singularity function of x is written as (x — x0)", where n is any integer
(positive or negative) including zero, and xq is a constant equal to the value of
x at the initial boundary of a specific interval along a beam. The brackets { )
are replaced by parentheses ( ) when x 3 X9 and by zero when x < xq. Selected
properties of singularity functions required forbeam-deflection problems are listed
here for emphasis and ready reference.
(I _x0),, : (x —x0)" whenrr > O and x Zxg

0 Wl1CI1H>-08.I1ClJC<)I[)
(x_x0)0= l whenxixo
CI whenx<x@
l
fix —xo)“d-T = fiix — Xoinfl + C when n 2 0
d n r|—l
595-10) =?1ix—X0l whennzl
as srscuunnv r-rmcnoss 509
y /, y ,
2- 2- ’
=_1
y(xl> =i_2
y,(I 0)
1- 1-
1 ll
-1123’ -1123’
Y J’
2 — —— 2 —
y=2<x-2)" 1-
y=<»+1>‘-<1-1>‘
_2<x_2>o 1
W
1 I I
-1 1 1 2 3 I -1 1 2 3 ’
Figure 8-12 i 1
Cam L—fl
1
Figure 8-13
Several examples of singularity functions are shown in Fig. 8-12.
Distributed loadings that are sectionally continuous (the distributed load
cannot be represented by a single function of x for all values of x) are readily 1
W
obtained by superposition, as illustrated in the following examples.

A special word of caution is warranted for distributed loadings. For the
beam shown in Fig. 8-ll the distributed load is extended to the right end of the s
beam. Lfthe distributed load does not extend to the right end of the beam (as in
Fig. 8-13), the distributed load should be replaced with an equivalent loading in
D
L|_Ll_I_I_I
which each load extends to the right end of the beam (as in Fig. 8-14). Example
Problems 8-9 and 8-10 illustrate how to handle such distributed loadings. .Jm.‘f.A
Figure 8-14
1 Example Problem 8-7 A cantilever beam is loaded and supported

as shown in Fig. 8-15a. Use singularity functions to determine the deflection
(a) At a distance I = L from the support.
(b) At the right end of the beam.
SOLUTION
A free-body diagram of the entire beam is shown in Fig. 8-15b. The reactions at
the fixed support are found using the equations of equilibrium
+1‘EF,.=0: IQ-}—P—P=O IQ=0

+LZMA=O: —M,;+PL—P(2L)=0 MA =—PL
The expression for the resisting moment for the entire beam, using the appropriate
singularity fimctions, is
M,[x)=—PL+P{x—L)‘ 05x52L
The resisting moment is substituted into Eq. 8-1
dzv
EIm=—PL+P(x—L) 05x52L (a)
S10 CHAPTER s rtsxmur. LOADING: mam DEFLECTIONS
y
I
Q_,<i~s
Ta FN e
Q-fig--10-e
Figure 8-15
Ifthe flexural rigidity El is constant, Eq. (a) can be integrated twice to get
dv P(x—L)2
Er5=-PLx+++ct 051521: (b)
—PL2 P —L3
EIv= 21 + (X6 )+C|x+C2 05x52L (C)
where C1 and C2 are constants ofintegration to be determined using the boundary

conditions. The available botmdary conditions are
dv
when x = 0, E =O (d)
when I = 0, v =O (e)
For the range of x that contains x = 0, (x — L)" = O, and Eqs. (b) and (c) become
dv
—PLx2
En» = + C|x + C2 (g)
Using Eq. (f) and boundary condition (d) gives C1 = O; Eq. (g) and boundary
condition (e) gives C2 = 0. Equations (b) and (c) are then written as
dv P -L1
EIE=—PLx+% 05x52L (F)
—PL 1 P —L3
EIv=%+% 05x52L (5)
as srucurxnnr rurrcnorrs S11
(a) Forx = L, Eq. (c') is written
E] —PL3+P(L—L)3 —PL3
V‘ 2 6 _ 2
which gives
—PL3 PL3
=W=mi “*-
(b) At the right end of the beam, .1: = 2L, and Eq. (c') is
—PL2L2 P2L-L‘ —11PL3

Eh: i)"+*( 6 )= 6
which gives
—llPL3 IIPL3 An
"’=“ _ or-:1 _ oar 1' S‘
-I Example Problem 8-8 Forthe beam loaded and supported as shown

in Fig. 8-16a, determine the deflection of the right end.
SOLUTION
The free-body diagram of Fig. 8-16b and the equations of equilibrium BF, = 0
and EMQ = 0 yield
+¢zF,.—o K,—w(L/3)=0 V,,=wL/31‘

+t 2M0 = 0; M, - w (L/3) [SL/6) = 0 M, = SWLZ/18L
1 2m 1
(Mll;—‘ (b)
T
Figure 8-16
S12 CHAPTER s rtsxurutr. LOADING: rrsxrr osrrxcnons
The intemal resisting moment (obtained liom another fi'ee-body diagram and
equilibrium)
M —5wL2+wLx w 22 2
" 18 3 _2"—3
is substituted into Eq. 8-1 to get
dzv 5wL2 wLx w 2L 2

Er—=-—+—--I-—
axe 18 3 2 3
The first integration gives
dv 5 L2 L12 2L3
EI—=—u+L—Ex—— +c,
dir 18 o o 3
The boimdary condition dvidx = 0 when x = 0 gives C1 = 0 because the term ir1
the brackets is zero when x 5 2.L!'3. Integrating again gives
5wL2x2 wLx3 w 2L 4
Elv—_ 35 + 18 _24ix_ 3l+C’
The boundary condition v = 0 whenx = 0 gives C2 = 0 because the term ir1 the
brackets is zero whenx 5 2L/3.
The deflection at the right end of the beam is obtained by substituting x =
L in the elastic curve equation. The result is
163 wL"'
= ii = ii
163 wt“ All .
V 1944 El 1944 El 4’ 5
This result agrees with that of Example Problem 8-3.
-I Example Problem 8-9 Determine the deflection at the lefl: end of

the beam of Fig. 8-17a.
SOLUTION
The fi‘ee-body diagram of Fig. 8-17b and the equilibrium equation EM; = 0
yield
P Because singularity functions do not al-
low distributed loads to terminate in the mid-
dle of the beam, the actual load is replaced
+ r 244,, = 0; RL(L) - w(L/2)(7L/4) +wL2/2 = 0 R, = 3wL/8 ¢
with an equivalent load that is expressible in
terms of singularity fimctions. The original To express the moment of the distributed load at the lefi end of the beanr it1
distributed load is extended all the way to the terms of singularity functions which are valid for the full length of the beam,
end of the beam, and a canceling distributed the distributed load must be represented on the free-body diagram by equivalent
load is applied to the beam from x = —L!2 distributed loads on the top and bottom ofthe beam as shown in Fig. 8- 17c. When
to x = L. the expression for the bending moment obtained from the free-body diagram of
as smcutxanr nnrcrrorts 513
J’
P LE2 -‘~ L12 U2 »*~ LE2 -J
Q
2
i if A i I (:1 IE3
W ts)
1 L I I '
IRL ilia
to Q
r 2
4?. am inn- qi
=1 b-4
irqi myqm mm mam db be Z

E
2"W-oi @
/-s nir~.ai./
Figtue 8-17
Fig. 8-17c is substituted in Eq. 8-1, the result is
dzv w 2 w L 2 3wL 1 WL2 L 0
where the first term after the equals sign represents the distributed load on the top
ofthe beam and the second term represents the distributed load on the bottom of
the beam. The effect of the two terms is to terminate the distributed load at x =
—L/2. The boundary conditions are v = O when x = 0, and v = 0 when x = L.
Two integrations of the moment equation give
dv L3 +:’—6(x-0>*+%(x-5)
EIE=—%(x+L)3+%<x+5> 31. 1.1 L‘ +c,
and
EIv_ __1 4 1 £“ n _ 0} s
24(x+L)+24<x+2)+16{x
P Note that even though the origin of co-
L2 L2 ordinates is at the left support (so v = 0
+C|I+C2 at x = 0), the constant of integration C2
is not zero. At x = 0, (x + L)‘ = L‘;
L 4 L‘
The first boundary condition, v = 0 when x = O, gives iI+El' =R;iI"0l3=03=0;3I1d
L 2 L 2 ,
(x - 5} = (-5) =0 (because a singu-
0 wL4+wL4+0+0+0+C C +5 L‘ larity function is zero whenever its argument
_ 24 384 2 2' 1213” is negative).
S14 cnarrax s rurxrrrutr. 1.o11n11~1c= 1:11.111 nxrrxcnons
The second boundary condition, v = 0 when x = L, gives
0=- 16wL“ + 8lwL‘

+ WL4 + WL4 +cL+—
SWL4
c=+—7 L3
24 384 16 16 ‘ 12s ‘ 24w
The deflection at the lefl end is obtained by substituting x = —L in the
elastic curve equation. The result is
7
131-.» = 0+0+0+0+ fiwL3 5
(—L)+ mist‘ 97
= —fiwL4
Thus:
97 L“ 97 1;‘
v—-—L——Lt Ans.
_ 384 E1 _ 384 EI
1 Example PPOIJIEIII 8- 10 Use singularity functions to write a single

equation for the bending moment at any section ofthe beam shown in Fig. 8-18a.
SOLUTION
The loading on the beam of Fig. 8-18a can be considered a combination of the
loadings shown in Fig. 8-18b, c, d, and e, where downward-acting loads are shown
i
W1
J’
U’ | W2
I ix
__g_q
J52 1
I X3
(Q) fiibxfl
_4I- _
wl wl
| ll IIII ii "*1
to
A
11- - or
<4)
(J)
‘
Figure 8-18
(8)
Em W: _
as srxcumnnv I"UNC'l'l0NS 515
on top of the beam and upward-acting loa.ds on the bottom. The magnitude of
the linearly varying load at any point x 3 x1 is
W11-17-11)
Wm
X2—I|
The moment of the linearly varying load at any point x 3 xt is P The initial distributed load is a linear
ftmction of x, w = ax + b. The constants
a and b must be chosen so that w = 0 when
M(x) = _% (x —x1):| (x — x1)(x — x1)/3 x=x1,(0=ax] +b),andw=wl whenx=
I —I1
1:2, (wt = ax; + b). Together, these two con-
- - . W1 W111
dtttons giver: = — andb = —,
_ eoo-xi)“ “)3 I2 '_ X]
w
so that w = —il(x —xl). The slope
X2 — X1
I '_ X
Once the moment term for the linearly varying load is introduced in the moment of the second tiiangiilar load has to be
equation at x = x|, its effect continues to the end of the beam. As a result, the same as the flrst—it just starts later;
terms must be introduced at the appropriate locations to terminate the effects. W1
W = —'m{I —Xgl.
The eflect is reduced to that of a constant distributed load of magnitude W1 by X2—I|
introducing the linearly distributed load of Fig. 8-18c at x = x2. The magnitude
of this constant distributed load is reduced from w| to W2 by introducing the
constant distributed load of magnitude wl — w; at x = x2, as shown in Fig. 8-
18d. Finally, the constant distributed load of magnitude W2 is terminated at x =
x3 by introducing the constant distributed load W2, as shown in Fig. 8-18e. The
moment equation for the beam is then written in terms of singularity functions
as
Mo) = 12,; - $1: —x1)3 + $1: -1:213
-i- x - 1,12 + ?<x - 1,11 Ans.
I PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems 8-47* The gangplank between a fishing boat and a dock consists
ofa wood (E = 1700 ksi) plank 10 11 long, 12 in. wide, and 2
8-46* A cantilever beam is loaded and supported as shown in in. thick. If the plank is modeled as the simply supported beam
Fig. P8-46. Use singularity functions to determine the deflec- shown in Fig. P8-47, determine the deflection of the gangplank
tion directly under the 165-lb man when he is at B (x = 6 Pt).
a. At a distance x = L from the support.
b. At the right end of the beam. ,/
Y
,/
Y
I P P \
.1 B c
PL "
611%
r=1o1=1w-
516 CHAPTER s FLEXIIRAL LOADING: mm niiFi.st.'i'ioNs
8-48 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-48. J’

Use singularity functions to determine the deflection I 31>
a. At a distance x = L fiom the left support. 1 2P1.
b. At the middle of the span.
c. At a distance x = 2L from the left support.
.4 F c)
F 1. T L/‘2 1|
J|, P P
Figure P8-51
A D
Bl Cl 8-52 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-52.
Use singularity fimctions to determine the deflection
i L ‘|‘ L L i
Flgi.ireP8-48 a. At the left end of the beam.
b. At a point midway between the supports.

Use singularity functions to detennine the deflection Y
a. At the right end ofthe beam.

I
P
b. At a section midway between the supports.
A
A 3 B
'
b F
J‘, P P4-v
L LI3 u2—-i—u2—»i
A B c Figure P8-52
P % L l
Figure P8-49
8-53* Use singularity fimctions to determine the deflection at the
left end of the cantilever beam shown in Fig. P8-53.
Use singularity functions to determine the deflection at the
middle of the span.
‘F
iL’£ w
25
7
B 7
A x
‘ B
A X C
| M 1.5 L T L
P L i L Figure P8-53
Figure P8-50
8-54* A cantilever beam is loaded and supported as shown in

8-51 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-51. Fig. P8-54. Use singularity functions to determine the
Use singularity functions to determine the deflection deflection
a. At the point of application of the concentrated load 3P. a. At a distance x = L from the support.
b. At the right end of the beam. b. At the right end of the beam.
B-5 SINGULARITY FIJNUHONS S17
J" 8-58 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-58.
Zw Use singularity fimctions to determine the deflection
a. At the right end of the beam.
I . I b. At a section midway between the supports.
A WLQ ]B ‘C
II L T L * wi.
Figure P8-54 Y w
A; ‘
Use singularity fiinctions to determine the deflection
a. At x = L. Iuzi L+I
L/2
b. At a section midway between the supports. Figure P8-58
J’
w Challenging Problems
8-59* Use singularity functions to determine the deflection at the
ix |B right end of the cantilever beam shown in Fig. P8-59.
J’
Figure P8-55 I LL
W s
Use singularity functions to determine the deflection
a. At x = L.
b. Atx = 31.12. Figure P8-59
2wL
y I w 8-60* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-60.
Use singularity functions to determine the deflection
a. At the left end of the distributed load.
A x ] B
b. At a section midway between the supports.
c. At the right end of the distributed load.
. .
I L I!~I-fl T L I
Figune P8-56
8-57 A cantilever beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig.

P8-57. Use singularity functions to determine the deflection at
the lefl end of the beam.
.. I
J”
Figure P8-60
..i.i.+
IJIIIUIIIEIIIJ *_ .
F Bl C 8-61 A cantilever beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig.
P8-61. Use singularity functions to determine the deflection
I. U2
a. At a distance x = L from the support.
Figure P8-57 b. At the right end of the beam.
S18 CHAPTER s FLEXIIRAL LOADING: BEAM niiFi.iit.'i'ioNs
Computer Problems
F 2w
B 8-65 A 160-lb diver walks slowly onto a diving board. The diving
. A
? . C board is a wood (E = 1800 ksi) plank 10 fl long, 18 in. wide,
3mE l and 2 in. thick, and it is modeled as the cantilever beam shown
w 2 in Fig. P8-65. For the diver at positions a = nLJ'5 (n = 1, 2,
L I‘ L 3, 4, 5), compute and plot the deflection Clll’Vfl for the diving
Figure P8-6l board (plot v as a fimction ofx for0 5 x 510 ii).

Use singularity functions to determine
a. The deflection midway between the supports.
b. The maximum deflection of the beam.
Y
I
a 1
wL
J’
A - B C
w u______; |
A I C
ll?
i=ionA
I L T L I
Figure P8-65
Figure rs-62
8-63* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-63. 8-66 A diving board consists of a wood (E = 12 GPa) plank that
Use singularity fiinctions to determine the deflection at the is pinned at the lefl end and rests on a movable support, as
middle of the span. shown in Fig. P8-66. The board is 3 rn long, 500 mm wide, and
80 mm thick. If a 70-kg diver stands at the end of the board,
J’ a. Compute and plot the deflection curve for the beam (plot v
_T_ as a function of x for 0 5 x 5 3 m) for the right support at
. . ....-.e.rii.l.!.!.l.l.l.u..-.___
A IE‘ I ._ 3
positions b = 0.5 m, 1.0 m, and 1.5 m.
b. If the stiffness of the board is defined as the ratio of the
diver’s weight to the deflection at the end of the board
< L I L I (k = W/v), compute and plot the stiffness of the board as a
fimction of b for 0 5 b 5 1.5 n1. Does the stiflhess depend
Figure rs-as on the weight of the diver?

Use singularity flmctions to determine
a. The deflection at the middle of the span.
b. The maximum deflection in the beam.
J’
Y L=3m
ii" A B -_C
W
_J:_ x
A , I 3
< L I L I
es SINGULARITY FUNCTIONS 519
8-67 The gangplank between a fishing boat and a dock consists for 0 5 x 5 8 ft) as the troop marches across the bridge. (Ini-
ofa wood (E = 1800 ksi) plank l0 it long, 12 in. wide, and tially, only one Scout is on the bridge—at position B. Then
2 in. thick. If the plank is modeled as the simply supported two Scouts are on the bridge-at positions B and C. The troop
beam shown in Fig. P8-67, compute and plot the deflection continues to march across until finally only a single Scout is
curve for the gangplarik (plot v as a function of x for 0 5 x 5 on the bridge—at position D.)
10 ft) as a 170-lb man walks across the plank. Plot curves for
the man at positions a = nl./5 (n = l, 2, 3,4).
Illli
ix
A B "1. C 2fl~ 2fl 2ft Zfi

I Figure P8-69
8-70 A small weight W = 100 N is suspended from the end of

(
a meter stick that rests between two smooth pegs, as shown in
~ L=10ft F Fig. P8-70. The wide (30-mm) side of the wood (E = 12 GPa)
Figure P8-67 stick is horizontal, and the thin (10-mm) side is vertical. The
approximation used in simple beam theory
8-68 A bridge over a small stream on a golf course consists of
dz
a wood deck (weighing 1000 Nfm) laid over two wood (E = El é = Mot) (a)
12 GPa] beams. Each of the beams is 5 m long, 100 mm wide,
and h mm high; each beam carries half of the loading on the
bridge. It is desired that the bridge support the weight of a is not very good here since neither the deflections nor slopes
loaded golf cart (total weight of 2400 N) with a maximum de- are small. Instead, the exact differential equation
flection of no more than 50 mm. Model the beams and loading
as shown in Fig. P8-68 and
a. Determine the minimum depth hm“, of the beams that will
support the given weight.
b. If Ii = 125 mm, compute and plot the deflection curve for should be solved.
the beam (plot v as a function ofx for0 5 x 5 L) for the cart a. Compute and plot the deflection curve (plot v as a function
at positions a = l m, 2 m, and 3 m. ofx fort] 5 x 5 1 m) for the beam using simple beam theory
[Eq- (=1)]-
600 N 600 N b. On the same graph plot the deflection curve (plot v as a
J’ function ofx for 0 5 x 5 1 m) for the beam using the exact
I S00 Nim differential equation [Eq. (b)]. (Note: This curve will not go
all the way to x = l m. It is the length ofthe stick that is 1 in,
not the horizontal reach of the stick.)
is D
A .Iie.IC Sm
C
Figure P8-68 ‘ix
8-69 A Cub Scout troop is marching across a small footbridge

consisting of a wood (E = 1800 ksi) plank 8 fl long, 12 in.
wide, and 1.5 in. thick The Scouts are separated by 2 ft and are
I ff m . .
modeled as static, concentrated loads (75 lb each) on a simply

supported beam, as shown in Fig. P8-69. Compute and plot
the deflection curve of the bridge (plot v as a function of x Figure P8-70
S20 CHAPTER s rtsxuim. LOADING: BEAM usrincrions
8-6 DEFLECTIONS BY SUPERPOSITION

The method of superposition is based on the fact that the resultant effect of several
loads acting on a member simultaneously is the sum of the contributions from
each of the loads applied individually. The results for the separate loads are fre-
quently available from previous work or easily determined by previous methods.
In such instances, the superposition method becomes a powerful concept or tool
for finding stresses, deflections, and the like. The method is applicable in all cases
in which a linear relation exists between the stresses or deflections and the applied
loads.
To show that beam deflections can be accurately determined by the method
of superposition, consider the cantilever beam of Fig. 8-19 with loads M, w, and
P. To determine the deflection at any point of this beam by the double integration
Figure 8-19 method, it is necessary to express the bending moment in terms of the applied
loads. For each interval along the beam, the value ofM is the algebraic sum of the
moments due to the separate loads. Aflcr two successive integrations, the solution
for the deflection at any point will still be the algebraic sum of the contributions
for each applied load. Furthermore, for any given value ofx, the relation between
applied load and resulting deflection will be linear. It is evident, therefore, that
the deflection of a beam is the stun of the deflections produced by the individual
loads. Once the deflections produced by a few typical individual loads have been
determined by one of the methods already presented, the superposition method
provides a means of rapidly solving a wide variety of more complicated problems
by various combinations of known results. As more data becomes available, a
wider range of problems can be solved by superposition.
The data in Appendix B (Table B-19) are provided for use in mastering
the superposition method. No attempt is made to give a large number of results
because such data are readily available in various handbooks. The data given and
the illustrative examples are for the purpose of making the concept and methods
clear.
1 EXHIIIPIC P1'0hlB11l 8-1 1 A 16-ft-long, simply supported beam car-

ries a uniformly distributed load of 500 lb/ft and a concentrated load of 1000 lb,
as shown in Fig. 8-20a. The beam is rough sawn (4 in. wide x 8 in. tall, I =
170.67 inf‘) out of air-dried Douglas fir (E = 1900 ksi). Determine the deflection
15 at the center of the beam.
SOLUTION
The deflection at the center of the beam consists of two parts, v1 due to the
distributed load and v; due to the concentrated load. As shown in Fig. 8-20b, the
original beam with two loads can be replaced by two beams, each carrying one
of the two loads.
From case 7 of Table B-19 (Appendix B), the deflection at the center of
the beam due to the distributed load, with L = 16 fl = 192 in., is given by
V __5wL4 __ 5(500/i2)(192)“ __2 2_/36in

1‘ 38451 _ 384(l.9)(10‘)(l70.67) _ ' '
s-6 DEFLECIIONSBYSUPERPOSTTION 521
1’ 1000 lb
| sou lbift soo mm
A ix
ls —
A In
MJ H" T"
16 fl "
(Q) +
lfilli) lb
E?‘ “Hula d Is
"1
-..___ ,.
(P1)
Figure s-zn
Similarly, from case 5 of Table B-19 (in which b = 6 ft = 72 in. is the shorter
distance between the concentrated load and the end of the beam), the deflection
at the center ofthe beam due to the concentrated load is given by
_ Pb(3L7’~ - 41%) _ 1000("/2)[3(192)" - 4(72)2] _ .

V2 _ _ 48EI __ 4s(1.9)(10°)(110.s7) _ _0'4156 1"‘
Consequently, the total deflection of the center ofthe beam is
v, = v| + v; = (-2.2736) + (-0.4156) 83
= -2.6892 in. 2 2.69 in. i, Ans.
1 Example P1’0bl6l11 8-12 A 5-m long cantilever beam carries a

uniformly distributed load of 7.5 kN/rn and a concentrated load of 25 kN, as
shown in Fig. 8-21a. The steel (E = 28 GPa) beam is a wide-flange section [I = 8.4
500(l0'°) rn“]. Determine the deflection at the right end of the beam.
SOLUTION
As shown in Fig. 8-21b, the cantilever beam with two loads canbe replaced bytwo
beams, each carrying one ofthe two loads. The elastic curve for the concentrated
load is shown greatly exaggerated in Fig. 8-21b. The deflection at the right end 8.5
is given as v1 + v; where v1 is the deflection at the location of the concentrated
load and v; is the additional deflection of the imloaded 2 m. From case 1 of
Table B-19 (Appendix B),
v1 = - PL3 25 103 K3 ) 3 _6 = -0.016011 II1

351 = - s(2s)(10(9 )(s00)(10 ) 35
S22 cnarrss s rusxmuu. LOADING: arm nsruzcnoss
T zsin zsin
B
ii B ‘\_______k ‘-5 ' V
A
mm _sm_
} A ~~-___~ T
ll. _1
(Q) +
7.5 kNirn
A ~~~___H_ %
_\_\\
(5)
Figure 8-21
From the concentrated load to the end of the beam, the slope is constant. Again
from case 1 of Table B-19, the constant slope of the beam is
8 .7 0 = -PL2 = - 25(m3)(3)2 = -0.003036 rad

2EI 3(2s)(10”)(500)(10-6)
and the deflection V1 is given by
v2 = 6L = —0.008036(2) = —0.0l607l m
8.8
Consequently, the total deflection ofthe right end ofthe beam due to the concen-
P The correct expression for v; should he trated load is
tanfl = However, since the deflection
(and angle of deflection) is small, tan 9 2 6 v1+ v; = (-0.016071) + (-0.016071) = -0.03214m = 32.14mm i
and V2 2
The elastic curve for the distributed load is also shown (greatly exagger-
ated) in Fig. 8-21b. From case 2 of Table B-19 (Appendix B), the deflection of
the right end of the beam due to the distributed load is
8.9 v3 __ - WL4
BE! __ -8(28)(w,)(500)(w_6)
7.5(103)(5)“ _
_ -0.04135 m __ 41.85 mm ¢
Finally, the total deflection of the right end of the beam due to both loads is
v =(v1+ v2) + v; = (-32.14) + (-41.85)

= —73.99mm E 74.0mm .|, Ans.
1 Example Pfflbl 8-13 A simply supported beam carries a uni-

formly distributed load ofw = 1000 lb/ft over its entire length and a concentrated
load ofP = 2000 lb, as shown in Fig. 8-22a. The steel (E = 29,000 ksi) beam is
a wide-flange section (I = 518 inf‘). Determine the deflection directly llIldCl' the
2000-lb load when L| = 6 it and L; = 4 Pt.
s-6 narnscnosssvsuranrosmos 523
~ 1
P P
»= l
B I
C _ I F B I
Ll A7 L2 —‘i
(<1) +
W
* "B2
B
(b)
Figure 8-22
SOLUTION
The loading of Fig. 8-22a can be replaced by the two loads shown in Fig. 8-22b.
Directly beneath the separate loadings of Fig. 8-22b are shown elastic curves
(greatly exaggerated). These elastic curves are like the ones shown in cases 5
and 7, respectively, of Table B-19 (Appendix B). However, the equations of the
elastic curves (in the last column of the table) must be used to determine the
deflections at x = L1 = 6 ft.
For the concentrated load P = 2000 lb,
—Pb
V] = '— b2 —X2)
Using b = 4 1’-t(= 4s in.), x = 6 a (= 72 in.), L =10 s (= 120 in.), and the other
data given in the problem statement,
_ (-2000) (48)(72) 2_ 2_ 2 __ -
V31 - 6[29)(106) (5l8)(l20)[(12U) (48) (72) ] — 0.004417 1171.
For the uniformly distributed load w = 1000 lb/fi(= % _lb ),

lIl.
—wx
v, = Est’ —2Lx2 +1.3)
—(lO00/12)(T-'2)
v,,-2 = [(12) 3 — 2(120)(72) 2 +(12o) 3 1 = -0.014264 in.
The total deflection at B is then
V5 = V31 + V32 = (—0.004417) + [—0.0l4264) = —0.CIl868l in.

E —0.0lB68 in. = 0.01868 in. ,1. Ans.
1 Example Problem 8-14 For the beam in Fig. s-23¢, determine the
maximum deflection when E is l2(lO6) psi and I is 81 in.“
S24 CHAPTER s FLEXURAL LOADING: BEAM naruzcriolvs
1000 lbffi
A I B
3sL9sJ-3n-
(Q)
1000 Ibffl 1000 lbffi
+ i
(1) (3)
leis it R4.sn+3n% iwrsn
4500 lb (b) 4500 lb
"2 ‘e
i 1000 lbffl \
\
lllllllll
—--—_;*=\_'_|__ _ v4_5
____\
-
- ._ 4' V3 I
4500 lb
(C) (4)
Figure 8-23
SOLUTION
From symmetry and the equilibrium equation EFy = 0, the reactions are equal
and 4500 lb upward. Because of the symmetrical loading, the slope ofthe beam
P Because the slope at the middle of the is zero at the center of the span, and the right (or left) half of the beam can be
beam is zero, the lefi half of the beam considered a cantilever beam with two loads. As shown in Fig. 8-23b, for the right
could be replaced with a cantilevered sup- half, the cantilever with two loads can be replaced by two beams (designated 1
port without changing any of the stresses, and 2), each carrying one of the two loads.
forces, or moments in the right half of the The elastic curve (exaggerated) forpart l, as shown ir1 Fig. 8-23c, gives the
bearn. deflection at the right end as v4_5 + v3, where v4_5 is the deflection at the end of
the uniformly distributed load and v3 is the additional deflection of the unloaded
3 fi. From case 2 of Table B-19 of Appendix B,
_ wL‘* _ _(1000/12)[4.s(12)]‘ _ _ _
Similarly,
9,, = _i3 = _ = _o.0022s0 rad

ear 6(12)(l0 )(s1)
from which
vs = 6L = (—0.002250)(3)(l2) = —0.08l0 in.

s-6 DEFLECTIONSBYSUPERPOSITION 525
Co nsequently, the total deflection of the right end forpart 1 is
v7_5 = v4_5 + v3 = (-0.09113) + (-0.0810)

= -0.1721311 = 0.1721311 l
The elastic curve (exaggerated) for part 2 is shown in Fig. 8-23d. From
case 1 of Table B-19 of Appendix B,
3 3
v7, = +£ = + = +l.l250in. = 1.1250111. T
351 3(l2)(l0")(8l)
The algebraic sum of the deflections for parts l and 2 is
vk = vi + ‘V2 = (—0.l'/2131+ (11250)

= +0.9529 in. '5 0.953 in. 1‘
Whr'ch means that the right end

ofthe beam is 0.953 ir1. above the center. Obviously,
the right end does not move, and the maximum deflection is at the center and is
ynm = 0.953 in. .|, Ans.
1 Example Problem 8-1 5 A beam is loaded and supported as shown

in Fig. 8-24a. Use the method of superposition to deterrrline the deflection
(*1) At a point midway between the supports.

(bl At the right end of the beam.
SOLUTION
(=1) The deflection at a point midway between the supports is deterrnined by using P The support reactions at A and C are
the beam shown irl Fig. 8-24b. The effects of the loaded overhang on span lmchanged if the distributed load on the
AC of the beam can be represented by a shear force V = wL and a moment overhang CD is replaced with an equiva-
M = WL2/2. Since the shear force V does not contribute to the deflection at lent force-couple at C. Also, the shear force
any point ir1 span AC of the beam, the deflection at the middle of the span, as and bending moment at points between the
shown in Figs. 8-24c and d, can be expressed as supports are unchanged if the distributed
load on the overhang CD is replaced with
an equivalent force-couple at C. Therefore,
v3 = vw + vM the deflection and slope at points between
the supports will be unchanged if the dis-
The deflections vw and vM are listed in cases 7 and 8 of Table B-19 of tributed load on the overhang CD is replaced
Appendix B, respectively. Thus, with an equivalent force-couple at C.
5w(2L)“ (wL2/2)(2L)2 wL"' wt‘

V“ — _ 33451 + l6EI — -1251 — 121:1 i Ans‘
(bl The deflection at the right end of the beam is produced by the combined
effects of the distributed load on the overhang and the rotation of the cross
section of the beam at support C, as shown in Figs. 8-24c, d, and e. Thus,
V0 = 6wL + QML + vs-

S26 cuavrsx s FLEXURAL LOADING: sum nsrnscnoss
V=wL
M= LE
W W 2
.4 A
B C D B C
L L
('1) (F1)
y y
I W , ,\4=i-2
/3" its 1 r‘ " “ ((2
A LFW" " @;--I-- -1|

‘~~__/T,/"
v'._-
s ‘B
c T 1)
6"‘
A x
if. . ‘C ~- D 9M1
0'“ T
9‘,-M
L ‘s L m I. ‘ ' L 2' L 2' L *
(C) (vi)
W
.IIlllllll
l,
C ‘s.zI"'
r.—J
(B)
Figure s-24
The angles 9,, and GM and the deflection y,,, are listed in cases 7, 8, and 2 of
Table B-19 ofAppendix B, respectively. Thus,
w(2L)3(L) (wL2/2)(2L)(L) wL‘* wL4 WL4

V” = 2451 _ 3121 _ ssr = -851 = ssr i Am‘
1 PROBLEMS
MecMovie Activities and Problems Introductory Problems
MM8.2 8 Skills: Part I. Theory; Concept checkpoints. Series of 8-71* For the cantilever beam shown in Fig. P8-71, determine
skills necessary to solve beam deflection problems using the
a. The slope and deflection at section B.
superposition method.
b. The slope and deflection at section C.
MM8.3 8 Skills: Part H. Theory; Concept checkpoints. Series of
skills necessary to solve beam deflection problems using the
superposition method.
P P
MM8.4 Superposition warm-up. Example; Concept checkpoints.
Examples and concept checkpoints pertaining to four basic
superposition skills.
MM8.5 One simple beam, one load, three cases. Concept check- A is c
points. Deterrnine beam deflections at various points in a sim- . L . L ~
ply supported beam with two overhangs.
Use the method of superposition to determine deflections in
the following problems. Figure rs-71
s-6 DEFLECIIONS BY sursarosmolv S27
8-72* Determine the deflection midway between the supports of P = wL

the beam shown in Fig. P8-72 when P = 13.5 kN, L = 3 m,
I = 80 (106) mm“, and E = 200 GPa.
Ill F111 l
I i A
L
'3
? L
‘C
H" L
‘
Figure P8-72
. if” Figure P8-75
8-'76 For the beam shown in Fig. P8-76, determine

a. The deflection midway between the supports.
b. The deflection at the right end of the beam.
8-73 Determine the deflection at the right end of the cantilever P=wL
._ -—e ._ ._ ._ ._ ._
in 0 b_
Alllllllg-is’ E LE2 Tim LIZ LI3

Figure P8-76
L .
8-77* For the beam shown in Fig. P8-'77, determine
wL
a. The deflection at B.
Figure P8-73 h. The deflection at end C.
8-74* Determine the deflection at the right end of the cantilever

llwliIll|C
w
P=wL
Figure P8-7'7
C . fl)
,1 1: c 8-78 Determine the deflection midway between the supports of
the beam shown in Fig. P8-78.
Figure rs-74
if 1 l l ll“'ll I I. 1-
8-75 Determine the deflection at the right end of the cantilever
beam shown in Fig. P8-75. Flglue P8-78
S28 CHAPTER s rtsxulur LOADING: sum DEFLECTIONS
Intermediate Problems 2w
8-79* Determine the deflection at the right end ofthe beam shown
in Fig. P8-79.
A B C
wL2
L |- L
E
E 3
Figure rs-sz
A ‘B +0 D 8-83 Determine the deflection at the right end of the cantilever

* L 1- 1 = 31./4
LL
Figure P8-79 2
W
8-80* Determine the deflection at the light end ofthe beam shown
in Fig. P8-80. A Bi cl
L , ii‘
Figure P8-83
Allllllll Co.,, 8-84 Determine the deflection at a point midway between the
supports of the beam shown in Fig. P8-84.
= L LI3 -
Figure P8-80
8-81 Member AB of Fig. P8-81 is the flexural member of a scale

in |”||l||
that is used to weigh food in a microwave oven. Determine the
deflection of point C when W = 5 lb, L = 2 in., and E1 =
100 lb - in?
Figure P8-84
H!
8-85* Determine the deflection at the right end of the cantilever

/-- Rigid
A C B
LIZ L12 i
A ll? W it.‘
Figure P8-81
Figure P8-85
8-82* Determine the deflection at the free end of the cantilever
beam shown in Fig. P8-82 when w = 7 kN/m, L = 1.8 m, 8-86 Determine the deflection at the right end of the cantilever
I = l30(l0‘°) m‘, andE = 200 GPa. beam shown in Fig. P8-86.
s-6 nsnnmiosssrsunmrosmos S29
8-90* For the cantilever beam shown in Fig. P8-90, w — 7.5 kN/rn,
W
L = 3 m, I = 180 (106) mm", and E = 200 GPa. Determine
the deflection of the beam
A
llllllllllll
Bl WTL
1 c
a. At point B.
b. At the free end, C.
2w
l . i . A C
Figure P8-86
3L’-2
Challenging Problems 1 "’ L l’
1‘ L
8-87* Determine the rnidspan deflection of beam AC of Fig. P8- Figure P8-90
87. Both beams have the same flexural rigidity.
8-91 A simply supported beam is loaded as shown in Fig. P8-
91. The inverted L-shaped bracket at C is rigid. Determine the
P
deflection of the beam ABC at the middle of its span.
B
A C
. PlT
”i‘.l.l"...E
Figure P8-87
2:.
t-
be
—<li~ 1"-4
in-_
O-I=-lb-1
tut-
8-88* Determine the deflection at the right end of the beam shown Figure P8-91
in Fig. P8-88.
8-92 For the cantilever beam shown in Fig. P8-92, determine the
w deflection of the beam
a. At point B.
b. At the free end, C.
2L & L E3Lf4—i
w
Figure P8-88
8-89 For the cantilever beam shown in Fig. P8-89, determine the
A (B lC
deflection of the beam
' L12 -r L12
a. At point B.
b. At point C.
c. At the free end, D. Figure P8-92
8-93* A simply supported beam carries a uniformly distributed

W
load of 400 lb/ft and a concentrated load of 2000 lb, as shown
in Fig. P8-93. If the flexural rigidity of the beam is EI =
350 (10°) lb - in.2, determine the deflection of the beam
his CjD
-r.r.=r~ a. Midway between the supports.
b. At the right end of the beam.
Figure P8-89 c. At B, directly under the concentrated load.
S30 c1nu'1's1t s risxuiuu. LOADING: cam oaruzcnous
2000 lb a. Midway between the supports.
b. At the lefl end of the beam.
400 lb/ft
c. At a point 2 m to the right of the support at B.
D». s_ ,_ __ ._ _ ,_ __ L
‘ET
ks “KN 4kNr‘m
Figure P8-93
~1 3fi 7fi -1i. -lbI J1
1
K
B C
A
8-94 A simply supported beam is loaded and supported as shown i’ 2.5 rn '' S rn
in Fig. P8-94. IfE = 200 GPa and I = 90 (106) mm‘, determine
the deflection of the beam Figure P8-94
8-7 DEFLECTIONS DUE TO SHEARING STRESS

J’
As mentioned in Section 8-2, the beam deflections calculated so far neglect the
deflection produced by the shearing stresses in the beam. For short, heavily loaded
I W beams this deflection canbe significant, and an approximate method for evaluating
T . such deflections will now be developed. The deflection of the neutral surface dv
d-.-
due to shearing stresses in the interval dx along the beam of Fig. 8-25 is
.L
dv=]/nix: ldx= Edit
.'> X L W" gig
0 on
fiom which, since the shear in Fig. 8-25 is negative,
Figure s-25 Gltdv
Qdx
——=—V r (8)
-4
Since the vertical shearing stress varies fi'om top to bottom ofa beam, the deflection
due to shear is not uniform. This nonuniform deflection due to shear is reflected
in a slight warping of the cross sections of the beam. Equation 8-4 gives values
too high because the maximum shearing stress (at the neutral surface) is used and
also because the rotation of the differential shear element is ignored.
In order to obtain an idea of the relative amount of beam deflections due to
shearing stress, consider a rectangular cross section for the beam of Fig. 8-25 and
use the maximum stress for which
no 314
"“‘”‘=T=5I
or
2=1
It 2.4
where A is the cross-sectional area of the beam. The expression for dv becomes
Swxdfx
dv=—
ZAG
s-7 DEFLECTIONS nus T0 SHEARING sntass 551
where P} is replaced by its value —wx. Integration along the entire beam gives the
change in v due to shear asz
3w L 3wL2
"8 - filo "“"- m
which equals the deflection at the left end. For this same beam the magnitude of
the deflection at the left end due to flexural stresses is
wL4 3wL4
vi : E : 2EAd2
and the magnitude of the total deflection at the left end becomes
+ 3wL“ + 3wL2 3wL2 21.16 +1 ()

V = V V = = I1
f ‘ 2EAd2 4,40 4,40 d2E
Equation (a) indicates that the ratio of the two deflections increases as the square
of Lfd, which means that the deflection due to shear is of importance only in the
case of very short, deep beams.
1 Example Problem 8-16 A structural steel (E = 29,000 ksi and G

= 11,000 ksi) cantilever beam with a rectangular cross section 2 in. wide X 4 in.
deep supports a concentrated load of 1000 lb at the end of a 3-it span. Determine
the percent increase in deflection at the free end of the beam resulting from the
shearing stresses.
SOLUTION
The deflection dv of the neutlal surface due to shearing stresses in an interval dx
along the beam is
dv=ydx=ldx=Edx
G no
For a beam with a rectangular cross section, I = bi?/12 and Q = bhz/8. Also,
V, = —P for a cantilever beam that supports a concentrated load P at the free
end. Thus,
3P
""= -mi“
The deflection at v, at the free end of the beam due to shearing stresses is
L 3PL 3(l000)(3)(l2)
V, =1. dv= —i = la = —U.0U06l3fi in.
0 2bhG 2(2)(4)(ll)(1U )
2A5 stated, this result is too high because the maximum shear stress was used at every point. Using an
energy method (such as Castigliano’s theorem, discussed in the next section) which averages the shear
stress across the cross section would yield it = 3wL2."5AG and Eq. (a) would become
_ 3“-1.4 + 3wL2 _ 3wL2 (sile +1)
" ' 22.-142 sac; ' 5,40 2415 '
S32 CHAPTER s rnzxmuu. LOADING: cam oaruzcnoss
The deflection vf at the fi'ee end of the beam due to flexure is
v; = - PL3
3EI
= - 4PL3
Ebh3
= - 4(1000) [3 (12)]’
29(10*'=) (2) (4)3
= -0.05028 in.
Therefore,
0.0006136
Increase = i (100) = 1.220% Ans.
0.05028
1 PROBLEMS
8-95* A structural steel (E = 29,000 ksi and G = 11,000 ksi) 8-97 A structural steel (E = 29,000 ksi and G = 1 1,000 ksi) beam
cantilever beam with a 4-in.-diameter circular cross section with a hollow rectangular cross section 3 in. wide >< 5 in. deep
supports a concentrated load of 1200 lb at the end of a 4-ft is made from 1/2-in.-thick plate. The beam is simply supported
span. Determine the percent increase in deflection at the free and carries a concentrated load of 4000 lb at the center of an
end of the beam resulting from the shearing stresses. 8-fl span. Determine the percent increase in deflection at the
center of the span resulting from the shearing stresses.
8-96* An aluminum alloy (E = 73 GPa and G = 28 GPa) can-
tilever beam with a rectangular cross section 50 mm wide x 8-98 A W 203 >< 60 structural steel (E = 200 GPa and G =
100 mm deep supports a uniformly distributed load of 5 kNim 76 GPa) wide-flange section is used as a simply supported
over a 1.5-m span. Determine the percent increase in deflec- beam to support a distributed load of 20 kN/m over a 4-m
tion at the free end of the beam resulting from the shearing span. Determine the percent increase in deflection at the center
stresses. of the span resulting from the shearing stresses.
8-8 DEFLECTIONS BY ENERGY METHODS—

(IAST'IGLIANO’S THEOREM
Strain energy techniques are frequently used to analyze the deflections of beams
and structures. Of the many available methods, the application of Castigliano’s
theorem, to be developed here, is one of the most widely used. It was presented
in 1873 by the Italian engineer Alberto Castigliano (l847—lSS4). Although the
theorem will be derived by considering the strain energy stored in beams, it is
applicable to any structure for which the force-deformation relations are linear.
The concept of strain energy is illustrated in Fig. S-26, in which Fig. 8-260
represents a bar of uniform cross section subjected to a slowly applied axial load
P and held at the upper end by a support assumed to be rigid. From the load-
deforrnation diagram (Fig. 8-26b) the work Wk done in elongating the bar an
amount 82 is
52
Wk =~/l P118 (:1)
U
where P is some function of 8. The work done on the bar must equal the change
in energy of the material,3 and this energy change, because it involves the strained
configuration of the material, is termed strain energy U. If 5 is expressed in terms
3Known as Clapeyi-on’s theorem, after the French engineer B. P. E. Clapeyrou (1799-1864).

s-s DEFLECHONS BY smarter rnrrnons-cAsTrc1.nNo's rrmorunr 533
' P o
P2 ———————— —— O-2 ———————— ——

p _ _ _ _ _ __ Q I | I |
P, --- e, ---
I
l-
ise
_ _o= en__ NJ
O7
:_=~ IL -—15°
m
P2 fii
:::: Q-_,,,_
::::
(Q) (b) (<1)
Figure 8-26
of axial strain (8 = Ls) and P in terms ofaxial stress (P = Ac], Eq. (a) becomes
e3 e;
Wk = U =£ (0) (A) (L)de = AL]; ode (b)
where 0 is a function of e (See Fig. 8-26c).

If Hoolce’s law applies,
1
e=% and ds=Eda
Eq. (b) becomes
AL °"
U= ado
or
2
U = 44%) (c)
Equation (c) gives the elastic strain energy (which is, in general, recoverable‘)
for axial loading of a material obeying Hooke’s law. The quantity in parentheses,
012/ (2E), is the elastic strain energy u in tension or compression per unit volume, or
strain energy intensity, for a particular value of0. For shear loading the expression
would be identical except that cr would be replaced by r and E by G.
Ifthe beam shown in Fig. 8-27 is slowly and simultaneously loaded by the
two forces P, and P; with resulting deflections v| and v2, the strain energy U of the
beam is, by Clapeyron’s theorem, equal to the work done by the forces. Therefore,
1 1
U = 5101)-'1+ 5102112
‘Elastic hysteresis is neglected here as an unnecessary complication.

S34 CHAPTER s rtsxuruu. LOADING BEAM oaruzcrrous
4—;-E;
==4- -iN"U
rwh-'
v2
U
’/
\ v /’
§_ f‘
I
A1217 "‘--____-- -"'
Av;
Figure 8-27
Let the force P1 be increased by a small amotmt AP1 (while P1 and P; remain
constant), and let Av1 and Avg be the changes in deflection due to this incremental
load. Because the forces P1 and P2 are already present, the increase in the strain
energy is
l
AU = §AP1Av| + P1Av1+ PzAv2 (e)
If the order of loading is reversed so that the incremental force, AP1, is applied
first, followed by P1 and P2, the resulting strain energy is
l l I
U+ = iAP1AV1+ AP1V| + iP1V| + EPQVZ U’)
The resulting strain energy must be independent of the order of loading; hence, by
combining Eqs. (d), (e), and (f), one obtains
AP1V| = P1Av1+ PZAVQ
Equations (e) and (g) can be combined to give
AU l
TH = V1-i-EAT/1
or upon ta.kir1g the linrit as AP1 approaches zeros
3U
_= ;,
3P1 V1 (J
For general cases in which there are many loads involved, Eq. (h) is written as
BU
T): = v1 (8-5a)
5The partial derivative is used because the strain energy is a function of both P1 and P2.
s-s DEFLECTIONS BY avrursv METHODS—CASTlGLIANO’S THEOREM 555
The following is a statement of Castigliano’s theorem:
If the strain energy of a linearly elastic structure is expressed in terms of the

system of extemal loads, the partial derivative of the strain energy with
respectto a concentrated external load is the deflection of the structure at the
point of application and in the direction of that load.
By a similar development, Castigliano’s theorem can also be shown to be valid for

applied moments and the resulting rotations (or changes in slope) of the structure.
Thus,
av
—
am = 0-. ( 8-Sb)
If the deflection is required either at a point where there is no unique point

load or in a direction not aligned with the applied load, a dummy load is introduced
at the desired point acting in the proper direction. The deflection is obtained by
first differentiating the strain energy with respect to the dummy load and then
taking the limit as the dummy load approaches zero. Also, for the application of
Eq. 8-5b, either a unique point moment or a dummy moment must be applied at
point i. The moment will be in the direction of rotation at the point. Note that if
the loading consists of a number of point loads, all expressed in terms of a single
parameter (e.g., P, 2P, 3P, wL, 2wL), and if the deflection is wanted at one of
the applied loads, one must either write the moment equation with this load as a
separate identifiable term or add a dummy load (say Q) at the point so that the
partial derivative can be taken with respect to this load only.
It was previously shown that the strain energy per unit volume for uniaxial
stress is oz/(2E); hence, the total strain energy under tmiaxial stress is
2
U = I“,1 i
2E
av
For a beam ofconstant (or slowly varying) cross section subjected to pure bending,
the principal stresses are parallel to the axis of the beam; therefore, using Eq. 7-3,
the strain energy becomes
1 My 2 .
U _ 2E-l\:o1(— I ) “W (U
By writing dV as dA ab: (where x is measured along the axis of the beam), Eq. (i)
becomes
1 L M2 1 L M2
U = if (J area Wilt‘ = if T"”‘

U ‘*6’
Equation 8-6 was developed for a beam loaded in pure bending. However, most
real beams will be subjected to transverse loads that induce shearing stresses and,
in the case of distributed loading, transverse normal stresses. It is assumed that
the transverse normal stress is small enough to neglect, and in Section 8-7, it was
shown that, except for short, deep beams, the deflection due to shearing stresses
is also small enough to neglect. Hence, Eq. 8-6 which neglects strain energy due
S36 CHAPTER s rtsxtmn LOADING: muuu oarurcnous
to these stresses, is applicable to the usual real beams. In applying Eq. 8-5 or
Eq. 8-6, it is usually much simpler to apply Leibnitz’s rule“ to difierentiate rmder
the integral sign so that
BU 1 L M, arr,
i Example Problem 8-17 The cantilever beam Shown in Fig. 8-28a

is subjected to a concentrated load P at the left end. Determine the deflection
and slope at the left end of the beam using Castigliano’s theorem. The flexural
rigidity is constant. Neglect the deflection due to shear.
J’ SOLUTION
P
I The deflection is found using Eqs. 8-5a and 8-7, and the slope is found using
Eq. 8-Sb. For the deflection
A I L 3U 1 HM
V1'=5;);=EFh[1lCf1-'€bf"dI (I1)
and for the slope

(<1)
P av 1 an,
' A B
9.-—a—M—§fM,a—M¢ <1»)
5'
‘II To apply Eq. (a) one needs a force in the direction of the deflection at the
point i where the deflection is to be fotmd. The force P at pointA satisfies these
E conditions. In a similar manner, to find 6,, one needs a moment Mi, at the point
“U
i where the slope is to be found. Such a moment does not exist; thus a dummy
moment is placed at A. In Fig. 8-28b the durnnry moment is shown dashed to
indicate that it is fictitious. The moment MA is set equal to zero after the partial
\_,J:
""\
hi!‘ H
Si
derivatives in Eqs. (a) and (b) are performed.
Using the free-body diagram of Fig. 8-28c and the moment equation of
(C) equilibrium
Figure s-2s
+LEM,1=0: M,+Px+M,1=0
gives
M,=—Px—M,, 05x5L (c)
Combining Eqs. (a) and (c) gives
IL 8M, IL
11,, = filo M,§d¢= EL (—Px —M,1)(—x)dx
‘Advanced Calculus, W. Kaplan, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass, 1953, p. 219.

s-s or:r1.ac'no1vs av smarter Msmons-cAsTrc1n1vo's Tl-l]?.0REM 557
Setting MA = 0 and carrying out the integration gives
PL3 An
VA — 3E1 S.
The positive sign for v,1 indicates that the deflection is in the direction of the load
P. This result agrees with case 1 of Table B-19 (Appendix B).
Combining Eqs. (b) and (c) gives
l L HM, l L
9,1 — El Mr%dI— filo‘ (—Px—MA)(—l)tir
Setting MA = 0 and carrying out the integration gives
PL2
6,1 = E ADS-
The positive sign for 6,1 indicates a slope to the left and down, to correspond to
the direction ofMA. This expression for 0,1 also agrees with case 1 of Table B-19
(Appendix B).
1 EXHIIIPIB P1'OI]I8IIl 8-18 Determine the deflection at the free end

of a cantilever beam of constant cross section and length L that is loaded with a
force P at the free end and a distributed load that varies linearly fi'om zero at the
free end to w,, at the support, as shown in Fig. 8-29a.
SOLUTION
From the free-body diagram of Fig. 8-29b, the moment equation is
M = -P1 - LP
’ 6L
PI I
T,
L r
(H)
(bl
Figure s-29
S38 CHAPTER s r-isxuruu. LOADING: BEAM oaruzcrrous
The partial derivative of ill, with respect to P is —x, and Eq. 8-7 becomes
L BM,
EIv = 1‘; , apdx
MT
L 3
=1 (—Px - %) (—)3)dI
0
=
L Pxz +
w0?
x“ dx =
PL3
i +
wO?
L4
L ( 6L + 3 30
The positive signs indicate deflection in the direction of the force P; hence,
PL3 GL4
V = E + :2? »i, ADS.
The result can be verified by referring to Table B-19 (cases 1 and 3) in

Appendix B.
1 EXZIIIIPIC Pl'OI)IElIl 8-19 Determine the deflection at the center of a
i simply supported beam ofconstant cross section and span L carrying a uniformly
distributed load w over its entire length.
SOLUTION
A C The deflection is required at a point where there is no unique point load. Thus,
a dummy load P is introduced at the center of the beam in the direction of the
L P
R» = ‘%’" r i Rs‘? *3 desired deflection. In the fi'ee-body diagram of Fig. 8-30, the dashed force P
represents the dummy load. The moment equation is
Figure s-30
Lx 2 P L‘
M’=M”+MP=%'%+%'P<"E)
where the quantity (x — L/2)' is zero for allx 5 L/2 (see Section 8-5). The partial
derivative of M, with respect to P is
mg; _a'
6P_2 x 2
The dummy force P is equated to zero after the partial derivative is taken, and
the deflection is given by
L HM,
EIVZL
L wLx
wxz x
--L1 mix
=
Liz ___
zliz i‘ zl
--
s-s DEFLECHONS BY smarter M]i’I‘HODB—CASTlGLIANO’S rrmorunr 539
which, for ease of integration, can be written as
L L 5 L4
EIv= %L (LP —x3)dx+ %fm(L2x-3Lx’+2x3)dx= g”?
Since the deflection is positive, it is in the direction of the force,
5wL4
V= Alls-
This result corresponds to case 7 of Table B-19 (Appendix B).
ALTERNATE SOLUTION
The moment equations may be written as
2
M,=E+E—£ 05155
2 2 2 2
and
The partial derivatives of M, with respect to P are
BM, x L
aP — 2 05x 5 2
and
BM, x L L x L
?=——x+—=——— —5x5L
HP 2 2 2 2 2
Setting the dummy force P equal to zero and using Eq. 8-7 gives
L” wLx wx x L wLx wxz L x SWL4

E1: ——————-— —dx —-———-— ———dx=————
V L ( 2 22)(2) +f1,,,( 2 2 X2 2) 384
which is the same as the result obtained previously using singularity functions.
Note further, however, that the strain energies in the two segments of the beam
are equal due to symmetry. Therefore, the integration need only extend over half
of the beam if the strain energy is doubled. Thus, fi'om Eq. 8-7,
E,-.,=2f Lil (E_ £)(£),,,=

2
E4
1, 2 2 2 384
540 cnsrrex s rmxtrtut LOADING: mm nnrmcnons
1 PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems P
8-99* Determine the deflection and slope at the left end of the
cantilever beam shown in Fig. P8-99. A B
us = 4.215
“’ Figure Ps-102
AL B Determine the deflection
L
a. At the concentrated load P.
Figure P8-99
P

Determine the deflection at the concentrated load P. A 3 C
P = L E 2L
Figure P8-103
MC = PL
A is C‘) Intermediate Problems

L T LE2 l 8- 104* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-104.
Determine the deflection at the midpoint ofthe distributed load.
Figure P8-100
E
8
w
8-101 Determine the deflection and slope at the left end of the
cantilever beam shown in Fig. P8-101.
P
L‘? L ”
Figure P8-104
8-105* Determine the deflection at the lefi end of the cantilever

A
L 3 c
Lf4%3Li4 ié
25 w
Figure P8-101
A B
C .
. . . L l.S L ‘L L
8-102* A beam 1S loaded and supported as shown 111 Fig. P8-102.
Determine the deflection at the concentrated load P. Figure P8-105
s-s omscnoss av smutcv M]l’l'HODS—CA8'I'IGLl\l't'0’S 'I'HBORBM S41
8-106 For the beam shown in Fig. P8-106, determine the slope Challenging Problems
and deflection at the section in the beam where the couple M
is applied. 8-110* Determine the deflection at a section midway between the
supports when the beam is loaded and supported as shown in
Fig. P8-1 10.
,1 3 B
M
2L/3 us P3 = w,,L
Figure P8-106 we
8-107* Determine the deflection at point B of the beam shown in

Fig. P8-107. B
A l C
W
1. L
Figtme P8-110
A EB c
L12 i LIZ
8-111* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-l 11.
Figune P8-107 Determine the deflection at the left end of the beam.
8-108 Determine the deflections at points A and B of the beam

shown in Fig. P8-108.
W
P
A B‘ C
D
L E 2L L
AL LB C Figime P8-1 1 1
LE2 LIZ
Figure P8-108
8-112 The cantilever beam shown in Fig. P8-112 has a second
moment of area of 21 in the interval AB and I in the interval
BC. Determine the deflection at point C.
Detennine the deflection
a. At the lefi end of the beam.
Q P
P
MC = 2P1.
A B ( D
A B lC
L + c
L 1 L
L/3 T U2 1 L12
S42 crutrrsn s rmxuiuu. LOADING: muuu DEFLE(.'l'IONS
8-113 Determine the deflection at pointB of the beam shown in 8-114 Determine the deflection midway between the supports of
Fig. P8-113. The second moment of area is 2] in the center the beam shown in Fig. P8-114.
section BC and I in the sections near the supports.
P
"?||1||”|11||
A s c "'
A B
L LIZ ' Lt'2—" L 5 L '
Figure P8-113 Figure P8-1 14
8-9 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE BEAMS

A beam, subjected only to transverse loads, with more than two reaction com-
ponents, is statically indeterminatc because the equations of equilibrium are not
sufficient to determine all the reactions. In such cases the geometry of the de-
formation of the loaded beam is used to obtain the additional relations needed
for an evaluation of the reactions (or other unknown forces). For problems in-
volving elastic action, each additional constraint on a beam provides additional
information concerning slopes or deflections. Such information, when used with
the appropriate slope or deflection equations, yields expressions that supplement
the independent equations of equilibrium.
8-9-1 T116 Iiltflgffltiflll Mfithfld For statically determinate beams,

lcnown slopes and deflections were used to obtain boundary and matching con-
ditions, fi'om which the constants of integration in the elastic c1n've equation could
be evaluated. For statically indeterminate beams, the procedures are identical.
However, the moment equations will contain reactions or loads that cannot be
evaluated fi'om the available equations of equilibrium, and one additional bound-
ary condition is needed for the evaluation of each such unknown. For example, if
a beam is subjected to a force system for which there are two independent equilib-
rium equations and if there are four unknown reactions or loads on the beam, tvm
boundary or matching conditions are needed in addition to those necessary for the
determination of the constants of integration. These extra boundary conditions,
when substituted in the appropriate elastic curve equations (slope or deflection),
will yield the necessary additional equations. The following examples illustrate
the method.
Example Problem 8-2 0 A beam is l0a.d6(l and supported as shown

in Fig. 8-31a. Determine the reactions at A and B.
SOLUTION
From the free-body diagram of Fig. 8-3 lb it is seen that there are three unlcnown
reaction components (MA, VA, R5) and that only two independent equations of
equilibrium are available. The additional unknown requires the use of the elastic
curve equation, for which one extra boundary condition is required in addition
to the two required for the constants of integration. Because three boundary
a9 S'l‘ATlCAI.l.YlNDE'l'ERMIN!i'l'E BEAMS S43
y.
W
x IC
‘' ‘ 1. i“(U4) J
(Q)
‘Q '35 _‘
kin (U4)
J’
I W
MA( . Mo)
,4, “h/(xi
(¢)
Figure 8-31
conditions are available in the interval between the supports, only one elastic
curve equation needs to be written. The origin ofcoordinates is arbitrarily placed
at the wall and for the interval 0 5 x 5 L, the boundary conditions are: when
x = O, dv/mix = 0; whenx = 0, v = 0; and whenx = L, v = 0. From Fig. 8-31c
and Eq. 8-1,
dzv wxz
E[”=M(I)=VAx+MA—T OEIEL
Integration gives
dv V,|x2 wx3
El ix - 2 + MAX — 6 + C|
The first boundary condition dvidx = 0 when x = 0 gives C1 = 0. A second

integration yields
V,4x3 M,,x2 wx"

E1 = — — — T C
V 6 + 2 24 + 2
The second boundary condition v = 0 when x = 0 gives C; = O, and the last
boundary condition v = 0 when x = L gives
VAL3 MAL: ‘WL4

°- T+T' F
S44 cnsrvrsns FLEXURALLOADING: BEAM DEFLECTIONS
which reduces to
4V,,L +12M,, = wL2 (a)
The equation of equilibrium EM5 = 0 for the free-body diagram of Fig. 8-31b
yields
+TEM5=0: V,,L+M,,—w(%)(%)=0
which reduces to
32 VAL + 32114,, = 15wL2 (b)

Simultaneous solution of Eqs. (a) and (b) gives
7wL2 = mt’
= __ _t .
M" 64 64 A”
and
37 L 37 L
P An alternate solution would be to place
the origin of coordinates at the right support
and write the moment equation for the inter- Finally, the equation SF), = 0 for Fig. 8-3 lb gives
val 0 5 x 5 L. This equation would involve
only one unknown, the reaction RB. Upon +1‘2]Fy=0: R3-I-V,1—W(5L/4)=0
integration and evaluation of the constants,
the third boundary condition would directly
yield the value of RB. The two independent fi'om which
equilibrium equations could then be used to
43 L 43 L
evaluate M4 and V}.
R'*=+T:=%* “*-
1 Example Problem 8-2 1 A beam is loaded and supported as shown

in Fig. 8-32a. Determine
(a) The reactions at supports A and B.
(b) The deflection at the middle of the span.
. _ MC 3
-iii Y-ikr. SOLUTION
(a) There are three unknown reaction components (M5, VB, and RA) on the free-
(“J
body diagram of Fig. 8-32b. Because there are three unknown reaction com-
P ponents and only two independent equations of equilibrium, the problem is
Ms statically indeterminate and a deformation equation will be needed in order
to solve for the three unknowns. Additional complications arise because two
MC moment equations are needed, one in the interval 0 5 x 5 L and another ir1
the interval L 5 x 5 2L. Integrating each moment equation twice results in
RAI VB
four constants of integration, along with the unimown reaction RA. To solve
(bl the resulting equations requires three boundary conditions (one atA and two
Figure s-32 at B) and two matching conditions at the point where the moment is applied.
The lengthy algebraic computations can be simplified if one uses singularity
s-9 S'l‘ATlCAI.LY lN'DE’l’ERMINA'l‘E cams 545
flmctions. The moment equation is

d2
EIfi=M(x)=R,,x—M(;(x—L)° O5x52L
I
which upon integration yields
dv R 1
E15 = "Tx—M¢(x—L)1+C1
R 3 M
E1» =‘Tx-T°(x-L)2+c,x+c2
Using the boundary condition v = 0 when x = 0 gives C; = 0. The boundary
condition dv/dx = 0 whenx = 2L gives
2R,,L2 - MCL + C1 = 0 (.1)

and the boundary condition v = 0 whenx = 2L gives
412 L3 M~L2
%—°T+2c,L=0 (s)
M L 9M'- 9M
C1=—% and RA=+€£'=FET ADS.
The remaining two unknowns are found using the equations of equilibrium
and the free-body diagram shown in Fig. 3-32b.
9M -
+¢:»:F,.=0; 12,,-r»;,=fi-1/,,=0
9Mg' _
— —16L(2L)+M¢ +Ma -0
The reactions at B obtained fiom the above two equations are
V =
9M¢
— = —
QMC ='
MC
— =' 71
MC ,
B J’ 16L 16.2 L and M” ‘L s s A“
(b) Setting x = L in the elastic curve equation
R 1 M»
Elv= ‘T’-T‘(x-L)2+c.x+c2
yields
1 9M¢
EIv = E(fi)(r.)3 - 51 (MC) (of + (-T)
MCI. (L) +0
fi'om which the deflection at the middle of the span is
Me-L2 M-L2
" = “ii = 3%4' “"-
546 CHAPTER 8 FLEXIIRAL LOADING: BEAM DEFLECTIONS
1 PROBLEMS
MecMovie Activities and Problems 8-118* When the moment M is applied to the lefl end of the can-
tilever beam shown in Fig. P8-118, the slope at the left end of
MM8.6 Propped cantilevers. Example; Concept checkpoints. De- the beam is zero. Determine the magnitude of the moment M.
termine the roller reaction for a propped cantilever.
MM8.7 Beam on three supports. Concept checkpoints. Deter-
P
mine one roller reaction for a simply supported beam on three
supports using superposition.
Introductory Problems C ,.
M
B
8-115* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-1 15. = L
Determine the reactions at the supports A and B.
Figure P8-1 18
11111‘"11111 8-119 When the load P is applied to the right end of the cantilever
beam shown in Fig. P8-119, the deflection at the right end of
the beam is zero. Determine the magnitude of the load P.
< L
Figure P8-115
8-116* When the moment M is applied to the beam shown in Fig. A

1111111111 E
P8-116, the slope at the lefl end of the beam is zero. Determine L
the magnitude of the moment M.
P
Figure P8-1 19
M
(11111‘"11111 ,
Determine the reactions at the supportsA and B.
Figure P8-116
8-ll’! A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-117.

Determine the magnitude of the moment M required to make A B +1”
the slope at the left end of the beam zero. L
531111131111
Figure P8-120
F L s
Figure P8-117 Determine the reactions at the supports A and B.
as S'l'ATlCi\Il.YI1\IDB'l'l1RMl1'ii\'l’lil!BAl\lS S47

Determine
i a. The reactions at the supports A and B.

b. The deflection at the middle of the span.
+14 B
Figure rs-121
It
Determine the magnitude of the load P required to make the
slope of the beam zero at the right end.
Figure P8-125
I 8-126 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-126.

A B
P J’ w(x) = w sin(1tx1'2L) \
Figure P8-122
1w
in émwm X inf, Wt Q
8-123 Determine the support reactions for the beam loaded and
A B
supported as shown in Fig. P8-123.
L .
we Figure P8-126
A s C 8-127* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-127.

Determine the reactions at the supports B, C, and D.
‘. L 1.
Figure P8-123
P
Determine the reactions at the supports A and B. 1‘
A as _!_,;-*2 i L
as
in L TFQ
D
J’
FigureP8-12'.-'
w(x) = R12 -.-
W
A B 8-128* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-128.

Determine
Li L a. The reactions at supports A and B.
Figure P8-124 h. The deflection at the middle of the span.
S48 ciittrrsir s rtsxuiutt LOADING: mam nm.iic'i'ioNs
P 8-132 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-132

Determine the reactions at the supports A, B, and C.
A s
W a
ii L ¥ L A
Figure P8-128 A B C
8-129 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-129. L L l L ,

Determine
a. The reactions at the supports A and B.
Figure P8-132
b. The deflection at the middle of the span.
Determine the reactions at the suppoi-tsA and C.
P
A B
. U2 U2 A C
Figure P8-129
Figure P8-133
8-134 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-134

Challenging Problems Determine
8-130* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-130. a. The reactions at the supports/1 and D.
Determine b. The deflection atB ifE= 200 GPa andl = 350 (106) mm‘
a. The reactions at the supports A, B, and C.
b. The moment over the middle support. 36 kN
1 6 kNfm
B C D
A B C
L 3m = 3m in
%L+LA
8-131* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-131 8-135 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-135
Determine the reactions at the supports A, C, and D. Determine the reactions at the supports A, B, and D.
ll’ 1200 lblfi

2000 lb
,$,L is L%cL D A 5
I
‘E115;-J11;
< 4ft -1 6ft - 2ii

Figure P8-131 FigureP8-135
s9 S'l'ATlC!tLl.Y lNDE'I'ERMlNA’l'l1 stratus 549
Computer Problems 600 iiit/ii
8-136 A 10-ni-long beam carries a uniformly distributed load and

is supported as shown in Fig. P8-136. Horizontal reactions at ,1 E p
the supports may be neglected. If the beam is constructed of
wood (E1 = 1500 kN - ml), compute and plot < 1Sfi E isn
(v)
a. The deflection cinves for the beam (plot v as a function ofx
for 0 5 x 5 10 m) for center support locations of b = 2 m, Figure P8-l37(e)
4 m, and 7 m. 8-138 A 6-m-long WTl78 x S1 structural steel section is used
b. The bending moment distribution along the beam (plot M for the cantilever beam shown in Fig. P8-138. The flange is at
as a function of x for O 5 x 5 10 m) for center support the top of the beam. If a roller support is added to the beam at
locationsofb=2m,4m,and7m. B, compute and plot
a. The deflection curves for the beam (plot v as a function of
J’ xfort) 5x5 6m) forsupport locations ofb= 3 m,4m,
i 6 k.Nfm and 5 m.
b. The bending moment distribution along the beam (plot M
as a function of x for 0 5 x 5 6 m) for support locations of
i- ix I b=3ni,4m,and5m.
A ii $.11 cs C c. The maximum tensile and compressive flexural stresses in
thebeamasafiinctionofbfor 1 m 5b 56m. Whatrange
b of b would be acceptable for this beam?
’ 10m
J’
~1 1
Figure P8-136 I P = 6 kN
8-137 A 30-it-long beam carries a uniformly distributed load and

is simply supported as shown in Fig. P8-137a. Modified de- 1 I
A FFB C
signs of the beam consist of replacing the single long beam
with a pair of shorter beams (Fig. P8-1371:) or adding a center b
support to the long beam (Fig. P8-1370). If the beams are all Figure P8-138
constructed of wood (EI = 12,000 kip - 1?), compute and plot
the deflection curves for the three cases (plot v as a function 8-139 A concentrated load P = 3900 lb moves slowly across the
ofx for 0 5 x 5 30 it). Plot all three cases on the same graph. beam shown in Fig. P8-139. Horizontal reactions at the sup-
(Neglect horizontal reactions at the supports.) ports may be neglected. The 16-fl-long beam is a W 4 x 13
structural steel section. Compute and plot
J’ a. The deflection curves for the beam (plot v as a ftmction of
i 600 lbiii
xfor0 5x 5 16 ft) forload locations ofb= 3 fl,'7 it, and
ll ft.
b. The bending moment distribution along the beam (plot M,
as a finiction of x for 0 5 x 5 16 fl) for load locations of
A ix ‘D
b=3fl,7tt,andllfi.
c. The maximum flexural stresses in the beam as a function of
so it b for 1 5 b 5 8 ii. What range ofb would be acceptable for
(=11 this beam‘?
600 lbffi
)1
. ., B A
be P'— 3900 lb
1’ c
B
lfifi ' ‘ 1511
(bl - sn s it
S50 CHAPTER s rtsxuiuii. LOADING: BEAM niiimiicrioss
8 140 A 6-m-long S457 x 104 structural steel section is used for 8-141 A 20-ft-long S12 x 35 structural steel section is used for
the two-span beam shown in Fig. P8-140. The beam supports the two-span beam shown in Fig. P8-l4l. The beam supports
a uniformly distributed load w of 100 kN/m. The support at B a uniformly distributed load w of 1800 lb/ft. The support at A
settles with time until it provides no resistance to deflection of settles with time until it provides no resistance to deflection of
the beam. the beam.
a. Determine b,,,,,, the maximum amount that the support B a. Determine a,,,,,,, the maximum amount that the support A
will settle. will settle.
b. Compute and plot the deflection curves for the beam (plot b. Compute and plot the deflection curves for the beam (plot
v as a function ofx for 0 5 1 5 6 m) for support B initially v as a function ofx for O 5 x 5 20 ft) for support A initially
(b = 0) and settled (b = b,,,,,,,i‘3 and b = 2b,,,,,,/3). (a = O) and settled (a = a,,,,,,,1'3 and a = Zamu/3).
c. Compute and plot the bending moment distribution along c. Compute and plot the bending moment distribution along
the beam (plotM, as a function ofx for 0 5 x 5 6 m) for the beam (plot M. as a function of x for 0 5 x 5 20 fl) for
support B initially (b = 0) and settled (b = b,,,,,,,/3 and b = supportA initially (a = 0) and settled (a = a,,,,,,1'3 and a =
2b,,,_,,,1‘3). 2a,,,,._,,/3).
d. Compute and plot the maximum flexural stresses in the beam d. Compute and plot the maximum flexural stresses in the beam
as a function of b (0 5 b 5 b,,,,,,). What range of b would be as a function of a (0 5 a 5 a,,,,,,). What range of a would be
acceptable for this beam? acceptable for this beam?
.3’ J’
i w i w
2 my ui
A $8 C A T ~- ? E C
LIZ L12 ' LIZ ‘F M2
8-9-2 The Superposition Method The concept (discussed in Section

8-6) that a slope or deflection due to several loads in the algebraic stun of the slopes
or deflections due to each of the loads individually is frequently used to
provide the deformation equations needed to supplement the equilibrium equations
in the solution of statically indeterrninate beam problems. To provide the necessary
deformation equations, selected restraints are removed and replaced by unlcnowri
loads (forces and coirples); the deformation diagrams corresponding to individual
loads (both known and unknown) are sketched; and the component deflections or
slopes are summed to produce the known configuration. The following examples
illustrate the use of superposition for this purpose.
i Example Problem 8-22 A steel (E = 30,000 ksi) beam 20 ft long

is simply supported at the ends and at the midpoint, as shown in Fig. S-33a.
Determine the reactions at supports A, B, and C. The second moment of area of
the cross section with respect to the neutral axis is 100 in.4
P The center support exerts whatever force SOLUTION
is necessary to prevent the center ofthe beam With three unknown reactions and only two equations of equilibrium available,
from settling. Therefore, the problem has the bearii is statically irideterrninate. Replace the center support with an unlmowrr
been reformulated: “Determine the upward
applied load. The resulting simply supported beam is equivalent to two beams
force at B that will make the deflection at B
with individual loads, as shown in Fig. 8-33b. The resulting deflection at the
equal to zero.”
midpoint of the beam is the deflection vg due to R3 plus the deflection v,.,- due to
3-9 S'l‘ATICALl.Y 1NDE'1'l1RMINA'l'11 BEAMS 55 1
400lb1'fi
A c
.i—10ii
(H)
R42 Rt:
400 lbffl 400 lb/it
I1 l—1\ %-I+|1-1'/’lL*~I
RA
I I I I\‘*“*@*’I
Rs Re" R41 RC1
I
Rs
(5)
Figure s-33
the uniform load; that is,
v = vg + v,,, = 0 (a)
The deflection v,,. can be obtained fiom case 7 of Table B-19 in Appendix B, and
is
_ 5wL‘ _ 5(400/l2)[20(12)]" _ _
V” — _384EI — _ 3s4(30)(10°)(100) — _0'4800 m‘
The deflection vR can be obtained in terms RB from case 6 of Table B-19 in
Appendix B, and is
_ Rb-L3 _ R,1;[20(l2)]3 _ _ _
V3 — @ — ‘ — 96(i0 6)RB 111.
When these values are substituted in Eq. (a), the result is
v = 96(t0"‘)R,, - 0.4800 = 0
from which
R, = +5000 lb = 5000 lb t Ans.

The equilibriinn equation EFJ, = 0 and symmetry give
1
R,,=RC= 5[400(20)—5000]=+l500lb=1500lb'T Ans.
The arithmetic will frequently be simplified in beam-deflection problems

if expressions for the deflections are substituted in the deflection equation in
S52 cnarrsn s rtsxutuu. LOADING: muuu nsruzcnons
symbol form. In this example, Eq. (a) becomes
RBL3 swr‘
_i_i_=0
4-8EI 3 84EI
which reduces to
5wL
R“ T
O1‘
R,,= =5000lb']*
i Example Problem 8-23 A beam is loaded and supported as shown

in Fig. 8-34a. Determine the reactions at supports A and B.
P The built-in support at the right end ex- SOLUTION
erts whatever force is necessary to prevent There are four unknown reactions (a shear and moment at each end), and only
the right end of the beam from settling or two equations of equilibrium are available; therefore, the beam is statically in-
rotating. Therefore, the problem has been determinate, and two deformation equations are necessary. The constraint at
reformulated: “Determine the force and mo-
the right end can be replaced with an unknown force and couple. The resulting
ment at B that will make the deflection and
cantilever beam is equivalent to three beams with individual loads, as shown in
slope of the beam at B equal to zero."
Fig. 8-34b. Note that the unknown shear and moment at the 1'ight end are both
shown as positive values so that the algebraic sign of the result will be correct.
From the geometry of the constrained beam, the resultant slope and the resultant
deflection at the right end are both zero. The slope and deflection at the end of
each of the three replacement beams can be obtained from the expressions in
Table B-19 of Appendix B. Thus, the first beam with load P (see case 1 of Table
B-19) has a constant slope from P to the end of the beam, which is
0 ” — -251
Paz
The deflection Vp at the end is made up of two parts v1 for a beam of length a,
and v2 the added deflection of the tangent segment (straight line) from P to the
:‘ A 1 .9
‘ .171 .
L
(8)
Figure 8-34(2)
8-9 S'l'ATIC!tI.l.Y INDETERMINATII BEAMS
J 1 '15.. Q.
P P
ls
I | ' : vl v
E 2 ‘*2 P
GP
Vs
+ ‘*1
(b)
Figlue s-3401)
end of the beam. This deflection is

Pal
v_,,=v1+v2=——+(L—a)9p
SE1
__E+(L_a) _E -5 Pa 21.
_ 3E1’ 251 ‘ear ZEI
The slope and deflection at the end of the beam due to the shear VB (also
from case 1 of Table B-19) are
IGL2 IQL3
6”=_E “"“ ""='W
Finally, the slope and deflection at the right end of the beam due to M5 (see
case 4 of Table B-19) are
ML ML2
"»~*=T'l1 and "M=%
Since the resultant slope is zero,
Paz VL2 ML
9P+gV+9.M=_fi—% i= 0
+EI
Similarly,
Pa?‘ Pazl. IQL3 MBL2
v‘°+"”+"“=6Er_ 21:1 _ 351 “L 251 0
S54 CHAPTER s rtsxirtuu. LOADING: mum naruzcnons
The simultaneous solution of these two equations yields
My = —T
P02 (L —a) Elld Pk = —T
H12 (3L —2a) A115.
VVhen the equations of equilibrium are applied to a free-body diagram of the

entire beam, the shear and moment at the left end are found to be
PaL— 1 PL3—32L+23
i Example Problem 8-24 The 4-in.-wide >< 6-in.-deep timber (E =

1200 ksi) beam shown in Fig. 8-35a is fixed at the lefi end and supported at
the right end with an aluminum alloy (E = 10,000 ksi) tie rod that has a cross-
sectional area of 0.125 in.2 Determine the tension in the tie rod if it is tmstretched
before the load is applied to the timber beam.
SOLUTION
There are three unknown support reactions acting on this beam (a force and a
moment at A and a force at B) and only two equations of equilibrium. Thus, the
problem is statically indeterminate. The constraint at the right end of the beam
(the aluminum rod) can be replaced with a concentrated force at B (equal to the
tension force in the tie rod), as shown ir1 Fig. 8-35b. At point B, the deflection of
point B for the tie rod must be equal to the deflection of point B for the beam,
vmd = vbeam = vw + VF (H)

P Note that since the rod is subjected to a
tensile force, its length will increase. Point
B on the rod then moves downward, which The deflection of point B for the tie rod is found using Eq. 5-2
gives the minus sign for the deformation of
point B for the rod, v,,,,,.
-.»,,,,, = -(glad = = —288F(l0"’) (b)
120 ism “F
A "‘- 6 in. Bearing plate ———’ B

10 fi ‘
(11)
Figure 8-35(2)
a9 S'l'ATICAI.l.YINDE'l'ERMlNA’l'll nssnts SSS
F
w L w
(5)
. . (9)
---.l-
+ F
L //is
(4)
Figure s-ss(t>-a)
The deflection ofpoint B for the beam is found using cases 2 and 1 ofTable B-19
(APP=I1diX B),
-wL'* PL’
vbeam = vw + VF = W + i
—(120/13)[(10)(12)l4 F[(19) (12)l3 (C)

= 6 3 + 6 3
3(1-2)(19 )l(4)(6) /12] 3(1-2)(19 )[(4)(5) /12]
Substituting Eqs. (b) and (c) into Eq. (a) and solving yields
F = 431 lb Ans.
1 PROBLEMS
Ue the method of superposition to olve the following 8-143* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-143.
problems. Determine the reactions at the supports A and B.
Determine the reactions at the supports A and B. A I
5
M
L L ~.- L
) Flg|u~eP8-143
A B Q M
L 4 8-144 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-144.
Determine the magnitude of the load P required to make the
Figure P3442 slope at the left end of the beam zero.
SS6 CHAPTER s rmxtnuti LOADING: mm nsmzcnons
P 8-148* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-148.

w Determine the reactions at the supportsA and B.
L‘ L B W
Figure P8-144 L B
L/2 L
8-145* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-145. Figure P8-148
Determine the magnitude of the moment M required to make
the deflection at the left end of the beam zero.
8-149 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8- 149.
M W
I I I II IWI II I II
Figure P8-145
( A
L L
B

. +1 ta
P Intermediate Problems
When the load P is applied, the slope at the right end of the
beam is zero. Determine
E DJ
a. The magnitude of the load P.
l"< -1% l“' 53 b. The reactions at the supports A and B.
Figure P8-146
8-147 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-147. w

A Ba c’
' L l U4 >I
Figure P8-150
AIIIWIIIIB 8-151* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-151.

Determine
. L 4
Flgure P8-147 b. The deflection at the middle of span AB.
as srsrrcsurnmarainimsra sums SS7
W
P P
w_I»’ £
36 * * 36 .4 s
A 3 C
- oz---lim -Lf3-
‘ L - L
8-152 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-152. 8-155 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-155.
Determine the magnitude of the moment M required to make
Determine
a. The slope at the right end of the beam zero.
a. The reactions at the supports A and C.
b. The deflection at the right end of the beam zero.
b. The deflection at the right end of the distributed load.
P
W
.1Lt_Lg, :5 tn:
A ]B C ii
Efi
~ L -I» L i
Figure P8-152
8-156* Draw complete shear force and bending moment diagrams
for the beam shown in Fig. P8-156.
Determine
a. The reactions at the supports A and C. M
b. The deflection at the right end of the distributed load.
A 93 QC
L 1i L l
2 wL
Figure P8-156
. IIIIIIIII
_‘. L l
8-157 Draw complete shear force and bending moment diagrams
Figure P8-153
W
8-154 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-154. A B

Determine
L
a. The reactions at the supports A and B.
b. The deflection at the middle of the span. Figure P8-157
SS8 CHAPTER s FLEXURAL LOADING: emu naruzcnons
Challenging Problems 30(10°) mm‘. Determine the deformation of the spring after
the 80-kN/m distributed load is applied.
8-158* Two beams are loaded and supported as shown in Fig.
P8-158. Determine the reactions at the supports A, B, and D.
Both beams have the same flexural rigidity.
80 k.N/m
P B
A It
F 1.5 m
B C D
Figure P8-160
A
|-
Figure P8-158
L I
,< LIZ I U2 I 8-161* Two steel (E = 29,000 ksi) beams support a 1600-lb
concentrated load, as shown in Fig. P8-161. In the unloaded
condition, beam AB touches but exerts no force on beam CD.
Beam AB is an S4 >< 9.5 American standard section, and beam
8-159* A steel (E = 29,000 ksi and] = 120 inf‘) beam is loaded CD is an S5 x 14.75 section (see Appendix B). Determine
and supported as shown in Fig. P8-159. The post BD is a 6 x
6-in. timber (E = 1500 ksi) that is braced to prevent buckling. a. The maximum flexural stress in each beam.
Determine the load carried by the post if it is unstressed before b. The maximtun transverse shearing stress in each beam.
the 530-lb/it distributed load is applied.
_‘,/
s:-to lbffi I/3 ft
I I I I I I I I I
F__lSfi I
A B m, c _/
I600 lb . /
,X'
B
6in.—i
2011 . A
I<——-____
' ——— 3 fi __________. ——— 1. 0
0" D
10ft l0fi
_"“'-- 3 rt -_________;
Figure P8-161
D%1!_
8-162 A unifomrly distributed load of 7 kN/m is supported by two

Figure P8-159
100 x 100-mm timber (E = 8.5 GPa) beams arranged as shown
in Fig. P8-162. Beam AB is fixed at the wall and beam CD is
simply supported. Before the load is applied, the beams are in
contact at B, but the reaction at B is zero. After the 7-kN/m
8-160 An aluminum (E = '70 GPa) beam is loaded and supported
distributed load is applied, determine
as shown in Fig. P8-160. When the beam is not loaded, it rests
lightly on the spring of modulus 900 kN/m. The second mo- a. The maximum flexural stress in each beam.
ment of area of the beam with respect to its neutral axis is b. The maximum longitudinal shearing stress in each beam.
s9 srarrctur lNDE'l'ERMlNA’l'll rams SS9
|||m|||||||.
7 kNl’m
n
__./ 4
XX 1 1
/Z______ 3.
16 s
6 rt
“1.5 m ._____ C //’I 4001b/til WT
""9" --| ’_l.Sm s in.
‘. k/Z
1.5 ui -_ = J;
Figure P8-162 M Bl2 fi A
Figtu-e P8-165
a. Determine the reactions at the supports A and C. 8-166 In Fig. P8-166, the aluminum alloy tie rod passes through
b. Draw complete shear force and bending moment diagrams a hole in the aluminum alloy cantilever beam and through the
for the beam. coil spring positioned on the end of the tie rod. Before loading,
there is a clearance of2.5 mm between the bottom of the beam
and the top ofthe spring. The cross-sectional area ofthe tie rod
is 100 mmz, the second moment of area of the cross section of
W the beam with respect to its neutral axis is 40(l0°) mm", the
modulus of elasticity of the aluminum alloy is 70 GPa, and the
spring modulus is 1000 kN/m. Determine the axial stress in the
' A F C ' lzierod whenM=9kN - ma.ndw=90kN/m.
I L . L I
Figure P8-163
8-164’ A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-164.

W
‘Cl‘ 1.25 rn
a. Determine the reactions at the supports A and C.
b. Draw complete shear force and bending moment diagrams M
2.5 mm
for the beam. L
A an T
T‘ P I 1.25 m I
Figure P8-166
8-167 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8- 167.

a. Determine the reactions at the supports A, B, and C.
b. Draw complete shear force and bending moment diagrams
Figure P8-164 for the beam.
8-165* A timber (E = 1800 ksi) beam is loaded and supported as W

shown in Fig. P8-165. The tension in the 1/2-in.-diameter rod ~.
BD is zero before the load is applied to the beam. Determine

the axial stress in the tie rod BD if
‘F '%
a. The tie rod BD is made of steel (E = 30,000 ksi).
b. The tie rod BD is made of an aluminum alloy (E = ¢r1l” L F
10,000 ksi). Figure P8-167
S60 crmrrnn s FLEXURAL LOADING: moor nnrrscrrons
8-9-3 Energy Method—Castigliano’s Theorem Castigliano’s

theorem (see Section 8-8) is an effective supplement to the equations of equi-
librium ir1 the solution of statically indeterminate structures. If the deflection at
some point in a structure is known (a boundary condition), Eq. 8-5a, may be ap-
plied at this point and set equal to the known deflection. The resulting equation
will contain one or more unknown forces. If the equation contains more than one
unknown, additional equations must be written, such as equilibrium equations or
the application of Eq. 3-Sb. However, there are certain restrictions necessary to
ensure that the equations are independent; also, some remarks regarding procedure
may be in order. The following outline may be found helpful.
l. For any system of loads and reactions, as many independent energy equations
(Eq. 8-5a or 8-Sb) can be written as there are redundant unknowns—defined as
unknowns not nece ssary to maintain equilibrium ofthe structure. This restriction
is equivalent to the restriction requiring one boundary condition for each extra
rmknown.
2. Ifonly one independent energy equation can be written and the moment equation
contains two unknowns (forces or couples, including dummy loads), one of the
unknowns must be expressed in terms of the other by means of an equilibrium
equation. This case is illustrated in the alternate solution of Example Problem
8-25, which follows. If two independent energy equations can be written, these
can contain two unknowns that canbe obtained fiom a solution ofthe two energy
equations, as illustrated in Example Problem 8-26, which follows.
3. Ifthe loading changes along the beam, the moment equation can be written for
the entire span using the singularity notation of Section 8-5 and, afier multipli-
cation by BM/HP; or 6Mr'M,- (also using singularity notation), integration can
be performed over the entire span. However, this procedure requires integra-
tion by parts of such expressions as x(x — L)1 dx. Sometimes it may be more
convenient to write an ordinary algebraic moment equation for each interval,
multiply by BM/BP; or BMJSM; (different for each interval), and integrate over
each interval; then add the results of all the integrations.
1 Ellillllplfl Pffllllfllll 8-2 5 A beam is loaded and supported as shown

W | in Fig. 8-36a. Use Castigliano’s theorem to determine the reactions at supports
A and B.
-A ..B. l SOLUTION
. L "U4
The free-body diagram of Fig. 8-3 6b indicates that the problem is statically in-
determinate, because there are three unknown reaction components and only two
( 11) independent equations of equilibrium available.
If the portion of the beam to the right of the reaction R3 was removed and
replaced by an equivalent shearing force and bending moment at the transverse
section above RB, neither RB nor the elastic curve in the interval 0 5 x 5 L
MA would be changed. Hence, it is necessary to deal with only the strain energy of
(,,t L ” U4 l
the beam in the interval O 5 x 5 L. With the coordinate system placed as shown,
the resulting moment equation obtained from the free-body diagram in Fig. 8-36c
1s
<1») R” w L 2 wxz wLx wL2

Figure 8-36(a-b) M,-Rgx —RgI 2 4
s-9 S'l‘ATlCALl.Y lNDE'l'ERMINA'l‘E sums 561
From Eq. 8-5a, the deflection at the right support is given by J"
W I
U =
av
— = T
1 [L M i
BM, dx Mr
B 3R3 EI 0 ' aR,,-
Since the partial derivative of M, with respect to R3 is x, the expression for the V’ X RB
deflection is (C)
VB = _ RM _ 5
_2 _ g _ Q2 mdx .
Figure s-36¢)
2 4 32
3 LIZ L2
= E~E~
— ;"~'wr_;‘“~?_ (KHZ _ % _ W4 _ wszxldx
which upon integration and substitution of limits becomes
1 R5-L3 wL"' wL“ wL4

"”—E1 3 _ s —12_e4
Since the support is rmyielding (V3 = 0 when x = 0), the above expression can
be equated to zero and solved for R5, yielding
43wL 43wL
Rb‘ = 4-6T = W 1‘ ADS.
The other reaction components (ll/1,, and IQ) are obtained fi-om the free-body
diagram shown in Fig. 8-36b and the equilibrium equations EMA = 0 and
EFJ, = 0. Thus,
+ T‘ EMA = 0: MA + w (5L/4) (SI./8) — RB (L) = 0

25wL2 4-3wL
“A t T - F (L) = °
from which
M 7»-.»L2 7wL2L An
”_ 64 _ 64 S‘
and
43 L s L
+¢2F,,=0= V,,+Rg—w(5L/4)=V,,+%—%=0
from which
37L 37L J’
I W
MA My
Al.’l'ERNA'I'E SOLUTION
This solution will make use of the free-body diagram of Fig. 8-36d, from which 1
the moment equation is VA g V,
2 (4)
Mr = MA + VA’ — % 05I5L Figure 21-36(11)
S62 crnwrsn s rrnxmm. LOADING: mam nnrrrzcnoss
Since there are two unknowns in the moment equation and only one independent
energy equation can be written, the equilibrium equation EM3 = 0 (Fig. 8-36b)
will be used to obtain a relation between the two unknowns. Thus,
5WL 3L
+rEMg=0Z MA+VAL—T Y =0
fi'om which
151:2 15L M
MA=%""**’~ °' "*'=%"TA
Eliminating MA from the moment equation for ill, gives
15wL2 wxz
M, = V - L + T - —
" (x ) 32 2
and then
HM
i'=x—L
3V4
From Eq. 8-5a, the deflection at the lefi support is given by
v,, = _ 1 r M,_ae
arr = -f BM,
an EI 0 aV,,
1 L
Hfu
=- [ire > wxz
V -L2-—
l5wL2
2 (x —L >+ i 3, (I —L >] dx=0
fi'om which
V +37wL 37wL A
”— 64 — 64 T "5'
The other reaction components (MA and RB) can be obtained fiom equilibrium
P
equations.
- H L i 3 1 Example Problem 8-26 Detemiine the reactions at the left end of

the beam of Fig. B-37a.
(H)
SOLUTION
y The free-body diagram of Fig. 8-37b indicates four unknown reaction compo-
P nents, and since there are only two independent equations of equilibrium, two
supplementary equations are necessary. These are obtained by applying Eqs. 8-5a
and 8-Sb and solving the resulting simultaneous equations for 1% and PE). With
the origin at the left support, the boundary conditions are v = 0 and 6 = 0 atx =
0. Since the moment equation is
Figure s-31 M, = Mg+ Vgx —P(x —a)1

8- 9 S'l‘ATlCAI.LY lNDE’l'ERMINA'l'E BEAMS 563
the deflection at the lefi end rs

' given
' by Eq. 8-5a as
BU 1 L BM,
= — = — M —dx
V“ aV,, Elf, ' an,
l L 1
Eli [Mu+ Vgx —P(x—a} ](x)dx
1 M012 7-5‘
=_ Z
Vex’ 1- _ 2 _-1 _ 3 L
Ell 2 + 3 lzlx “i six “l 0
where the last term was integrated by parts. Substitution of the limits gives
ML2 VL3 PL P
EIvu= ——%—+—%——-i~—(L—a)2+-6-(L—a)3
Application of the boundary condition vg = 0 gives
MQLZ + V023 PL3 + PL2a P03 _ 0

2 3 3 2 6 _ (“J
When Eq. 8-Sb is applied, the rotation at the left end is given by the expression
av 1 L arr,
I L
= EL (M, + Vox - P(x - a)1)dx
1 V0122 P 2‘
-EI|:Mux+ 2 —2(x—a) 0
Substitution of the limits gives
VL2 P
EI61) = MOL + -35- - E(L —a)2
Application of the boundary condi tion 190 = 0 gives
Vol.2 PL2
ML+—
° 2 —+PeL
2 5-0
2 — (e)
Equations (a) and (b) are solved to obtain the following results:
3322 ZPQ3
V1) = P — i + f ADS.
and
21112 P03
M0=—Pfl+T+F ADS.
564 CHAPTER 8 FLEXURAL LOADING: BEAM DEFIBCHONS
V0 Mrl
AL'I'ERNA'I'E SOLUTION
”"(l x
1)
Vrl
Integration by parts can be eliminated by considering the resisting moments in
the two segments of the beam separately. Consider first the segment shown in
Fig. 8-38a, where the resisting moment is
(a) 0 -S. zsa
P
Mrl=V0x+M0 05x50
Next, consider the segment shown in Fig. 3-3 Sb, where the resisting moment is
mil (b) a s I s L
M,2 = V},x+Mg— P(x —a)
=l/§x+M@—Px+Pa a5x5L
Figure 8-38
The strain energy of the beam is
U = U1 + U2
and the deflection becomes
1 a
aM,, 1 L
8M,2
V" — Eli M" at/0 dx+ EIL M” at/0 d” (C)
and the slope is
0 = -1 == M, —e'e
aim, -1 L M ——dx
aM,,
° Erfu ‘aim, +EI_£ '2:-IMO id)
Setting both ve = 0 and 60 = 0 and carrying out the mathematics indicated in
Eqs. (c) and (d) results in Eqs. (a) and (b) again, and the rest of the solution is
the same as before.
1 PROBLEMS
Use Castigllano’s theorem to solve the following problems. 8-169* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8- 169.
When the couple Q is applied, the slope at the right end of the
beam is zero. Determine the magnitude of the couple Q.
Determine the reaction at the support B. “' Q
Figure P8-169
A B
i 1. i 8-170 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-170.

Figure rs-res Determine the reactions at the supports A and B.
s9 S'I'ATICr\I.LYlNDE'l'l!RMll'UA'I’li BEAMS S65
W
M0 , A %' C)” = %
l L i l L i U2 i
Figure P8-17!] Figure Pa-114
8-171* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-171 8-175* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-175.
Determine the reactions at the supports A and B. Determine
a. The reactions at the supports, A, B, and D.
b. The deflection under the concentrated load P.
T
L
A
,_
B
l i
Figure P8-171

~i'.—s. i . ”
Flgure P8-175
Determine the reactions at the supports A and C.
W
W
A C
i L is L
Figure P8-172
~ L 1 21. i
8-I73 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-173 Figure P8-176
8-I77 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-177.
l—§J
A B
l 1- =l
Figure P8-173
Figure P8-177
l— L
A
. . Hg
it B
2- —
C
8-174* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-174. 8-178* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-178.
Determine the reactions at the supports A and B. Determine the reactions at the supports A and B.
566 cruwrsn s rrmuruu. r.osn11~1c= error narnzcnoss
2wL
W
A ic B’ i‘ L 'r L '
Figure P8-181
l‘ L 51 2L
Figure P8-178
8-182 Draw complete shear force and bending moment diagrams

Determine the reactions at the supports A and D.
W
wL A s c '
W
|< r =i r 4
Figure P8-182

Figure P8-179
Challenging Problems W
8-180* The beam shown in Fig. P8- 180 is simply supported at the
lefl end and framed into a colurrm at the right end. When the
0 A Bi C 0
load is applied, the ends of the beam remain at the same level,
but the right end rotates (due to loading the adjacent span)
clockwise until the slope of the elastic curve is wL3/(24EI) |= e Pl 1. >
downward to the right. Determine the reaction at the Figure P8-183
support A.
8-184 An S178 x 30 American standard section is used for a

beam that is loaded and supported, as shown in Fig. P8-184.
Determine
b. The maximum flexural and transverse shearing stresses in
the beamifw= l0kN/mandl. =2m.
A g B
l L
2w
w
Figure P8-180

for the beam shown in Fig. P8-181. Figure P8-184
s-10 DESIGN PROBLEMS 567
8-185 An S6 x 17.25 American standard section is used for a W
beam that is loaded and supported, as shown in Fig. P8-185.

Determine
C
a. The reac1'ions atth e supportA,B,
s an ac . %— %—
b. The maximum flexural and transverse shearing stresses in i L + 2L i
the beam ifw = 500lb1fi and L = 6 ft. Figure P8485

in Chapter 7 when the design of beams was discussed, either flexural strength or
shear strength was the controlling parameter. In this chapter an additional param-
eter, deflection, will be introduced. Thus, the design of a beam may be based on
flexural stress, shearing stress, or deflection. The design procedure is similar to
that presented in Chapter 7. The beam is first designed based on flexural stress, and
then checked for shearing stress and deflection. Ifthe shearing stress and deflection
are within allowable limits, the design is satisfactory. If either the shearing stress
or the deflection is greater than the allowable value, the beam must be redesigned
until all of the allowable limits are satisfied. Clearly, this is a trial-and-error pro-
cess. The following examples illustrate the procedures for designing beams where
allowable limits are given for flextnal stress, shearing stress, and deflection.
i Example Problem 8-27 An air-dried Douglas fir timber (E = 13

GPa) beam is loaded as shown in Fig. 8-39a. If the allowable flexural stress is
8 MPa, the allowable shearing stress is 0.7 It/[Pa, and the allowable deflection is
14 mm, determine the lightest-weight standard structural timber that can be used
for the beam.
SOLUTION
Load (free-body), shear force, and bending moment diagrams for the beam of
Fig. 8-39a are shown in Figs. 8-39b, c, and d, respectively. Since the load is
uniformly distributed over the full length of the beam,
1
1a,, = R, = 51350) (5) = 2l25N
rm, = 2l25N Mm = %(2125)(2.5) = 2656N-111
w = 850 Nfm
A L B
(8 l
Figure 8-39(2)
S68 CHAPTER s Frsxuruu. LOADING: error nsrrrcnoss
w = s50 Nfm
1
=2l25N RB=2l25N w
2.5m 2.5 m
3*:Z
L
125
l\JAx
- -2125
A4” N . m - - -. -> §e_ _ _ _ _ _656

_ _ _'i
+
+o
§
E
- -_ - - _-_- r-p
Figure 8-39(b—d)
The minimum section modulus needed to satisfy the allowable value of the
flexural stress is given by Eq. 7-9 as
s 2 E = fl = 332.0(10-6) I113 = 332.0(l03)IlI]1I13

e,.1 s(10 )
The lightest-weight standard structural timber listed in Table B-16 (Appendix B)
withS 3 332.0(lO3) mm3 is a timber with nominal dimensions of 5 1 x 254 mm.
Some properties of this timber that will be needed later are
Mass/unit length = 6.38 kg/m

Area = 9.88(lO3)l'I1lIl2 = 9.88(l0_3)m2
I = 4s.3(10°)riu;ri* = 4-8.3(l0_6)m“
s = 4-00(l03)nm13 = 400(10-“mi
For a rectangular section, the area is A = bk, the second moment of area is I =
bhii12, and the maximum shearing stress occurs at the neutral axis. Then,
Q .( 2) 8
h
=—b—
h
=7
bhz
s-10 nssrerv PROBLEMS 569
and the maximtnn shearing stress is
Vr Q Vr(bh2/8) Vr Vr 2125
I = --
It = (bh3/l2)b
--- =1.5--
be =1.s- A =1.s-i-
9.8s(10-3)
= 0.3226(l06)Nfm2 = 0.32215 MPa < 0.7 It/[Pa
Thus, the shearing stress requirement is satisfied.
For a simply supported beam with a uniformly distributed load, case 7 of
Table B- 19 (Appendix B), gives the maximinn deflection as
I |_ 5wL“ _ s(8s0)(s)‘
v‘“‘“‘ ' 38451 _ 384(13)(10"‘)(48.3)(10-°)
=1l.0l7(l0_3)m= l1.0l7mm < 14mm
Therefore, the deflection requirement is satisfied. The 51 X 254-mm standard

structural timber satisfies the requirements for flexural stress, shearing stress, and
deflection; however, the analysis thus far neglected the weight of the beam. The
timber beam weighs (6.38)(9.8 1) = 62.59 N/m. Adding this uniformly distributed
load to the applied load gives a imiformly distributed load w = 850 + 62.6 = 912.6
Nfm. For this loading, the maximum shear force is 2282 N and the maximum
bending moment is 2852 N - m. The section modulus needed to satisfy the flexrnal
stress requirement is
s 3 % = g = 356.5110-‘=) 1113 = 35851103) mm3 < 4OO(lO3)II1.I1'13

den 8(lO )
where S = 400 (103) mm3 is the actual section modulus of the cross section
originally selected (51 x 254 mm nominal). Thus, the 51 x 254-mm timber
satisfies the flexural stress requirement. The maxirnimi shearing stress and the
maximum deflection with the beam weight included are
V 2282
‘Ema; = =
= 0.3465(l06)Nfm2 — 0.3465 MPa < 0.7 we

Ivmi = 5wL4 = s(912.6)(s)“
384151 384(13)(10°)(48.3)(10-6)
= ll.828(l0'3)m = 11.828 rr1n1 <14-mm
Thus, the 51 x 254-mm standard structural timber satisfies all requirements with
the weight of the beam included.
Example Problem 8-28 A structural steel (E = 29,000 ksi) beam

is loaded as shown in Fig. 8-4-0a. If the allowable flexural stress is 24,000 psi,
the allowable shearing stress is 14,000 psi, and the allowable deflection midway
between supports A and B is 0.5 ir1., determine the lightest American standard
section (S-shape) that can be used for the beam.
570 cmwnms nmmmuumnmenmmomwnmm
P=l000lb
w = 500 lbffi
A B
10a i en
(<1)
P=1000lb
w = 500 lbffi
K = 4375 lb
kfi RB = 4625 lbt B
PP
sass 611
1.25 fi
(bl
3*! +1:r 4- 375
_ _ r_ ~'_ - -1 7-. -
0
-as
(6) -mu
-as
19,14 I
F
xi +::= 750
r-1 @ 0
0
(vi)
Figure 8-40
SOLUTION
Load (free-body), shear force, and bending moment diagrams for the beam of
Fig. 8-40a a.re shown in Figs. 8-40b, c, and d, respectively. The equilibrium
equations yield
-1-FEMB = 0: R,,(16)— 500(16)(8) — 1000(6) = 0 RA = 4375 lb

+ t ‘BF, = 0: 4375 — 500(16) — 1000 + RB = 0 Rg = 4625 lb
From the shear force and bending moment diagrams,
V,,,,,, = 4625 lb
1
Mm, = 5(4315)(s.7s) = 19,141 11> - ft
s-10 DESIGN PROBLEMS 571
The minimum section modulus needed to satisfy the allowable value of the
flexural stress is given by Eq. (7-9) as
S3 Mm,
am _ 19,141(12) ,,
24,000 -9.57l1.n.
The lightest weight American Standard beam (S-shape) listed in Table B-3 (Ap-
pendix B) with S 3 9.571 in.3 is an S7 x 15.3 section. For this section,
s = 10.5 in.3 r,..,r, = 0.252 in.

d = 7.00 in. 1 = 36.7 in.“
If — 0.392 in.
The average value ofthe shearing stress in the web is
V 4625 . .
I“ = 2:: = 0.252 ["/.00 - 2 (0.392)] = 2953 PS1 << M000 PS1
Thus, the shearing stress requirement is satisfied, because the maximum shearing
stress in the web of an American standard beam is only slightly larger than the
average shearing stress.
The deflection at midspan is fotmd by using the method of superposition
and Table B-19 (Appendix B). The given loading (Fig. 8-41a) is equivalent to
the two loads, parts (1) and (2), as shown in Fig. 8-41b. For part (1), the midspan
deflection is given as case 7 of Table B-19 (Appendix B). It is
,1: i = _ = _0_6927,,,_
384.91 384(29)(106)(36.7)
P= 1000 lb
w=50'0lbr'fi
10 ii 6 rt -
(=1)
1000 lb
1000 lb
5001br'fi 5001b-‘ft
+ 1+1
(1)
(bl
T "’ I
Figure s-41
CHAPTER S I"LEXll'RAL LOADING BEAM DEFLE(.'l'IONS
For part (2), the rriidspan deflection is given as case 5 of Table B-19 (Appendix
B). It is
8-=r:;.; -~1°"":;8:;:.8;; -
The midspan deflection is the algebraic sum of v1 and V2 and is
|Vnu'dl = 0.6927 + 0.12664 = 0.8193 in. > 0.5 in.
Since |vm,d| is greater than van, a new section must be selected with sufficient I
to satisfy the deflection requirement, Thus,
Iv HI > swrx‘ + Pb(3L2—4b2)

‘"‘ — 38451 4851
Solving for! yields
swrxt Pb(3L2 - 4112)

I3 L+i
334E|vmi1i| 435 lvruiril
_ 5(500/12)(192)‘ + 1000(72)[3(192)1 -402?] _ 60 Min,
— 384(29)(10°)(0.5) 48(29)(10°)(0.5) — ' '
The lightest S-shape in Table B-3 (Appendix B) with I Z 60.14 in.“ is an S8 x
23 beam withI = 64.9 in.‘ and S = 16.2 in.3. The S8 x 23 beam satisfies the
requirements for flexural stress, shearing stress, and deflection.
Consider now the effect of the beam’s weight on the deflection. The S8 x
23 beam weighs 23 lb./ft. Adding the weight of the beam to the 500 lb/ft applied
distributed load gives a uniformly distributed load w = 500 + 23 = 523 lb/It,
resulting in maximum values of shear force and bending moment of 4809 lb and
19,870 lb - ft, respectively. The value of I required as a result of this increase in
load is
12 7 SWL4 + 5 Pb(3L2 - 41,1)

384Elvmidl 48Ell"midl
_ 5(s23/12)(192)“ + 1000(72)[3(192)“-4(12)2] _ 62 49, ,,
T 384(29)(10°)(0.5) 48(29)(10°)(0.5) T ' m‘
For the S8 x 23 beam, I = 64.9 in.“ > 62.49 in.4; therefore, the addition of the
weight of the beam does not change the selection of the beam. An S8 x 23 beam
satisfies all requirements of flexural stress, shearing stress, and deflection.
PROBLEMS
beam is made of air-dried Douglas fir (E = 13 GPa) with an
8 186* A 3 m-long simply supported beam is loaded with a uni- allowable flexural stress of 8 MPa and an allowable shearing
formly distributed load of 2 6 kN/m over its entire length. The stress of 0.7 MPa. The maximum deflection at the center of
s-10 nssrsn PROBLEMS 573
the span must not exceed 10 mm. Select the lightest standard Intermediate Problems
structural timber that cart be used for the beam.
8-190* A solid circular shaft made of ASTM A36 steel (E = 200
8-187* An air-dried Douglas fir (E = 1900 ksi) beam is simply GPa) is supported by bearings spaced 1.5 m apart. The shaft
supported and has a span of 16 ft. 'I‘he beam is subjected to a is to support a 4-kN load perpendicular to the shaft; the load
uniformly distributed load of 800 lb/it over its entire length. If may be placed at any point between the bearings. The allow-
the allowable flexural stress is 1200 psi, the allowable shearing able flexural stress is 152 MPa, the allowable shearing stress
stress is 90 psi, and the allowable deflection at the middle of is 100 MPa, and the allowable deflection is 5 mm. If shafts are
the span is 1/2 in., select the lightest standard structural timber available with diameters in increments of 5 mm, determine the
that can be used to support the load. smallest-diameter shaft that can be used to support the load.
8-188 A standard structural steel (E = 200 GPa) pipe is to support Neglect the weight of the shaft.
the load shown in Fig. P8-188. The allowable flexural stress 8-191 A simply supported structural steel (E = 29,000 ksi) beam
and deflection are 150 MPa and 5 mm, respectively. Select has a span of 24 ft and carries a uniformly distributed load of
the lightest permissible standard steel pipe that can be used to 1200 lb/it. The bearn has an allowable flexural stress of 24 ksi,
support the load. Neglect the effects of shear. an allowable shearing stress of 14 ksi, and an allowable deflec-
tion of' 1 / 360 ofthe span. Select the lightest American standard
(S-shape) beam that can be used to support the loading.
8-192* The simply supported structural steel (E = 200 GPa)
<1Rx‘ beam shown in Fig. P8-192 has an allowable flexural stress
of 165 MPa, an allowable shearing stress of 100 MPa, and an
‘ \X 1.3 kN allowable deflection of l/360 of the span. Select the lightest
wide-flangebearn thatcanbe used to support the loading shown
1.25m in the figure.
‘R\\\
A ”1“ T T
“\
“\
\
‘-~t.\
-. wt,-_,
Figure P8-188
8-189 A portion ofa pedestrian walkway along the side ofa bridge
is shown in Fig. P8-189. Cantilever beams support the loading,
one of which is shown. The beams are select structural eastern
EH. ii. tr
1.5 m
Figure P8-192
1.5 rn
hemlock (E = 1200 ksi) with allowable flexural and shearing

stresses of 1300 psi and 80 psi, respectively. The allowable de- 8-193 The simply supported beam shown in Fig. P8-193 is made
flection is 0.2 in. Select the lightest standard structural timber of air-dried Douglas fir (E = 1900 ksi) with an allowable flex-
that can be used for the beams. ural stress of 1900 psi, an allowable shearing stress of 85 psi,
and an allowable deflection of l/360 of the span. Select the
lightest standard structural timber that can be used to support
the loads shown in the figure.
500 lb
4200 lb 4200 lb
600 lbffi
A B B C D
4fi Sit '1" Sit Sfi

574 cmtrrsn s rrsxutm. LDADING BEAM DEFLECTIONS
SUMMARY
A beam design is frequently not complete until the amount of deflection has been
determined for the specified load. Failure to control beam deflections within proper
limits in building construction is frequently reflected by the development of cracks
in plastered walls and ceilings. The deflection of a beam depends on the stiffness
of the material and the dimensions of the beam as well as on the applied loads and
type of supports.
Wrhen a straight beam is loaded and the action is elastic, the centroidal
axis of the beam is a curve defined as the elastic curve. The relationship be-
tween the modulus of elasticity, second moment of area, curvature, and resisting
moment is
2
E1 Lg = M,(x) (s-1)
which is the differential equation for the elastic curve ofa beam where the resisting
moment M, is a ftmction of x.
Whenever the bending moment can be readily expressed as an integrable
function of x, Eq. 8-1 can be solved for the deflection v of the elastic curve of a
beam at any point x along the beam. The constants of integration are evaluated
fi"om the applicable boundary conditions.
Marty beams are subjected to abrupt changes in loading along the beam.
Because the expressions for the bending moment on the left and right of any
abrupt change in load are different functions ofx, it is impossible to write a single
equation for the bending moment in terms of ordinary algebraic flmctions that is
valid for the entire length of the beam. This can be resolved by writing separate
bending moment equations for each interval of the beam. Although the intervals
are bounded by abrupt changes in load, the beam is continuous at such locations;
therefore, the slope and the deflection at the junction of adjacent intervals must
match. A matching condition is defined as the equality of slope or deflection, as
determined at the junction of two intervals from the elastic curve equations for
both intervals. One matching condition (for example, at x equals L/3, v fiom the
left equation equals v fi'om the right equation) cart be used to determine one and
only one constant of integration.
The double integration method for determining beam deflections becomes
tedious and tirne-consuming when several intervals and several sets of match-
ing conditions are required. The labor involved in solving problems of this type,
however, can be diminished by making use of singularity functions. Singularity
functions are used to write one bending moment equation that applies in all inter-
vals along a beam, thus eliminating the need for matching conditions.
The method of superposition for determining beam deflections is based on
the fact that the resultartt effect of several loads acting simultaneously on a member
is the sum of the contributions from each of the loads applied individually. The
results for the separate loads are fiequently available from previous work or easily
determined by previous methods. The results for several common loads are listed
in Table B-19 of Appendix B.
Strain energy techniques are fiequently used to analyze the deflections of
beams and structures. By Castigliano’s theorem, if the strain energy of a linearly
elastic structure is expressed in terms of the system of external loads, the partial
derivative of the strain energy with respect to a concentrated external load is the
ssvrsw PROBLEMS 575
deflection of the structure at the point of application and in the direction of that
load
BU
ail)‘ — Vi (8-SQ)
BU
5-E _ 0. (3-so)
If the deflection is required either at a point where there is no tmique point load
or in a direction not aligned with the applied load, a dummy load is introduced at
the desired point acting in the proper direction. The deflection is obtained by first
differentiating the strain energy with respect to the dummy load and then taking
the limit as the magnitude of the dummy load approaches zero.
A beam, subjected only to transverse loads, with more than two reaction
components is statically indeterminate because the equations of equilibrium are
not sufficient to determine all the reactions. The additional relations needed for an
evaluation of reactions (or other unknown forces) a.re obtained from deformation
(slope or deflection) equations.
1 REVIEW PROBLEMS
8-194* The boards for a concrete form are to be bent to a circular b. The slope at the right end of the beam.
curve of 5-m radius. What maximum thickness can be used if c. The deflection at the right end of the beam.
the stress is not to exceed 15 MPa‘? The modulus of elasticity
for the wood is 10 GPa.
8-195* The cantilever beam shown in Fig. P8-195a is fabricated T
from two 1 >< 3-in. steel (E = 30,000 ksi) bars, as shown in
_zT_.
Fig. P8-l95b. Determine
w
a. The radius of curvature of the beam. . x _t_
b. The deflection at the right end of the beam. ;A B‘
c. The deflection 3 ft from the support. _
L
1 in _> <_ Figure P8-196

3000 lb-it
3 in‘ 8-197* A cantilever beam is loaded and supported as shown in

A 3 _ Fig. P8-197. Determine the deflection at the free end of the
lin. beam.
5fi |
,s73in.‘*
(11) (B)
Figure P8-195 W
A is c;
Determine WT 1. '
a. The equation of the elastic curve. Use the designated axes. Figure P3497
576 CHAPTER s rrsxlnutt LOADING: sum nrnmscnons
8-198 A cantilever beam is fabricated by bolting two structural the brass. The reaction at C is zero before the load w is applied.
steel (E = 200 GPa) C127 x 10 channel sections together, as Determine
shown in Fig. P8-198. Determine the deflection at the right end
a. The reaction at C on beam BC.
of the beam.
b. The reactions at the supports A and B.
700 N
A C B
1 tn T 1m H‘ Cross section
Figure P8-198
1 L1’2 L
8-199 Select the lightest structural steel (E = 29,000 ksi) wide- Figure P8-Z01
flange or American standard beam (Appendix B) that can be
used for the beam shown in Fig. P8-199 ifthe maximum flexu-
ral stress must not exceed 10 ksi and ifthe maximum deflection
must not exceed 0.200 in. when]. = 8 ft and w = 2000 lbllt.
8-202* The steel (E = 200 GPa) beam AB of Fig. P8-202 is fixed
at ends,-1 and B and supported at the center by the pin-connected
w timber (E = 10 GPa) struts CD and CE. The cross-sectional
area of each strut is 6400 mmz, and the second moment of the
A cross-sectional area of the beam with respect to its neutral axis
C
is 25(10°) mm“. Determine the force in each strut alter the
l8
6-kN/m distributed load is applied to the beam.
l . .
Figure P8-199
6 kN!m
8-200* An aluminum beam [E = 70 GPa and I = 20(l0")mn-1"]
is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-200. Determine
the deflection at the middle of span BD.
.. B
A Roller'"' .
C
E B
20 kN-m
i4;
A B C D U In
~+ I
l
' 2 I11 mi to m
Flgure P8-202
i 1m 1.5 m 1m
Figure P8-200
8-201 In Fig. P8-201, beam AC is made of brass and beam BC is 8-203* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-
made of steel. The second moment of the cross-sectional area 203. When the loads are applied, the center support settles an
ofbeam BC withrespect to its neutral axis is twice that ofbeam amount equal to wL“/(l2EI). Determine the reactions at the
AC, and the modulus of elasticity of the steel is twice that of supports A, B, and C.
rtsvrsw PROBLEMS 577
LL 8-205 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P8-205.

3 Determine the reactions at the supports B, C, and D.
W
2000 lb 600 lbm
A o
B+ 0% J 10,000 lb-it |
A EFB EEC D E
L it 1. no
Figure P8-203
>-‘ 61‘! “ Bit >-' ‘
3ft ZR
Flgtue P8-205
Determine
a. The reactions at the supports A and D. Determine
b. The deflection at B ifE = 200 GPa and I = 350(10°) mm‘
b. The deflection midway between the supports B and C.
36 lrN
1 6 kN."m W
B C D A ¥ B C
< 3m = 3m A 6m = 1 L : 2L
FigureP8-204 Figure P8-206

Chapter 9
Columns
9-1 INTRODUCTION
in their simplest form, columns are long, straight, prismatic bars subjected to
compressive, axial loads. As long as a colunm remains straight, it cart be analyzed
by the methods of Chapters 1-5; however, if a column begins to deform laterally,
the deflection may become large and lead to catastrophic failure. This situation,
called buckling, can be defined as the sudden large deformation of a structure due
to a slight increase of an existing compressive load under which the structure had
exhibited little, if any, deformation before the load was increased. For example, a
yardstick will support a compressive load of several pounds without discernible
lateral deformation, but once the load becomes large enough to cause the yardstick
to “bow out" a slight amotmt, any further increase of load produces large lateral
deflections.
Buckling ofsuch a column is caused not by failure ofthe material ofwhich the
colurrm is composed but by deterioration of what was a stable state of equilibrium
to an unstable one. The three states of equilibrium can be illustrated with a ball
at rest on a surface, as shown in Figure 9-1. The ball in Fig. 9-la is in a stable
equilibrium position at the bottom ofthe pit because gravity will cause it to return to
its equilibrium position ifperturbed. The ball in Fig. 9- lb is in a neutral equilibrium
position on the horizontal plane because it will remain at any new position to
which it is displaced, tending neither to return to nor move farther fi'om its original
position. The ball in Fig. 9-lc, however, is in an unstable equilibrium position at
the top of a bill because, if it is perturbed, gravity will cause it to move even farther
fi"om its original location until it eventually finds a stable equilibrium position at
the bottom of another pit.
As the compressive load on a colurrm is gradually increased from zero, the
colurrm is at first irt a state of stable equilibrium. During this state, if the colurrm
.
1
g A.-' ..
,1---.>
.- ' .3‘ =1-:
_ . I ~_-,'l..-" .
' ' - -"r"-' ' -< '.'-.116/'-.. w.<-,¢=e:-.- 11., -
(H) (b) (c)

Figure 9-1
9-2 BUCKLING or LONG, srrtxrcur coturuns 579
is perturbed by inducing small lateral deflections, it will return to its straight

configuration when the lateral loads are removed corresponding to Fig. 9-la. As
the load is increased further, a critical value is reached at which the colurrm is
on the verge of experiencing a lateral deflection so, if it is perturbed, it will not
return to its straight configuration (this is similar to Fig. 9-lb). The load cannot
be increased beyond this value unless the colunm is restrained laterally; should
the lateral restraints be removed, the slightest perturbation will trigger large lateral
deflections (like Fig. 9-lc). For long, slender columns, the critical buckling load
(the maximum load for which the colurrm is in stable equilibrium) occurs at stress
levels much less than the proportional lirrtit for the material. This indicates that
this type of buckling is an elastic phenomenon.
9-2 BUCKLING OF LONG, STRAIGHT COLUMNS

The first solution for buckling of long, slender columns was published in 1757
by the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707-1783). Although the results
of this section can be used only for long, slender columns, the analysis, similar to
that used by Euler, is mathematically revealing and helps explain the behavior of
colurrms.
The purpose ofthis analysis is to determine the minimum axial compressive
load for which a colunm will experience lateral deflections. A straight, slender,
pin-ended colunm of length L centrically loaded by axial compressive forces P at
each end is shown in Fig. 9-2a. A pin-ended column is supported such that the
bending moment and lateral movement are zero at the ends. In Fig. 9-2b, the load P
has been increased sufliciently to cause a lateral deflection. Axes are selected with
the origin at end A of the colurrm. Summing moments about end A ofthe free-body
diagram of Fig. 9-2b shows that the lateral force at B must be zero, and thus there
can be no lateral force at A either. If the colurrm is sectioned at an arbitrary position
x, a fi"ee-body diagram of the portion below the section will appear as shown in
J6
P P
., 1
F"
fi.
e
- —y :47-F’-5
A
WZP '\
l-, _,_
(<1) (bl (6)
Figure 9-2
S80 CHAPTER9 COLUMNS
Fig. 9-2c. The two forces constitute a couple of magnitude Pv that must equal the
resisting moment Mr; thus, M, = —Pv. The difi'erential equation for the elastic
curve, as given by Eq. 8-1, becomes
dzv
= My = -—PV
OI‘
dzv P
P + E” = ° (“J
Equation (a) is a homogeneous second-order linear differential equation with
constant coefficients. Established methods for the solution of such equations show
the solution to be of the form
v=Asinpx+Bcospx (b)
where/1, B, and p are constants. By differentiating Eq. (b), substituting the results
into Eq. (a), and collecting like terms, the following expression is obtained for
evaluating p and C:
P
(-172 + E)(A sinpx + B cospx) = 0
fi'oIn which it follows that
2 _ _
P
P — El
The constants A and B can be obtained from the two boundary conditions
that the deflection of the elastic curve is zero at the ends; that is, at x = 0, v = 0
and at x = L, v = 0. Using the boundary condition that v = 0 atx = 0 and Eq. (b)
yields
O=Asin0+Bcos0
=0+B
and thus B — 0. Equation (b) then becomes
v = A sin px (b')
Using the boundary condition that v = 0 atx = L and Eq. (b’) then yields
0 = A sin pL (c)
Equation (c) is satisfied if A = 0, but then v = 0 for all values of load, and the
member does not buckle. Thus, for buckling to occur, sin pL = 0 and
pL = mt n = l,2,3,4, . .. (d)
9-2 BUCKLING or LONG, srnucrrr COLUMNS 581
or
[P
—L=mr
El
which may be written
n2:r2EI
P = T H = l,2,3,4, .. . (Q)
The least value of P (called P critical or Pcr) occurs when n = 1, for which Eq. (e)
becomes
251
1:, = "7 (9-1)
The critical buckling load given by Eq. 9-l is called the Euler buckling load}
The second moment of the cross-sectional area (I) is relative to the axis
about which bending occurs. For a pin-ended, centrically loaded column with no
intermediate bracing to restrain lateral motion, bending occurs about the “weak”
axis—the axis of minimum second moment of area. \Vhen I is replaced by Arz,
where A is the cross-sectional area and r is the radius of gyration about the axis of
bending, Eq. 9-1 becomes
2
& = Li = 0,, (9-2)
A (L/Y)
The dimensionless quantity L/r is called the slendemess ratio and is determined
for the axis about which bending tends to occur. Equation 9-2 is a particularly
useful form if the critical stress ac, is of concern in the design. Either Eq. 9-1 or
9-2 can be used if the critical force PC, is the primary concem in the design.
Since the analysis above is based on simple beam bending theory, it is valid
only as long as the stresses remain in the linearly elastic range. Since the pro-
portional lirnit is diflicult to measure, the yield strength is often used instead of
the proportional limit as the limiting stress, and the smallest slendemess ratio for
which the Euler buckling load equation is valid occurs when ac, = cry (the yield
strength).
The Euler buckling load as given by Eq. 9-1 or 9-2 agrees well with exper-
irnental data if the slendemess ratio is large (L/r > 140 for steel columns). Short
compression members (L/r < 40 for steel columns) can be treated as compression
blocks where yielding occurs before buckling. Many columns lie between these
extremes where neither solution is applicable. The intermediate length columns
are analyzed by using empirical formulas described in Section 9-4.
Example Problem 9-1 An 8-ft-long pin-ended, timber [E =

1.9( 10°) psi and 0,, = 6400 psi] column has a 2 x 4-in. rectangular cross section.
Determine
1 While the analysis predicts the bucklingload, it does not determine the corresponding lateral deflection
6. This deflection canassume any nonzero value small enough that the nonlinear factor [1 + (clvlclx)2]3"2
in the curvature expression is approximately unity.
S82 cniumzira COLUMNS
(a) The slendemess ratio.

(b) The Euler buckling load.
(c) The ratio of the axial stress under the action of the buckling load to the elastic
strength 0‘. of the material.
SOLUTION
(a) To determine the slendemess ratio, the minimum radius of gyration must
be calculated. The second moment of area of a rectangular cross section is
bli3/ 12 and the area is bh; therefore, the radius ofgyiation is .,/l;7 or h/2s/§.
The minimum radius of gyration is found by using the centroidal axis parallel
to the longer side of the rectangle. Thus, b = 4 in. and h = 2 in. so that
r = h/2\/5 = 2/2‘/5 0.5174111.

The slendemess ratio is then found to be
L 8(12)
r 0-5774 = 166.3 Ans.
P The Euler buckling load could also (b) The Euler buckling load is found by using Eq. 9-2. Thus,
have been foimd using Eq. 9-1; P" =
H251 _ H’(1-9)(10")[(4)(2’)/(12)] _
1;, = Q = = 5424 lb "5 5420 lb Ans.
P ' i<8>c1211* ' (L/r) (166.3)
5424 lb E 5420 lb
(c) The axial stress under the action of the buckling load is
I}, 5424 678 _

“E” — A — 2(4) — PS‘
and therefore
P This demonstrates that buckling can oc-
cur at stresses well below the elastic limit of 5 = Q = 0.1059 Ans.
a material for sufficiently slender columns! 0, 6400
I Example Problem 9-2 A 12-ft-long pin-ended column is made of

6061-T6 aluminum alloy. The colurrm has a hollow circular cross section with
an outside diameter of 5 in. and an inside diameter of 4 in. Determine
(a) The smallest slendemess ratio for which the Euler buckling load equation is
valid.
(b) The critical buckling load.
SOLUTION
(a) The smallest slendemess ratio for which the Euler buckling load equation is
valid occurs when cc, = 0,. (yield strength). Rewriting Eq. 9-2 as
L_ n2E_ JTZE
r llqr <1,»
9-2 BIJCKLING or nose, smtrcnr COLUMNS 583
and substituting E = 10(10°) psi and 6, = 40,000 psi (see Appendix B)

P While the theoretical limit for validity of
5 — fi— a10)U06)—496'/=49? Ans Eq. 9-1 or 9-2 is ac, = 0,, experimental re-
(rl...1._ at _ 4000’) _ ' ' ' ' sults indicate a limiting slendemess ratio at
least 50 percent greater than the minimum
given by 0,, = cry. In this problem, the ac-
(b) The critical buckling load is found using Eq. 9-1. tual slenderness ratio (89.96) is 1.8 times the
rnininiuni ratio (49.7), so the Euler buckling
2
p,,,=fl
L2
load is expected to be valid.
First, check that the slendemess ratio of the colurrm exceeds 49.7.
A = 7'
z(5 2 — 42 )= 7.069m.
- 2
1 = Q54 - 4“) = 13.113111.“

64
r =‘/Z: l1s.113 zmom
A 7.069
5 _ 12(12)
= 89.96 > 49.7
r 1 .6007
Thus, the critical buckling load is
ZEI 1(10 (106 13.113 ,

11, = % = = 86,210lb 2 86.2k1p Ans.
1 Example Problem 9-3 Two 51 >< 51 >< 3.2-mm structural 51661

angles 3 m long will be used as a pin-ended column. Determine the slendemess
ratio and the Euler buckling load if
(a) The two angles are not connected, and each acts as an independent member.
(b) The two angles are fastened together, as shown in Fig. 9-3, to act as a unit.
y
I
Slmm
LT;
- \ 13.9
3.2n'1m(’ \ imm L
l7Sln'1miI%5lrnrn4i
Figure 9-3
S84 crurrrna COLUMNS
SOLUTION
(=1) If the angles are not connected and each acts independently, the slendemess
ratio is determined by using the minimum radius of gyration of the individual
cross sections. From Appendix B, the minimum radius of gyration rm)“ for
this angle is 10.1 mm about the ZZ-axis. Thus, the slendemess ratio is
3000
— = T = = 297 A .
1» rm 10.1 “S
P The critical stress in each portion of the The area for each angle is 312 mmz; therefore, the cross-sectional area for
column is ac, = P,,,fA = rr2E1‘(L/r)2. There- the column is 624 mrnz. The modulus of elasticity for structural steel is
fore, the total load that the column can carry 200 GPa; therefore, the buckling load is
is 3,, which equals ac, times the total area
of 624 mmz. P _ 115,4 _ p1’(200)(10“)(624)(10-6)
at —
(L/r) 2 — (297) 2
2 13.964(l03)N 2 13.96 kN Ans.
(bl With the two angles connected as shown in Fig. 9-3,both I, and 1,, or 1'3,
and 1;. must be known in order to determine the minimum radius of gyra-
tion. Cross-sectional properties for the angles are given in Appendix B. The
value of for the two angles is obtained by using the parallel axis theorem;
thus,
1,, = 2(1C + Adz) = 2(Ar§ + Adz)

and
2 2
,3‘: /In/2A: /_,.g+d2
The above expression indicates that the radius of gyration for the two angles
is the same as that for one angle, a fact obtained directly from the definition
of radius of gyration. Then,
r, = ,/(15.9)" +(13.9)2 = 2l.l2mrn

In a similar fashion, the radius of gyration about the x-axis is the radius of
gyration 1;, = 15.9 mm for a single angle, since d = 0 for this axis. This means
that the column tends to buckle about the x-axis, where the slendemess ratio
is
L L 3000
= 183.68 E 183.7 Ans.
?=fi=15.9
The corresponding Euler buckling load is
P _ plea _ p1(200)(10°)(624)(10-6)
” (L/r-)2 (1ss.6s)’
= 34.599(l03)N 2 34.6161 Ans.
ea BUCKLING or nose, srmucnr COLUMNS S85
1 PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems 9-7 Determine the allowable compressive load that a 5 >< 5-in
air-dried red oak timber can support if it is 18 it long and a
9-1* A structural steel rod 1 in in diameter and 40 in. long will factor of safety of 3 is specified.
be used to support an axial compressive load P. Determine
a. The slendemess ratio.
b. The smallest slendemess ratio for which the Euler buckling Intermediate Problems
load equation is valid. 9-8* A 2.5-m-long column with the cross section shown in
c. The Euler buckling load. Fig. P9-8 is constructed from two pieces of air-dried Douglas
9-2* A hollow, circular structural steel column 6 m long has an fir timber. The timbers are nailed together so that they act as a
outside diameter of 125 mm and an inside diameter of 100 mm. unit. Determine
Determine
a. The slendemess ratio. b. The smallest slendemess ratio for which the Euler buckling
h. The smallest slendemess ratio for which the Euler buckling load equation is valid.
load equation is valid. c. The Euler buckling load.
c. The Euler buckling load.
9-3 A wood column ofair-dried Douglas fir is 10 fi long and has 50mm 50mm 50mm
a 4 x 4-in. rectangular cross section Determine
a. The slendemess ratio. .=
b. The smallest slendemess ratio for which the Euler buckling -‘if.-.3535: ‘
‘ .:
load equation is valid.
-4"/' . l-.
9-4* A 5-m-long column with the cross section shown in
1'1 150 -
Fig. P9-4 is constructed from four pieces oftimber. The timbers - -mm
is?" 2-33--
are nailed together so that they act as a unit. Determine 51 ff;
- 1-3": 1+?-I
a. The slendemess ratio. 22:11::-isi
b. The Euler buckling load. Use E = 14 GPa for the timber. v ';.- .--,r “ ’
c. The axial stress in the column when the Euler load is applied. sum
-l=a§ _F _ 5 , bl mo mm 9-9* A WT6 >< 36 structural steel section (see Appendix B for
25 mm 100 mm - 25 mm cross-sectional properties) is used for a 15-it-long column
-. Determine
b. The smallest slendemess ratio for which the Euler buckling
§= 15 mm load equation is valid.
Figure P9-4 c. The Euler buckling load.
9-10 A WTl52 x 89 structural steel section (see Appendix B
9-5 A yardstick has a rectangular cross section l U8 in wide >< for cross-sectional properties) is used for a 6-m-long column
5/32 in. thick. Determine Determine
a. The slendemess ratio. a. The slendemess ratio.
b. The Euler buckling load. Use E = 1900 ksi for the wood. b. The Euler buckling load. Use E = 200 GPa for the steel.
c. The axial stress in the column when the Euler load is applied.
9-6 Determine the allowable compressive load that an 89-min-
nominal-diameter standard structural steel pipe can support if 9-ll Determine the maximum allowable compressive load for
it is 5 m long and a factor of safety of 2 is specified. a l0-ft-long aluminum (E = 10,000 ksi) column having the
S86 CHAPIER9 COLUMNS
cross section shown in Fig. P9-ll if a factor of safety of 2.25 l‘‘ 250 mm i 25
is specified.
if.
25 mm
150 mm
}>2 in. 2 in.—*l

100mm
G P
ml;
: .,._5'g!-5'_i:.' ml.
Figure P9-ll Figure P9-14
9-12 Two L 127 x 76 x 12.7-mm structural steel angles (see

Appendix B for cross-sectional properties) are used for a col-
umn that is 4.5 m long. Determine the total compressive load
required to buckle the two members if 9-15* The 2-in.-diameter solid circular column shown in Fig.
a. They act independently of each other. P9-15 is made of an aluminum alloy [E = 10,000 ksi and or =
b. They are riveted together as shown in Fig. P9-12. l2.5(10'°)!° F]. If the column is initially stress free, determine
the temperature increase that will cause the column to buckle.
l
i 10 it ‘i
Figure P9-15
Figure P9-12 9-16* A 60-kN load is supported by a tie rod AB and a pipe
strut BC, as shown in Fig. P9-16. The tie rod has a diameter
9-13* Determine the maximum allowable compressive load for of 30 mm and is made of steel with a modulus of elasticity of
a 10-it-long aluminum alloy (E = 10,000 ksi) column having 210 GPa and a yield strength of3 60 MPa. The pipe strut has an
the cross section shown in Fig. P9-13 if a factor of safety of inside diameter of 50 mm and a wall thickness of 15 mm and
2.50 is specified. is made of an aluminum alloy with a modulus of elasticity of
73 GPa and a yield strength of 280 Ml-"a. Determine the factor
of safety with respect to failure by yielding or buckling for the
structure.
3 in_ .
4 in.
< 1.5 m kw
.4 a
4in.
_l
Z0 m 60 kN
lie
Figure P9-13
9-14 Determine the maximum allowable compressive load for C‘

a 6.5-m-long steel (E = 200 GPa) coltnnn having the cross
section shown in Fig. P9-14 if a factor of safety of 1.92 is
specified. Figure P9-16
smzcrs or DIFFERENT IDBALIZED arm commons 587
9-17 A column 20 ft long is made by riveting three S10 x 25.4 The channels are made of structural steel with a modulus of
structural steel sections (see Appendix B for cross-sectional elasticity of 29,000 ksi and a yield strength of 36 ksi. Deter-
properties] together as shown in Fig. P9-17. Determine the mine the maximum load P that can be applied to the truss if a
maximum compressive load that this column can support. Use factor of safety of 1.75 with respect to failure by yielding and
E = 29,000 ksi. a factor of safety of 4 with respect to failure by buckling are
specified.
2P P
J‘,
ix 1211 l8fi 1
A B c
Figure P9-17
9-18* Two C229 x 30 structural steel channels (see Appendix L l ' '
B for cross-sectional properties) are used for a column that is ’ 9 P‘ " ’ 18 ft T ’
12 I11 long. Determine the total compressive load required to Figure P9-19
buckle the two members if they are laced together back to back
150 mm apart, as shown in Fig. P9-18.
9-20 A simple pin-connected truss is loaded and supported, as
shown in Fig. P9-20. All members of the truss are WTl02 x
43 sections (see Appendix B for cross-sectional properties)
y made of structural steel with a modulus of elasticity of 200
i 5-" Liming be" GPa and a yield strength of250 MPa. Determine
a. The factor of safety with respect to failure by yielding.
150 mm b. The factor of safety with respect to failure by buckling.
X I
aa 1.
E
Figure P9-18
9-19 A simple pin-connected truss is loaded and supported as 4m 4m i '

shown in Fig. P9-19. The members ofthe truss were fabricated
15 kN 30 kN
by bolting two C10 x 30 channel sections (see Appendix B for
cross-sectional properties) back to back to form an H-section. Figure P9-20
9-5 EFFECTS 0F DIFFERENT IDEALIZED

END CONDITIONS
The Euler buckling fonnula, as expressed by either Eq. 9-1 or Eq. 9-2, was derived
for a column with pinned ends. The Euler equation changes for columns with
difierent end conditions such as the four common ones shown in Fig. 9-4.
While it is possible to set up the differential equation with the appropriate
boundary conditions to determine the Euler equation for each new case, a more
conunon approach makes use ofthe concept ofan effective length. The pin-ended
column, by definition, has zero bending moments at each end. The length L in
S88 cnarvrsns commvs
i P P P
we .I
I I ‘ I
\ I L’ E 0.71.
I I I I
I I L’ =-LIZ I
LE5-=L'=L I L=L'f2
I I f
II
Pinned or Fixed or One free end, One pinned end,

round ends built-in ends one fixed end one fixed end
(H) (bl (C) (d)
Figure 9-4
the Euler equation, therefore, is the distance between successive points of zero
bending moment. All that is needed to modify the Euler column formula for use
with other end conditions is to replace L by L’, where L’ is defined as the efléctive
length of the colurrm (the distance between two successive inflection points or
points of zero moment).
The ends of the column in Fig. 9-4b are built in or fixed. Since the deflection
curve is symmetrical, the distance between successive points of zero moment
(inflection points) is half the length of the column. Thus, the effective length L’
of a fixed-end column for use in the Euler column formula is half the true length
(L’ = 0.5L). The colurrm in Fig. 9-4c, being fixed at one end and free at the
other end, has zero moment only at the fiee end. Ifa mirror image of this column is
visualizedbelow the fixed end, however, the effective length between points ofzero
moment is seen to be twice the actual length of the column (L’ = ZL). The column
in Fig. 9-4d is fixed at one end and pinned at the other end. The effective length
of this column cannot be determined by inspection, as could be done in the pre-
vious two cases; therefore, it is necessary to solve the differential equation to
determine the effective length. This procedure yields L’ — 0.7L.
Apin-ended column is usually loaded through apin that, as a result offriction,
is not completely free to rotate; hence, there will always be an indeterminate
moment at the ends ofa pin-connected column that will reduce the distance between
the infiectionpoints to a value less than L. Also, it is impossible to support a column
so that all rotation is eliminated; therefore, the effective length of the column in
Fig. 9-4b will be somewhat greater than LIZ. As a result, it is usually necessary
9-5 srrlzcrs or DIFFERENT IDBALIZED END CONDITIONS 589
to modify the effective colurrm lengths indicated by the ideal end conditions. The
amount of the corrections will depend on the individual application. In summary,
the term L/r in all column formulas in this book is interpreted to mean the effective
slendemess ratio L’/r. In the problems in this book, the length given for a member
is assumed to be the effective length unless otherwise noted.
-I Example Problem 9-4 A structural steel (E = 29,000 ksi) colunm

10 ft long must support an axial compressive load P, as shown in Fig. 9-5.
The column has a l x 2-in. rectangular cross section. The left end ofthe colurrm
is fixed; the pin and bracket arrangement at the right end allows rotation about
the pin but prevents rotation about a vertical axis. Determine the maximum safe
load for the column if a factor of safety of 2 with respect to failure by buckling
is specified.
J-'
Z
.
I . p__,.
It ___ _—‘_—‘_—‘_——‘l'
Figure 9-5
SOLUTION
The relationship between factor of safety and loads is
FS P“
_ Pall (a)
For failure by buckling, the ultimate load Pu is the Euler buckling load P”, which
is
251
e. = (b)
Substituting Eq. (b) into Eq. (a) and rewriting yields
2
Pall = (5')
(L) (F-5')
The second moment of area I and the effective length L’ depend on the plane in
which the column buckles; either the xy- or xz-plane.
If buckling occurs in the xy-plane, the left end of the column is fixed and
the right end is pinned. Thus, the eflbctive length L’ is
L’ = 0.7L = 0.7(l0)(l2) = 84 in.

S90 CHAPTER9 COLUMNS
and the second moment of area I is
1
1=_6a3=_1 1 23=0.666"/' .4
12 ,2()() H1
Therefore, for buckling in the xy-plane,
P,“ = rr2EI
, = n1(29)(10°)(0.6667)
2 = 13,522 lb
(17) (F3) (34) (2)
For buckling in the xz-plane, both the lefi end of the colunm and the right
end of the column are fixed. Thus, the effective length L’ is
L’ = 0.5L = 0.5(l0)(l2) = 60 in.
and the second moment of area I is
1
I = —hb 3 = —(2)(l)
1 3 = 0.16667 m.
- 4
12 12
Therefore, for buckling in the xz-plane:
Pan =
JT2EI
2 =
n1(29)(1o°)(o.16667) = 5626 lb
(H) (Fm (601%)
For a colunm with this cross section and end conditions, buckling will occur in
the xz-plane and the safe load that may be applied is
P,“ = 6626 lb z 6.63 kip Ans.
1 PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems safe load for the column if a factor of safety of 2 with respect
to failure by buckling is specified. Use E = 29,000 ksi.
9-21* A flnished2 x 4 timber (actual size 1 5/8 in. x 3 112 in. x
10 ft long) is used as a fixed-end, fixed-end column. Ifthe mod- 9-24 Determine the maximum load that a 50-mm x 75-mm x
ulus ofelasticity for the timber is 1600 ksi and a factor ofsafety 2.5-m-long aluminum alloy (E = 73 GPa) bar earl support with
of 3 with respect to failure by buckling is specified, determine a factor of safety of 3 with respect to failure by buckling if it
the maximum safe load for the colunm. is used as a fixed-end, pinned-end column.
9-22* An L102 >< 76 x 6.4-mm aluminum alloy (E = 70 GPa) 9-25* A 6-in. >< 6-in. >< 20-ft-long timber (E = 1900 ksi) is used
angle is used for a fixed-end, pirmed-end column having an as a fixed-end, pinned-end colunm to support a 40,000-lb load.
actual length of 3 m. Determine the maximum safe load for Determine the factor of safety based on the Euler buckling
the column if a factor of safety of 1.75 with respect to failure load.
by buckling is specified. See Appendix B for cross-sectional
9-26* A W254 x 33 structural steel (E = 200 GPa) section is
properties; they are the same as those for a steel angle of the
used for a column with an actual length of 6 in The colunm
same size.
can be considered fixed at both ends for bending about the axis
9-23 A W8 x 15 structural steel section (see Appendix B for of the cross section with the smallest second moment of area
cross-sectional properties) is used for a fixed-end, free-end col- and pinned at both ends for bending about the axis with the
umn having an actual length of 10 ft. Determine the maximum largest second moment of area. Determine the maximum axial
smzcrs or DIFFERENT IDEALIZBD arm commons 591
compressive load P that can be supported by the column if a of the bar permits free vertical movement but no lateral move-
factor of safety of 1.9 with respect to failure by buckling is ment or rotation. The bottom of the bar is free to move laterally
specified. but cannot rotate. Determine the maximum load P that can be
applied if a factor of safety of 2.5 with respect to failure by
9-27 A W10 x 22 structural steel (E = 29,000 ksi) section is used
buckling is specified.
for a colunm with an actual length of 20 Pr. The column can
be considered pinned at one end and fixed at the other end for
bending about the axis of the cross section with the largest sec-
ond moment of area and fixed at both ends for bending about P
the axis with the smallest second moment of area. Determine
the maximum axial compressive load P that can be supported
by the column if a factor of safety of 3 with respect to failure
by buckling is specified.
9-28 A S127 x l5 structural steel (E = 200 GPa) section (see 1
Appendix B for cross-sectional properties) will be used for a
12-m-long pinned-end, pinned-end colunm to support a 60-kN
load. Equally spaced lateral braces will be installed to prevent
buckling about the weak axis. If the braces offer no restraint to
611
bending of the column and no restraint to buckling about the
strong axis, determine
a. The spacing required for the lateral braces.
b. The maximum load that the column can support once the
lateral braces are installed.
is
Figure P9-31
9-29* A WT’? x 24 structural steel section (see Appendix B for
cross-sectional properties) is used for a column with an ac-
tual length of 20 ft. If the modulus of elasticity for the steel is
9-32* A structural steel (E = 200 GPa) bar has a diameter of
29,000 ksi and a factor of safety of 2 with respect to failure
50 mm, is 5 m long, and supports an axial compressive load P,
by buckling is specified, determine the maximum safe load for
as shown in Fig. P9-32. End A is fixed. The support at end B
the coltmtn under the following support conditions.
permits free movement in the x- and z-directions but no rota-
a. Pinned-pinned. tion about the z-axis. Determine the maximum load P that can
b. Fixed-free. be applied if a factor of safety of 2 with respect to failure by
c. Pinned-fixed. buckling is specified.
d. Fixed-fixed.
9-30* A solid circular rod with diameter D, length L, and modu-
lus ofelasticity E will be used to support an axial compressive
load P. The support system for the rod is shown in Fig. P9-30.
—\=
Determine the critical buckling load in terms ofD, L, and E if
buckling occurs in the plane of the page. _—n
W PP L3
A _—'
P P L 5m
Figure P9-32
L12 L12
Figure P9-3|] 9-33 A 2-in.-diameter by 24-it-long solid, circular alumimun
alloy (E 10,000 ksi) bar is used to transmit a 4000-lb force,
as shown in Fig. P9-33. If the supports permit buckling only
9-31 The structural steel (E = 29,000 ksi) bar shown in Fig. P9-31 in the plane of the page, determine the factor of safety with
has a 1.0-in. diameter and is 6 ft long. The support at the top respect to failure by buckling.
S92 cmtvrsrts cowuss
4000 lb “I i Te ca0 F
9-37 A free-body diagram for the fixed-end, pinned-end col-
umn shown in Fig. 9-4d is shown in Fig. P9-37. Use the free-
it
body diagram to develop the differential equation ofthe elastic
curve. Verify that the effective length for the fixed-end, pinned-
end colunm is L’ = 0.7L by solving the differential equation
L/3 of the elastic curve and applying the appropriate boundary
Figure P9-33 conditions.
9-34 Two 25-mm-diameter structural steel (200 GPa) columns

support a 400-kg mass, as shown in Fig. P9-34. The two short
struts at the sides of the mass prevent horizontal movement of
the mass but offer no constraint to vertical motion. Determine
the factor of safety with respect to failure by buckling.
P ; I41;
x t
r_ 4001;; -5 F F
Figure P9-37
3m
9-38 A rigid block is supponed by two fixed-end, fixed-end
columns, as shown in Fig. P9-38a. Determine the effective
lengths of the columns by solving the differential equation
of the elastic curve and applying the appropriate bound-
I ary conditions. Assume that buckling occurs as shown in
Fig. P9-38b.
Figure P9-34
2P
9-35 Verify the effective length for the fixed-end, fixed-end col-
umn shown in Fig. 9-4b by solving the differential equation of
the elastic curve and applying the appropriate boundary condi- I
tions. Place the origin of the xy-coordinate system at the lower
end of the colunm with the x-axis along the axis of the tmde-
formed column.
9-36 Verify the effective length for the fixed-end, free-end col-
umn shown in Fig. 9-4c by solving the differential equation of I L I
the elastic curve and applying the appropriate boundary condi-
tions. Place the origin of the xy-coordinate system at the lower
end of the column with the x-axis along the axis of the unde- ta) <11)
formed column. Figure P9-38
9-4 EMPIRICAL COLUMN FORMUI.AS—CEN'I'RIC LOADING

Euler’s formula, Eq. 9-1 or 9-2, is valid when the axial compressive stress for a
colunm is less than the yield strength. The range ofusefulness ofthe Euler formula
is seen in Figure 9-6, where the critical stress (ac, = R,,fA) is plotted versus the
slendemess ratio (L/r). The plot is for structural steel for which E = 29,000 ksi
(200 GPa) and afield = 36 ksi (250 MPa). The Euler curve is tnmcated at 36 ksi
because the critical stress cannot exceed the yield strength. For structural steel,
this occurs when L/r = 89. The dashed portion ofthe Euler curve indicates that the
calculation of the critical stress is no longer useful because the stress exceeds the
9-4 ssrrrrucsr. corms rorurums-csrrr'1uc nosnnsc 593
SO-
40 _
I
\
T . E = 29 000 ksi
V
C
.,,,,,=t6t§.
’ .
__ 30
i
Euler
0:‘!
20 _ formula
10
0 1 r . 1 |_
O 50 100 I50 200 250
AF
Figure 9-6
yield strength. For practical purposes, columns with large, slendemess ratios are
useless because they support only small loads. At the low end of the slendemess
scale, the colunm would behave essentially as a short compression block, and the
critical stress would be the compressive strength of the material (for metals, usu-
ally the yield strength). The extent of this range, the compression-block range, is
a matter ofjudgment or is dictated by specifications. The range between the com-
pression block and the slender ranges is known as the intermediate range. Neither
compression-block theory nor the Euler formula gives results in the intermediate
range that agree with test results.
Experimental results of many tests on axially loaded columns are shown in
Fig. 9-7. The Euler curve agrees with experimental data for slendemess ratios in
the slender range. Experimental data and compression-block theory agree in the
OCJ’
\
\
\
\
\
0 o \
O I
I
’ . . U =_
Per = _
TIIZE
. ” A (Lit-)2
I
j
Compression
block range
1 Intermediate
range
l Slender
range
5
Figure 9-7
S94 crntrrstts cownss
Table 9-1 Some Representative Column Codes for Centric Loading

Compression-Block andfor [ntermediate~Range
Formulas and Limitations
Code No. Source Material (L/r is the effective ratio L’fr) Slender Range
0 Sr-L q, 1 L/P 2 E
l 3 Structural steel SQ Gall =—1--—
PSI: 2(q):| 2 Ca
T
with a yield
point cry 2
q2=2rrE Um rr2E
C5. = l.92(L/r-)2
FS -5 §(&)_l(£)’
_3+s c; s c,
2 b 2014-T6 (Alclad) £512 Uni = 28 ksi E 355
r .7‘
Aluminum alloy = 193 MPa
I [301 - <>.n(-)1 ksi 54,000 ,

1255555
r
Fur
l"<
‘1
Jail
== W *8‘
3 b 6061 -T6 559.5 Uni]
-iM5t>im
= l9ksi
l‘"-
E 366
312001) ma
(1-/r)’
r r
Aluminum alloy = 131 MPa
L 51,000
9.5§—§66 Jail = |:20.2 - 0.126(- F‘ E. Uni = — ksi
r \._-/ iii (L/P):
3
'7“-rt-~
= [139-o.s6s(-)1 MPa = i351(10 ) MPa
r (L/r)2
L
4 c Timberviritha 5511 e,,.=F; M5550
rectangu ar _,
cross section 115 E 5 k an, = FE 1- _ 0-30E
bXdwheIed<b d 3 k U‘“_ (L/d)?
k = 0.671./E/Ft
a. Manual‘ ofSteel Constmction, 9th ed., American Institute of Steel Construction, New York, 1989.
b. Specificatiorrsforfluminum Structures, Aluminum Association, lnc., Washington, D.C., 1986.
c. Timber Construction Manual, 3rd ed., American Institute of Timber Construction, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1985.
‘F, is the allowable stress for a short block in compression parallel to the grain.
compres sion-block range. Test results are not in agreement with compression-block
theory or the Euler theory in the intermediate range. These interrnediate-length
columns may be analyzed by empirical formulas.
For design ptuposes, the entire range of stresses for a given material is
covered by an appropriate set ofspecifications lcnown as a column code. Depending
on the code, the empirical formula may be specified for the intermediate range
along with the limits of the intermediate range; the code may also specify the
Euler formula in the slender range and the limits of the slender range; or, the code
may specify the critical stress and limits of the range for the compression-block
range. If the code is written for allowable loads or stresses, the factor of safety will
either be specified or included in the constants for the empirical formula. A few
representative codes are listed in Table 9-l. Each code is written for allowable (or
safe) stresses. A few representative codes for steel, aluminum, and timber will be
discussed. The codes are taken from references listed in the footnotes of Table 9- 1.
9-4 EMPIRICAL corms ronsrums-carmuc momma 595
The formulas in Table 9-1 represent colurrm equations that have been in-
corporated in various design codes. Slendemess ratios in this table are always the
effective slenderness ratio L’/r. If no end conditions are specified in the prob-
lems presented later, the stated length is the effective length. Note that the use of
high-strength materials will increase the allowable load (Pan = a,11A) for short
columns but will have little effect on the load-carrying capacity of long columns,
because the critical load (Euler load) depends on Young’s modulus, not on the
elastic strength of the material. Note also that the use of fixed or restrained ends,
which has the effect of reducing the length of the column, materially increases the
load-carrying capacity of slender columns but has much less influence on short
compression members.
The discussion so far has been concemed with primary instability, in which
the colunm deflects as a whole into a smooth curve. No discussion ofcompression
loading is complete without reference to local instability in which the member fails
locally by crippling of thin sections. Thin open sections such as angles, channels,
and H-sections are particularly sensitive to crippling failure. The design of such
members to avoid crippling failure is usually governed by specifications controlling
the width—thiclmess ratios of outstanding flanges. Closed-section members of thin
material (thin-walled tubes, for example) must also be examined for crippling
failure when the members are short. A discussion of these and other design issues
may be found in references such as a and b listed in Table 9-1.
1 Example Problem 9-5 Two structural steel C10 >< 25 channels are
latticed 5 in. back to back, as shown in Figs. 9-8a and b, to form a colunm.
Determine the maximum allowable axial load for effective lengths of 25 ft and
40 ft. Use Code 1 for structural steel (see Appendix B for properties).
SOLUTION
Both]; and 1,, (see Fig. 9-8b) or 15, and :5, must be known to determine the minimum
radius of gyration. Properties of the channel section are given in Appendix B.
The value of IS, for two channels is obtained by using the parallel axis theorem;
thus,
1;, = 2(1C + Adz) = 2(Ar§ + Adz]
Back of channel
»"._- y
5.00 m.
Lacing bars 9 ___ _ ____A

cause channels — —
toactasaunir I
.4‘.
, _ l Q
.._,
(*1) (11)
Figure 9-s
S96 CHAPTER‘) cowmrs
and
r,, = ,/1,/(2,1) = i2A(r25%

+ d1) = ,/rg +41
The above expression indicates that the radius of gyration for the two
channels is the same as that for one channel, a fact obtained directly from the
definition of radius of gyration. Then,
1;. = t/(0.616? + (2.50 + 0.617)’ = 3.19 in.

which is less than the tabular value of 3 .52 in. for rt. This means that the colunm
tends to buckle with respect to the y-axis, and the slenderness ratios are
L _ 12(25) _ l2(40) _
r _ 3.19 _9-1-.0 and 3-19 _150.5
From Code 1,
cf = L
2 =5
=L
2 1 29000
= 15,901 cc = 126.1
0,, 36
The slendemess ratios above indicate that the 25-ft column is in the intermediate
range because L/r < CC or 94.0 < 126.1; hence, the factor of safety is
5 3 94.0 1 94.0 3
FS=§+§ 6.1 -5 6.1 =l'894
The allowable stress is
. 1 L 2 36103 1 94.0 2 .
Hence, the safe load for the 25-ft column is
P = t1a1l(A) = 13,726(2)(7.35) = 201.8(103) lb Z 202 kip Ans.
The 40-ft column has a slenderness ratio of 150.5; therefore, it is in the slender
P The Euler buckling load is inversely pro- range since L/r > C, or 150.5 > 126.1. Hence,
portional to the square of the length L.
Therefore, it might be expected that reduc-
ing the length of a colunm by a factor n (in
2E : L1
M : ":2 2 29 10° : 6,81,,,
this case n = 40r'25 = 1.6) would increase l.92(L;$-) 1.92(150.5)
the buckling load by a factor of n2 [in this
case 1'12 = (1.6): = 2.56]. In this case, how- Hence, the safe load for the 4-0-fi colunm is
ever, the safe load for the 25-ft-long column
is only about 2.1 times that forthe 40-it-long
P = 0a11(A) = 6581(2)(7.35) = 96.74-(103) lb E 96.7 kip Ans.
colunm.
9-4 EMPIRICAL corms ronsrums-cnv1'1trc uoxnnwc 597
i Example Problem 9-6 A Douglas fir (E = 11 GPa and F, =

7.6 MPa) timber column with an effective length of 3.5 m has a 150 x 200-mm
rectangular cross section. Determine the maximum compressive load permitted
by Code 4 of Table 9-1.
SOLUTION
Code 4 of Table 9-1 indicates that the allowable stress (and hence the allowable
load) depends on the value of I/d, the ratio of the effective length of the colunm
to the smallest cross-sectional dimension and a factor k specified by the code.
These values are
Ii _ 3.5(103)_23 33
d — 150 — '
and
9
r = 0.671 5 = 0.6"/1 in = 25.53
I-2 r.6(10*'*) P Note that L/a‘ = 23.33 is the ratio
of the effective length of the column to
Since 11 5 L/ii 5 k or ll < 23.33 <: 25.53, the colunm is in the intermediate the smallest cross-sectional dimensigrn and
range and the allowable stress is given by the code as
not the slendemess ratio L/r = T =
1 Ld “ 1 23.33 “ 3500 I/Acor-

a.11= 1~T.[1 - = 7.6[1 - = 5.833l\/[Pa L = 30.33. The
,/56.25 >< 10°/30 >< 10’
responding Euler buckling load for this
2E
Thus, the allowable load is colunm would be 11, = a = 49s ><
(L/1')
103 N, which is 2.8 times larger than the
P = q,,,(A) = 5.333110°)(150)(200)(10"°) allowable load permitted by Code 4 of
= l74.99(l03)N 2 175.0 kN Ans- Table 9-1.
1 PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems pressive load P. If E = 29,000 ksi and 0,. = 36 ksi, determine
the maximum load permitted by Code 1.
9-39* An air-dried red oak (E = 1800 ksi and E = 4.6 ksi) timber
colunm with an effective length of 5 R has a 3 >< 3-in. rectan- 9-42* A W254 x 89 structural steel (E = 200 GPa and 11,. =
gular cross section. Determine the maximum compressive load 250 MPa) column is pinned at both ends, is 3 m long, and sup-
permitted by Code 4. ports an axial compressive load P, Detemiine the maximum
9-40* Douglas fir(E = 1 1 GPa and E = 7.6 MPa) timber columns load permitted by Code 1.
with 200 >< 300-mm rectangular cross sections will be used 9-43 A 3.0-in.-diameter solid circular 6061-T6 aluminum alloy
to support axial compressive loads. Determine the maximum bar is to be used as a colunm with an effective length of 30 in.
compressive load permitted by Code 4 if Determine the maximum axial compressive load P permitted
a. The effective length of the column is 2 m. by Code 3.
b. The effective length of the column is 4 m.
9-44 A 2014-T6 aluminum alloy tube with an outside diameter of
c. The effective length of the column is 6 m.
100 mm and an inside diameter of80 mm is used for a column
9-41 A 2.5-in.-diameter standard-weight steel pipe colunm is with an effective length of 1.0 m. Determine the maximum
8 ft long, is pinned at both ends, and supports an axial com- axial compressive load P permitted by Code 2.
S98 crnn'rax9 commas
9-45* Three structural steel bars with a 1 x 4-in. rectangular
cross section will be used for an 8-ft-long fixed-ended col-
umn. Determine the maximum compressive load permitted by
Code 1 if
a. The three bars act as independent axially loaded members.
b. The three bars are welded together to form an H-colunm.
9-46* Three hollow circular structural steel tubes with inside di-
ameters of50 mm and outside diameters of80 mm will be used Figure P9-48
for a 3 .5-m-long pin-ended column. Determine the maximum
compressive load permitted by Code 1 if
9-49* Four L4 x 3 >< 3/8-in. structural steel angles 11 it long
a. The three tubes act as independent axially loaded members.
are used as a pin-ended colunm. Determine the maximtun load
b. The three tubes are welded together as shown in Fig. P9-46.
permitted by Code 1 if the angles are welded together to form
a 6 x 8-in. box section as shown in Fig. P9-49.
-—
Figure P9-46
l-—6 1n.—l
Figure P9-49
9-47 Two C10 x 15.3 structural steel channels 12 ft long are used
as a fixed-ended, pin-ended colunm. Determine the maximum
load permitted by Code 1 if the channels are welded together 9-50 Two L102 x 76 x 9.5-mm structural steel angles 7 m long
to form a 10 x 5.2-in. box section, as shown in Fig. P9-47. are used as a pin-ended colunm. Determine the maximum load
permitted by Code 1 if the angles are fastened together to form
a 102 >< 76-mm box section as shown in Fig. P9-50.
loin-
l—r6 mm—l
l 5.2in. '
Figure P9-50
Figure P9-47
9-51 An L5 x 5 x 3/4-in. aluminum alloy 2014-T6 angle will be

9-48 Four L76 x 76 >< 12.7-mm structural steel angles 5 m long used as a fixed-ended, pin-ended column to support a load of
are used as a fixed-ended colunm. Determine the maximum 120 kip. The cross-sectional properties of steel and aluminum
load permitted by Code 1 if the angles are fastened together as angles are the same (see Appendix B). Determine the maxi-
shown in Fig. P9-48. mum permissible length permitted by Code 2.
9-4 EMPIRICAL COLUMN FORM C LOADING 5
9-52* A ccltunn of aluminum alloy 2014-T6 is composed of two 101.6 rmn

L127 x 127 x 19.1-mm angles riveted together as shown in J’
Fig. P9-52. The length between end cotmections is 3 n1, and
i r1_1=48.3 mm
the end connections are such that there is no restraint to bend-
I'2_2 =24.l |'l'.|.|'l'|.
ing about the y-axis; but restraint to bending about the x-axis
reduces the effective length to 2.1 m. Determine the maxi- f A=29l0rum2
mum axial compressive load permitted by Code 2. The cross- 152.4mm I x
sectional properties of aluminmn and steel angles are the same - -1
(see Appendix B). T
i2L3mm
—1 l*—20.8 mm
2
J?
Figure P9-54
I
x 9-55 Three 2 x 4-in. timber studs are nailed together to form an
8-ft-long column with the cross section shown in Fig. P9-55
The colunm is fixed at the bottom and pinned at the top If
E = 1600 ksi and E = 1100 psi, use Code 4 to determine
Figure P9-52 the maximum permissible axial compressive load that may be
applied.
|-—4.—-|
9-53* A strut of aluminum alloy 6061-T6 having the cross sec-
tion shown in Fig. P9-53 is to carry an axial compressive load *.-'r;f. i:iI.- :; -1"
of 165 kip. The strut is 4 ft long and is fixed at the bottom :",l"1'l.l"-A-51 2m’
and pinned at the top. Determine the dimension d of the cross
section using Code 3. N)
Figure P9-55
l15"+5'nL
.1
9-56 A sand bin is supported by four 200 x 250-mm fixed-ended
rectangular timber columns 4.5 m long. Assume that the load
is equally divided among the four columns and that the column
—2.z loads are axial. If the columns are made of timber with E =
Figure P9-53 13 GPa and F, = 9 MPa, determine the maximum load permit-
ted by Code 4.
9-54 Two L152 x 89 x 12.7-mm angles of aluminum alloy 2014- Challenging Problems
T6 are welded together as shown in Fig. P9-54 to form a 4.75-
9-57* A 25-ft-long plate and angle colunm consists of four L 5 x
m-long pin-ended column. The pins provide no restraint to
3 1/2 x 1/2-in. structural steel angles riveted to a 10 x 1/2 IIL
bending about the x-axis but reduce the effective length to
structural steel plate as shown in Fig. P9-57. Determine the
3.25 m for bending about the y-axis. The cross-sectional prop-
maximum safe load permitted by Code 1 if
erties of one angle are given on the figure, where C is the cen-
troid ofone angle. Determine the maximum axial compressive a. The column is pinned at both ends.
load permitted by Code 2. b. The colunm is fixed at the base and pinned at the top.
600 CHAPTER9 comruvs
' the effective length to 36 in.. Determine the maximum load

permitted by Code 1.
. 60 in?-1' '- 3 in. +4

10m. lin
A r Ii
l gm
2 in. 1 in.
—x_ ii
O _14,- in ‘\ A Sectionl-1 _A
L inj l; s1u.—-
LII \--_. Pins
- ~
9-58* Four C178 x 22 structural steel channels 12 m long are
used to fabricate a column with the cross section shown in Fig.
9-60 A connecting rod made of SAE 4340 heat-treated steel has
P9-58. The column is fixed at the base and pinned at the top.
the cross section shown in Fig. P9-60. The pins at the ends
The pin at the top offers no restraint to bending about the y- of the rod are parallel to the x-axis and are 1250 mm apart.
axis; but for bending about the x-axis, the pin provides restraint
Assume that the pins offer no restraint to bending about the x-
sufficient to reduce the effective length to 7.5 m. Determine the axis but provide essentially complete fixity for bending about
maximum axial compressive load permitted by Code 1. the y-axis. Determine the maximum axial compressive load
permitted by Code 1.
J’
J’
l T‘ i1‘-
T1 I 20111111
x 50mm
Figm_eP9_58 10mm 10mm
30 mm l
9-59 The machine pa-1 shown in Fig. P9-59 is made ofSAE 4340 I“ 2° mm
heat-treated steel and carries an axial compressive load. The II‘ A
pins at the ends offer no restraint to bending about the axis 50 mm
of the pin, but restraint about the perpendicular axis reduces Figure P9-60
9-5 ECCENTRICALLY LOADED COLUMNS

Although a given column will support the maximum load when the load is applied
centrically, it is sometimes necessary to apply an eccentric load to a column. For
example, a beam supporting a floor load in a building may in turn be supported by
an angle riveted or welded to the side ofa colurrm, as shown in Fig. 9-9. Frequently,
the floorbearn is framed into the colunm with a stiff connection, and the colunm
is then subjected to a bending moment due to continuity of the floorbearn and
column. The eccentricity of the load, or the bending moment, will increase the
stress in the colunm or reduce its load-carrying capacity. Two methods will be
presented for computing the allowable load on a colunm subjected to an eccentric
load (or an axial load combined with a bending moment).
9-5 ECCENTRICALLY 1.0110110 cotumrs 601
< P
x 12;:-_
ii» y
Figure 9-9
9-5-1 Allowable Stress Method This method is based on the spec-

ification that the sum of the direct and bending stresses (P/A + Mc/T) shall not
exceed the allowable stress prescribed for a centric load by the appropriate colunm
formula,
P+Mc< 93
A I_aa1l (-)
l.n Eq. 9-3, 0,11 is the allowable stress for a centric load and is calculated using the
equations of Table 9-l and using the largest value of the slendemess ratio for the
cross section irrespective of the axis about which bending occurs. Values for c and
I used in calculating the bending stress, however, depend on the axis about which
the bending occurs. Equation 9-3, which is prescribed by most modem codes,
usually produces a conservative design.
9-5-2 I1lUB1'€l.Cti0I1 Mfithfld One of the modern expressions for treating

combined loads is known as the interaction formula, of which several types are
in use. The analysis for compression members subjected to bending and direct
stress may be derived as follows. It is assumed that the stress in the colunm can
be written as
P+Mc<
—
A — cr
I-211
and, when this expression is divided by 0,“, it becomes
PA M 1
L + if 5 1 (9-4)
flan 0611
When considering eccentrically loaded colimrns, the value of 0,,“ will, in general,
be difi'erent for the two terms. In the first term P/A represents an axial stress on
a colunm; therefore, the value of 0,“ should be the average allowable stress on an
axially loaded column as obtained by an empirical formula such as those presented
ir1 Table 9- 1. In the second term, Mcfl represents the flexural stress induced in the
member as a result of the eccentricity of the load or an applied bending moment;
602 CHAITER9 cowmrs
therefore, the corresponding value of can should be the allowable flexural stress.
Since the two values of can are different, one recommended form of Eq. 9-4 is the
following interaction formula
PA M 1
L + —c/— 5 1 (9-5)
an ab
in which P/A is the average axial stress on the eccentrically loaded colunm, 0,,
is the allowable average axial stress for an axially loaded column (note that the
greatest value of L/r should be used to calculate an), Mc/I is the flexural stress in
the column, and ob is the allowable flexural stress.
When Eq. 9-5 is used to select the most economical section, it will usually
not be possible to obtain a section that will exactly satisfy the equation. Any section
that makes the sum of the terms on the lefi side of the equation less than unity is
considered safe, and the safe section giving the largest sum (less than unity) is the
most efficient section.
i EXHIIIPIC Pfflblfilll 9-7 A W457 x 144 wide-flange section is used

for the colunm shown ir1 Fig. 9-10. The column is made of steel (E = 200 GPa,
0}. = 290 MPa, ob = 190 MPa) and has an efiective length of 6 m. An eccentric
load P (e = 125 mm) is applied on the centerline of the web as shown in the
figure. Determine the maximum safe load according to
(a) The allowable stress method.
(b) The interaction method.
SOLUTION
The cross-sectional properties for a W457 X 14-4 wide-flange section are
A = 18.365 mmz c = 472/2 = 236mm

rm = 67.3 m.m rm = 33."/(10°) m1n4
rum = 199mm Inm = 728(l0°)rnn14
l,
B Y
x
Figure 9-10
9-5 ECCENTRICALLY roman COLUMNS 603
Since the column is made of steel, Code 1 of Table 9-1 will be used to
calculate aa|1. The equation for determining can depends on the slendemess range.
Q: /2115 = 12n1(200)(10“) =l16_68

<1» 290001)
_L = 600’)
Z = 89.15 < C“ =116.6s
rm 6'/.3
Since L/rm“, < Q, the intermediate column formula is applicable. The factor of
safety FS for use ir1 the intermediate colunm formula is
5 3 Lfr 1L/r’ 5 3 39.15 1 89.15 3

FS—§+§(E)_§(E) —§+§(116.6s)_§(116.6s)‘L90
an_i1_1£,§2 _290(10@)1_1 89.15 2
" —FS 2 c, _ 1.90 2 116.68
= 10s.0s(10°) N/m2 = 103.03 MPa = 6,,
(a) Using the allowable stress method, Eq. 9-3 gives
P + Mc P + Pec <
A I _A I - °"“
P P(125)(236)(10'6)
10s.0s(10°)
1s,365(10-°)+ 72s(10-°) 5
P 51l38(103)N
Therefore, the maximum safe load that can be applied according to the
allowable stress method is
Pm =1138(103)N = 1138 kN Ans.
(b) Using the interaction method, Eq. 9-5 gives
%+M¢/I:y+P<-.-¢/1 S1
(Ta (Tb UH Ob
P;[1s,365(10-‘)1 + P(125)(236)(10“)/[728(10‘°)] < 1

10s.0s(10°) 190(10‘=) -
P 5 l395(103)N
Therefore, the maximum safe load that can be applied according to the inter-
action method is
PM =1195(103)1~1 = 1395 m Ans.

604 crm'rs1t9 commas
1 PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems 9-64 Detemiine the maximum load P that can be applied to the
timber colunm shown in Fig. P9-64 if E = 12 GPa and the
9-61* A hollow square steel member with outside and inside di- allowable stress for compression parallel to the grain is 9 MPa.
mensions of5 in. and 4 in. (the walls are 1/2 in. thick) functions Use the allowable stress method.
as a pin-ended column 10 ft long. Determine the maximum load
that the colunm can carry if the load is applied with a known
eccentricity of 9Il6 in., as shown in Fig. P9-61. Use the inter-
action method and let E = 29,000 ksi, 0,. = 36 ksi, and 0,, =
24 ksi.
Y P
% 1l'l. /y
I 5 ‘.1 x
2m ‘
Figure P9-61
9-62* A hollow circular steel member with outside and inside I
diameters of 150 mm and 120 mm (the walls are 15 mm thick)
flmctions as a pin-ended colunm 4 m long. Determine the max- 1. I .
imum load that the column can carry if the load is applied
20 mm from the axis of the member, as shown in Fig. P9-62. - .- '- . =/100 mm
150 mm" °' ' '
Use the allowable stress method and let E = 200 GPa and 0,, =
250 MPa. Figure P9-64
J’
20mm
X Intermediate Problems
9-65* A W14 x 82 structural steel section is used for a 20-11-
long pin-ended column. The load is applied at a point on the
Figure P9-62
centerline of the web 5 in from the axis of the column. If
9-63 A 2-in.-diameter steel strut is subjected to an eccentric com- E = 29,000 ksi, 0,. = 36 ksi, and 0;, = 24 ksi, determine the
pressive load, as shown in Fig. P9-63. The eifective length for maximum safe load according to
bending about the x-axis is 75 in.; but for bending about the a. The allowable stress method.
y-axis, the end conditions reduce the effective length to 50 in. b. The interaction method.
Determine the maximum load that the strut can carry. Use the
interaction method and let E = 29,000 ksi, 0_,, = 36 ksi, and 9-66* A W356 >< 64 structural steel section is used for a 7-m-
0,, = 24 ksi. long fixed-ended column. The load is applied at a point on the
centerline of the web 150 mm from the axis of the column If
E = 200 GPa, 0_.. = 250 MPa, and 0,, = 160 MPa, determine
y the maximum safe load according to
gin. a. The allowable stress method.

b. The interaction method.
( . . 9-67 Two C8 >< 18.75 structural steel sections 25 ft long are

laced back to back, as shown in Fig. P9-67, to form a pin-
ended column. Determine the maximum load permitted by the
interaction method if the load is applied at point A of the cross
Figure P9-63 section. LetE = 29,000 ksi, 0_.. = 36 ksi, and 0;, = 24 ksi.
9-5 ECCENTRICALLY roman commts 605
3’ 75 mm —v
/-- Lacing bars
hT2S mm
4-L
.25 rnm
I O
A
1.5 in. |
x x
II
Figure P9-70
3’
9-71 Two L6 x 3 l/2 x 1/2-in, structural steel (E = 29,000
Figure P9-67 ksi and 0y = 36 ksi) angles are welded together as shown in
Fig. P9-71 to form a column with an effective length of 12 ii.
Use the allowable stress method to determine
9-68 A hollow square steel member with outside and inside di- a. The maximum axial compressive load P that can be sup-
mensions of 100 mm and 70 mm (the walls are 15 mm thick) ported by the coltmtn.
functions as a pin-ended colm-nn 4 m long. Determine the max- b. The maximum and minimum values for the distance d when
imum load that the colunm can carry if the load is applied with a 50-kip load is applied.
a known eccentricity of 15 mm along a diagonal of the square
as shown in Fig. P9-68. Use the allowable stress method and
let E = 200 GPa and 0,. = 250 MPa.
Load 3%in.
applied hcrc \_ +
J’
3/%ir1.
d
I ‘--7 6111.-ei
15 mm Figure P9-71
9-72 A 2014-T6 aluminum alloy compression member with an

Figure P9-68 effective length of 1.25 m has the T cross section shown in
Fig. P9-72.
a. Determine the maximum axial compressive load P permit-
ted by Code 2.
Challenging Problems b. Use the allowable stress method to determine the maximum
9-69* A WT8 x 25 structural steel T-section is to be used bending moment M in the yz-plane that can be applied as
as a compression member to transmit an eccentric load of shown when the column is supporting a 175-kN axial load.
100 kip. The effective length of the member is 10 it. Deter-
mine the maximum eccentricity e permitted ifthe point of load P
application is on the centerline of the stem between the outer
M _,.__28.2 mm
edge of the flange and the centroidal axis of the column. Use
the interaction method with E = 29,000 ksi, 0, = 36 ksi, and y 1.
0,, = 24 ksi.
9-70* Two 50 x 150-mm structural steel bars 5 m long will
be welded together, as shown in Fig. P9-70, and used for a I | l 1', = 30.5 mm
pin-ended column. Determine the maximum load permitted if ry = 20.8 mm
the load is applied at the point on the cross section indicated A = 2050 r|:|.m2
in Fig. P9-70. Use the allowable stress method and let E =
200 GPa and 0, = 250 MPa. Figure P9-72
606 CHAPTER9 commts
9-6 DESIGN PROBLEMS

In previous chapters design usually involved strength as a controlling parameter.
Since buckling is an elastic phenomenon, the modulus of elasticity (stifliness) is
a more significant parameter than is strength (such as yield strength if failure is
by yielding) if the column length is in the slender range. If the column is in the
intermediate range, both yield strength and stifihess may be important parameters.
“Then designing columns using the representative codes listed in Table 9-1, a
designer must be aware of several factors. The codes are for specific materials,
that is, materials with a specific value of yield strength and modulus of elasticity.
In addition, some codes include a factor of safety, while others require that a factor
of safety be introduced. Each of the codes has a range of applicability for the
slendemess ratio. Finally, all codes in Table 9-1 are for axially loaded members.
For example, Code 2 is limited to a specific material, 2014-T6 aluminum
alloy. The factor of safety (FS) is included in the code. If the slendemess ratio
lies between 12 and 55, the colunm is in the intermediate range and the empirical
column formula is valid. If the slendemess ratio exceeds 55, a form of the Euler
formula is used with a factor of safety of approximately 1.94 included. For a
slendemess ratio less than 12, the axially loaded member is in the compression-
block range where buckling does not occur.
In this text, design will be limited to columns subjected to axial loads. Factors
such as residual stress, out-of-straightness, and local buckling may be found in
design codes established by professional organizations.
The following examples illustrate the use of the codes in Table 9-1.
1 EXHIIIPIE Pfflblfllll 9-8 Select the lightest structural steel wide-

fiange section listed in Appendix B to support an axial compressive load of
150 kip as a 15-ft column. Use Code 1.
SOLUTION
When a rolled section is to be selected to support a specified load, it is usually
necessary to make several trial solutions since there is no direct relationship
between areas and radii of gyration for different structural shapes. The best
section is usually the section with the least area (smallest mass) that will support
the load. A minimum area can be obtained by assuming L/r = 0. The load-
carrying capacity of various sections with areas larger than this minimum can
then be calculated, using the proper colunm formula, to determine the lightest
one that will carry the specified load.
If L/r is small,
F8; g = 1.661
<1,,1= i = 36 ’ 000 = 21,596 psi
FS 1.667
P 150,000 _
Amin = Q = Ti = 6.94-61Il.2
A column should be selected from Appendix B with an area greater than 6.95 in.;
for the first tlial. In this case, try a W8 x 24 section for which./1 is 7.08 in.2 and
9 6 nssrcn PROBLEMS 607
rm-m is 1.61 in. The value of L/r for this column is
L l5(l2)
— = i = lll.8
r 1.61
To determine which of the equations for the allowable stress is applicable, first
determine the value of Q.
/21125 /211 2 (29)(10 6 )

C‘ = -—<5, = i“—-36,000 = 126.1
Since L/r = 111.8 < 126.1, the colunm is in the intennediate range where the
factor of safety is
5 3L/r 1L/r3 5 3111.8 1111.8’

FS_§+8(F,)_8(?,,)_§+8 1111.1 '5 111.1 1-9“
and the allowable stress is
1 L 2 36,000 1 111.8’
<1,,.=”l 1--(l = 1-- =1l,428psi
FS 2 C. 1.912 2 126.1
The allowable load is
P," = <1.11(A)= 11,428('1.08) = 80,910111 2 80.9 kip

This load is less than the design load; therefore, a column with either a larger
area, a larger radius of gyration, or both must be investigated. As a second trial
value, use a W12 x 30 section for which A is 8.79 in.2 and r is 1.52 in. For
this section L/r is 118.4 (intermediate range), the factor of safety is 1.92, the
allowable stress is 10,485 psi, and the load this column can support is
Pan = a111|(A) = l0.485(8.79) = 92,200 lb = 92.2 kip
This load is also less than the design load of 150 kip. For the third trial, use a
W8 x 40 section for which A is 11.7 in? and r is 2.04 in. For this section L/r
is 88.2 (internrediate range), the factor of safety is 1.89, the allowable stress is
14,542 psi, and the load this colurrm can support is
P111 = 0111|(/1] = 14,542(11.7) = 170,140 lb E 170.1 kip
Since the 40-lbffi column (W8 x 40) is stronger than necessary and the 30-lb/fi
colurrm (W12 x 30) is not strong enough, any other section investigated should
weigh between 30 and 40 lb/ft. The only other wide-flange section in Appendix
B that might satisfy the requirements is a W8 x 31 section for which A is 9.13
in.2 and r is 2.02 in. For this section L/r is 89.1 (intermediate range), the factor
of safety is 1.89, the allowable stress is 14,293 psi, and the load this colunm can
support is 130,500 lb, which is less than the design load of 150 kip.
Thus, a
W8 x 40 section should be used. Ans.

608 cr111r'r'1zr19 cormrrtrs
The above is not necessarily the best procedure. Different designers have
different approaches to the trial-and-error procedure, and for certain problems
one approach may be better than another. The important point to make here is
that the problem of design involving rolled shapes (other than simple geometric
shapes) is, in general, solved by trial and error.
1 EXRIIIPIC P1'0l]l6ll1 9-9 Determine the dimensions necessary for

a 500-rrmi rectangula.r strut to carry an axial load of 6.75 kN. The material is
aluminum alloy 2014-T6, and the width of the strut is to be twice the thickness.
Use Code 2.
J" SOLUTION
The code is represented by three different equations that depend on the value of
T
11 I
L/r, which in tum will depend on the equation used. Thus, it will be necessary
to assume that one of the equations applies and use it to obtain the dimension of
L the colurrm, afier which the value of Lfr must be calculated and used to check
the validity of the equation used. Assume L/r is less than 55 but greater than 12,
L} b = 214-1 in which case the straight-line equation is valid. The cross section is shown in
Figure 9-ll Fig. 9-1 1, and the least second moment of area I, is equal to b13112, the area A is
equal to bi, and the least radius of gyration is
3
r = L/12 = 0.28871‘
V bi‘
The slenderncss ratio is
L 0.500 _ 1.7319
Y = 0.28871: 1
and, when this value and the expression for the area are substituted in the straight-
line formula of Code 2, it becomes
P1111 6
Ua1| = I = [212 — 1.585(L/r)](10 )
6.751103)
l
7: 212-1.585 1.7319
( 1 )1 1 10 6
fi'om which
1 = 14.08(10-3)111 = 14.081111“
The value ofL/r for this thickness is
r 0.01408
PROBLEMS 609
which is greater than 55 and indicates that the straight-line formula is not valid.
The problem must be solved again using the Euler equation. Thus,
5 _ 6.75(r0’) _ 372009)
A — 2:1 _ (1.7319/1)2
from which
14 = 27.22(10-9) 111“ 11116 1= 12.8400-3) 111 = 12.84 111111

The value ofL/r is 134.9 for this thickness, which confirms the use of the Euler
formula. The dimensions of the cross section are
t= 12.84mm and b = 25.7mm Ans.
1 PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems 9-80 A Douglas fir (E = 12 GPa and F, = 9.3 lV[Pa) timber col-
umn 4 m long will be used to support an axial compressive
9-73* A column 10 ft long must support an axial compressive load of 100 kN. Use Code 4 to determine the lightest structural
load of70,000 lb. Select the lightest standard-weight structural timber that can be used.
steel pipe that can be used. Use Code 1.
9-74* Select the lightest standard-weight structural steel pipe that
can be used to support an axial compressive load of 200 kN as Challenging Problems
a 4-m-long column. Use Code 1.
9-81* The structure shown in Fig. P9-81 consists of a solid-steel
9-75 Select the lightest structural steel wide-flange section that tie rod BC and a standard-weight structural steel pipe AB. The
can be used to support an axial compressive load of 200 kip as tie rod has been adequately designed. Using Code 1, deter-
a 12-ft-long column. Use Code 1. mine the lightest pipe that can be used to support the load. The
effective length of pipe AB is 9 ii. Neglect the weight of the
9-76 A 7-m-long structural steel column will be used to sup-
structure.
port an axial compressive load of 400 KN. Select the lightest
wide-flange section that can be used. Use Code 1.
9-77* A square 2014-T6 aluminum alloy member must support C
a 20,000-lb axial compressive load as a 12-ft-long column.
Use Code 2 to determine the minimum cross-sectional area
required. 511
9-78* A 2014-T6 aluminum alloy strut with a length of 4 m will
be used to support an axial compressive load of 15 kN. De-
termine the minimum dimensions required if the width of the
strut is to be twice the thickness. Use Code 2.
A B‘
9-79 A Douglas fir (E = 1800 ksi and F, = 1350 psi) timber 1 911 :-
column 14 ft long will be used to support an axial compressive
load of 60 kip. Use Code 4 to determine the lightest structural 5000 lb
timber that can be used. Figure P9-81
610 cnsnsn 9 commas
9-82* Member ABC of the structure shown in Fig. P9-82 sup-

ports a uniformly distributed load of 30 kl“-Um. Select the light-
est standard-weight structural steel pipe that can he used for
member BD. Use Code 1 and consider so to be a pin-ended 1-5 “
member. Neglect the weight of the structure. A C J
- ' n'II4Ih _ -
30 10 fi . . . 10 B si
90 kip
Q 1
A _ ' 3 C Figure P9-83
‘ii 9-84 A structural steel standard-weightpipe is used for a spreader

2 In bar, as shown in Fig. P9-84. Ifthe structure is to support a load
P = 40 kN and the cables have been adequately designed, de-
termine the minimum size of pipe needed to support the load
' E) using Code 1. The effective length of the spreader bar is 1.5 m.
D Neglect the weight of the structure.
1 3m ~ 1.5m >
Fig|_|_|'g P9-82 Cables
0.75 m
P e = P
9-83 Select the lightest structural steel wide-flange section that 0 75 m
can be used for the compression members ofthe truss shown in ‘
Fig. P9-83. Assume that buckling is limited to the plane of the '
structure and that the tension members have been adequately 2 "1 “L 2m
designed. Use Code l. Figure P9-84
SUMMARY
Colunms are long, straight, prismatic bars subjected to compressive loads. As
long as a column remains straight, it can be analyzed as an axially loaded member,
however, if a column begins to deform laterally, the deflection may become large
and lead to catastrophic failure called buckling. Buckling of a column is caused
by deterioration of what was a stable state of equilibrium to an unstable one, not
by failure of the material of which the colunm is composed. For long, slender
columns, the maximum load for which the colunm is in stable equilibrium (the
critical buckling load) occurs at stress levels much less than the proportional limit
for the material.
For a snaight, slender, pin-ended colunm that is centrically loaded by axial
compressive forces P at the ends and that has experienced a small lateral deflection,
the differential equation for the elastic curve is
dzv
EIm=.M,=—PV

v =Asinpx+Bcospx
The minimum value of load P for a nontrivial solution is

11:1
P... = % (9-1)
ruzvrsw PROBLEMS 61 1
The value given by Eq. 9-1 is called the critical buckling load or the Euler load.
The second moment of the cross-sectional area I in Eq. 9-1 refers to the axis about
which bending occurs. When I is replaced by Arz, where r is the radius of gyration
about the axis of bending, Eq. 9-1 becomes
PC, JTZE
— = L = (I r (9-2)
A (L/oz ‘
The quantity L/r is called the slendemess ratio and is determined for the axis about
which bending tends to occur. For a pin-ended, centrically loaded column, bending
occurs about the axis of minimum second moment of area (minimum radius of
gyration).
Equation 9-l agrees well with experiment if the slendemess ratio is large
(L/r > 140 for steel columns). Short compression members (Lfr < 40 for steel
columns) can be treated as compression blocks where yielding occurs before buck-
ling. Columns that lie between these extremes are analyzed by using empirical
formulas (column design codes).
1 REVIEW PROBLEMS
9-85* A 20-it-long timber (E = 1200 ksi and 0, = 2.4 ksi) col- 9-87 Determine the maximum compressive load that a W36 x
umn has the cross section shown in Fig. P9-85. The timbers 160 structural steel column (see Appendix B for cross-sectional
are nailed together so that they act as a unit. Determine properties) can support if it is 30 ii long and a factor of safety
of 2.24 is specified.
b. The smallest slendemess ratio for which the Euler buckling 9-88* A 3-in-long column with the cross section shown in Fig.
load equation is valid. P9-88 is fabricated ii-om three pieces of timber (E = l3 GPa
c. The Euler buckling load. and 0, = 35 MPa). The timbers are nailed together so that they
d. The axial stress in the column when the Euler load is applied. act as a unit. Determine
b. The smallest slendemess ratio for which the Euler buckling
rzu. 2in. T2in.> load equation is valid.
T
2a-1. d. The axial stress in the colunm when the Euler load is applied.
ii T T
F ZOT
6ir1.
<—50mm—><-25mm-> 50mm - 50mm
T
ml
Z... I
A 20 rmn
-l
9-86* Determine themaximum compressive load thataW'I‘l78 X 9-89 Determine the maximum allowable compressive load for a
51 structural steel colunm (see Appendix B for cross-sectional 12-ft-long aluminum alloy (E = 10,600 ksi) column having the
properties] can support if it is 8 m long and a factor of safety cross section shown in Fig. P9-89 if a factor of safety of 2.25
of 1.92 is specified. is specified.
612 caxvrarw commas
l 4in.
1*; ”
lin.
ix
8 in.
1 in.
Figure P9-91
lin.
lrisail T
Figure 1:949 9-92* A structural steel W356>< 122 wide-flange section will be
used for a 9-m-long pin-ended colunm. Determine the maxi-
mum axial compressive load permitted by Code 1 if
a. The column is unbraced throughout is total length.
b. The column is braced such that the effective length for bend-
9 90 A 25-mm-diameter tie rod and a pipe strut with an inside
ing about the y-axis is reduced to 6 m.
diameter of 100 mm and a wall thickness of 25 mm are used
to support a 100-kN load as shown in Fig. P9-90. Both the 9-93 A cold-rolled steel tension bar AB and a structural steel
tie rod and the pipe strut are made of structural steel with (E = 29,000 ksi and Uy = 36 ksi) compression strut BC are
a modulus of elasticity of 200 GPa and a yield strength of used to support a load P = 100 kip, as shown in Fig. P9-93.
250 MPa. Determine Assume that the pins at B and C offer no restraint to bending
about the x-axis but provide end conditions which are essen-
a. The factor of safety with respect to failure by yielding.
tially fixed at C and free atB forbending about they-axis. Select
b. The factor of safety with respect to failure by buckling.
the lightest structural steel tee section listed in Appendix B that
canbe used for the strut BC. Use Code 1.
A
2.5
tn
at 3
4 \
B '
4.5 rn \- \
100 rm "
ta
Figure P9-90
fimill
4
6
.\5 I00 kip
\..§.\ A
Figure P9-93
9 91* Three S10 x 35 structural steel sections 30 ft long are
used to fabricate a column with the cross section shown in Fig.
P9-91. The column is fixed at the base and pinned at the top. 9-94 The compression member AB of the truss shown in Fig. P9-
The pin at the top offers no restraint to bending about the y- 94 is a structural steel W254 x 67 wide-flange section with the
axis; but for bending about the x-axis, the pin provides restraint xx-axis lying in the plane of the truss. The member is continu-
sufficient to reduce the effective length to 20 ft. Determine the ous from A to B. Consider all connections to be the equivalent
maximum axial compressive load permitted by Code 1. of pin ends. If Code l applies, determine
asviawrsomalus 613
a. The maximum safe load for member AB. 9-96 Two C229 >< 30 structural steel channels are laced back to
h. The maximum safe load for member/IB ifthe bracing mem- back with a separation of 120 mm, as shown in Fig. P9-96, to
ber CD is removed. form a column with an effective length of 10 m. The load P will
be applied at a point 50 mm from the axis of the column on the
axis of symmetry parallel to the backs of the channels. If E =
y tr‘?--t_
/r \~__~ 200 GPa and 0,, = 250 MPa, use the allowable stress method
F I ~__~_ to determine the maximum load P that can be supported by the
/ 6m
,. 1"‘ ./ <-..___B
' -__ colurrm.
ii .
1»
________ _ _ _/;'1"‘Z°l“§ “'5
50mm
X X
*\
\-r
/ L y
J’ 120 mm -
Flgure P9-94
Figure P9-96
9-95* A W8 x 40 structural steel compression member has an 9-97 A structural steel (E = 29,000 ksi) column 20 ft long must
effective length of 25 ft. The member is subjected to an axial support an axial compressive load of 110 kip. The column can
load P and a bending moment of l0 kip - ft about the x-axis be considered pimied at both ends for bending about one axis
of the cross section (see Appendix B). Use the interaction for- and fixed at both ends for bending about the other axis. Se-
mula with an allowable flexural stress of 0.660, to determine lect the lightest wide-flange or American standard section (see
the maximum safe load P. Appendix B) that can he used for the column. Use Code l.
Chapter I 0
Energy Methods and
Theories ofFailure
10-1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter consists of two pa.rts. Part A discusses the concept of strain energy
(previously introduced in Chapter 8 on beam deflections) and its application to
stress and deformation determinations in members subjected to impact loading.
Part B discusses theories of failure for isotropic materials and application of the
theories for predicting failure of members subjected to combined static loading.
Part A
Energy Methods
10-2 STRAIN ENERGY

The concept of strain energy was introduced in Section 8-8 by considering the
work done by a slowly applied axial load P in elongating a bar of rmiform cross
section A by an amount 5, as shown in Fig. 10-la. From the load-deformation
diagram (Fig. 10-lb), the work PP}, done in elongating the bar is
8
FK=fi Pdd (a)
Since the work done on the bar must equal the strain energy U stored in the bar, the
expression for strain energy in terms of axial stress and axial strain (Fig. 10-lc) is
€ G
M=U=-/i oALde=ALf ads (b)

0 o
When the stress remains below the elastic limit ofthe material, Hooke’s law applies
and dc may be expressed as do/E. Equation (b) then becomes
U _E0rra
ALfdd
P 0
P ----- -- 0 ----- —-
l_
Ae
z-
O6 m
P ._ _
(tr) '§_J|-\ _ _S
_00-— — A_J,_
_ 9- /
g‘-1"
Figure 10-l
616 cn1u'rs1r 10 manor rnnnoos mo rnaoiuas or runner
OI'
U = AL (10-1)
Equation 10-1 gives the elastic strain energy (which is, in general, recoverable)
for axial loading of a material obeying Hooke‘s law. The quantity in parentheses is
the elastic strain energy u in tension or compression per rmit volume for a uniaxial
state of stress,
O’
2
11 = % (10-2)
Cy --- which is called the strain energy intensity.
The integral f ode ofEq. (b) represents the area under the stress-strain curve
(Fig. 10-lc) and, if evaluated from zero to the elastic limit (for practical ptnposes,
the proportional limit), yields a property lcrrown as the modulus ofresilience. The
~—- Modulus of
resilience modulus of resilience is defined as the maximum strain energy per unit volume
that a material will absorb without inelastic deformation and is the area under the
straight-line portion of the stress-strain diagram, as shown in Fig. 10-2. Customary
E units are inch-pounds per cubic inch or newton-meters per cubic meter. For practical
purposes the yield strength and proportional limit are the same, and thus the
Figure 10-2 modulus of resilience ug (Fig. l0-2) is
O
as
ug = 2? (10-3)
Rupture
The area under the entire stress-strain curve from zero to rupture (Fig. 10-3)
gives the property known as the modulus oftoughness ur and denotes the energy
per tmit volume necessary to rupture the material. The modulus of resilience and
Modulus of the modulus of toughness have the same tmits.
toughness For the shear loading shown in Fig. 10-4a, the strain energy intensity is the
area tmder the shearing stress—shea.ring strain diagram shown in Fig. 10-4b and is
1*
1: u=f rdy (c)
0
Figure l0-3
‘II
/Q7 (—__€"i|
-E _ _ _ _ _ __
../5, l
in
(11) (5)
Figure 10-4
10-5 ELASTIC STIIAIN ENERGY FDR wuuous LOADS 617
When the shearing stress remains below the elastic limit of the material, 1: = G]./,
and Eq. (c) may be expressed as
r 2
“=1 r‘§=l (10-4)
U G 20
Thus, for shear loading, the expression for strain energy intensity is identical to
that for axial loading if cr is replaced by 1: and E by G.
The strain energy may be obtained by integrating the strain energy intensity
over the volume of the material being stressed. W'hen the state of stress in a body
can be represented by a nonzero normal stress, the strain energy is
G2
U = f _ dV (10-5)
V 25
where V is the volume ofthe body. A similar expression may be written for shearing
stress and is
1.2
U= I,, 20
—dV (10-6)
Equations (10-5) and (10-6) may be used to detemiine the strain energy stored in
a body that is subjected to an axial load a torsional load, transverse shear, or a
bending moment. Note that Eqs. 10-5 and 10-6 are scalar equations.
10-5 ELASTIC STRAIN ENERGY FOR VARIOUS LOADS

Equations for elastic strain energy for members subjected to axial loads, torsional
loads, bending moments, and transverse shear will be developed in this section.
10-3-1 Strain Energy for Axial Loading Consider the bar shown in P
Fig. 10-5, which has a uniform cross-sectional area A, a length L, and is subjected
to an axial force P. The strain energy i11 the bar may be found using Eq. 10-5 and e
is
2 L Z
U=fi%dV=fU %(A¢ix) (a) Figure 10-5
where dV = A dx, and x is measured along the length of the bar. Simplifying
Eq. (a) yields an expression for the strain energy for axial loading. Thus,
PZL
U = 2% (10-7)
If the bar is slightly tapered or if P or E changes along the length of the bar, the
expression for strain energy is
L P2
U=f idx l0-8
0 2,45 ( J
618 CHAPTER 10 rzssrror METHODS mo nrrzoruss or rmuns
10-5-2 Strain Energy for Torsional Loading The bar shown in

Fig. 10-6, has a rmiform cross section of radius r, a length L, and is subjected
to a torsional load (torque) T. The strain energy ir1 the bar may be found using
i-(ii
Eq. 10-6 and is
2 2
L -._ U=L%;-dV=L dV (b)
Figure 10-6 where r = Tpil. Since dV = dA dx and p is the radius to a generic point in the
cross section, Eq. (b) becomes
U— L T2 fzdzldx
‘f, 2011 ,,‘°
The integral in parentheses is J (the polar second moment of area for the cross
section of the bar). Thus, the expression for the strain energy for torsional
loading is
T 2L
U= — (10-9)
2GJ
If the bar is slightly tapered or if T or G changes along the length of the bar, the
expression for strain energy is
L T2
U =~/l id]: [10-l0)
0 ZGJ
10-3-3 Strain Energy for Bending Loads Consider the beam

J’ P shown in Fig. 10-7a, which has a uniform cross section A and a length L. A
I W fi'ee-body diagram of a portion of the beam is shown in Fig. 10-7b. On a cross
section at a position x along the beam, a bending moment M, and a transverse
A shear V, are required for equilibrium. Both M, and V, are functions of position x.
Consider first the effect ofthe bending moment M,,. The strain energy in the beam
(Q) resulting from the bending moment M, is given by Eq. 10-5 as
2 _ 2
W M U=fV%dV=fV dV (c)
where 0 = —M,y/I. Since dV = dA mix, Eq. (c) becomes

RA X Iii’)
L M2
(b) U
=
’/0‘ TEI2
r 2
y dA)d'x
Figure 10-7
The integral in parentheses is I (the second moment of area for the cross section
of the beam). Thus, the expression for the strain energy for bending is
L M2
U=£ fink (ll)-ll)
10-5 ELASTIC srrrmi smarter rorr vrutrous LOADS 619
Since M, is a fimction of x, the relationship between M, and x must be lcnown

before the integral of Eq. 10-ll can be evaluated.
10-3-4 Strain Energy for Transverse Shear The strain energy in

the bea.rn resulting from the transverse shear V, shown in Fig. 10-7b can be found
using Eq. 10-6. Thus,
2 Z
U=£%dV=L dV (ti)
where 1' = V,.Q/It. Since dV = dA dx, Eq. (d) becomes
L V2 2
U=>/0 éz fgdA mix (10-12)
Q ZGI ,1 I2
The integral in parentheses in Eq. 10-12 depends on the shape of the cross sec-
tion of the beam. Evaluation of this integral will be illustrated in the Example
Problems.
0
1 Example Problem 10-1 The two solid Ci1'C11l3.I' bars Sl10W1'1 in '-
Fig. 10-8 are securely attached at section B. The modulus of elasticity E for both A 100mm
bars is 200 GPa. If the axial load P is 50 kN, determine the strain energy for the r
e e
assembly. Zm 50mm
SOLUTION I'D 3 f.
Each segment of the assembly, AB and BC, has a uniform cross section and is
subjected to the axial load P = 50 kN. The strain energy of the assembly can
Figure 10-8
be found by applying Eq. 10-7 to each of the segments and adding the results.
Thus,
U=U,w+Uiig
_ Q + E
_ 2AE,,,,
2A_Ew
—_ iii(A)..
L2 E +(£
A)L
_ [s0(103)]2 [ 2 + 1 :|
_ 2(200)(10°) (J'l.'/4-)(0.l00)2 (zr/4)(0.050)2
= 4.774-6N ~ m 4.77N~m A115.
Of the strain energy of the assembly, 33.3% exists in segrrrent AB and

66.7% exists in segment BC.
620 CHAPTER 10 ENERGY METHODS mo THEORIES or ritnnna
-"' A ' i Example Problem 10-2 Sflglllellts AB and ac of the assembly

~ 6 in shown in Fig. 10-9 are made ofthe same material (G = 11,000 ksi) and are
_-11.; _
X‘. ' I T2 securely attached at section B. If T | = 50 kip - in. and T2 = 70 kip - in., determine
“9 fi _. 4in.
the strain energy of the assembly.
‘.-
“\___ T1
7!!
SOLUTION
-.
4ft}? 5 Segment BC is subjected to a constant internal torque of50 kip - in., and segment
AB is subjected to a constant internal torque of 20 kip - in. Because both segments
i’ ii c
have a uniform cross section and are subjected to a constant internal torque, the
Figure 10-9 strain energy of the assembly can be formd by applying Eq. 10-9 to each of the
segments and adding the results. Thus,
U=U,,5+UB¢
_ T21. +(r11.
_ 261 ,,,, 201 ,6
_ L (E ”_-'-
_2Gl 1),e+( J )nci
_ 1 [<20>’(9)(12)+ (50)2(4)(12)]
' 2(11><w’) (Ir/2)(3)"’ re/2x2)“
= 0.23246 kip - in. E 2321b - in. Ans.
Of the strain energy of the assembly, 6.6% exists in segment AB and

93.4% exists in segment BC.
J’ I Example Problem 10-5 The CflI1121.lE.'V61'befl.I11 Sl‘lOWI11l1 Fig. 10-10a

I has a constant cross section and is subjected to a concentrated force P at its fiee
P end.
in ii I-it
(a) Determine the strain energy in the beam due to bending.
(b) Determine the strain energy in the beam due to transverse shear.
(c) Compare the results of parts (a) and (b).
(8)
SOLUTION
Figure 10-10(2)
(a) The strain energy due to bending (with M, = —Px) is given by Eq. 10-11 as
L M2 L (_Px)2 P2 L PZL3
U-"’ =[0 —'di=f
251 0 7iix=—f
2E1 2.131 U x 2iix=—
651 An.5
(b) The strain energy due to transverse shear (with V, = —P) is given by
Eq. 10-12 as
L V2 Q2 L P2 Q2
U = L id dX=
" _£ 2G12U,. :2 A) i 2611 :1 A) dx
i —d
10-5 ELASTIC STIIAIN smarter rorr vruuons norms 62 1
However, from Fig. 10-10b,
it it/2—y b H2 2
=A" —— M :— —— “—
Q y‘ (2 yli” 2 ) 2(4 y Fc —-J
J"
l‘—b NA
Thus,
Figure 10-10(b)
»=—./ -0 <--»
PZL
201 _,,,,,h 2
*1“ 1 b 2 hi
4
2 P2Lbh5
24001 1
For a rectangular cross section I = bhif 12; therefore,
3P2L SPZL
U’ = w = E “*-
(c) The total strain energy for the beam is
U = U U =
P2L3 3P2L =
P2L3 l
35111
'“+ " 6121 + 50,4 6E1 l +10cL=j (a)
For a material such as steel, the ratio E/G E 2.6 and Eq. (a) becomes
PZL3 I12 PZL3

U- WP +0.78Fj| _ WD
where D = 1 + 0.78(ML)2 is a measure ofthe elfect on the strain energy of the

transverse shear. The following table illustrates the percentage of the strain
energy resulting from transverse shear for rectangular beams with different
ML ratios.
ii/1. 0.78(h/L)2 %1>

115 0.0312 3.03
U6 0.0217 2.12
U8 0.0122 1.21
1110 0.0078 0.77
Thus, for a beam with ML = 1/5 (a very short deep beam), the error in
neglecting the strain energy due to transverse shear is approximately 3 percent,
whereas for a beam with ML = ll 10 (along, slender beam), the error is less
than 1 percent. Equation (a) indicates that the contribution to the total strain
energy of the transverse shear increases as the square of ML, which means
that the strain energy due to transverse shear is of importance only in the case
of very short deep beams.
622 CHAPTER 10 ENERGY snrnroos AND Tnsoruss or saunas
1 PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems 10-3 The 4-in.-diameter shaft shown in Fig. P10-3 is composed
of brass (G = 5000 ksi) and steel (G = 12,000 ksi) sections
10-1* The tension member shown in Fig. P10-l consists of a steel that are rigidly connected. A 100-kip - in. torque is applied at
pipe A, which has an outside diameter of 6 in. and an inside section C. Determine
diameter of 4.5 in., and a solid alumimnn alloy bar B, which
has an outside diameter of 4 in The moduli of elasticity for a. The elastic strain energy for each segment of the shaft.
the steel and aluminum alloy are 29,000 ksi and 10,600 ksi, b. The elastic strain energy for the entire shafl.
respectively. Determine
a. The elastic strain energy for the steel pipe. I
0 .
b. The elastic strain energy for the aluminum bar.
c. The elastic strain energy for the entire member. A :1 in. dia.
Brass
jl
i I Mi\ 1 Ste e1
\‘~.-i.-~*"' -100 kip-in.
r=,=12o kip \. B ~
4 it \ C_:___
Ts»-» D
Figure P10-3
L 10-4* A stepped steel (G = 80 GPa) shaft has the dimensions and

is subjected to the torques shown in Fig. P10-4. Determine
P2 = 240 kip a. The elastic strain energy for each segment of the shaft.
b. The elastic strain energy for the entire shafl.
Figure P10-l
10-2* The compression member shown in Fig. P 10-2 consists of . - .-
, 1 ‘.
a solid aluminum alloy bar A, which has an outside diameter 1 .
." ' 35 kN-m
of 100 mm; a brass tube B, which has an outside diameter of
150 mm and an inside diameter of 100 mm; and a steel pipe A ." Q 160mm
C, which has an outside diameter of 200 mm and an inside di-
lm ‘W’ 100mm
ameter of 125 mm. The moduli of elasticity for the aluminum
alloy, brass, and steel are 73 GPa, 100 GPa, and 210 GPa, l.5 m mi"
‘-\' "20_kN-m
respectively. Determine
a. The elastic strain energy for each segment of the member.
b. The elastic strain energy for the entire member. Figure P10-4
P, = sso kN
10-5 The cantilever beam shown in Fig. P10-5 is subjected to a
Rigid plate
inriforrrrly distributed load w over its entire length L. Determine
F51la
I = 850 kN
_ Rigid plate
the elastic strain energy in the beam due to bending. Neglect
the effects of transverse shear.
W
= 1S00kN
Rigid plate
0. :4 E14"H
il
H LL?
. -_ -.
i s?
ll]-5 nutsnc STRAIN sssscr ron wuuous 1.o.ms 623
lt]-6 Determine the elastic strain energy in the beam loaded and Challenging Problems
supported as shown in Fig. P10-6. Neglect the effects of trans-
verse shear. 10-12" A square bar with a cross-sectional area A and a length
L is made from a homogeneous material which has a specific
weight y and a modulus of elasticity E. Determine the elastic
strain energy stored in the bar (as a result of its own weight) if
W
it hangs vertically while suspended form one end. Express the
result in terms ofy, L, A, and E.
10-13* A hollow circular shalt with outside diameter d, inside
diameter d/2, and length L is subjected to a constant torque of
L 1 magnitude T. Compare the elastic strain energy stored in this
Figure P10-6 shaft as a result of the torsional loading with the elastic strain
energy stored in a bar of the same size that is axially loaded to
the same maximum tensile stress level.
Intermediate Problems 10-l4 The solid cylindrical shaft of Fig. P10-14 is subjected to
a uniformly distributed torque q. Determine the elastic strain
ll]-7* A cantilever beam with a rectangular cross section has a energy in the shaft in terms of q, L, G, and c.
width b, a depth 2c, and a span L. The beam has a couple M
applied at the free end. Compare the elastic strain energy stored
in the beam as a result of bending with the elastic strain energy Torque _
stored in a bar of the same size that is axially loaded to the distribution —~\ ' ;
‘.
0
same maximum tensile stress level.
ll]-8* Determine the elastic strain energy due to transverse shear
for the cantilever beam shown in Fig. P10-5. .(
, }
‘ .‘ 1
//
. ..‘—~—\-
--/ 1:)‘-
ll]-9 Determine the elastic strain energy due to transverse shear 1! /. L

for the simply supported beam shown in Fig. P10-6 if the beam » "" //
has a rectangular cross section with width b and depth w. r

t’
_ ’//
ll]-10 A simply supported beam with a rectangular cross section

has a width b, a depth 2c, and a span L. The beam carries Figure P10-14
a uniformly distributed load w over its entire length. Com-
pare the elastic strain energy stored in the beam as a result of
bending with the elastic strain energy stored in a bar of the 10-15* The solid cylindrical shafl of Fig. P10-15 is subjected to
same size that is axially loaded to the same maximum ten- a distributed torque that varies linearly from 0 at the left end
sile stress level. Neglect the energy resulting from the shearing to q at the right end. Determine the elastic strain energy in the
stresses. shaft in terms ofq, L, G, and c.
ll]-11* A torque of?-10 lb - it is applied to the right end of the
shaft AB ofFig. P10-ll. Both shafts are made of steel (G = Torque
11,000 ksi) and have a diameter of 2 in. The mean diameter distribution -\ ,, ' ,
of bevel gear C is twice that of bevel gear B. Determine the -»/I .
/
elastic strain energy due to torsion of each shafi. F/1 '
,// .‘ “"7?-
// ~ /"
1’' f_//
Q /_. L
{ 0 _. //'
~____ /'
CZ ' _-\--./
as in. t’
Bearing
l C B A
Figure P10-l5
10-16 The hollow circular tapered shaft of Fig. P10-16 is sub-

it 48 in. jected to a constant torque T. Determine the elastic strain en-
Figure P10-1 1 ergyinthe shaftintermsofT,L, G,andr.
CHAPTER 10 ENERGY METHODS AND Tl{B0lllES OF FAl].U]I.B
_ 1" Determine the elastic stram energy stored m the beam as a re-
‘ J Zr ""1 F.» sult of bending. Neglect the energy resulting from the shearmg
~=:;T~_-_-_-_ _ ._ _ F sTl'sssss-
Figure P10-l6
10-1'7 A simply supported beam with a rectangular cross section

A
l
" U2
f. u
has a width b, a depth 2c, and a span L. The beam carries a
concentrated load P at midspan, as shown in Fig. P10-17a. Figure P10-17
10-4 IMPACT LOADING

When the motion ofa body is changed (accelerated), the force necessary to produce
this acceleration is called a dynamicfl2l?‘C€ or load. For example, the force an elbow
in a pipeline exerts on the fluid in the pipe to change its direction of flow, the
press1u'e on the wings of an airplane pulling out of a dive, the collision of two
automobiles, and a man jumping on a diving board are all examples of dynamic
loading. A suddenly applied load is called an impact load. The last two of the
preceding examples are considered impact loads. Under impact loading, if there
is elastic action, the loaded system will vibrate tmtil equilibrium is established.
A dynamic load may be expressed in terms of mass times the acceleration of the
mass center, in terms of the rate of change of the momentum, or in terms of the
change of the kinetic energy of the body.
Energy methods can be used to obtain solutions for many problems in me-
chanics of materials. When an energy approach is used, the magnitude of the load
is expressed in terms of the kinetic energy delivered to the loaded system; hence,
it is ofien referred to as an energy load. For example, a particle of mass m moving
with a speed vpossesses a kinetic energy mvz/2; ifthis particle is stopped by a body,
the energy absorbed by the body (the loaded system) is some fiactional part of
mvz/2, the balance of the energy being converted into sound, heat, and permanent
deformation of the striking particle.
In the loaded system, dynamic loading produces stresses and strains, the
magnitude and distribution of which will depend not only on the usual parameters
encountered previously but also on the velocity ofpropagation of the strain waves
through the material of which the system is composed. This latter consideration,
although very important when loads are applied with high velocities, may often
be neglected when the velocity of application of the load is low. The velocities are
considered to be low when the loading time permits the material to act in the same
manner as it does under static loa.ding; that is, the relations between stress and
strain and between load and deflection are essentially the same as those already
developed for static loading.
Consider the member shown in Fig. 10-1 la. If the weight W is slowly low-
ered (static load) until it comes in contact with the flange at B, the member will
elongate by an amount 53,, the static deflection, as shown in Fig. 10-1 lb. When the
in-4 nrriicr noxnnvc 625
1. A ' \ '
—-ti —r\—'
iini
. ___,,F _ _ _
8.?!
L
_ _ _ __,t__._
s
_.u_
Z
(<1) (5) (0)
Figure 10-ll
weight is dropped from height h, tensile impact stresses are developed in member
AB. The stresses are maximum when the deflection of the member is 6 (the ve-
locity of W is zero), as shown in Fig. 10-1 lc, afier which the weight moves in an
upward direction. Of interest is the maximum stress and deflection of member AB
(Fig. 10-llc).
Two methods will be presented to determine maximum values for the stress
and for the deflection: the strain energy method and the work—kinetic energy
method.
10-4-1 Strain Energy Method In the discussion that follows it is as-

sumed that the stresses are in the elastic range, the material behavior is the same
as that for slowly applied loads, and energy losses during impact are negligible. In
addition it is assumed that the weights of the member and flange (Fig. 10-1 la) are
negligible when compared to the weight W.
The work done by the falling weight is equal to the elastic strain energy
stored in the member AB. The work done by W is W(h + 6). The elastic strain
energy stored in member AB is given by Eq. 10-7 as U = PZL/ZAE where P is the
axial force in the member when it has deformed by an amotmt 6 . For axial loading,
0 = P/A, and thus U = 0' ZAL/2E. Equating the work and strain energy expressions
gives
Z
W(h + 6) = % ((1)
The deflection 6 is
PL UL
8 AE E (b)
Substituting Eq. (b) into Eq. (a) and simplifying yields
ALa2 —2WLa —2WhE=0 (C)

626 CHAPTER 10 runner METHODS AND rnsonms or muons
W / W 2 2WhE
O1‘
U:g[1i‘11+2 ] (10-14)
'The plus sign preceding the radical in Eq. 10-14 is used, as the negative sign has no
physical significance. The maximum deflection is found by substituting Eq. 10-13
or Eq. 10-14 into Eq. (b). The results are
W1. WL 2 2WhL
8:E+\l(E) ‘LT “W1
OI‘
WL ,1 2hAE
8= — l 1 — 10-16
AE[ + + WL ] ( )
The static deflection 5,, may be written
FL WL
8,, = AE
—=—AE (d)
‘When Eq. (d) is substituted into Eq. 10-16, the deflection due to impact becomes
2h
8:5,, 1+ 1+? (10-17)
Sf
The axial stress due to a static load, 0,, = FM = WM, may be substituted into
Eq.10-l4toyie1d
a=o',,|;l+11l+%fi:| (10-18)
SI
The term in the brackets in Eqs. 10-17 and 10-18 is called the impactfizctor.
Of particular interest are the values of 5 and 0 when h = 0 and when h
is much greater than 85,. The maximum deflection and stress when the weight is
dropped fi'om h = 0 are given by Eqs. 10-17 and 10-18 as
a = 25,, (10-19)
0 = 20,, (10~20)
where 5,, is the deflection when the weight W is slowly lowered onto the flange
and 0,, is the corresponding axial stress. Thus, the maximum deflection and the
10-4 1111111161‘ IDADING 627
maximum stress for a suddenly applied force are double the values when the force
is slowly applied.
For the case where it is large compared to 5“, Eqs. 10-17 and 10-18 become
5 = ,/215 (10-21)
<1 = ,/gm (10-22)
Thus, using Eq. 10-22, it is seen that the stress may be decreased by increasing the
area A or the length L of the member, or by decreasing the modulus of elasticity
E. If the member were statically loaded, then 0 = F/A = W/A, and the stress is
independent of L or E.
Using work-energy principles from physics or dynamics,
l
Wh = mgh = Em V2
where V is the speed of the weight as it makes contact with the flange. Thus, from
Eq. 10-22
2E ml/2 mEV2
°=\/(3)17) =1/T 11°“)
10-4-2 Work—Kinetic Energy Method The work—kinetic energy
method uses a concept learned in physics and/or dynamics courses. The principle
of work and energy states that
U1->2 = T2 — T1 (9)
where U H2 is the total work done on a body, and T| and T2 are the kinetic energies
of the body before and after the work is done.
Consider the cantilever beam loaded with a falling weight W, as shown in
Fig. 10-12. The variation of the end deflection v ofthe beam with respect to time t is
shown in Fig. 10-12b, where 5 is the maximum deflection resulting from the falling
weight transferring kinetic energy (m V2/2) to the beam. At the instant 5 occurs, the
kinetic energy is zero, and the beam begins to vibrate. Only maximum deflections
and stresses are of interest in this book; analysis of the vibration characteristics
are studied in other courses. In the analysis that follows, it is assumed that the
weight W stays in contact with the beam during the deflection 5, that the mass of
the beam is negligible, and that the stress-strain behavior of the beam is the same
for both static and dynamic loading. Furthermore, no energy is dissipated at the
beam supports or contact area between the weight W and the beam.
The quantity 8,, ir1 Fig. 10-1211 is the static deflection when the weight W is
slowly lowered onto the beam. In Fig. 10-12c, P is the largest dynamic force exerted
on the beam, and it occurs where the tip of the beam has deflected an amount 5.
Since the stress-strain behavior of the beam material is the same for a static or
dynamic load, and the load-deflection is assumed to be linear, the relationship
628 01111101211 10 ENERGY METHODS AND THEORIES or rmnna
V
WIEL ----- --1

__ __ I 15,,
-Ill-q_ 4____ __ ; A
-.
"--.
I
-. I
J‘ I‘
/
1yI;
I'1
1 f———F—u—+-_ I I IIIIIII
-—-m
I I I I I I I I I I I ____»;_
NJ
(11) (5)
_ ___‘_ P
6 . .
l -
(C)
Figure 10-12
between load and deflection (refer to Fig. 10-13) is

F
P W
E'£ U“
P
Applying the work-energy principle to the weight W using Eq. (e) gives
W
U1-»2=T2—T1=0
since the kinetic energies are zero at positions 1 (W is released from rest) and 2
D‘?5__ m— (W reaches maximum deflection). Thus,
Figure 10-13 1
U1_,2= W(h+8)—iP8=0 (g)
Substituting Eq. (f) ir1to Eq. (g) and rearranging gives
P1-2WP-3%:-}3=0 (11)
It
Solving Eq. (h) forP gives
P= WI:l+ /1+:lj| [10-24)

.\‘1‘
which may be written, using Eq. (f), as
0 =0, ‘I 1 "L /1 "L 2h

-
0,, (1025)
10-4 nrrxcr mmmc 629
Equation 10-25, for a weight dropped on a beam, is the same as Eq. 10-17 for a
weight dropped on a bar. As before, the term in brackets is the impact factor.
The static deflection in Eq. 10-25 may be computed using the results ofTable
B-19 ir1 Appendix B. The impact factor is then foimd using the term in the brackets
of Eq. 10-24 or 10-25. Equation 10-24 is used to determine P, which is used as
a static force to compute stresses. The method is illustrated in Example Prob-
lem 10-S.
i Example Problem 10-4 A 30-mm-diameter aluminum alloy - 1 0
(E = 70 GPa) rod 1 m long is fitted with a flange at the bottom, as shown in

Fig. 10-14. A collar W, which slides freely on the rod, is dropped from a height W
of 800 rr1n1. Determine the maximum mass that the collar may have if the yield
strength (0, = 270 MPa) of the rod must not be exceeded.
E lm
SOLUTION 800mm J
The value ofweight W can be determined by using Eq. 10-14 with 0 = 270 MPa
(the yield strength of the rod). Thus,
_-ii
W
U = I[l+ 1‘ 1+ 2hAli' Figure 10-14
Solving for W yields
W: o 2 AL
2aL+2hE
_ (270)1(101%:/4)(0.030)1(1) _ 457 9N
_ 2(210)(10"=')(1) + 2(0.s00)("/0)(10°) — '
Thus, the maximum mass for the collar is
W 457 .9
m = — = = 46.63 kg E 46.7 kg ADS.
g 9.81
1 Example Problem 10-5 A weight of 30 11> is dropped fi'om =1

height of 4 ft onto the center of a small rigid platform, as shown in Fig. 10-15.
The two steel (E = 30,000 ksi) rods supporting the platform have 1 x 2-in.
rectangular cross sections and are 8 ft long. Determine
(a) The maximum tensile stress developed in the rods.
(b) The maximum deflection of the platform.
4 11 I
SOLUTION
(a) The maximum tensile stress developed in the rods can be fOl.1IlC1 by using I 0
either Eq. 10-13 or Eq. 10-14. Using Eq. 10-13, and noting that fl
A = 2(1)(2) = 4 111.1’ Figure 10-15
650 c11111'r'1z11 10 111\11111cr METHODS mo nnzoruss or rxnnna
gives
_[+ K 2+2WhE
°_A A AL
_ 30 30)’ 2(30)(4)(12)(30)(106)
_ 4 + (4 + 4(s)(12)
= 15,008 psi 2 15.011<.=.1 Ans.
Note that the static stress produced by the 30-lb weight would be
W 30
0' = — = — =7.50psi
A 4-
(b) The maximum deflection experienced by the platform would be
1- <2 = L811» =1.0480 . .

E (30)(10 )
1...
Note that the static deflection produced by the 30-lb weight would be
8 __ Q __ 1.50(s)(12) _ 00000240111.
E (30)(10°)
1 Example Problem 10-6 The w.-0 rods shown in Fig. 10-16 are
0U made of the same material, have the same length 2L, and have circular cross
sections with the same minimum diameter D. Compare the energy-absorbing
capacities of the two rods for axial impact loads if the maximum axial stresses
in the rods must not exceed the yield strength 0,, of the material.
W
SOLUTION
fllj
kit-mxmi--iv
Lil
e+
I Q 1
Lil
For a rod of uniform cross section and length L, the elastic strain energy ir1 the
rod is given by Eq. l0-l as
(11) (-5) ZAL 2V

Figure 10-16 U=L=L
2E 2E
For the stepped rod of Fig. 10-16a, the elastic strain energy U, is the sum
of the strain energies of the two parts. Note that the lower segment of the stepped
rod will be subjected to a stress 0,, whereas the upper segment will be subjected
(as a result of its larger cross-sectional area) to a stress 0,,/4. Ifthe volume of the
lower segment is V, the volume of the upper segment will be 4 V. Therefore,
U _ “EV + (0,./412141/1 _ 5631’

“ _ 2E 2E T 8E
10-4 nrrxcr LOADING 651
For the rod with the uniform cross section shown in Fig. 10-16b, the elastic
strain energy is
U _ gj(2V) _ r,-fr
”— 25 — E
5
Comparing U, and Ub shows that U, = g Ub. Thus, even though the
volume of the stepped rod is 2.5 times the volume of the uniform rod, the stepped
rod can absorb only 5/8 as much energy as the uniform rod.
1 Example Problem 10-7 The Cflnfilcverbeam shown ih Fig. 101121

is made of steel (E = 30,000 ksi and 0,. = 36 ksi). Determine the height h fi-om
which the 10-lb weight W can be dropped ifthe yield stress is not to be exceeded.
WEI T
P
I
i It-3lI'1."1|—JT1
II I11
I H“
___l_L 8
will T ' T
(4)
Figure 10-17
SOLUTION
The static deflection is found using case 1 of Table B-19 (Appendix B):
_ WL3 _ 10[(4)(12)]’ _ _ _
5,, _ E _ _ 49.1s(10 ’)1h.
The impact factor IF is
IF = 1+ 1+2’:
— = 1+ 1+ 2h
i ()
(1
8,, 49.15110-3)
and the load P to cause the maximum beam deflection is computed using
Eq. 10-24;
P = W[1+ /1+ = l0(IF)

SI
The maximum flexural stress in the beam occurs at the support and is (neglecting
stress concentration)
_ g _ (PL)c _ 10(1'F)LC
U“ 1 _ 1 _ I
632 CHAPTER 10 111\11111cr METHODS AND nnzorrrss or rrnnna
where cr = 36,000 psi, the yield stress. Therefore,
36,000 = = 960(IF)
(3)(l) /12
IF = 37.5
which, when substituted into Eq. (a), yields
I1 = 32.7 in. Ans.
1 Example Problem 10-8 The beam of Fig. 10-1s is 75 mm wide

and 25 mm deep. Each of the supporting coil springs has a modulus of 9 kN/m.
Determine the maximum stress in the beam when the block of weight W = 45 N
is dropped from a height h = 15 mm. The modulus of elasticity of the beam is
200 GPa.
-..-l
w]j_ —- §
Figure ll]-18
1.5m __1g_
T 1.5m
SOLUTION
The static deflection of the beam is
6.1‘! = (5s‘1)beam + (8sr)spr1'ngs

= WL3 + Fspring (0)
48EI k
where the static deflection of the beam is found from case 6 of Table B-19
(Appendix B). Substituting the given data into Eq. (a) gives
5 _ 45(3)3 + 45/2
" _ 4s(200)(109)[(0.075)(0.025)3/12] 9000
= 1.291s0(10-3) + 2.5(10-3) — 3.796(10-3) m
The factor is
I 211 I 2(0.015)
lF=l+ 1+—=1+
5,, 1+—=3.9s4
3."/9s(10-3)
10-4 nrrxcr LOADING 653
Using Eq. 10-24, the impact load is detemrined to be
P = W(IF) = 45(3.984) = 179.28 N
The magnitude ofthe maximum stress in the beam is
a_@_(P/2)(L/2)¢_Q
_ 1 _ 1 _ 41
ii179'28(3)(°'°2§/2) = 17.21 l(106)N1‘m2
4[(0.015)(0.025) /12]
2 17.2111/11a Ans.
If the weight W were slowly lowered onto the beam, the maximum stress would
be
_%_ _@
G‘ 1‘ I -41
= ii = 4.32(10‘)N/uf’
4[(0.075)(0.025)3/12]
= 4.32 MPa
Note that 0 = 0,, (IF); that is,
0 17.211110‘
<1, = 5 = fig = 4.320(10°)N/m2
'5 4.32 MPa
1 PROBLEMS
10-10* A cold-rolled bronze (E = 100 GPa) bar with a cross- 1°-19' A 5°54 circular Steel (E = 3°-°°° ksi) 1"" with L =
sectional ma of-2500 mmz is to be used as a tension member 50 in. is to be used as a tension member subjected to axial
subjected to axial energy loads’ as Shown in Fig p10_l8_ The energy 108115, 35 Sh0W'l1 in Fig. P10-13. The allowable axial
allowable axial tensile stress is 70 MPa. Determine the mini- “=11-‘sile films is 25 ksi Dfimmifle the minimum dimflfl fe-
mum length ofbar required ifa 20_kg mass is dropped from a quir-ed if the weight W = 30 lb IS dropped fi‘0I11 3 height Of
heightofh=1m. h=4°i11-
10-20 A 25-mm-diameter steel (E = 200 GPa) rod 900 mm long
is supported at the top end and fitted with a loading flange at
the bottom end, as shown in Fig. P10-20. A collar W slides
freely on the rod. Determine the maximum mass that the collar
may have without exceeding the proportional limit (250 MPa)
of the rod if
a. The collar is dropped from a height of 600 mrn.
Ifaléie I-is b. The collar is suddenly applied to the stop (dropped from a
very small height).
Figure P10-18 c. The collar is slowly applied to the flange (static load).
CHAPTER 10 ENERGY METHODS AND THEORIES OF FAILURE
25 mm X10 mm-1
§i
50mm><10mm- ‘
T 900 mm !Q!
1.5m
rmI-
600 mm
L Lu Figure P10-24
Figure P10-20
10-25* A collar Wis dropped from a height of 10 in. onto the
loading flange at the end ofthe steel {E = 30,000 ksi] bar shown
10-21 A weight of 10 lb is dropped from a height of 8 in. onto in Fig. P10-25. If the maximum stress is not to exceed 18 ksi,
the free end of a steel (E = 30,000 ksi) cantilever beam. The determine the maximtun allowable weight of the collar if
beam is 2 in wide, 3 in. deep, and 30 in. long. Determine a. The bar has the cross section shown in Fig. P10-25.
a. The maximum deflection produced by the falling weight. b. The bar has a uniform cross section of 2 in? throughout its
b. The static load needed to produce the same deflection. entire length.
c. The maximum flexural stress caused by the falling weight.
10-22* A timber (E : 8.2 GPa) beam 150 mm wide, 100 mm
deep, and 3 m long is simply supported at the ends. From what
maximum height can a 14-kg mass be dropped onto the center Area = 1'
of the beam without causing the maximum flexural stress to 6 sq. in. —- 15611-
exceed 10 MPa‘?
10-23 A timber (E = 1200 ksi) beam 6 in wide, 4 in. deep, and M“? mm
10 ft long is simply supported at the ends, as shown in Fig. 4sq.|n.~ 1
P10-23. A 30-lb weight is dropped onto the center of the beam
'FH'1'l
from a height of 10 in. Determine
a. The maximum deflection due to the falling weight. mm
A1-ea=
b. The static load needed to produce the same deflection.
Zqmf m
c. The maximum flexural stress produced by the falling weight.
Figure P10-25
c"5 _T_1Oin ‘fig 10-26 The beam of Fig. P10-26 is made of an aluminum alloy
J. I _l_ (E = 70 GPa). The 240-N block B is dropped fi'om a height of
A B 4in. \:| 12 mm onto the top of the coil spring C, which has a modulus
£ ] ' T of 36 kNfm. Determine the maximum stress developed in the
L Sf’: T Sfi beam.
Figure P10-23
Intermediate Problems l2mn1:B

10-24* A flat piece of steel (E = 200 GPa) 10 mm thick and 2 m ; C TS mm
long has a width of 25 mm for 0.5 rn of its length and a width A I
of 50 mm for the remaining 1.5 m. A 2-kg collar W is dropped
i‘ T £25-“LE1
onto a loading flange at the end of the bar, as shown in Fig.
P10-24. Determine the maximtnn height h from which the col-
lar can he dropped if the axial tensile stress in the rod is not to
exceed 200 MPa. Neglect the effect of stress concentrations.
‘Li’[1
Figure P10-26
1.5 rn = 1.5 m i
10-4 umtcruoanuwc 635
l0-27* A weight of 50 lb is dropped (see Fig. P10-27) from a

height of 4 in. onto a helical spring that has a modulus of A
1001b/in. Determine
a. The maximum deflection of the spring.
l
h. The static load that would produce the same deflection.
Trii
Q
L;-:-4 Figure P10-29
Figure P10-27 10-30* A 10-kg mass m is dropped finrn a height h = 100 mm

onto the steel (E = 200 GPa) beam shown in Fig. P10-30.
Determine
l0-28 The simply supported 6061-T6 aluminum alloy (E =
70 GPa) beam A of Fig. P10-28 is 75 mm wide x 25 mm a. The maximum deflection at B.
deep. The center support is a helical spring with a modulus of b. The maximum flexural stress produced by the falling mass.
18 kNi'm. The spring is initially unstressed and in contact with
the beam. The 22-kg block drops 50 mm onto the top of the
beam. Determine
a. The impact factor.
Q Ih lg?“
h. The static deflection. A c vs
c. The maximum flexural stress in the beam when the block
drops onto the beam.
|l—1.25 L5 rn
Fig|u'e P10-30
22kg
A—~\_ U Isomnfslm
10-31" The diver shown in Fig. P10-31 weighs 145 lb andjumps
' n
from a height of 2 ft onto the end of a diving board. The board
is made ofwood (E = 1800 ksi) and is 2 R wide and 2 in. thiclc
Determine the maximum flexural stress in the diving hoard.
F
Figure P10-28
1.5 m {ttwttt 1.5 m
10-29 Using Fig. P10-29 and Eqs. 10-l4 and 10-16, show that ,/1
W 2h
it
0 = — — 1;
A 8:1
and
2h 2]\fi
6 = 5, — A B 1
’\/ 5..
when W is dropped from a height h that is large compared to
W
the static deflection
W7. I 2.5 fi I 6 ft
5“: E Figure P10-31
CHAPTER 10 ENERGY METHODS AND THEORIES OF FAILURE
10-32 The aluminum alloy (E = 70 GPa] beams shown in Fig.

P10-32 have cross sections that are 25 mm deep x 100 mm
wide. The helical spring C between the beams A and B has a
I. . 1'
modulus of 20 kN/m. The 5-kg block is dropped onto beam A
with an impact factor of 4. Determine
e
a. The height h from which the block is dropped. - l
b. The maximum stress developed in each beam.
Figure P10-33
sir Q
25 mm “"\ 5ktm . Th 10-34 Beams A and B of Fig. P10-34 are made of wood (E =
8 GPa) and have cross sections that are 50 mm deep x 150 mm
wide. If the maximmn flexural stress developed in beam B 1s
C B- lim 8MPa, determine
I 3 . The height h from which the 9-kg mass m is dropped
b. The impact factor.
- 3m l 1.5 m i
Figure P10-32
50 mm ..., $1., B 50mm

10-33 The beamAB shown in Fig. P10-33 has a flexural rigidity
El and is securely fastened to the rigid arm C. The modulus of
the helical spring is 6E1,/L3. The structure rotates about a shaft
at B. Determine the height h, in terms of W, L, E, and I, from m 1.5m
which W must be dropped to have an impact factor of 4. Figure P10-34
Part B
Theories ofFailure for Static Loading
10-5 INTRODUCTION
A tension test of an axially loaded member is easy to conduct, and the results,
for many types of materials, a.re well known. When such a member fails, the fail-
ure occrns at a specific principal (axial) stress, a definite axial strain, a maximum
shearing stress of one-half the axial stress, and a specific amount of strain energy
per unit volume of stressed material. Since all of these limits are reached sin1ul-
taneously for an axial load, it makes no difference which criterion (stress, strain,
or energy) is used for predicting failure in another axially loaded member of the
same rnateriai.
For an element subjected to biaxial or triaxial loading, however, the situation
is more complicated because the limits of normal stress, normal strain, shearing
stress, and strain energy existing at failure for an axial load are not all reached
simultaneously. In other words, the cause of failure, in general, is unknown. In
such cases, it becomes important to determine the best criterion for predicting
failure, because test results are diflicult to obtain and the combinations of loads
are endless. Several theories have been proposed for predicting failure of various
types of material subjected to many combinations of loads. Unfortunately, none
of the theories agree with test data for all types of materials and combinations of
loads. Several of the more conunon theories of failure are presented and briefly
explained in the following sections.
10-6 FAILURE THEORIES FOR DUCTILE MATERIALS

10-6-1 Maximum-Normal-Stress Theoryl The maximum-normal-
stress theory predicts failure of a specimen subjected to any combination of loads
when the maximum normal stress at any point in the specimen reaches the axial
failure stress as determined by an axial tensile or compressive test of the same
material.
The maximum-normal-stress theory is presented graphically in Fig. 10-19b
for an element subjected to biaxial principal stresses in the pl and p2 directions,
as shown in Fig. 10-19a. The lirrriting stress of is the failure stress for this material
]Often called Raukines theory after W. J. M. Rankine (1820-1872), an eminent engineering educator
in England.
638 crmrrrrr 10 manor snrnroos AND rnsoruss or ntrruru:
GT2
CFp2 Of
41; i GP]
opl
°1
17 Cf Cf *>
(H) (b)
Figure 10-19
when loaded axially and is assumed equal in tension and compression. Any com-
bination of biaxial principal stresses op, and oP; represented by a point inside the
square of Fig. 10-19b is safe according to this theory, whereas any combination
of stresses represented by a point outside of the square will cause failure of the
element on the basis of this theory.
Once the principal stresses have been found, they may be ordered op, > oP;
> o,,3. For a state of biaxial stress (plane stress), one of the principal stresses is
zero (assunred to be op; in Fig. 10-19a). If the principal stress with the largest
magnitude is tension, the maximum-normal-stress theory predicts failure when
Up] =Cff
where of is the failure stress for uniaxial tensile loading. ‘When the principal stress
with the largest magnitude is compression, the maximum-normal-stress theory
predicts failure when
op; = of
where of is the failure stress for rmiaxial compressive loading. This failure theory
will be compared to experimental data for several materials later in this section.
10-6-2 Maximrun-Shear-Stress Theoryz The maximum-shea.r-

stress theory predicts failure of a specinren subjected to any combination of loads
when the maximum shear stress at any point reaches the failure stress 1;» equal to
of/2, as determined by an axial tension or axial compression test of the same ma-
T
of
terial. For ductile materials the shearing elastic limit, as determined from a torsion
test (pure shear), is greater than one-half the tensile elastic linrit (with an average
i value of 1:; about 0.57 of). This means that the maximum-shear-stress theory errs
l on the conservative side by being based on the lirrrit obtained from an axial test.
of
The maximum-shear-stress theory is presented graphically in Fig. 10-20 for
l an element subjected to biaxial (oP3 is equal to zero) principal stresses, as shown
l "1" i sf i in Fig. 10-19a. In the first and thi.rd quadrants, o,,| and op; have the same sign, and
Figure l0-20 the maximum shearing stress is half the numerically Larger principal stress opl or
oP3 , as explained in Section 2-10. According to the maximum-shear-stress theory,
2Sometimes called Coulontb’s theory because it was originally stated by him in 1773. More frequently
called Guest’s theory or law because of the work of]. J. Guest in England in 1900.
10-6 rrnurts rrrsortrss FOR oucrrrs srtrartrus 659
failure occtns when
rrnax = Ff
where 15¢ is the failure stress determined from a uniaxial tension or compression
test, 1;,» = of/2. In quadrants one or three
amax — Umin
rm“ : 2
5 .
= -all (Frrst quadrant)
5,03 .
= T (Third quadrant)
where op, > op; > op3. The maximum-shear-stress theory predicts failure in the
first and third quadrants when
“max = ‘Tr
and is the same as the maximum-normal-stress theory of failure.
In the second and fourth quadrants, where op, and op; are of an opposite
sign, the maximum shearing stress is half the arithmetical sum of the two principal
stresses. In the fourth quadrant, the equation of the boundary, or iimit stress,
line is
UP1 — “:12 = ‘If

and in the second quadrant the relation is
op, — op; = —o;
A comparison of this theory with experimental data will be presented later in this
section.
10-6-3 Maximum-Distortion-Energy Theor-y3 The maximum-

distortion-energy theory predicts failure of a specimen subjected to any com-
bination of loads when the distortion component of the strain energy intensity
of any portion of the stressed member reaches the failrne value of the distortion
component of the strain energy intensity as determined from an axial tension or
compression test of the same material. This theory assumes that the portion of the
strain energy producing volume change is ineffective in causing failure by yielding.
Supporting evidence comes from experiments showing that homogeneous n1ate-
rials can withstand very high hydrostatic stresses without yielding. The portion
of the strain energy producing the element’s change of shape is assumed to be
completely responsible for the failure of the material by inelastic action.
The strain energy of distortion is most readily computed by determining
the total strain energy of the stressed material and subtracting the strain energy
corresponding to the volume change. In Section 10-2, the quantity oz./2E was
3i-‘requently called the Huber-Hencky-von Mises theory, because it was proposed by M. T. Huber of
Poland in I904 and independently by R. von Mises of Germany in 1913. The theory was further
developed by H. Hencky and von Mises in Gemiany and the United States.
640 CHAPTER 10 ENERGY METHODS AND THEORIES OF FAILURE
defined as the strain energy per unit volume for a member subjected to a slowly
applied axial load. This expression can also be written as
_o2_oe
"-25- 2
where u is the strain energy per unit volume (strain energy intensity) and o and e
are the slowly applied axial stress and strain. This equation assumes that the stress
does not exceed the proportional limit.
When an elastic element is subjected to triaxial loading, the stresses can be
resolved into three principal stresses such as op,, GP2, and op3, where pl, p2, and
p3 a.re the principal axes. These stresses will be accompanied by three principal
strains related to the stresses by Eq. 4-5 of Section 4-3. Ifit is assumed that the loads
are applied simultaneously and gradually, the stresses and strains will increase in
the same manner. The total strain energy per unit volrmre is the sum ofthe energies
produced by each of the stresses (energy is a scalar quantity and can be added
algebraically regardless of the directions of the individual stresses); thus,
l
H = i(Upl€_nl +ap2€p2 + ‘7p3€_n3)
“Then the strains are expressed in terms of the stresses, this equation becomes
1
u = fi[o§, + oi, + oi, — 2v(op,o,,g + opzopg + op3op,)]
The strain energy can be resolved into two components up and ud, resulting
fi'om a volrmre change and a distortion, respectively, by considering the principal
stresses to be made rrp of two sets of stresses, as indicated in Figs. 10-21a, b, and c.
The state of stress in Fig. 10-21c will result in distortion only (no volume change)
if the sum of the three normal strains is zero. That is,
El:€pl + 5,02 +€p3]d :[(ap1_ P) _ v(ap2 + 5p3 _ 217)]
+ [(5,112 _ P) _ v(Up3 + cpl _
+ [(ap3 _ P) — v(5pl + ap2 _ 217)] = 0
which reduces to
(1 — 2v)(op, + op; + op; — 3p) = 0
“P1 P “P2 _ P
’ ’ UP, —P
= +
5,13 P op3 -p
(a ) (5) (C)
Figure ro-21
10-6 FAILURE THEORIES FOR DUCTILE MATERIALS
Therefore,
1
P = glapl + “P2 +0113)
The three normal strains due to p are, from Eq. 4-5,
P
6 ,, = ( 1 — 2 V) E
—
and the energy resulting from the hydrostatic stress (the volume change) is
pep 3 1 — 2v
"~ = 3(7) = iTP’
l — 2v 2
= F[(7p1+ (7,112 + 17,03]
The energy resulting from the distortion (change of shape) is
ltd = u — up
= &[3(o,§, + op; + o§3) — 6v(o,,1o,,2 + Uplapl + Up3Upl)
- (1 - 2v)(<-p. + (TF2 + a,,,)”]
When the third term in the brackets is expanded, the expression can be rearranged
to give
l
lid = $05, — 2op,op; + ofizl + (oi, — 2op;o_,,3 + o§3)
+(”§3 _ 2‘7.~3“.v1 + 551)]

I
= §[(<r,.| — (7p2)2 + on — U103): +(<1,,3 — 5pl)2l ta)
The maximum-distortion-energy theory offailrne assumes that inelastic action will
occur whenever the energy given by Eq. (a) exceeds the hunting value obtained
fi'om a tensile test. For this test, only one of the principal stresses will be nonzero.
If this stress is called of, the value of ad becomes
l+v
‘"d>f= H "5
and when this value is substituted in Eq. (a), it becomes
op,
2-} = r-... - -.2)’ + r-,2 — an)’ + on — 5pl)2 to . | I
I
/I
for failrne by yielding. “I ,
I
When a state ofplane stress exists, assuming op; equals zero, Eq. (b) becomes +
I
1
1 P1
/1
oi, — op,opg + Ufiz = or? Of 1/
L I
1
1
This last expression is the equation of an ellipse with its major axis along the I
xi (If Cf in
line op, equals (TF2, as shown in Fig. 10-22. A comparison of this theory with
experimental data will be presented later in this section. Figure 10-22
642 CHAPTER 10 ENERGY METHODS AND THEORIES OF FAILUIIE
E
of Maximurn-distortiom
L2 _ energy theory
$1 A.‘ .
a
0.8 — I 9
r
r>'
0.6 ~ 1
E Aluminum DI II
0.4 i
A Steel ...5’ .
$
.1.
0.2 ' -' '
| | | f |_6P1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 l.0l.2of
op;
Maximiun- -0.2 - '
_,.-- — distortion- V
Maiumuln-shear V -"
4 U
energy theory _0_4 _ stress theory "*
Z’
'/
/1
1/
/
Ts'—-4 -06- ‘ii
1 1
*5 -0.3 - '
' -_-~» Maximum-shear
._ _ . \:.\_l. stress theory -1.0
.____ _ '
\\i "'- Maximum-norma1-
Maximu.n:|-normal-
_1 2 __ stress theory
U; —-l stress theory
Figure 10-23 Figure 10-24
The graphic representation of Figs. 10-19, 10-20, and 10-22 are superim-
posed in Fig. 10-23 for convenient comparison ofthe different theories. The failure
theories are compared to experimental data in Fig. 10-24.‘ In the first quadrant,
failure is predicted most closely by the maximum-distortion-energy theory. The
maximum-normal-stress and maximum-shear-stress theories are identical in the
first quadrant; both theories are conservative because the experimental data lie
outside the prediction envelope.
In the fourth quadrant, the principal stresses have opposite signs. The best
correlation between theory and experimental data is for the maximum-distortiom
energy theory. In this quadrant, the maximum-shear-stress theory is conservative
because the experimental data lie outside the prediction envelope. The prediction
envelope for the maximum-normal-stress theory lies outside the experimental data
in the fourth quadrant; therefore, the theory overpredicts failure stresses and is
unsafe.
T 8000 psi
4000 psi EXHIIIPIC Pl'0lJlC1Il 10-9 At a point in a structural member sub-
1 I 10,000 psi
ix
jected to plane stress, the state of stress is as shown in Fig. 10-25. Detemiine
which, if any, of the theories of failure will predict failure by yielding for this
I l state of stress. The yield strength of the material in tension and compression is
36 ksi.
Figure 10.25 ‘Handbook of Mechanics, Malerials, and Structures, Alexander Blake, Ed., Wiley-Interscience,
New York 1985
10-6 FAILURE THBORIIIS FOR DUCTILE MA'l'ERIAl.S
SOLUTION
In order to apply the theories of failure, the principal stresses must first be deter-
mined. The given stresses for use in Eq. 2-15 are
0, = +l0,000 psi oy = -8000 psi rxy = -4000 psi
When these values are substituted in Eq. 2-15, the principal stresses are foimd to
be
0,-1-0,, 0,-0}, 2 2
GP1_P3 = ‘T :h if +1‘).
Z 10000
, +2(—8000 )i\/( 10000—
. 2t—8000J) 2 +(_4000)2
= 1000 :1: 9849
apl = 1000 +9849 = 10,849psi E 10,850psi (T)
op; = 0', = 0
op; = 1000 — 9849 = -8849 psi E 8850 psi (C)
where the principal stresses have been ordered such that cpl > op; > 0P3. Thus,
the largest principal stress is 10,850 psi tension and the smallest principal stress
is 8850 psi compression.
The maximum-normal-stress theory predicts that failure will not occur if
51111“ < “I
Since
om, = 10,850psi < of = 0,, = 36,000psi
failure will not occur according to the maximum-normal-stress theory.

The maximum-shear-stress theory of failure predicts that the state of stress
shown in Fig. 10-25 is safe if
‘max < Tr
Since the principal stresses have opposite signs,
rmax : Grnax — ' : 10 a 850 —2( -8850 J : 9850 psi

2 Urrun
The failure stress (yield strength) is 36,000 psi; therefore,
1: —3—@—1s000 S1
f‘2_ 2 '_ 5 P
Since
rm, = 9850psi < rf = 18,000 psi
failure will not occur accordi.ng to the maximum-shear-stress theory.

644 CHAPTER 10 ENERGY METHODS AND THEORIES or rmuna
E The maximum-distortion-energy theory of failure states that the state of

"1 stress shown in Fig. 10-25 is safe if
1.0 cg, — 0p|ap3 + cg; < 0%
0.8 W
(10,850? —10,850(—8850)+(—sss0)2 = (l'7,090)2 <(3s,000)1
0.6 Thus, failure will not occur according to the maximum-distortion-energy theory
of failure.
0.4 r Alternatively, the ratios cpl/of = 10,850/36,000 = 0.301 and op;/of =
—8850f36,000 = -0.246 can be plotted on Fig. 10-24 and compared to the
0.2 -
failure envelopes. The result is shown in Fig. 10-26. Clearly, the state of stress
0 0.2 4 06 08 1.0 ~91? shown in Fig. 10-25 is within all of the failure envelopes; therefore, yielding of
the structural member will not occur.
-o.2 C _ _ _ ‘._-
-0.4 -
-0.6 2 1 Example Problem 10-10 The solid circular Sllafi ofFig. 10-27¢
-0.3 has a proportional limit of 64 ksi. Determine the value of the load R for failure
by yielding as predicted by each of the theories of failure. Assume that point A
_1.o is the most severely stressed point.
Figure 10-26 SOLUTION
Passing a section through point A, drawing a free-body diagram ofthe portion of
the body to the right of the section (see Fig. 10-27b), and applying the equations
of equilibrium yields the following internal reactions if R is expressed in kip
.1’
1 P = 12R kip 7} = —24R kip-in.

-‘n
»A
| V,=Rkip M,=36Rkip-in.
>
z -.,-'
The shearing stress at A due to the shear force V, is zero because Q = 0. The
3 fi
.__\ magnitude of the flexural stress at A is
1”" 1- ‘ 122
in. \' I ,F@,y@,@mm
I 1(4) /64 rr
The axial stress at A is
M,
P 1212 31:
'§ P R
'7’ A 1(4)”/4 TI.’ S‘ (T)
V)‘ The sum of the two tensile normal stresses atA becomes
21R
cr=o'|+cr2=iksi(T)
12R rt
The magnitude of the torsional shearing stress at A is

Figure 10-21
11¢ 2412(2)
1.’ = — = g = —l(Sl
6R .
J 1(4) /32 1:
10-6 FAILURE THEORIES FOR DUCTILE MA'l'llRIAl.S
These stresses on an element at A are shown in Fig. 10-28. Substituting

the stresses 0,, = 21R/zr ksi, 0,. = O, and tn. = 6R/Jr ksi into the principal
stress-equation (Eq. 2-15) gives
in 5
ll A '1 ix
+ I 1 _ ‘ 2 21Rfr|:
Uplups = CT; 2 U} i (5,: 2 5)) +t3y
Figure 10-2s
=2lR/;1'+0i {(2112/Zr-0) 2 +(6R/K),
10 5R 12 09R
:1:
TI II
Ordering the principal stresses such that cpl > op; > op; gives
22.59R , l.59R ,
a;,1=Tl-tsi cr;,2=0 crp3=— H l(S1
Since the principal stresses have opposite signs,
am,,,—ami,, 22.59R/:r—(—1.59R/zr) 12.09R _

rm“: 2 = 2 = yr ksi
According to the maximum-normal-stress theory
22.59R .
Up] = ? T-O'f=64kSl
from which
R -22.59
64” 890k’
‘ ‘P Ans.
According to the maximum-shear-stress theory
l2.09R of 64 .
Tmax
- T - ‘I - 5 - 5*“
from which
R —12.09—'
32” 83l5k'“‘832ki
‘p_' P Ans
According to the rnaximum-distortion-energy theory
2 — swap; + 053 -
cpl _ 0}
< >- <- )+(—

22.5912 2
J‘!
22.59R
Tl’
1.5912
3'1’
1.5912 2
J1.’
646 CHAPTER 10 ENERGY METHODS AND rirsoiuiis or FAILURE
which gives
R = 64 ” = 3.531 kip 2 3.53 kip Ans.

23.43
Ln this example, the maximum-shear-stress theory is seen to be the most
conservative, and the maximum-normal-stress theory gives the least conservative
result. It would not be wise to use the result from the maximum-normal-stress
theory since it is not safe when the principal stresses have opposite signs [see
Fig. 10-24).
1 EXHIIIPIC P1'Ol1lB1Il 10-1 1 A thin-walled cylindrical pressure ves-

sel is subjected to an internal pressure of 6 MPa. The inside diameter of the vessel
is 500 mm. The yield strength of the material fi"om which the vessel is made is
250 lV[Pa. If a factor of safety of 2.5 is desired, determine the rriinimurn wall
thickness according to the maximum-distortion-energy theory.
SOLUTION
The hoop and axial stresses are given by Eqs. 5-8a and b, respectively. These
stresses are
G h Z
pr Z
s(10°)(0.2s0) Z
1.5000(10‘)
I I I
0 : E = U.7500(l0°)
” 2: 1
Since there is no shear stress on the hoop and axial planes, 0;, and 0,, are principal
stresses. At a point on the outside surface of the vessel,
1.5000(106) 0.7500(103)
o'_,,1=o'1,=y a,,g=a',,=y a_,,3=0
According to the rnaxirnum-distortion-energy theory, failure occurs (for a state

of plane stress) whenever
2 2 _
ap1—o',,|o'p;+ap2 _ of2
25 0
where of = gig = 2-5 = l00MPa. Thus
1.s000(103) ’_ 1.s000(103) 0.750000“) + 0.7s00(10@) 2

[.ll.l[.1l.l
=[100(10°)]2
whichyields
r = 12.99(l0'3)m = l2.99mm
10-6 FAILURE THEORIES FOR DUCTILE MA'l'ERIAl.S
If a point on the inside surface of the pressure vessel is selected, then
op, = g
1.500000“) a,,2= g
0.'is00(10‘=") a_,,3=—p=—6MPa
For this three-dimensional state of stress, the maximum-distortion-energy theory

of failure is
(apt — '7p2)2 + (5,112 — 5p3)2 + (“p3 — 5,0112 = 25?’
which upon substitution of cry = 100 l\/[Pa and the principal stresses yields
i‘= 13.71 m.1r1 Ans.
1 PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems 10-39 A material with a proportional limit of 36 ksi in tension
and compression is subjected to a biaxial state of stress. The
l0-35* A machine component fabricated from a material with principal stresses are 18 ksi (T), 16 ksi (T), and 0, = 0. De-
a proportional limit in tension and compression of 60 ksi is termine the factor of safety with respect to failure by yielding
subjected to a biaxial state of stress. The principal stresses according to each of the theories of failure.
are 30 ksi (T) and 50 ksi (C). Determine which, if any, of
the theories will predict failure by yielding for this state of 10-40 At a point on the free surface of an aluminum alloy ma-
stress. chine component the principal stresses are 120 MPa (T) and
180 MPa (C). What minimum proportional limit is required
l0-36* A machine component fabricated from a material with according to each of the theories if failure by yielding is to be
a proportional limit in tension and compression of 380 MPa avoided?
is subjected to a biaxial state of stress. The principal stresses
are 180 MPa (T) and 270 l\/[Pa (C). Determine which, if any, 10-41" A material with a yield strength in tension and compres-
of the theories will predict failure by yielding for this state of sion of 60 ksi is subjected to the biaxial state of stress shown
stress. in Fig. P10-41. Determine the factor of safety with respect to
failure by yielding according to each of the theories of failure.
10-37 At a point on the free surface of an alloy steel machine
component the principal stresses are 45 ksi (T) and 25 ksi (C).
What minimum proportional limit is required according to each
of the theories if failure by yielding is to be avoided? 20 ksi
l0-38* The state of stress at a point on the surface of a machine
component is shown in Fig. P10-38. If the yield strength ofthe 25 ksi
material is 250 MPa, determine which, if any, of the theories I I
will predict failure by yielding for this state of stress. 1 I 15 ksi
q—
70 MPa
Figure P10-41
1 I
I 90 MP1: 10-42 A point on the free surface of a machine component is sub-
jected to the state of stress shown in Fig. P10-42. If the yield
40 MPa
strength of the material is 250 MPa, determine the factor of
safety with respect to failure by yielding according to each of
Figure P10-38 the theories of failure.
648 CHAPTER 10 ENERGY METHODS AND THEORIES OF FAILURE
95 MPa 10-46 A shaft, similar to the one shown in Fig. P10-45, has a
150-rnrn diameter and is made of steel having a yield strength
in tension and compression of 360 MPa. The applied loads are
P = 2200 kN and T = 38 kN - tn. If failure is by yielding,
I determine the factor of safety according to
I I, 140 MPa
a. The maximutn-shear-stress theory of failure.
i_'
b. The maximum-distortion-energy theory of failure.
80 MPa
10-47 The yield strength 0, of a ductile material may be de-
Figure P10-42 termined from a tension test (Fig. P10-470). Using the three
theories of failure discussed in Section 10-6, show that the
yield strength ry of a member determined ii-om a torsion test
(Fig. P10-47b) is predicted to be
= a_,.; maximum-nonnal-stress theory.
10-43* A thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel is capped at the = 0.50,; maximum-shear-stress theory.
ends and is subjected to an internal pressure. The inside diam- PP’? ~I‘-T'~<"= 0.5770,; maximum-distortion-energy theory.
eter of the vessel is 5 ft, and the wall thickness is 1.5 in. The
vessel is rnade of steel with a tensile and compressive yield
strength of 36 ksi. Determine the internal pressure required to
initiate yielding according to
a. The maximum-shear-stress theory. P
b. The maximum-distortion-energy theory.
10-44* The solid circular shaft shown in Fig. P10-44 is subjected P
to a torque T. The yield strength of the material in tension and (4)
compression is 400 MPa. Determine the largest permissible
value of the torque T according to
T
a. The maximum-shear-stress theory.
b. The maximum-distortion-energy theory.
T
(bl
100 mm Figure P10-47
I T
r I‘, 10-48* The hollow steel (0,, = 250 MPa) shaft shown in Fig.
P10-48 is subjected to a torque T = 40 kN - tn. The factor of
Figure P10-44 safety with respect to failure by yielding is 1.5. Determine the
maximum permissible inside diameter for the shaft according
to the maximum-shear-stress theory of failure.
10-45 The shafi shown in Fig. P10-45 is made of steel having
a proportional limit of 60 ksi in tension or compression. If a
factor of safety of 3.0 with respect to failure by yielding is
specified, determine the maximum permissible value for the
axial load P according to the maxinnim-shear-stress theory of
failure.
. ' 6 in. Figure P10-48

- 1
T= 25 kip-ft
, " 1____P
10-49 A solid circular steel (0,, = 36 ksi) shafl is subjected
Figure P10-45 to an axial tensile load P = 10 kip and a bending moment
10-6 FAILURE 'I'l{|iORI]iS FOR DUCTILE MATIIRIALS
M 5 kip - in If a factor of safety of 2.0 for failure by yield- tom /‘T

ing is desired determine the minimum permissible diameter
for the shaft according to the maximtnn-shear-stress theory.
600mm
. D I
I
t
ll]-50 A solid circular shaft has a diameter d and is subjected to /"'
a bending rnornentM and a torque T. The shaft is made from
a ductile material with a yield strength ay. Show that the min-
____"""'4o0 rnm i
immn diameter d of the shaft may be found according to the
maximum-shear-stress theory from the equation
Figure P10-52
10-53" The shaft shown in Fig. P10-53 is made of an altnninum

32FS ‘*”
4 = [My
— t/(M) 2 +( T 1]2 alloy that has a proportional limit of 48 ksi in tension or com-
pression. If a factor of safety of 2.0 with respect to failure by
yielding is specified, determine the maximum allowable value
for the load R according to
where FS is the factor of safety. a. The maximum-shear-stress theory of failure.

b. The maximum-distortion-energy theory of failure.
ll]-51 The solid circular shaft shownin Fig. P10-51 is subjected to
an axial tensile force P, a bending moment M, and a torque T.
The shaft is made from a ductile material with a yield strength
0,. Show that the minimum diameter d of the shaft may be [ R
found according to the maximum-shear-stress theory fi-om the
equation
. 20in.
I
I
2%V = W./(Pa
2
+ 8M)2 +(sr)1
—_____-_"-—- 2 R ______'I-__—_ l Q=
where FS is the factor of safety. Figure P10-53
T
r-" M " -
M 10-54 A structmal steel pipe used to transmit steam has an inside
diameter of 300 mm. Ifthe steam pressure is 5.5 MPa and a
factor of safety of 4 with respect to failure by yielding is speci-
" P-‘W; fied, determine the minimum permissible wall thickness of the
pipe according to the maximum-shear-stress theory. The wall
Figure P10-51 of the pipe does not carry any axial load.
10-55* A steel shaft 4 in. in diameter is supported in flexible
bearings at its ends. Two pulleys, each 24 in. in diameter, are
ll]-52* The shaft shown in Fig. P10-52 is made of steel having keyed to the shaft. The pulleys carry belts that are loaded as
a proportional limit of 360 MPa in tension or compression. shown in Fig. P10-55. The steel has a proportional limit of 40
If a factor of safety of 2.0 with respect to failtne by yielding ksi in tension and compression and 23 ksi in shear. If a factor
is specified, determine the minimum permissible diameter D of safety of2.5 with respect to failure by yielding is specified,
according to determine the maximum allowable belt tension P according to
a. The maximum-shear-stress theory of failure. a. The maximum-shear-stress theory of failure.
b. The maximum-distortion-energy theory of failure. h. The mazrimtnn-distortion-energy theory of failme.
650 cruumzn 10 runner sunnons mo THEORIES or rmuna
T40 in. -_ __ ifthe cylinder is made ofan alloy steel with a proportional limit
. " 60in. .____ of 80 ksi and a Poisson’s ratio of 0.30. A factor of safety of 2.5
t~- 40 1.. with respect to failm'e by yielding according to the maximum-
' _ distortion-energy theory of failure is specified.
10-58 A solid circular shaft acting as a cantilever beam is sub-
l jected to the loading shown in Fig. P10-58. The material is
P 2024-T4 wrought aluminum with a yield strength in tension
3*” 3p ' and compression of 330 MPa. If the factor of safety for failure
P by yielding is 2.5, determine the minimum permissible diame-
Figure P10-55 ter of the shaft according to the maximlnn-shear-stress theory
of failure. Neglect the effects of transverse shear.
10-56* A thick-walled hydraulic cylinder with an inside diameter

of 150 mm is required to operate under a maximum internal
]Jl‘6SS11I’6 of 50 MPa. The cylinder is to be made of steel with
a proportional limit of 275 MPa and a Poisson’s ratio of 0.30. 200 mm ______
Determine the minimtnn outside diameter required if a factor "Hi
of safety of 2 with respect to failure by yielding according to
the maximum-shear-stress theory of failure is specified. The
' soc N
wall of the cylinder is not required to carry axial load.
1
10-51 Determine the maximtnn allowable internal pressure to 560 N_m 4000 N
which a closed-end, thick-walled cylinder with an inside diam-
eter of 6 in. and an outside diameter of l0 in. may be subjected Figure P10-58
‘C
10-7 FAILURE THEORIES FOR BRITTLE MATERIALS
Brittle materials, unlike ductile materials, do not yield; therefore, failure is by
_,_\ /___ fi-acture, and the critical stress is the fracture stress (or the ultimate strength). The
\\v If
ultimate strength in compression is greater than the ultimate strength in tension.
.| ,, The ultimate shear strength of a brittle material is approximately equal to the
I ultimate tensile strength; this is not the case for ductile materials. Of the theories
6 proposed to predict fracture of brittle materials, only two will be presented in this
5a: Ga: text: the Coulomb-Mohr theory and the maximum-normal-stress theory.
10-7-1 Coulomb-Mohr and Maximum-Normal-Stress Theo-

(Q) 1'i6S The tensile test and the compression test are the basis for the Coulomb-
Mohr theory. A Mohr’s circle for each ofthese tests is shown in Fig. 10-29a, where
0,, is the ultimate tensile strength and am is the ultimate compressive strength.
is
1:
According to the Coulomb-Mohr theory, failtne (fracture) occurs for any state of
I i
stress whose Mohr’s circle is tangent to the envelope of the two circles shown ir1
Fig. 10-29a (the envelope is the line that is tangent to the two circles, as shown in
i Z
Fig. 10-29b). Mohr‘s circle for an arbitrary state of stress is shown clashed in Fig.
10-29b, where crpl and op; are the principal stresses (the principal stresses have
been ordered aP1 > UP2 > Up3)- When Mohrs circle (dashed) forany state ofstress
‘r
s‘ is tangent to the envelope of Fig. 10-29b, failure occurs. The principal stresses Up]
and 0P3, the ultimate tensile strength a,,,, and the ultimate compressive strength
am, are related by the equation
(bl
Figure 10-29 E - E =1 ttczs)
Um‘ Um‘
10-7 FAILURE rusonnzs Fort nnrrrts MA'l'liRIAl.S 651
where 01,, is the magnitude of the compressive strength, and a,,| and op; carry “pa
algebraic signs. A state of stress rs safe when MaXimum_n°1_malmrcss theory
our rififiifi
>
E-2<1 (10-27)
5:41‘ auc —
01>“
DI
Comparison between theory and experimental data (for gray cast iron) is
shown in Fig. 10-30, which is adapted from Blake.5 In the first quadrant the p1'in- om “pr
cipal stresses have the same sign, and the maxirrunn-normal-stress theory and
the Coulomb-Mohr theory are identical. Note that the failure envelope for the 3 ' C°m‘_1
maximum-normal-stress theory is not square as was the case for ductile materials, , *3 glgilssltggi C°m°I
where the tensile and compressive yield strengths were equal (see Fig. 10-19b). ,
The two theories give different predictions of failure in the fourth quadrant, where -6“ ______ _ _ ‘
the principal stresses have opposite sig;ns. In the fourth quadrant, the maximum- ' ‘ A‘
normal-stress theory is unsafe because the data lie inside the failure envelope. ‘A
The Coulomb-Mohr theory is conservative because the data lie outside the failure '/$5 6111/“P3 Z *1
envelope. A
A
The line for pine torsion, op, = —0,,3, is also shown in Fig. 10-30. This line I
gives two predictions for the ultimate shear strength, that is, where the line intersects %\
the envelopes for the two failure theories. As previously mentioned, one ofthe char-
' — — — Coulomb—Mohr theory
acteristics of a brittle material is that the ultimate shear strength is approximately AA
equal to the ultimate tensile strength. This is predicted by the n1axirnurn-norrnal-
stress theory, whereas the Coulomb-Mohr theory predicts a value somewhat less. um:
Figure 10-so
1 EXHIIIPIB Pl‘0blC1I1 1 0- 12 At the critical point in a machine com-
ponent, the principal stresses (plane stress) are as shown in Fig. 10-31. The
failure strengths for the material are am = 2.5 ksi and om = 16 ksi. Use the
Coulomb-Mohr theory to determine if this state of stress is safe.
SOLUTION
The state of stress is safe if the stresses satisfy Eq. 10-27. 4 ksi
UP1 _ Upg < I
Um‘ Gar —
2l(Sl
Substituting the principal stresses from Fig. 10-31 (after noting that op; is com-
pressive and that out is the magnitude of the ultimate compressive strength) into
Eq. 10-26 yields
Figure 10-31
2
25 — —
(— 4)
16 = 1. 05 > 1
Thus, the state of stress shown in Fig. 10-31 is unsafe. Ans.
5Handbook of Mechanics, Materials, and Stmcnmes, Alexander Blake, Ed, Wiley-Interscience,

New York, 1985.
652 cnsrmzn 10 runner surmons mo nnzoruss or rmuns
2°? ’““‘ 1 Example Problem 10- 13 A 200-mm-diameter solid circular shaft

T T is subjected
material withto
an aultimate
torque tensile
T, as strength
shown inof620
Fig. MPa
10-32a.
and The shaft iscompressive
an ultimate made of a
§\ strength of 820 l\/[Pa. Determine the maximum permissible value for the torque
i § T according to the Coulomb-Mohr theory of failtne.

(Q)
SOLUTION
m t The state of stress for a shaft subjected to a torsional load T is shown in
I I Fig. 10-32b. The shearing stress r is given by Eq. 6-6 as
i _i r=E
J = 140.200)“/32
?T[0'100) = 636.61"
(5)
Figure 19_3g The principal stresses a.re
op, = —crp3 = 1: = 636.61" op; = 0
The maximum pemrissible value of T according to the Coulomb-Mohr theory is

given by Eq. 10-26 as
an in-,
Um‘ URL‘ —
01'
636.6T (—fi36.6T)
it-i@=1
620(l0 ) 820(10 )
Solving for T yields
T = 0.5546(106)N - m E 555kN - m Ans.
I PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems 5 ksi
10-59* The state of plane stress at the critical point in a machine 4 ki _
component is shown in Fig. P10-59. The failure strengths for
the material are 26 ksi in tension and 97 ksi in compression. l I
Use the Coulomb-Mohr theory to determine if this state of I L 13 ksi
stress is safe. _
Figure P10-59
10-7 FAIIJJIIB 'l'HBORlltS won tt1u'm.s MATIIRIALS 653
l0-60* Two states of plane stress are shown in Fig. P10-60. The 10-63 The solid circular cast iron shaft shown in Fig. P10-63 is
failure strengths for the material are 152 MPa in tension and subjected to a torque T = 240 kip - in. and a bending moment
572 MPa in compression. Use the Coulomb-Mohr theory to M = 110 kip - in. The failure strengths for this material are
determine if these states of stress are safe. 43 ksi in tension and 140 ksi in compression Use the Coulomb-
Mohr theory to determine the minimum permissible diameter
for this shaft.
ep, = I00 MPa Gm = 200 MPa
M
T
6p]=10owa oP1=75 MP3 0"‘,
M T
(-1 (b) Figure P10-63

Flgune P10-60
l0-61 The state of plane stress at the critical point in a machine 10-64 A thin-walled cylindrical ]J1‘6SSl.l1’6 vessel has an inside di-
component rnade cfcast iron is shown in Fig. P10-61. The fail- ameter of 300 mm and a wall thickness of 5 mm. The vessel is
ure strengths for this material are 30 ksi in tension and 108 ksi made of a material with am = 276 MPa and on, = 340 MPa.
in compression. Use the Coulomb-Mohr theory to determine Use the Coulomb-Mohr theory to determine the maximum in-
if this state of stress is safe. ternal pressure that the vessel can safely support.
lflkfi
_9_ksi 10-65* A solid circular gray cast iron shaft is loaded as shown
in Fig. P10-65. The failure strengths for this type of cast iron
are 36.5 ksi in tension and 124 ksi in compression. Use the
I i Coulomb-Mohr theory to determine the minimum permissi-
I I 22 ksi ble diameter for the shaft. Neglect the effects of transverse
<—--- shear.
Figure P10-61 900 lb ./¢"
12 in.
l0-62* A solid circular cast iron shaft is subjected to the loads _ D
shown in Fig. P10-62. The failure strengths for this material I
I
are 214 MPa in tension and 750 MPa in compression. Use the 0 ’)7
Coulomb-Mohr theory to determine the minimum permissible 1

diameter for the shalt. Neglect the effects of transverse shear.
__"""- 10 in. .___'_%___ l
(__‘“——-_
_" 100 mm ______ Figure P10-65
‘*1
' 1.5m
10-66 The C-clamp shown in Fig. P10-66 is made of a gray cast
iron that has an ultimate tensile strength of 180 MPa and an
ultimate compressive strength of 670 MPa. Use the Coulomb-
5 kN-m Mohr theory to determine the maximum load P that can he
Figure P10-62 applied safely to the clamp.
CHAPTER 10 ENERGY METHODS AND THEORIES OF FAIIJJIIE
10-67 A 4-in.-diameter solid circular shaft is loaded as shown in

Fig. P10-67. The shaft is made ofa gray east iron that has an
ultimate tensile strength of22 ksi and an ultimate compressive
strength of 82 ksi. Use the Coulomb-Mohr theory to determine
if the shaft can safely support the loading shown.
75mm
--- 24 in.
A A
""-- 48 in..________
E:Il2mm 4 in. ‘W
"b"e! LE. I
Section A-A
3000 lb-it It t
Figure P10-66 500010-n 5°00 lb
Figure P10-67
SUMMARY
The strain energy stored in a material is equal to the work done in deforming
the material. For an axial load, the strain energy intensity (strain energy per unit
volume) u is given by
G
u = f ads
0
The modulus of resilience is defined as the maximum stlain energy per unit volume
that a material will absorb without inelastic deformation and is the area under
the straight-line portion of the stress-strain diagram. For practical purposes, the
yield strength and proportional limit are the same, and thus the modulus of resi-
lience is
we — 2E
U; ( 10 - 3 )
The area under the entire stress-strain c1u've from zero to rupture gives the property
known as the modulus of toughness H1‘ and denotes the energy per unit volume
necessary to rupture the material.
The total strain energy stored in a material may be obtained by integrating
the strain energy intensity over the volume of the material being stressed. “Then
the state of stress in a body can be represented by a nonzero normal stress, the
strain energy is
U — I,, fidV
25 (10 5)
where V is the volume of the body. The expressions for strain energy intensity
and strain energy for shear loading are identical to that for axial loading if normal
stress a is replaced by shear stress r and Young‘s modulus E is replaced by the
shear modulus G.
SUMMARY 655
The elastic strain energy for axial loading of a bar which has a uniform
cross-sectional areaA and is subjected to an axial force P over its entire length L
is given by
PZL
U= T 10-'7
ZAE ( )
For a bar which has a imiform cross section ofradius r and is subjected to a torsional
load T, over its entire length L, the strain energy is given by
2
U=Z
201 (10-9)
The strain energies in a beam resulting from a bending moment M, and fi'om a
shear force V, are given by
L
U=f fiat): (10-11)
U 2E1
L V2 2
U:/1 grist dx (10-12)
0 2611 A :1
The integral in the parentheses of Eq. 10-12 depends on the shape of the cross
section of the beam. Also, since M, and V, are functions of x, the relationships
between M, and x and between V, and x must be known before the integrals of
Eqs. 10-ll and 10-12 can be evaluated. The strain energy due to transverse shear
is of importance only in the case of very short, deep beams. For a short, deep beam
(depth/length = 1/5), the error in neglecting the strain energy due to transverse
shear is approximately 3 percent, whereas for a long, slender beam (depthflength =
1/'10) the error is less than 1 percent.
When dynamic loads are applied to a structural member, the magnitude
and distribution of stresses and strains depend on the velocity of propagation of
the strain waves through the material of which the system is composed as well
as on the usual parameters encotmtered previously. The maximum stresses and
maximum deflection occur when all of the kinetic and potential energy of the load
ane converted to strain energy stored in the material. Assuming that the stresses
are in the elastic range, the material behavior is the same as that for slowly applied
loads, and energy losses during impact are negligible, the maximum normal stress
and the maximum deflection for a suddenly applied axial force are double the
values obtained when the force is slowly applied.
A tension test ofan axially loaded member is easy to conduct, and the results,
for many types ofmaterials, are well known. When such a member fails, the failure
occurs at a specific principal (axial) stress cry. At this point, the principal (axial)
strain is sf = o_rfIE, the maximum shearing stress is 1.’; = of32, and the strain energy
per unit volume of stressed material is u = 0}/2E. For an element subjected to
biaxial or triaxial loading, however, the situation is more complicated because the
limits of normal stress, normal strain, shearing stress, and strain energy existing at
failure foran axial load are not all reached simultaneously. In such cases, it becomes
important to determine the best criterion for predicting failure. Several theories
have been proposed for predicting failure of various types of material subjected to
656 CHAPTER 10 ENERGY sermons AND 'l‘l{B0]tlES or FAILURE
many combinations of loads. Unfortunately, none of the theories agree with test
data for all types of materials and combinations of loads.
The maximum-normal-stress theory (also called Rankine‘s theory) predicts
failure of a specimen subjected to any combination of loads when the maximum
normal stress at any point in the specimen reaches the axial failure stress as de-
terrnined by an axial tensile or compressive test of the same material, am, = of.
The maximum-shear-stress theory (also called Coulomb’s theory or Guest’s the-
ory) predicts failure of a specimen subjected to any combination of loads when
the maximum shear stress at any point reaches the failure stress as determined by
an axial tension or axial compression test of the same material, T]-flax = 1'; = of/2.
For ductile materials, the shearing elastic limit, as determined from a torsion test
(pure shear), is about 0.570;. Therefore, the rnaxirnum-shear-stress theory errs on
the conservative side by being based on the limit obtained from an axial test.
The maximum-distortion-energy theory (also called the Huber-Hencky-von
Mises theory) predicts failure of a specimen subjected to any combination of loads
when the distortion component of the strain energy intensity of any portion of the
stressed member reaches the failure value ofthe distortion component of the strain
energy intensity as determined fi"om an axial tension or compression test of the
same material. This theory assumes that the portion of the strain energy producing
volume change is ineffective in causing failure by yielding. The strain energy of
distortion is most readily computed by determining the total strain energy of the
stressed material and subtracting the strain energy corresponding to the volume
change.
Failure of a ductile material is predicted most closely by the maximum-
distortion-energy theory. \Vhen the two largest principal normal stresses have the
same sign, the maximum-normal-stress and the maximum-shear-stress theories are
identical and both theories are conservative. When the two largest principal stresses
have opposite signs, the maximum-shear-stress theory is conservative while the
maximum-normal-stress theory overpredicts failure stresses and is unsafe.
Failure ofa brittle material is closely predicted by the Coulomb-Mohr theory.
This theory gives conservative results.
1 REVIEW PROBLEMS
10-68* The 100-mm-diameter shaft shown in Fig. P 10-68 is com- 1|]-69* Axial loads are applied at sections A, B, C, and D of the
posed ofaluminum alloy (G = 28 GPa) and steel (G = 80 GPa) steel (E = 30,000 ksi) bar shown in Fig. P10-69. If the bar has
sections that are rigidly connected. Determine a cross-sectional area of 3 in.2, determine
a. The elastic strain energy for each segment of the shaft. a. The elastic strain energy for each segment of the shaft.
b. The elastic strain energy for the complete shalt. b. The elastic strain energy for the complete shaft.
l"_T“‘ 2m _____ _ 7 r—30 in.—='i45 in.i1-——4D ind 7

. _ ' 1.5 in __ _
__ l00_mm I-1 rn __,
. ;_> . ; s1 kip 4-Q04 s¢_.> 4-00 009-> 45 kip
54ltip I8 kip
.- - r-if ‘r ._, l Figure P10-69
'" " so m
Aluminnm~/ " 27 kN-m 10 mm
Steel ll]-70 A solid circular steel shah ofdiameterd and lengthL is sub-
Figure P10-68 jected to a constant torque T. Compare the total elastic strain
tuzvurw PROBLEMS 657
energy stored in this shaft with the total elastic strain energy 10-74* The bronze (E = 80 GPa) beam of Fig. P10-7'4 is 75 mm
stored in an axially loaded bar of the same size and at the same wide X 25 mm deep. Each of the supporting coil springs has
maximum tensile stress level. a modulus of 10 kN/m. From what height should the block W,
with a mass of 5 kg, be dropped in order to produce a total
ll]-71* A weight of 40 lb is dropped from a height of 3 ft onto
deflection at the center of the beam equal to four times the de-
the center of a small rigid platform as shown in Fig. P10-71.
flection produced by the same mass when it is slowly applied
The two steel (E = 30,000 ksi) rods supporting the platform
to the beam?
each have cross-sectional areas of 2.5 in? and are 8 ft long.
Determine
a. The impact factor.
b. The maximum tensile stress developed in the rods.
c. The maximum deflection of the platform.
I zslnm Wliijl I; I
i 1.5 m i 1.5 m
Figure P10-‘T4
Lo)
10-75* A vertical energy load is applied to the coil spring (mod-

‘(T29
ulus = 200 lb/in.) of the beam-spring system shown in Fig.
P10-75. If the spring itself absorbs 720 lb - in. of energy, de-
termine the energy absorbed by the steel (E = 30,000 ksi)
Figure P10-71 beam.
ll]-72 An S 305 x 74 structural steel section (see Appendix B)

is used as a simply supported beam 3 m long. What weight
falling on the center of the span fiom a height of 0.75 rn will U
produce a maximum flexural stress of 120 MPa in the beam?
The web of the beam is vertical.
ll]-73 When the 90-lb block B of Fig. P10-73 was dropped from
a point 2 in. above the top of the coil spring C (modulus =
11%
1700 lb/ft), point D on the steel (E = 29,000 ksi) cantilever
beam A was observed to deflect 2.4 in. downward. Determine
the impact factor.
Figure P10-75
It-J to
s- . . ;..ii‘ —Ii
Ii
Bj2in.
10-'76 The frame shown in Fig. P10-76 is subjected to a load
3 in.
P of 100 kN. The material is ductile and has a proportional
C i_l limit of 220 MPa in tension and compression. Determine the
\ D
1 mini: factor of safety with respect to failure by yielding according
to
ll 5fl > a. The maxirnum-shearing-stress theory of failure.
Figure P10-73 b. The rnaxirnum-distortion-energy theory of failtue.
658 cnarrax 10 manor snrrnons AND rnsonrss or I~'AlI.IJ]lB
a. The principal stress 0,; = 12 ksi tension.

50mm b. The principal stress op; = 12 ksi compression
P 350mm 50"“ 1|]-78 A state ofplane stress at the critical point in a machine com-
P _50mm
A—- -—A = ponent is shown in Fig. P10-78. The material is brittle with om =
l 150mm 68 MPa and 0,, = 206 MPa. Use the Coulomb-Mohr theory of
50 mm failure to determine if the state of stress is safe.
Section A-A
Figure P10-76 i~40Nl.P8
10-77* A material with a proportional limit of 36 ksi in tension 50 MPa

and compression is subjected to a biaxial state of stress. Two
of the principal stresses are cpl = 20 ksi (T) and op, = 0, Qi
Determine the factor of safety with respect to failure by yield- Figure P10-78
ing according to each of the theories of failure if
Appendix A
Second Moments ofArea
A-1 INTRODUCTION
The centroid of an area is located by considering the first moment of the area about
an axis. This computation requires evaluation of an integral of the form L x dA.
in the analysis of stresses and deflections in beams and shafts, an expression of the
form ff! x2 dA is frequently encotmtered in which dA represents an element ofarea
and x represents the distance from the element to some axis in, or perpendicular
to, the plane of the area. An expression of the form L1 x2 dA is known as the
second moment of the area. In the analysis of the angular motion of rigid bodies,
an expression of the form fm r2 dm is encountered, ir1 which dm represents an
element of mass and r represents the distance from the element to some axis.
Euler‘ gave the name “moment of inertia" to expressions of the form fm r2 dm.
Because of the similarity between the two types of integrals, both have become
widely known as moments of inertia. In this text, the integrals involving areas will
be referred to as “second moments of area.” Methods used to determine second
moments of area are discussed in this appendix.
A-2 SECOND MOMENT OF PLANE AREAS z

The second moment of an area with respect to an axis will be denoted by the
symbol I for an axis in the plane of the area and by the symbol J for an axis
perpendicular to the plane of the a.rea. The particular axis about which the second
moment is taken will be denoted by subscripts. Thus, the second moments of O
_ __r__\ \ ax
the area A shown in Fig. A-1 with respect to x- and y-axes in the plane of the J’ 2:35’
area are dA
x
as .4
L,=fy2a‘A and Iy=fx2dA (A-1) Figure A-l
A A
The quantities I, and I}. are sometimes referred to as the rectangular second mo-
ments of the area A.
Similarly, the second moment of the area A shown in Fig. A-1 with respect
to a z-axis, which is perpendicular to the plane of the area at the origin O of the
lleeonhard Euler (1707-1783), a noted Swiss mathematician and physicist.
659
APPENDIX A SECOND MOMENTS OF AREA
xy-coordinate system, is
J, = I flax = I (11 + y2) as (A-2)

A A
Thus,
J, = f x2dA + I y2a'A = 1,. + L. (A-3)

A A
The quantity J, is known as the polar second moment of the area A.
The second moment of an area can be visualized as the sum of a number
of terms, each consisting of an area multiplied by a distance squared. Thus, the
dimensions of a second moment are a length raised to the fourth power (L“).
Common imits are IIHI14 and in.‘ Also, the sign of each term summed to obtain the
second moment is positive, because either a positive or negative distance squared
is positive. Therefore, the second moment of an area is always positive.
y: A-2-1 Parallel Axis Theorem for Second Moments of Area

Vifhen the second moment of an area has been determined with respect to a given
-\< axis, the second moment with respect to a parallel axis can be obtained by means
of the parallel axis theorem. ifone of the axes (say the x-axis) passes through the
——Arca A centroid of the area, as shown in Fig. A-2, the second moment of the area about a
parallel x’-axis located a distance d, from the x-axis is
I,»=f(y-l-d,,)2dA=fy2dA+2d,fydA+dff dA
\\TT
or-+- -" 5;
wk.
.M
|I
g.=~
I I IH A A A A
>‘\ since d, is the same for every element of area dxl. The first integral is the second
moment L, of the area with respect to the x-axis and the last integral is the total
area A. Therefore,
Figure A-2
I,»=1}+2d,[ydA+dfA (a)
A
The integral ff, y dA is the first moment ofthe area with respect to the x-axis. Since
the x-axis passes through the centroid C of the area, the first moment is zero and
Eq. (a) becomes
1,, = 1,6 + dfx (A-4)

where Ixc is the second moment of the area with respect to the x-axis through the
centroid and ti, is the distance between the x- and Jr’-axes. l.r1 a similar manner it
can be shown that
J, = 1,6 + (df + dj) A = 1,6 + d§A (A-5)

where J,3 is the polar second moment of the area with respect to the z-axis through
the centroid and d, is the distance between the 2- and 2'-axes.
The parallel axis theorem states that the second moment of an area with
respect to any axis ir1 the plane of the area is equal to the second moment of the
area with respect to a parallel axis through the centroid of the area added to the
A-2 SECOND MOMENT or PLANE AREAS 661
product of the area and the square of the distance between the two axes (refer to
Eqs. A-4 and A-5). The theorem also indicates that the second moment of an area
with respect to an axis through the centroid of the area is less than that for any
parallel axis because F
1,6 = 1,,» - dfx (A-6)

X
*1 t—”’“
As a point of caution, note that the parallel axis theorem (Eq. A-4) is valid only dA
for transfers to or fi'om a centroidal axis. That is, if x’ and x” are two parallel axes
(neither of which passes through the centroid of an a.rea), then “Areal!
r,- = 1,6 + df,A = (1,, - df,/1) + d§,A O

I
= 1,, + (43, - d},)A as 1,» + (dfl - d,1)2A (H)
P‘
A-2-2 Second Moments of Areas by Integration Rectangular K Area A
and polar second moments of area were defined in Section A-2. When the second
moment of a plane area with respect to a line is determined by using Eq. A-1 or
A-2, it is possible to select the element of area dA in various ways and to express
s Ls
the area of the element i11 terms of either polar or Cartesian coordinates. In some
cases, an element of area with dimensions a'A = dy dx, as shown in Fig. A- l, may
be required. This type of element has the slight advantage that it can be used for
calculating both 1,, and iv, but it has the greater disadvantage of requiring double ._e_-J I
integration. Most problems can be solved with less work by choosing elements of 0
the type shown in Figs. A-3a and A-3b. The following should be considered when (5)
selecting an element of area dA for a specific problem. Figure A-3
1. If all parts of the element of area are the same distance from the axis, the
.7?
J’
second moment can be determined directly by using Eq. A-1 or A-2. Thus, the
element shown in Fig. A-2 can be used to determine either L or Iy directly, but
a double integration is required. The element shown in Fig. A-3a can be used to
/AreaA
determine directly because the dimension x is constant for the element. The
element shown in Fig. A-3a is not suitable for determining I, directly because dA =ydx
the y-dimension is not constant for the element. Similarly, the element shown in
Fig. A-Sb is suitable for determining L, directly but not Iy. A single integration I
0
would be required with elements of the type shown in Fig. A-3.
Figure A-4
2. If the second moment of the element ofarea with respect to the axis about which
the second moment of the area is to be found is known, the second moment ofthe
area can be found by summing the second moments of the individual elements
J’
that make up the area. For example, ifthe second moment til, for the rectangular
area d/1 in Fig. A-4 is known, the second moment L, for the complete area/1 is
/—Al‘6fi A
simply L, = fl, dlx.
3. If both the location of the centroid of the element and the second moment of dz!
if x‘.
the element about its centroidal axis parallel to the axis of interest for the
complete area are known, the parallel axis theorem can ofien be used to simplify
41
the solution of a problem. For example, consider the area shown in Fig. A-5. If
both the distance d, and the second moment dlxc forthe rectangular element dA
are lcnown, then by the parallel axis theorem d1, = dlxc + dfdA. The second O
l .
moment for the complete area A is then simply L = [A dlx. Figure A-5
From the previous discussion it is evident that either single or double in-
tegration may be required for the determination of second moments of area, de-
pending on the element of a.rea dA selected. Vlfhen double integration is used,
all parts of the element will be the same distance from the moment axis, and
the second moment of the element can be written directly. Special care must be
taken ir1 establishing the limits for the two integrations to see that the correct
area is included. If a strip element is selected, the second moment can usually
be obtained by a single integration, but the element must be properly selected
in order for its second moment about the reference axis to be either known
or readily calculated by using the parallel axis theorem. The following exarn-
ples illustrate the procedure for determining the second moments of areas by
J’ integration.
dy i Example Pfflbifilll A-1 Determine the second moment for the rect-
dA=bdy angle shown ir1 Fig. A-6a with respect to
:a~ (a) The base of the rectangle.

(b) An axis through the centroid parallel to the base.
~._l;e (c) An axis through the centroid normal to the area.
SOLUTION
@e__b___l ‘ (a) An element of area dA = bdy, as shown in Fig. A-6a,will be used. Since all
(H) parts of the element are located a distance y fi"om the x-axis, Eq. A-l can be
Figure A-6(a) used directly for the determination of the second moment L, about the base
of the rectangle. Thus,
P The second moment I, can be computed
with a single integration if a thin strip ele- :1 3 iv 3
ment parallel to the x-axis is used. I, =/ly2dA=f y2bdy= = & Ans.
A 0 3 0 3
J’
This result will be used fi'equently in later examples, when elements of the
type shown ir1 Fig. A-4 are used to determine second moments about the
x-axis.
(b) The parallel axis theorem (Eq. A-6) will be used to determine the second
moment [,5 about an axis that passes through the centroid of the rectangle
C (see Fig. A-6b) and is parallel to the base. Thus,
h oi Ix,
L
2 1’°_"_"_3_2()_12
—r a'2A—E ’121>h—@ A "5'
O Le 1» el l x This result will be used frequently in later examples when elements of the
(b) type shown in Fig. A-5 are used to determine second moments about the
Figure A-6(b) x-axis.
(c) The second moment 13.; for the rectangle can be deterrnined in an identical
P If an area has an axis of symmetry, the manner. It can also be obtained fiom the preceding solution by interchanging
centroid is located on that axis; if the area b and h; that is,
has two axes of symmetry, the centroid is
located at the point of intersection of the hb3
two axes.
@@=rE
A-2 SECOND MOMENT OF PLANE AREAS
The polar second moment J2;-; about the z-axis through the centroid of the
rectangle is given by Eq. A-3 as
bhi’ hbi’ an
LC = LC +I_t¢ = E + E = E012 +112) Ans.
.3’
Example PTOOICIII A-2 Detemiine the second moment of area for d P /Kxde
the circle shown in Fig. A-7 with respect to a diameter of the circle. 1'
r’
SOLUTION 6 y = P S111' e
\\\\
\\\'°
Polar coordinates are convenient for this problem. An element of area dA = X
pd9 dp, as shown in Fig. A-7, will be used. If the x-axis is selected as the
diameter about which the second moment of area is to be determined, then y = R
p sin 9. Application of Eq. A-1 yields
211 R
t=ffiM=f f<wmWowe>
A O U
Figure A-7
=
2" R 3 '29d d9=—[———:l
R“ 0 sin20 2” ma‘
=i A115.
L _£'° S1“ ‘J 4 2 4 U 4 P Polar coordinates are usually more effi-
cient when circularboundaries are involved.
1 EXHIIIPIB PPOIJIBIII A-3 Determine the polar second moment of area

for the circle shown in Fig. A-8 with respect to
Y
(a) An axis through the center of the circle and normal to the plane of the area.
(b) An axis through the edge of the circle and normal to the plane of the area.
SOLUTION
(a) Polar coordinates are convenient for this problem. An element of area dA = X
2:rp dp, as shown ir1 Fig. A-B, will be used. Since all parts of the element
are located a constant distance p from the center of the circle, Eq. A-2 can
be used directly for the determination of the polar second moment J, about
an axis through the center of the circle and normal to the plane of the area.
Thus,
Figure A-8
R R NR4
J, = I r2 dA = f p2(22rp dp) =1 211,03 dp = — Ans.
A 0 0 2 P The second moment J, can be computed
This result could have been obtained from the solution of Example Problem with a single integration if a thin armular
element at a constant distance p from the
A-2 and use of Eq. A-3. Thus,
z-axis is used.
rrR“ rrR“ rrR4

#=4+@=:r+1r=‘?
(b) The parallel axis theorem (Eq. A-5) will be used to determine the polar second
moment J, about an axis that passes through the edge of the circle and is
664 APPENDIX A SECOND MOMENTS or AREA
no1'rr1alto the plane of the area. Thus,
R4
J, = 1,,-+ df/I = % + R2(rrR2) = “T
3 R4 Ans.
Y i EXHIIIPIB PIOOICIII A - 4 Determine the second moment of area for

the shaded region of Fig. A-9 with respect to
l
lin. fir
ll’ (a) The x-axis.
(b) An axis through the origin of the xy-coordinate system and normal to the
plane of the area.
SOLUTION
y2=2x -V (a) An element of area dA = x dy = (yz/2) dy, as shown in Fig. A-3b, will be
1 in.
used. Since all parts of the element are located a distance y from the x-axis,
l l , Eq. A-l can be used directly for the determination of the second moment I,
about the x-axis. Thus,
|*i2in.;
Figure A-9 yz 2 y4 ys 2
1,=f y2dA=fy2(—)dy=f —dy= [-1 =3.10tn:‘
A A 2 1 2 10 1
P The second moment I, can be computed Ans.
with a single integration if a thin strip ele- (b) The same element of area can be used to obtain the second moment I,
ment parallel to the x-axis is used. if the result of Example Problem A-1 is used as the known value for dly.
Thus,
bk’ dye)’ dye’-‘/2)’ y“

dI’:3: 3 : 3 :24”
Sunmiing all such elements yields
2 ye y7 Z 127 .
ly =L dly =fi = = fi =0.756ll1.4
Once I} and 13, are known for the area, the polar second moment for an axis
through the origin of the my-coordinate system and normal to the plane of the
area is obtained by using Eq. A-3. Thus,
J, = I, + I), = 3.10 + 0.756 = 3.856 E 3.86 in.4 Ans.
A-2-3 Radius of Gyration of Areas Since the second moment ofan

area has the dimensions of length to the fourth power, it can be expressed as the
area A multiplied by a length k squared. Thus, from Eqs. A-l and A-2,
1,: y2dA=Akf k,= —
1,:
L‘-w‘:-
x2a‘A=Akj r,.= —
mm
k\<""‘
(A-7)
J
J,=fr2dA=Akf
,, k,,=,/—’
A
and from Eq. A-3,
@=&+@ ma
The distance k is called the radius ofgyration. The subscript denotes the axis about
which the second moment of area is taken. The radius of gyration of an area with
respect to an axis can be visualized as the distance from the axis to the point where
the area could be concentrated in order to produce the same second moment of
area with respect to the axis, as does the actual area.
The parallel axis theorem for second moments of area was discussed early
in Section A-2. A corresponding relation exists between the radii of gyration of
the area with respect to two parallel axes, one ofwhich passes through the centroid
of the area. Thus, from Eqs. A-4 and A-'7,
16- = tie +df

and
kj. = QT» 1'“.- + en

,fi..
(A-9)
Similarly for polar second moments of area and radii of gyration,
kj. = kjc + (df + dj) = kfc + df (A-10)

Solving Eqs. A-9 and A-10 for rectangular and polar radii of gyration for arbitrary
and centroidal x-, y-, and z-axes yields
re, = ,/kfC+d} kw = ,/5. —d§

k,,- = /kjc + 4,1. kw = /rj. - ti; (A-1 1)
Ir,» = ,/ti. + erg ac = ,/kg. - erg
The following examples illustrate the concepts discussed in this section.
Example Problem A-5 For the shaded area shown in Fig. A-10a,
determine
(a) The radii of gyration kx, ky, and kg.
(b) The radius of gyration for an axis passing through the centroid and parallel
to the y-axis.
}" 1'
x I‘ T dx
4y=.r2 ‘
Y
d.4=ydlt
I 2111. s 4 x x
(H) (5)
Figure A-ll]
SOLUTION
(a) The quantities required for the determination of kx, lg. , and k, are the area A
and the second moments L and Iv. Since none of these quantities are readily
available from lcnown solutions, they will be determined by integration using
the element of area shown in Fig. A-10b. For area A,
2x2 x32 2
A= d=f _d =[_]=_'_1
Ly‘ 0 4” 12, am
P The second moment I, can be computed For the second moment Ix, the results of Example Problem A-1 can be used.
with a single integration if a thin vertical In Example Problem A-1 it was shown that the second moment I about the
strip element and the known results for a base of a rectangle having a base b and a height I1 was I = bhi’/3. Thus, for
rectangle are used.
the shaded element of area dz! of Fig. A-10b, which has a base at: and a
heighty,
1 1 6
at = grdxroo’ = grdxrrxz/4? = fgdx
and
2 6 7 1
Ix=f dIx=jl LdI=‘:L ]=iiJ1.4
,1 0 192 1344 U 21
For the second moment Iv,
2 2 2 4 5 2 8
Iy=fI2dA=f I2ydI=[ x2(£)dx=f £dx=|:Jc—:| =—i11.4
A A 0 4 0 4 20 0 5
Once A, L, and Iy are known, the radii of gyration Ir, and ky are obtained
from Eqs. A-7. Thus,
-1-H 1;:
1/2
= |i2%23l:|
1/2
1/2
= 0.3780 = 0.378 in. Ans.
= % = 1.5492 E 1.549 in. Ans.

,3?‘
lit Qk
R\<"“‘
?‘ 2/3
.11-2 sscorvn MDMENI‘ or PLANE AREAS 667
The polar radius of gyration k, obtained fi'om Ir, and ky by using Eq. A-8 is
re, = /kg + kg = ,/(o.s"/so)” +(1.s492)2 = 1.595 in. Ans.

(b) In order to determine the radius of gyration kyc, the distance between the
y-axis and the centroid of the area must be determined. Thus,
2 2 2 1 4 1
Axe=fxdA=f e(’i)dx =f x—dx=[L:| =1.0o0m.3
,1 0 4 U 4 16 0
fi'omwhich
xdA
f 1.000 .
d,.=xC= AA = 2/3 =1.500in.
The radius of gyration kyf is then obtained by using Eqs. A-1 1. Thus,
kyc = /it}, - er; = ,/(1.5492)2 - (1.500? = 0.337111. Ans.
1 EXHIIIPIB A-6 Determine the radii of gyration of the area

of the isosceles triangle shown in Fig. A-Ila with respect to
(a) Horizontal and vertical centroidal axes.
(b) The x'- and y’-axes shown on the figure.
SOLUTION
(a) The quantities required for the determination kxc and kyc are the area A and
the second moments I15 and Iyc. The areaA for the triangle is
A = gen = %(s0)(45) = 1125 mmz

y‘ 1' .v' Y
l.
mm
is .v
I -- I
J; ii l_
ET:
-=—§a—»1-3: x’
Ii-ifintntgi
40
mm
A
(Q) (bl
Figure A-ll
668 APPENDIX A SECOND MOMENTS OF AREA
The second moments I,9 and Iyc will be determined, by integration, using
P The second moment I, can be computed the element of area dA = w dy shown in Fig. A-1 lb. From similar triangles,
with a single integration if a thin strip ele-
ment parallel to the x-axis is used. w 50 50
i = — fro h' h = — 30 —
30—y 45 '2: 1° W 45( y)
dA = wdy = E60 —y)dy
Since all parts of the element dA = w dy are located a distance y fiom the
P The width ofthe element can be expressed xg-axis, the definition of a second moment can be used to determine 1,1;-.
as a fimction of y by observing that the en- Thus,
tire triangle is similar to the triangle that lies
above the shaded element. 2 50 +30 2
Iec=fA)’ dA=,E[l5 <30-yr» dy
-50 30'”; y4 +30—l26563mm4
_4s 3 4 _,,_ '
For the second moment Iyc, the results of Example Problem A-1 can be
used. In Example Problem A-l it was shown that the second moment I about
a centroidal axis parallel to the base of a rectangle having a base b and a
height I: was I = bh3/'12. Thus, for the shaded element of Fig. A-llb, which
has a base dy and a height w,
1 1 so 3 1 so
.t Hr
dI--=—dy1<w>3=—d
1,1 y>[451 ,,[45( y>] 3 dy
_30- yr] =--30-
fi"omwhich
+30 1 3
[M =LdI_vC =l15 E|:E(30—y)] dy
--l
_4s E
50 300- y )4 +3U—1171ss
45 _15— ‘ mm“
From the definition of a radius of gyration,
kxc =
11,6
— =
/126,563 = l0.607mm E 10.61 nun Ans.
A 1125
1. ~ 117,183 N
t,..¢- = ,1 fit = ti i = l0.206mm = 10.21 rr1m Ans.
(bl The radii of gyration k,- and k,,- can be determined by using the parallel axis
theorem for radii of gyration. Thus,
it,» = + er; = ,/(10.s07)2 + (40? = 4-l.4m.n1 Ans.

12,,» = ,/kfc + er; = ,/(10.20s)’ + (4012 = 41.3mm Ans.
A-2-4 Second Moments of Composite Areas The second mo-

ments IL, I,., and J, of an areaA with respect to any set ofx-, y-, and z-coordirrate
axes were defined as
L,=fy2dA 1,=fs’aA J,=[1-"ax

A A A
Frequently in engineering practice, an irregular area A will be encountered which

can be broken up into a series of simple areas A1, A2, A3, . . ., A, for which the
integrals have been evaluated and tabulated. The second moment of the irregular
area, the composite area, with respect to any axis is equal to the sum of the second
moments of the separate parts of the area with respect to the specified axis. For
example,
L=fy2dA
A
=fy1e1A,+f y2dA2+f y2dA3+~-+f y2dA,,

A, /1 .1. A,
=Ixl+Ix2+Ix3+"'+Ixn
When an area such as a hole is removed from a larger area, its second moment
must be subtracted fi'om the second moment of the larger area to obtain the
resulting second moment. Thus, for the case of a square plate with a hole,
r =1 +1
I El
Therefore,
1 =1_
l I
Table A-l contains a listing ofthe values ofthe integrals for frequently encotmtered
shapes such as rectangles, triangles, circles, and semicircles. Tables listing second
Table A-1 Second Moments of Plane Areas

y‘ b .v bk, I bhi
2 Ix X 3
T '2 A = an
E
_x'
Y 1,113
I-=—
1» IJI13 * 12
,1, ZR _1
I? ‘ 3 A_2bh
kt"x.
L--34-;-_ 1‘
Table A-1 Second Moments of Plane Areas (continued)

J"
rrR" 1,, = 5rrR“
-4-
il I
A = rrR2
R
It
J" J-rR“ SR4 R4

;.=”_
‘X = T ‘ w X s
:rrR4 1
.4=—231'R2
x I 4" = Y
E
311;
xi
y‘ J’ 1,=L
R4
‘R 1 _;-[R4 4R‘
F x I6
I " 16 9n‘ 1 R2
A=—471'
.1
E
3“-
mm‘
‘-:
,'i\ I,=T(6——s in 2Rsin6
“~,=e
“=5?
‘l
1,. = -
as-=1 e + —sin
IQ
Ix.)
»—~~—~
A =6R2
H /""\
Le
moments of area and other properties for the cross sections of common structural
shapes are found in engineering handbooks and in data books prepared by industrial
organizations such as the American Institute of Steel Construction. An abbreviated
listing is also included in Appendix B.
In some instances the second moments IXC, I,.C, and I,3 of a composite
shape with respect to centroidalx-, y, and z-axes of the composite may be required
These quantities can be determined by first evaluating the second moments IX»,
Iy» , and I2» of the composite with respect to any convenient set of parallel x’-, y I -
and z’-axes and then transferring these second moments to the centroidal axes by
using the parallel axis theorem.
Y
1 EXHIIIPIB PIOIJICIII A-7 A beam having the cross section shown in
Fig. A-12a is constructed by gluing a 2 X 6-in. wooden plank 10 it long to a 5' E
second 2 x 6-in. wooden plank also 10 It long. Determine the second moment fir
of the cross-sectional area with respect to .
(a) The x-axis. " 6 m‘
(b) The y-axis.
(c) The 3113- axis, which passes through the centroid of the area and is parallel to
the x-axis.
in
‘I ..
lis
—'*—r
(11)
SOLUTION
(a) As shown in Fig. A-12b, the cross-sectional area can be divided into two y
simple rectangles. Since both rectangles have an edge along the x-axis, their
second moments ofarea are just bh3/3. Therefore, the second moment ofarea
of the entire area with respect to the x-axis is
1 1
A = 1,1 + 1.2 = 5(4)(2)‘* + 5(2)(8)’ = 352 in.‘ Ans. C _T
d
(b) Using the sanre division of areas as in part (a), the first area has an edge
X
along the y-axis and its second moment of area is given by bh3/3. However, (b)
the parallel axis theorem is needed for the second rectangle, since neither the Figure A42
centroid of the rectangle nor either edge is along the y-axis. Therefore, the
second moment of area of the entire area with respect to the y-axis is
P The second rnornent of a composite area

Iy = I,,| +I_,,2
with respect to a given axis equals the sum
1 3 1 3 2 _ 4 of the second moments of the separate parts
= 5(2)“) + E(8)(2) + 16(5) = 448 111- A115- of the area with respect to the same axis.
(c) The centroid will be located using the same division of areas as above:
d(8 + 16) = 1(8) + 4(16) d = 3 in.
Then, using the parallel axis theorem for both rectangles, the second moment
of area of the entire area with respect to the xc-axis is
IxC = IxCl + IxC2
=
1 3 + 8(3 — 1)
2 +
1 3 + l6(4 — 3)
2 - 4
= 136.0 111.
Ans.
Note that, since the If-HXIS passes through the centroid of the entire area, the
second moments of area I, and IXC are related by the parallel axis theorem
L = Lg? -l- Adz

= 136.0 + 24(3)2 = 352 in.“
i EXHIIIPIB PPOIJICIII A-8 Determine the second moment ofthe shaded

area shown in Fig. A-13a with respect to
(a) The x-axis.
(b) The y-axis.
(c) An axis through the origin O of the xy-coordinate system and normal to the
plane of the area.
y
I
1001m'n
J
lso
100mm
a no 0“ 1"
___________ _ m
P150 mm
60mm
ii
'
—,_—
so rmn
L
50 mm
I
c .4
(=1) (b)
Figure A-13
SOLUTION
As shown in Fig. A-13b, the shaded area can be divided into a 100 x 200-mm
rectangle (A), with a 60-mm-diameter circle (B) and a 100-mm-diarneter half-
circle (C) removed, and a 100 x 200-mm triangle (D). The second moments for
these areas, with respect to the x- andy-axes, can be obtained by using information
fi'om Table A-1, as follows:
(a) For the rectangle (shape A),
1,1 = bh3
T = 200
—%—21003 = 66.66"/(10“)mn1“
For the circle (shape B),
R4
1,2 = Iec + 4521 = 51- + d§(eR2)

= @ +(s01)(n)(301) = "/.70s(10‘=)nnn“
For the half-circle (shape C),
R4 R2
1,3 = 1,43 —i-dg/1 = % +d_3(%)
= L204) +(s0)1{L;°)2] = 12.212(1o°) nnn‘

For the triangle (shape D),
Ixli = I.rC + at?!‘
bh3 bh
=_
... + -( . )
41 _
200 1003 100 2 200 100

= Q+ 100 + — Q =183.333(l0°)mm“
36 3 2
For the composite area,
1:1" : [xi _ I12 _ Ix3 + Ix-1

P When a hole is present in a larger area, its
= 66.s61(10°) - 7.70s(1o“)- 12.2"/2(1o6) + 1s3.333(10°') second moment must be subtracted fiorn the
= 230.o23(106) 2 23o(1o@) mm‘ Ans. second moment ofthe larger area in order to
obtain the required second moment.
(b) For the rectangle (shape A),
I b3h 2003000) , ,
,1 = T = f =266.s61(10 )n1m
For the circle (shape B),
1,2 = on + djzl
R4
= % + siren’)
= @ + (1502)(n)(302) = s4.2s3(10°)nnn**
For the half-circle (shape C),
R4 50“
1,, = % = $ = 2.4s4(10°)nnn‘*
For the triangle (shape D),
bh3 100 2003

1,, = E = % = 66.6s1(10‘)nnn"
I2 = Iyl _ I21 _ 1&3 + I24

= 2es.6s7(106) - 64.253(1o'=) - 2.4s4(10°)+ 6s.61s7(10@)
= 26s.e27(1o6) 2 2s7(1o@) IIIIH4 Ans
674 APPENDIX A snconrn MOMENTS or AREA
(c) For the composite area,
J2 = Ix + Iy
= 230.o23(10°) + 266.621(10‘)
= 496.ss0(10“) '5 497(10‘)mm“ Ans-
“ Example A-9 A column with the cross section shown in

Fig. A-14a is constructed from a W24 x 84 wide-flange section and a C12 x
30 channel section. Determine the second moments and radii of gyration of
the cross-sectional area with respect to horizontal and vertical axes through the
centroid of the cross section.
Cl2x3O
- W24 X s4
(11)
0‘m eoolsou
T3F‘: _,__\.=
,' "
l
1 1-'8_8°i 0.510 in. C

5';
In I I FEI I I5'I I |—-Q
. I_ | I I J
'IIII I ‘
I
I | I I I In“H
—>I
I_.—-_.- 3.12sm. H
i-—S—M—3—*|
A = 24.7 in.F‘-'PII\-I A = s.s2 in?
1,, = 2310 in.‘ 1,. = 162 in.‘
1}, = 94.4 in.‘ 1,.= 5.14 mi‘
(*5) (C) (J)
Figure A-14
SOLUTION
Properties and dimensions for the structural shapes can be obtained from Ap-
pendix B. The properties and dimensions for the wide-flange section are shown
in Fig. A-14b. The properties and dimensions for the channel section are shown
in Fig. A-14c. In Figs. A-14-b and c, the x-axis passes through the centroid of
the wide-flange section and a parallel x’-axis passes through the centroid of the
channel. A centroidal xg-axis for the composite section (see Fig. A-14d) can be
located by using the principle of moments as applied to areas. The total area A 1'
for the composite section is
Ar = Awp + AC1; = 24.7 + 8.82 = 33.52 in.2

A-2 snconn MOMENI‘ or PLANE mass 675
The moment of the composite area about the x-axis is P The principle of moments can be used to
locate the centroid of any composite body
A7"(_)I(_')7' = Aw;-{yc)w.r + Ac;-1(y¢-)¢-H = 24.7(O) + 8.82(11.3S6) = 104.835 in.3 if first moments of the individual parts are
known or can be determined.
The distance (y¢)¢ from the x-axis to the centroid of the composite section is
104.235 ,
U’c);- = g = 3.12s m.
The second moment [I,,C)W,- for the wide-flange section about the centroida1xC- P The parallel axis theorem for second mo-
axis of the composite section is determined by using the parallel axis theorem. ments is valid only for transfers to or from
Thus, a parallel axis through the centroid of the
area.
(I,C)w;.- = (I,,)W;- + (_VQ')%’,-I,-AW]-' = 2370 +(3.128)2(24.7) = 2611.7 in.‘
Similarly, the second moment (I,C)¢;.; for the channel about the centroidal 2:5-
axis of the composite section is
(IxC)CH = Ux')c;-1 + l(yC)r;'1-1 _ (yC)T]2ACH

= 5.14 +(11.886 — 3.128)2(8.82) = 681.7 in.4
(1xC')r = (IIC)W1-‘+[[XC)(.‘11'
= 2611.7 -1- 681.7 = 3293.4 '5 3290111.‘ ADS.
The y-axis passes through the centroid of both areas; therefore, the second mo-
ment (IN); for the composite section is
(*ry6')1' = (INCJWF + Uy6')c11

= 94.4 + 162 = 256.4 E 256in.4 Ans.
The radius of gyration about the xg-axis for the composite section is
(1 -)- “Z = 3293.4
(k,C)T=[% 33-52 ‘/2 =9.912=9.91
~ ,
m. Ans.
The radius of gyration about the yc-flXlS for the composite section is
(1 -) "2 256.4 ‘/2 N _

(k,.¢).»-=[% = 33.52 =2.766=2.771n. Ans‘
}’
x as
A-2-5 Mixed Second Moments ofAreas The mixed second moment
(commonly called the area product of inertia) dlxy of the element ofarea dA shown
"""""7
Ir
in Fig. A-15 with respect to the x- and y-axes is defined as the product of the two I
coordinates of the element multiplied by the area of the element; thus O x
dlxy = xydA Figure A-l5

The mixed second moment (area product of inertia) of the total area A about the
x- and y-axes is the sum of the mixed second moments of the elements of the area;
thus,
1,_.= I d1,.,= I xydA (A-12)

A A
The dimensions of the mixed second moment are the same as the dimensions for
the rectangular or polar second moments, but since the product xy can be either
positive or negative, the mixed second moment can be positive, negative, or zero.
Recall that rectangular or polar second moments are always positive.
The mixed second moment of an area with respect to any two orthogonal
dA' dd axes is zero when either of the axes is an axis of symmetry. This statement can
.1 be demonstrated by means of Fig. A-16, which is symmetrical with respect to the
y-axis. For every element of area dz! on one side of the axis of symmetry, there is
a corresponding element of area d A‘. on the opposite side of the axis such that the
mixed second moments of dA and dA' will be equal in magnitude but opposite in
sign. Thus, they will cancel each other ir1 the summation and the resulting mixed
second moment for the total area will be zero.
Figure A-16
The parallel axis theorem for mixed second moments can be derived from
Fig. A-17 in which the x- and y-axes pass through the centroid C of the area and
are parallel to the x’- and y’-axes. The mixed second moment with respect to the
x’- and y’-axes is
d)‘ X
i I,-,.- =1’; x'y'dA = L (dy +x)(d, +y)dA

I dd
i
. 1
W y
C x =d,,d,.f dA+d_,f ydA+d,f xdA+fxydA
A A A A
since d, and d_,. are the same for every element of area mi/1. The second and third
integrals in the preceding equation are zero since x and y are centroidal axes.
The last integral is the mixed second moment with respect to the centroidal axes.
0 _———————————————
_ _ _ ._~<_ —— 1' Consequently, the mixed second moment about a pair of axes parallel to a pair of
Figure A-l7 centroidal axes is
1,7,. = 1,.,.C + d,a‘,,A (A-13)

where the subscript C indicates that the x- and y-axes are centroidal axes. The
parallel axis theorem for mixed second moments (area products of inertia) can be
stated as follows; The mixed second moment of an area with respect to any two
perpendicular axes x and y in the plane of the area is equal to the mixed second
moment of the area with respect to a pair of centroidal axes parallel to the x- and
y-axes added to the product of the area and the two centroidal distances fi"om the
x- and y-axes. The parallel axis theorem for mixed second moments is used most
fi"equently in determining mixed second moments for composite areas. Values from
Eq. A-12 for some of the shapes corrmionly used in these calculations are listed in
Table A-2.
The determination of the mixed second moment (area product of inertia) is
illustrated in the next two examples.
A-2 SECOND MOMENT or PLANE mass 677
Table A-2 Mixed Second Moments of Plane Areas

y‘ b y bzhz
1,, _ I1/y’ = T
2
B c 2
?
b
.v'y 1221:’ bzhz

23. %='?r Ixrya = Y
'2
5 3
x
b x
yr’ _fi bzhz
b
I‘?
In _12 4'» = "QT
E
F» 3_,_,
x.
3
YE)’ _ (91; - 32)R“ R4
I_.('),' = Y
31: "’ _ 72 :rr
I} .
i _%,.
yfiy (91 - 32)R“ Ixlyf Z
R4
1?
31': '72::
x
fill
M 3“ x 1
y’ J’ 11,)’. = ZR‘
1,, = T
Q
31:
I
J’
N
E- 1 EXfl.IIlpl8 P1‘0l')l6Ill A-10 Determine the mixed second moment (area
product of inertia) of the shaded area shown in Fig. A-18a with respect to the
~%
,1=, lim x- and y-axes by using
T3
dd (a) Double integration.
(b) The parallel axis theorem and single integration.
I I
in? 4 in. L‘; SOLUTION

(11) (a) The mixed second moment (area product of inertia) dI,,_,, of the element of
Figure A-l8(a) area dA = dy dx shown in Fig. A-18a with respect to the x- and y-axes is
defined as dI,,,. = xydA. Therefore,
4 J17
I,y=fxydA=‘/i f xydydx
A U 0
4 2 ~/I
=f xdx
0 2 0
4 2 3 4
= f i4x= Pi] =10.67m‘* Ans.
9 2 6 0
P The mixed second moment of an area (b) The mixed second moment (area product of inertia) din. of the element
with respect to any two orthogonal axes is of area dA = y dr shown in Fig. A-18b with respect to axes through the
zero when either of the axes is an axis of centroid of the element parallel to the x- and y-axes is zero. Thus, the
symmetry. mixed second moment of the element with respect to the x- and y-axes (see
Fig. A-18c) is
2
41,, = 413,6 + 4,4, 44 = 0 + gm 44) = ’%4x
Therefore,
4 X2 I3 4
1,,,=f 41,, =f E44: [K] = 10.67111.‘ Ans.
A [J 0
Y Y
‘ Iv L,
Yc
y2=r -l- z,-' C

y=,;j \. xt-
\
1 .
\
HR.
51
(5) (C)
Figure A-l 8(b-c)
A-3 PRINCIPAL srcoso Iuonnmrrs 679
F
1 EXHIIIPIB PI'Ol'llC1Il A- 1 1 Determine the mixed second moment (area pcosfi
product of inertia) of the quadrant of a circle shown in Fig. A-19 with respect
to
(a) The x- and y-axes. /-’ 4.-1= p4e4p
X ' 49
(b) A pair of axes through the centroid of the area and parallel to the x- and rip /- .
y-axes.
P
9 psinfi
SOLUTION ..\__ x
(a) The mixed second moment (area product of inertia) din, of the element of R
area dA = p d6 dp shown in Fig. A-19 with respect to the x- and y-axes is
defined as dI,,, = xydA. Therefore, Figure A-19
dI,.,, = (p cos 9)(p sin 6)(p d9 dp) P Polar coordinates are usually more elli-
cient when circularboundaries are involved.
and
R Jr/2
I,,.=’/‘dI,,,,=f f (p cos 9)(p sin 9)pd9dp
A 0 0
R sin2I9 M
=f T P3413
U 2 U
=f0 R ad,,=[a]
2
3 4 R
8 0
:£
8
4
Ans.
(b) Once the mixed second moment is known with respect to a pair of axes, P The parallel axis theorem for second mo-
the mixed second moment with respect to a parallel set of axes through the ments is valid only for transfers to or from
centroid of the area can be found by using the parallel axis theorem. For the a parallel axis through the centroid of the
quarter circle, d, = d, = 4R/3:Ir; therefore, area.
Ixyc = I1-y — dxd,-A
_ R‘ (44 (41: (4122 _ (94 -32)R“ Ans

— 8 3:: 3:! 4 — 721: I
A-5 PRINCIPAL SECOND MOMENTS J’

The second moment of the area A in Fig. A-20 with respect to the x’-axis through J" |;' _
O will, in general, vary with the angle 9. The x- and y-axes used to obtain the polar ‘I “mo AIHIA
\xcos9 I14
second moment J, about a z-axis through O (Eq. A-2) were any pair of orthogonal \ '-- -;{
axes in the plane of the area passing through O; therefore, \ ’ ,~' |\\ ycosfi
r I
‘I \
m
J,=L,+I,.=I,,|+I,.» 4"’
\.¢' \ \
\,
\ _\__.__ x sin B
\-:\ \ o\
where x’ and y’ are any pair of orthogonal axes through O. Since the sum of IX» and x
o*’ H
I_,.- is a constant, IX» will be maximum and the corresponding I,,' will be minimum
for one particular value of 9. Figure A-20
680 APPENDIX A snconm MOMENTS or AREA
The set of axes for which the second moments are maximum and minimum
are called the principal axes of the area through point O and are designated as the
u- and v-axes. The second moments of the area with respect to these axes are called
the principal second moments of the area (principal area moments of inertia) and
are designated I, and I,,. There is only one set ofprincipal axes for any point in an
area unless all axes have the same second moment, such as the diameters of a circle.
Principal axes are important in problems dealing with stresses and deformations
in beams and colunms.
The principal second moments of an area can be determined by expressing
I,’ as a fimction of 1,, 1}, I,,., and angle 6 and setting the derivative of I,» with
respect to 6 equal to zero to obtain the values of 6 which give the maximum and
minimum second moments. From Fig. A-20,
41,- = ;/244 = (y cos 9 -4 Sill 60244

Therefore,
I,’ =~/idly =cos3 6f y2dA+sir126./. x2dA—2sin6cos6./.xydA

A A A A
= I, cos: 6 + I_,. sin2 6 — 21,, sin 6 cos 6 (A-14)
Equation A-14 can be expressed in terms of the double angle 26 by using

the trigonometric identities
sin26 =2sin6cos6
cos26 =cos26—sin26
Thus,
l 1 .
I,- = EU, + ly) + EU, — ly) cos 26 — Ix, sin 26 (A-15)
The angle 26 for which 1,; is a maximum (or a minimum) can be obtained by
setting the derivative of I,- with respect to 6 equal to zero; thus,
dl f
i = —(I,, - 1,) SlI126 - 21,, cos 29 = 0
fi"om which
21,-
tan 20 = - T’ A-16
p (Ix _ ( J
where 6,, represents the two values of 6 that locate the principal axes u and v.
Equation A-16 gives two values of 26,, that are 180° apart, and thus two values of
6,, that are 90" apart. The principal second moments can be obtained by substituting
these values of 6,, in Eq. A-14. Thus,
2 H2
1,, = @ -_+ 441;] (A-17)
A-5 rruncrrru. sscosn nronrrivrs 681
The mixed second moment (area product of inertia) of the element of area
in Fig. A-20 with respect to the x’- and y’-axes is
dI,,:,.I = x:v' dA = (x cos 6 +y sin6)(y cos 6 —x sin6)dA
Therefore,
= f m,
A
= sin6 cos6f (y2—x2)dA+(cos26—sin26)fxy 44

A A
= (L, — 1,.) sin 6 cos 6 + I,,,.(cos2 6 — sing 6) (A-18)
Or in terms of the double angle 26,
l
In.» = Ix, cos 26 + EU, — I,.) sin 26 (A-19)
The mixed second moment I,-y» will be zero when
21
tangg = L
<4 -1») (“J
Equation (a) is the same as Eq. A-16. This fact indicates that mixed second mo-
ments with respect to principal axes are zero. Since mixed second moments are
zero with respect to any axis of symmetry, it follows that any axis of symmetry
must be a principal axis for any point on the axis.
The following example illustrates the procedure for determining second
moments of area with respect to the principal axes.
1 EXBIDPIB Pffllllfilll A-12 Determine the maximum and minimrmi

second moments for the triangular area shown in Fig. A-21a with respect to axes
through the centroid of the area. y
SOLUTION
The second moments Ix, .[,., and Ix, can be determined by using the properties
listed in Tables A-1 and A-2. Thus,
48m.m
11113 24(4s)’ , I
14- 36 — 36 -73.72Bmm
1114 4s 243
I_v=¥= i»24mm~'i
112112 (24)2(4s)1 4 ('1)

1'11: E = g = 13-432111111 Figure A-2l(a)
682 APPENDIX A sncoxn MOMENTS or 11111111
The principal angles 6,, are
9 = _
1 —| _
21-Ty
P zmn l Ir_Iyi
-2118I1_l _73,728-18,432
2(l8'432) __ 1685‘
' °r 7315"
'
With 6,, = -16.85”, Eq. A-14 yields
1,; = I, cos: 6 + sinz 6 — 2L,,. sin6 cos 6

= 73,728 cos2(—l6.85°) + 18,432 siu1(-16.85“)
-2(18,432) sin (-16.85") cos (-16.85") = 79,309 rum“
With 6,, = 73.15”, Eq. A-14 yields
P Second moments associated with prin-
cipal axes are the maximum and minimum
values for all axes in the plane of the area I,,- = L, cos2 6 + sinz 6 — 2I,,_,, sin 6 cos 6
that pass through the point. = 73,728 cosz (73.15=) + 18,432 sin: (73150)
-208,432) sin (731511) cos (73.15<=) = 12,851 mm4
Therefore, with respect to the x-axis,
Iu:max=
I 79 7 300mm“ at 6_p——
— 16.85‘ Ans
I, = Im-m = 12,850mm4 at 6,, = 73.15” Ans

V
The principal second moments can also be determined by using Eq. A-17:
- -m
‘~.
73.l5°
1 —L‘+I-"4
11,11 — 2 LT’ 2+1’ W
2 xy
,|,__
=>< =
73,728 + 18,432 4 73,728 - 18,432 2 +(18,432)1’ 1”
16.85° 2 2
(4) = 46,080 4 33,229 2 79,300 mm4 and 12,850mm‘*
Figure A-2l(b)
The orientations of the principal axes are shown in Fig. A-2 lb.
Appendix B
Tables ofProperties
PROPERTIES OF ROLLED STEEL STRUCTURAL SHAPES

Table B-1 Wide-Flange Beams (U.S. Customary Units)
Table B-2 Wide-Flange Beams (SI Units)
Table B-3 American Standard Beams (U.S. Customary Units)
Table B-4 American Standard Beams (SI Units)
Table B-5 Standard Channels (U.S. Customary Units)
Table B-6 Standard Channels (SI Units)
Table B-7 Equal Leg Angles (U.S. Customary Units)
Table B-8 Equal Leg Angles (SI Units)
Table B-9 Unequal Leg Angles (U.S. Customary Units)
Table B-10 Unequal Leg Angles (SI Units)
Table B-1 1 Structural Tees (U.S. Customary Units)
Table B-12 Structural Tees (SI Units)
PROPERTIES OF STEEL PIPES AND STRUCTURAL TIMBERS

Table B-13 Properties of Standard Steel Pipe (U.S. Customary Units)
Table B-14 Properties of Standard Steel Pipe (SI Units)
Table B-15 Properties of Standard Structural Timber (U.S. Customary Units)
Table B-16 Properties of Standard Structural Timber (SI Units)
AVERAGE PROPERTIES OF SELECTED MATERIALS

Table B-17 Properties of Selected Materials (U.S. Customary Units)
Table B-18 Properties of Selected Materials (SI Units)
BEAM DEFLECTIONS AND SLOPES

Table B-19 Beam Deflections and Slopes
Table B-20 Properties of Areas for Curved Beams
684 APPENDIX B TABLES OF PROPERTIES
X—- -—X
Y
Table B-1 Wide-Flange Beams (U.S. Customary Units)
Flange
Web
Axis X—X Axis Y—Y
Area Depth Width Thickness Thickness ..
Designation‘ (ill-2) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) I (in.“) S(in.3) r(in.) um‘) s(m1) 7' (in.)
W36 x 230 67.6 35.90 16.470 1.260 0.760 15000 837 14.9 940 114 3.73
x 160 47.0 36.01 12.000 1.020 0.650 9750 542 14.4 295 49.1 2.50
W33 x 201 59.1 33.68 15.745 1.150 0.715 11500 684 14.0 749 95.2 3.56
x 152 44.7 33.49 11.565 1.055 0.635 8160 487 13.5 273 47.2 2.47
x 130 38.3 33.09 11.510 0.855 0.580 6710 406 13.2 218 37.9 2.39
W30 >< 132 38.9 30.31 10.545 1.000 0.615 5770 380 12.2 196 37.2 2.25
x 108 31.7 29.83 10.475 0.760 0.545 4470 299 11.9 146 27.9 2.15
W27 x 146 42.9 27.38 13.965 0.975 0.605 5630 41 1 11.4 443 63.5 3.21
x 94 27.7 26.92 9.990 0.745 0.490 3270 243 10.9 124 24.8 2.12
W24 x 104 30.6 24.06 12.750 0.750 0.500 3100 258 10.1 259 40.7 2.91
x 84 24.7 24.10 9.020 0.770 0.470 2370 196 9.79 94.4 20.9 1.95
x 62 18.2 23.74 7.040 0.590 0.430 1550 131 9.23 34.5 9.80 1.38
W21 >< 101 29.8 21.36 12.290 0.800 0.500 2420 227 9.02 248 40.3 2.89
x 83 24.3 21.43 8.355 0.835 0.515 1830 171 8.67 81.4 19.5 1.83
x 62 18.3 20.99 8.240 0.615 0.400 1330 127 8.54 57.5 13.9 1.77
W18 x 97 28.5 18.59 11.145 0.870 0.535 1750 188 7.82 201 36.1 2.65
x 76 22.3 18.21 11.035 0.680 0.425 1330 146 7.73 152 27.6 2.61
x 60 17.6 18.24 7.555 0.695 0.415 984 108 7.47 50.1 13.3 1.69
W16 x 100 29.4 16.97 10.425 0.985 0.585 1490 175 7.10 186 35.7 2.52
x 67 19.7 16.33 10.235 0.665 0.395 954 l 17 6.96 119 23.2 2.46
x 40 11.8 16.01 6.995 0.505 0.305 518 64.7 6.63 28.9 8.25 1.57
X 26 7.68 15.69 5.500 0.345 0.250 301 38.4 6.26 9.59 3.49 1.12
W14 x 120 35.3 14.48 14.670 0.940 0.590 1380 190 6.24 495 67.5 3.74
x 82 24.1 14.31 10.130 0.855 0.510 882 123 6.05 148 29.3 2.48
x 43 12.6 13.66 7.995 0.530 0.305 428 62.7 5.82 45.2 11.3 1.89
x 30 8.85 13.84 6.730 0.385 0.270 291 42.0 5.73 19.6 5.82 1.49
W12 x 96 28.2 12.71 12.160 0.900 0.550 833 131 5.44 270 44.4 3.09
x 65 19.1 12.12 12.000 0.605 0.390 533 87.9 5.28 174 29.1 3.02
x 50 14.7 12.19 8.080 0.640 0.370 394 64.7 5.18 56.3 13.9 1.96
x 30 8.79 12.34 6.520 0.440 0.260 238 38.6 5.21 20.3 6.24 1.52
W10 x 60 17.6 10.22 10.080 0.680 0.420 341 66.7 4.39 116 23.0 2.57
x 45 13.3 10.10 8.020 0.620 0.350 248 49.1 4.33 53.4 13.3 2.01
x 30 8.84 10.47 5.810 0.510 0.300 170 32.4 4.38 16.7 5.75 1.37
x 22 6.49 10.17 5.750 0.360 0.240 118 23 .2 4.27 1 1.4 3.97 1.33
W8 x 40 11.7 8.25 8.070 0.560 0.360 146 35 .5 3.53 49.1 12.2 2.04
x 31 9.13 8.00 7.995 0.435 0.285 110 27.5 3.47 37.1 9.27 2.02
x 24 7.08 7.93 6.495 0.400 0.245 828 20.9 3.42 18.3 5.63 1.61
x 15 4.44 8.11 4.015 0.315 0.245 480 1 1.8 3.29 3.41 1.70 0.876
W6 >< 25 7.34 6.38 6.080 0.455 0.320 53A 16.7 2.70 17.1 5.61 1.52
x 16 4.74 6.28 4.030 0.405 0.260 321 10.2 2.60 4.43 2.20 0.967
W5 x 16 4.68 5.01 5.000 0.360 0.240 213 8.51 2.13 7.51 3.00 1.27
W4 >< 13 3.83 4.16 4.060 0.345 0.280 113 5.46 1.72 3.86 1.90 1.00
Courtesy of the American Institute of Steel Construction.
‘W means wide-flange beam, followed by the nominal depth in inches, then the weight in pounds per foot of length.
.u=m:1\mx B TABLES or Pnomzlrrms 685
Y
I X
Y
Table B-2 Wide-Flange Beams {SI Units)
9 Web MEX-X Axis Y—Y

Area Depth Width Thickness Thickness 1(10° s(10* I‘ 1(10° s(10 3 r
4 3
Designation‘ (1111112) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) nun‘) nunfi (mm) 111111) mm) (mm)
VV914 x 342 43610 912 418 328 193 6245 13715 378 391 1870 943
x 238 30325 915 305 25.9 165 4060 8880 366 123 805 635
VV838 x 299 38130 855 400 292 182 4785 11210 356 312 1560 90A
x 226 28850 851 294 268 161 3395 7980 343 114 775 623
x 193 24710 840 292 211 14.7 2795 6655 335 90] 620 60]
VV762 x 196 25100 770 268 254 15.6 2400 6225 310 8L6 610 572
x 161 20450 758 266 193 138 1860 4900 302 608 457 546
W686 x 217 27675 695 355 248 154 2345 6735 290 184 1040 8L5
x 140 17870 684 254 189 124 1360 3980 277 5L6 406 518
VV6l0 x 155 19740 611 324 191 12] 1290 4230 257 108 667 739
x 125 15935 612 229 196 1L9 985 3210 249 393 342 495
x 92 11750 603 179 150 109 645 2145 234 14A 161 351
VV533 x 150 19225 543 312 203 12] 1005 3720 229 103 660 714
x 124 15675 544 212 212 131 762 2800 220 339 320 465
x 92 11805 533 209 156 102 554 2080 217 219 228 450
VV457 x 144 18365 472 283 221 136 728 3080 199 831 592 613
x 113 14385 463 280 173 108 554 2395 196 613 452 663
x 89 11355 463 192 17] 105 410 1770 190 209 218 429
W406 x 149 18970 431 265 250 149 620 2870 180 714 585 640
x 100 12710 415 260 169 100 397 1915 177 495 380 625
x 60 7615 407 178 128 77 216 1060 168 128 135 399
x 39 4950 399 140 88 64 125 629 159 399 572 2&4
VV356 x 179 22775 368 373 239 150 574 3115 158 206 1105 910
x 122 15550 363 257 219 130 367 2015 154 6L6 480 610
x 64 8130 347 203 135 77 178 1025 148 1&8 185 4&0
x 45 5710 352 171 98 69 121 688 146 816 954 318
W305 x 143 18195 323 309 229 140 347 2145 138 112 728 7&5
x 97 12325 308 305 154 99 222 1440 134 724 477 767
x 74 9485 310 205 163 94 164 1060 132 214 228 498
x 45 5670 313 166 112 66 991 633 132 845 102 386
W254 x 89 11355 260 256 173 10] 142 1095 112 4&3 377 653
x 67 8580 257 204 157 89 103 805 110 222 218 5L1
x 45 5705 266 148 130 76 708 531 111 695 942 348
x 33 4185 258 146 91 61 491 380 108 495 651 318
VV203 x 60 7550 210 205 142 91 608 582 897 204 200 SL8
x 46 5890 203 203 1L0 72 458 451 881 154 152 5L3
x 36 4570 201 165 102 62 345 342 867 761 923 409
x 22 2865 206 102 80 62 20.0 193 836 142 279 223
VVl52 x 37 4735 162 154 1L6 81 222 274 686 712 919 3&6
x 24 3060 160 102 103 66 13A 167 660 L84 361 246
W127 x 24 3020 127 127 91 61 887 139 541 313 492 323
VVl02 x 19 2470 106 103 88 71 470 895 437 L61 311 254
‘W means wide~flange beam, followed by the nominal depth in mm, then the mass in kg per meter of length.
686 APPENDIX B 'r.m1.ss or Psomtrms
Y
1 X—- -—X
Table B-3 American Standard Beams (U.S. Customary Units)

Flange
2 Web .
Axis Y—Y
Area Depth Width Thickness Thickness Ans X_X
Designation‘ (ill-2) (ill-) (ill-) (in.) (in.) I (in.4) S (in.3) r 1 (mi) s (in?) r (in.)
S24 x 121 35.6 24.50 8.050 1 .090 0.800 3160 258 9.43 83 .3 20.7 1.53
>< 106 31.2 24.50 7.870 1 .090 0.620 2940 240 9.71 77. 1 19.6 1.57
>< 100 29.3 24.00 7.245 0.8 70 0.745 2390 199 9.02 47.7 13.2 1.27
>< 90 26.5 24.00 7.125 0.8 70 0.625 2250 187 9.21 44.9 12.6 1.30
>< 80 23.5 24.00 7.000 0.8 70 0.500 2100 175 9.47 42.2 12.1 1.34
S20 x 96 28.2 20.30 7.200 0.920 0.800 1670 165 7.71 50.2 13.9 1.33
x 86 25 .3 20.30 7.060 0.920 0.660 1580 155 7.89 46.8 13.3 1.36
>< 75 22.0 20.00 6.385 0.795 0.635 1280 128 7.62 29.8 9.32 1.16
x 66 19.4 20.00 6.255 0.795 0.505 1190 119 7.83 27.7 8.85 1.19
S18 x 70 20.6 18.00 6.25 1 0.691 0.711 926 103 6.71 24. 1 7.72 1.08
>< 54.7 16.1 18.00 6.00 1 0.691 0.461 804 89.4 7.07 20.8 6.94 1.14
S15 x 50 14.7 15.00 5.640 0.622 0.550 486 64.8 5.75 1 5 .7 5.57 1.03
x 42.9 12.6 15.00 5.501 0.622 0.411 447 59.6 5.95 14.4 5.23 1.07
S12 >< 50 14.7 12.00 5.477 0.659 0.687 305 50.8 4.55 1 5 .7 5.74 1.03
>< 40.8 12.0 12.00 5.252 0.659 0.462 272 45.4 4.77 13 .6 5.16 1.06
x 35 10.3 12.00 5.078 0.544 0.428 229 38.2 4.72 9.87 3.89 0.980
x 31.8 9.35 12.00 5.000 0.544 0.350 218 36.4 4.83 9.36 3.74 1.00
S10 x 35 10.3 10.00 4.944 0.491 0.594 147 29.4 3.78 8.36 3.38 0.901
x 25.4 7.46 10.00 4.66 1 0.491 0.311 124 24.7 4.07 6.79 2.91 0.954
S8 x 23 6.77 8.00 4.171 0.426 0.441 649 16.2 3.10 4.3 1 2.07 0.798
x 18.4 5.41 8.00 4.00 1 0.426 0.271 576 14.4 3.26 3 .73 1.86 0.831
S7 x 20 5.88 7.00 3.860 0.3 92 0.450 424 12.1 2.69 3. 17 1.64 0.734
>< 15.3 4.50 7.00 3.662 0.3 92 0.252 363 10.5 2.86 2.64 1.44 0.766
S6 >< 17.25 5.07 6.00 3.565 0.3 59 0.465 263 8.77 2.28 2.3 1 1.30 0.675
>< 12.5 3.67 6.00 3.332 0.3 59 0.232 221 7.37 2.45 1 .82 1.09 0.705
S5 >< 14.75 4.34 5 .00 3.284 0.3 26 0.494 152 6.09 1.87 1 .67 1.01 0.620
>< 10 2.94 5 .00 3.004 0.3 26 0.214 123 4.92 2.05 1 .22 0.809 0.643
S4 x 9.5 2.79 4.00 2.796 0.293 0.326 679 3.39 1.56 0.903 0.646 0.569
x 7.7 2.26 4.00 2.663 0.293 0.193 608 3.04 1.64 0.764 0.574 0.581
S3 >< 7.5 2.21 3 .00 2.509 0.260 0.349 293 1.95 1.15 0.586 0.468 0.516
>< 5.7 1.67 3 .00 2.330 0.260 0.170 2.52 1.68 1.23 0.45 5 0.390 0.522
Courtesy of The American Institute of Steel Construction.
‘S means standard beam, followed by the nominal depth in inches, then the weigh in pounds per foot of length.
.1t1=m:1\mx B TABLES 011 mtomzimss 687
Y
I —- -—x
Table B-4 American Standard Beams (SI Units)

Axis Y—Y
8 Web “is X‘X
Area Depth Width Thickness Thickness I (106 S(103 r I(10“ S (103 r
Designation‘ (1111112) (111111) (111111) (111111) (111111) min‘) mm3) (111111) mm‘) mm3) (111111)
S610 x180 22970 622.3 204.5 27.7 20.3 1315 4225 240 34.7 339 38.9
x 158 20130 622.3 199.9 27.7 15.7 1225 3935 247 32.1 321 39.9
x 149 18900 609.6 184.0 22.1 18.9 995 3260 229 19.9 216 32.3
x134 17100 609.6 181.0 22.1 15.9 937 3065 234 18.7 206 33.0
x119 15160 609.6 177.8 22.1 12.7 874 2870 241 17.6 198 34.0
S508 x143 18190 515.6 182.9 23.4 20.3 695 2705 196 20.9 228 33.8
x 128 16320 5 1 5 .6 179.3 23.4 16.8 658 2540 200 19.5 218 34.5
x 112 14190 508.0 162.2 20.2 16.1 533 2100 194 12.4 153 29.5
x 98 12520 508.0 158.9 20.2 12.8 495 1950 199 11.5 145 30.2
S457 x 104 13290 457.2 158.8 17.6 18.1 358 1690 170 10.0 127 27.4
x 81 10390 457.2 152.4 17.6 11.7 335 1465 180 8.66 114 29.0
S381 x 74 9485 381 .0 143.3 15.8 14.0 202 1060 146 6.53 91.3 26.2
x 64 8130 381 .0 139.7 15.8 10.4 186 977 151 5.99 85.7 27.2
S305 x 74 9485 304.8 139.1 16.7 17.4 127 832 116 6.53 94.1 26.2
x 61 7740 304.8 133.4 16.7 11.7 113 744 121 5.66 84.6 26.9
x 52 6645 304.8 129.0 13.8 10.9 95.3 626 120 4.11 63.7 24.1
x47 6030 304.8 127.0 13.8 8.9 90.7 596 123 3.90 61.3 25.4
S254 x 52 6645 254.0 125.6 12.5 15.1 61.2 482 96.0 3.48 55.4 22.9
x 38 4815 254.0 118.4 12.5 7.9 51.6 408 103 2.83 47.7 24.2
S203 x 34 4370 203.2 105.9 10.8 11.2 27.0 265 78.7 1.79 33.9 20.3
x 27 3490 203.2 101.6 10.8 6.9 24.0 236 82.8 1.55 30.5 21.1
S178 x 30 3795 177.8 98.0 10.0 11.4 17.6 198 68.3 1.32 26.9 18.6
x 23 2905 177.8 93.0 10.0 6.4 15.3 172 72.6 1.10 23.6 19.5
S152 x 26 3270 152.4 90.6 9.1 11.8 10.9 144 57.9 0.961 21.3 17.1
x19 2370 152.4 84.6 9.1 5.9 9.20 121 62.2 0.758 17.9 17.9
S127 x 22 2800 127.0 83.4 8.3 12.5 6.33 998 47.5 0.695 16.6 15.7
x 15 1895 127.0 76.3 8.3 5.4 5.12 806 52.1 0.508 13.3 16.3
S102 x14 1800 101 .6 71.0 7.4 8.3 2.83 556 39.6 0.376 10.6 14.5
x 11 1460 101 .6 67.6 7.4 4.9 2.53 498 41.7 0.318 9.41 14.8
S76 x 11 1425 76.2 63.7 6.6 8.9 1.22 326 29.2 0.244 7.6 7 13.1
x 8.5 1075 76.2 59.2 6.6 4.3 1.05 276 31.2 0.189 6.3 9 13.3
‘S means standard beam, followed by the nominal depth in mm, then the mass in kg per meter of length
688 APPENDIX B 'r.m1.ss or P1toPait'r1Bs
[ X— -—x
xt-
1'
Table B-5 Standard Channels (U.S. Customary Units)

Flange web
Area Depth Width Thickness Thickness Axis X_X Axis Y
-Y
Designation‘ (111-2) (111-) (in.] (in.) I (iIt.4) S r (it1.) I S r (in.) If (in.)
iC18 x 58 17.1 18.00 4.200 0.625 0.700 676 75.1 6.29 17.8 5.32 1.02 0.862
x 51.9 15.3 18.00 4.100 0.625 0.600 627 69.7 6.41 16.4 5.07 1.04 0.858
>< 45.8 13.5 18.00 4.000 0.625 0.500 578 64.3 6.56 15.1 4.82 1.06 0.866
>< 42.7 12.6 18.00 3.950 0.625 0.450 554 61.6 6.64 14.4 4.69 1.07 0.877
C15 x 50 14.7 15.00 3.716 0.650 0.716 404 53.8 5.24 11.0 3.78 0.867 0.798
x 40 1 1.8 15.00 3.520 0.650 0.520 349 46.5 5.44 9.23 3.37 0.886 0.777
x 33.9 9.96 15.00 3.400 0.650 0.400 3 15 42.0 5.62 8.13 3.1 1 0.904 0.787
C12 X 30 8.82 12.00 3.170 0.501 0.510 162 27.0 4.29 5.14 2.06 0.763 0.674
x 25 7.35 12.00 3.047 0.501 0.387 144 24.1 4.43 4.47 1 .88 0.780 0.674
>< 20.7 6.09 12.00 2.942 0.501 0.282 129 21.5 4.61 3.88 1 .73 0.799 0.698
C10 x 30 8.82 10.00 3.033 0.436 0.673 103 20.7 3.42 3.94 1 .65 0.669 0.649
x 25 7.35 10.00 2.886 0.436 0.526 91.2 18.2 3.52 3.36 1 .48 0.676 0.617
x 20 5.88 10.00 2.739 0.436 0.379 78.9 15.8 3.66 2.81 1 .32 0.692 0.606
x 15.3 4.49 10.00 2.600 0.436 0.240 67.4 13.5 3.87 2.28 1 .16 0.713 0.634
C9 >< 20 5.88 9.00 2.648 0.41 3 0.448 60.9 13.5 3.22 2.42 1 .17 0.642 0.583
x 15 4.41 9.00 2.485 0.413 0.285 51.0 11.3 3.40 1.93 1 .01 0.661 0.586
>< 13.4 3.94 9.00 2.433 0.413 0.233 47.9 10.6 3.48 1.76 0.962 0.669 0.60 1
C8 x 18.75 5.51 8.00 2.527 0.390 0.487 44.0 11.0 2.82 1.98 1 .01 0.599 0.565
x 13.75 4.04 8.00 2.343 0.390 0.303 36.1 9.03 2.99 1.53 0.854 0.615 0.553
x 11.5 3.38 8.00 2.260 0.390 0.220 32.6 8.14 3.11 1.32 0.781 0.625 0.57 1
C7 x 14.75 4.33 7.00 2.299 0.366 0.419 27.2 7.78 2.51 1.38 0.779 0.564 0.532
>< 12.25 3.60 7.00 2.194 0.366 0.314 24.2 6.93 2.60 1.17 0.703 0.571 0.525
x 9.8 2.87 7.00 2.090 0.366 0.210 21.3 6.08 2.72 0.968 0.625 0.581 0.540
C6 x 13 3.83 6.00 2.157 0.343 0.437 17.4 5.80 2.13 1.05 0.642 0.525 0.514
x 10.5 3.09 6.00 2.034 0.343 0.314 15 .2 5.06 2.22 0.866 0.564 0.529 0.499
x 8.2 2.40 6.00 1.920 0.343 0.200 13 .1 4.38 2.34 0.693 0.492 0.537 0.51 1
C5 >< 9 2.64 5.00 1.885 0.320 0.325 8.90 3.56 1.83 0.632 0.450 0.489 0.478
x 6.7 1.97 5.00 1.750 0.320 0.190 7.49 3.00 1.95 0.479 0.378 0.493 0.484
C4 >< 7.25 2.13 4.00 1.721 0.296 0.321 4.59 2.29 1.47 0.433 0.343 0.450 0.459
x 5.4 1.59 4.00 1.584 0.296 0.184 3 .85 1.93 1.56 0.319 0.283 0.449 0.457
C3 >< 6 1.76 3.00 1.596 0.273 0.356 2.07 1.38 1.08 0.305 0.268 0.416 0.455
X 5 1.47 3.00 1.498 0.273 0.258 1.85 1.24 1.12 0.247 0.233 0.410 0.438
x 4.1 1.21 3.00 1.410 0.273 0.170 1.66 1.10 1.17 0.197 0.202 0.404 0.436
‘C means channel, followed by the nominal depth in inches, then the weight in pounds per foot of length.
1Not part of the American Standard Series.
APPENDIX B TABLES 011 mtomzlmas 689
1’
[ X—
<36
-—X
Table B-6 Standard Channels (SI Units)

Flange Axis X-X Axis Y—Y
Thick- Web I S I s
Area Depth Width ness Thickness (101 (101 T’ (1011 (101 I’ In
Designation‘ (mmz) (mm) (111111) (111111) (H1111) mm‘) mm’) (111111) mm‘) 111111’) (111111) (mm)
C457 X 86 11030 457.2 1067 15.9 118 281 1230 160 741 812 259 2L9
X 77 9870 457.2 1041 15.9 15.2 261 1140 163 683 831 264 2L8
X 68 8710 457.2 1016 15.9 127 241 1055 167 629 790 269 220
X 64 8130 4572 1003 15.9 1L4 231 1010 169 599 769 272 223
C381 X 74 9485 38L0 944 165 182 168 882 133 468 6L9 226 263
X 60 7615 38L0 894 165 13.2 145 762 138 384 562 226 197
X 50 6425 3816 864 16.5 102 131 688 143 338 5L0 210 200
C305 X 45 5690 3048 806 12.7 110 674 442 109 214 318 194 111
X 37 4740 3048 774 12.7 98 599 395 113 186 368 198 111
X 31 3930 3048 747 12.7 12 537 352 117 161 283 203 117
C254 X 45 5690 2546 776 111 171 429 339 869 164 210 110 165
X 37 4740 2546 733 111 114 386 298 894 140 243 112 167
X 30 3795 2546 696 111 96 328 259 936 117 2L6 116 164
X 23 2895 2546 666 111 61 281 221 983 0949 190 181 161
C229 X 30 3795 2286 673 10.5 1L4 253 221 818 161 192 163 148
X 22 2845 2286 631 10.5 12 2L2 185 864 0803 166 168 149
X 20 2540 2286 618 10.5 59 199 174 884 0733 167 110 163
C203 X 28 3555 2032 642 9.9 124 183 180 716 0824 166 162 144
X 20 2605 2012 596 9.9 77 156 148 759 0637 140 116 140
X 17 2180 2012 574 9.9 66 136 133 796 0649 128 119 145
C178 X 22 2795 1778 584 9.3 106 113 127 638 0674 128 143 115
X 18 2320 1718 557 9.3 80 101 114 666 0487 1L5 146 113
X 15 1850 1778 531 9.3 53 887 996 691 0403 162 148 117
C152 X 19 2470 1524 548 8.7 1L1 724 950 S41 0437 165 133 111
X 16 1995 1524 517 8.7 80 633 829 564 0360 924 114 127
X 12 1550 1524 488 8.7 51 S45 7L8 594 0288 806 116 110
C127 X 13 1705 1210 479 8.1 83 370 583 466 0263 737 124 121
X 10 1270 1276 446 8.1 48 312 492 496 0199 619 126 123
C102 X 11 1375 10L6 437 7.5 82 L91 376 373 0180 562 1L4 1L7
X8 1025 10L6 402 7.5 47 L60 3L6 396 0133 464 1L4 1L6
C76 X 9 1135 762 406 6.9 90 0862 226 274 0127 439 106 1L6
X7 948 762 386 6.9 66 0770 203 284 0103 382 104 1L1
X6 781 762 358 6.9 46 0691 180 297 0682 331 103 1L1
"C means channel, followed by the nominal depth in mm, then the mass in kg per meter of length.
690 APPENDIX B TABLES or Pnomrrms
| Z.
41¢
-\’\ |
X ‘t " X
\ Yc
_T_
Y z
Table B-7 Equal Leg Angles (U.S. Customary Units)
Size and Axis X—X or Y—Y Axis Z—Z

Thickness Weight Area I s P" X5; 01' Jig P"
(in.) (lbffl) (in-2) (in-4) (ill-3) (ill-) (in.) (in-)

L8 >< 8 x 1 51.0 15.0 89.0 15.8 2.44 2.37 1.56
>< 718 45.0 13.2 79.6 14.0 2.45 2.32 1.57
x 3/4 38.9 11.4 69.7 12.2 2.47 2.28 1.58
x 578 32.7 9.61 59.4 10.3 2.49 2.23 1.58
x 112 26.4 7.75 48.6 8.36 2.50 2.19 1.59
L6 >< 6 x 1 37.4 11.0 35.5 8.57 1 .80 1.86 1 . 17
x 7/8 33.1 9.73 31.9 7.63 1 .81 1.82 1.17
x 3/4 28.7 8.44 28.2 6.66 1 .83 1.78 1.17
x 518 24.2 7.11 24.2 5.66 1 .84 1.73 1.18
x 112 19.6 5.75 19.9 4.61 1 .86 1.68 1.18
x 318 14.9 4.36 15.4 3.53 1 .88 1.64 1.19
L5 >< 5 x 7/8 27.2 7.98 17.8 5.17 1 .49 1.57 0.973
x 3/4 23.6 6.94 15.7 4.53 1.5 1 1.52 0.975
x 5:'8 20.0 5.86 13.6 3.86 1 .52 1.48 0.978
x l/2 16.2 4.75 11.3 3.16 1 .54 1.43 0.983
x 318 12.3 3.61 8.74 2.42 1 .56 1.39 0.990
L4 >< 4 x 314 18.5 5.44 7.67 2.81 1 .19 1.27 0.778
x 5/8 15.7 4.61 6.66 2.40 1 .20 1.23 0.779
x 1/2 12.8 3.75 5.56 1.97 1 .22 1.18 0.782
x 3/8 9.8 2.86 4.36 1.52 1 .23 1.14 0.788
>< 114 6.6 1.94 3.04 1.05 1 .25 1.09 0.795
L3§ x 3% x l/2 1 1.1 3.25 3.64 1.49 1 .06 1.06 0.683
x 378 8.5 2.48 2.87 1.15 1 .07 1.01 0.687
x 114 5.8 1.69 2.01 0.794 1 .09 0.968 0.694
L3 x 3 x 1/2 9.4 2.75 2.22 1.07 0.898 0.932 0.584
x 3/8 7.2 2.11 1.76 0.833 0.9 1 3 0.888 0.58
x 1/4 4.9 1.44 1.24 0.577 0.930 0.84 .592
L2§ >< 25 >< 1:2 7.7 2.25 1.23 0.724 0.739 0.806 0.487
x 3:'8 5.9 1.73 0.984 0.566 0.753 0.762 0.487
x l/4 4.1 1.19 0.703 0.394 0.769 0.717 0.491
L2 x 2 x 318 4.7 1.36 0.479 0.351 0.594 0.636 0.389
x 114 3.19 0.938 0.348 0.247 0.609 0.592 0.391
x l/8 1.65 0.484 0.190 0.131 0.626 0.546 0.398
.u1m:1\mx B TABLES 011 Pnomzlmss 691
1'
Z\
+1-P‘
L X \1\ X
Y
1/ —’|?~."—
N
Table B-8 Equal Leg Angles [SI Units)

Axis X-X or Y—Y Axis Z—Z
Size and I S
Thickness Mass Area (10° (103 r XC O1‘ yg r
(111111) (1121111) (1111112) 111111‘) 1111113) (111111) (111111) (111111)
L203 >< 203 >< 25.4 75.9 9675 37.0 259 62.0 60.2 39.6
x 222 67.0 8515 33.1 229 62.2 58.9 39.9
x 191 57.9 7355 29.0 200 62.7 57.9 40.1
x 159 48.7 6200 24.7 169 63.2 56.6 40.1
x 123 39.3 5000 20.2 137 63.5 55.6 40.4
L152 x 152 >< 25.4 55.7 7095 14.8 140 45.7 47.2 29.7
x 222 49.3 6275 13.3 125 46.0 46.2 29.7
x 191 42.7 5445 11.7 109 46.5 45.2 29.7
x 159 36.0 4585 10.1 92.8 46.7 43.9 30.0
x 12] 29.2 3710 8.28 75.5 47.2 42.7 30.0
x 95 22.2 2815 6.61 57.8 47.8 41.7 30.2
L127 x 127 x 22.2 40.5 5150 7.41 84.7 37.8 39.9 24.7
x 191 35.1 4475 6.53 74.2 38.4 38.6 24.8
x 153 29.8 3780 5.66 63.3 38.6 37.6 24.8
x 121 24.1 3065 4.70 51.8 39.1 36.3 25.0
x 95 18.3 2330 3.64 39.7 39.6 35.3 25.1
L102 x 102 x 191 27.5 3510 3.19 46.0 30.2 32.3 19.8
x 159 23.4 2975 2.77 39.3 30.5 31.2 19.8
x 123 19.0 2420 2.31 32.3 31.0 30.0 19.9
>< 9.5 14.6 1845 1.81 24.9 31.2 29.0 20.0
x 64 9.8 1250 1.27 17.2 31.8 27.7 20.2
L89 x 89 >< 12.7 16.5 2095 1.52 24.4 26.9 26.9 17.3
x 95 12.6 1600 1.19 18.8 27.2 25.7 17.4
x 64 8.6 1090 0.837 13.0 27.7 24.6 17.6
L76 x 76 x 12.7 14.0 1775 0.924 17.5 22.8 23.7 14.8
x 95 10.7 1360 0.732 13.7 23.2 22.6 14.9
>< 6.4 7.3 929 0.516 9.46 23.6 21.4 15.0
L64 x 64 >< 12.7 11.5 1450 0.512 11.9 18.8 20.5 12.4
>< 9.5 8.8 1115 0.410 9.28 19.1 19.4 12.4
>< 6.4 6.1 768 0.293 6.46 19.5 18.2 12.5
L51 x 51 >< 9.5 7.0 877 0.199 5.75 15.1 16.2 9.88
x 6A 4.75 605 0.145 4.05 15.5 15.0 9.93
x 32 2.46 312 0.079 2.15 15.9 13.9 10.1
692 APPENDIX B 'r.m1.ss or Pnomrrms
Y
-1. 1-xc
Z
1
X ‘\~-—-J-—X
L '
.._ J’c
Ira
Table B-9 Unequal Leg Angles (U.S. Cusmmary Units)

Size and Axis X—X Axis Y—Y Axis Z—Z
Thickness Weight Area 1 S I’ ya" I S P’ If ?'
(in.) (lb/11) (in?) (111-4) (in?) (in.) (111-1 (in.“) (111-3) (111-) (in.) (in.) Tana
L9 x 4 x 5/8 26.3 7.73 64.9 11.5 2.90 3.36 8.32 2.65 1.04 0.858 0.847 0.216
x 1/2 21.3 6.25 53.2 9.34 2.92 3.31 6.92 2.17 1.05 0.810 0.854 0.220
L8 x 6 x 1 44.2 13.0 80.8 15.1 2.49 2.65 38.8 8.92 1.73 1.65 1.28 0.543
x 3/4 33.8 9.94 63.4 11.7 2.53 2.56 30.7 6.92 1.76 1.56 1.29 0.551
x 1/2 23.0 6.75 44.3 8.02 2.56 2.47 21.7 4.79 1.79 1.47 1.30 0.558
L8 x 4 x 1 37.4 11.0 69.6 14.1 2.52 3.05 11.6 3.94 1.03 1.05 0.846 0.247
x 3/4 28.7 8.44 54.9 10.9 2.55 2.95 9.36 3.07 1.05 0.953 0.852 0.258
x 1/2 19.6 5.75 38.5 7.49 2.59 2.86 6.74 2.15 1.08 0.859 0.865 0.267
L7 x 4 x 3/4 26.2 7.69 37.8 8.42 2.22 2.5 1 9.05 3.03 1.09 1.01 0.860 0.324
x 1/2 17.9 5 .25 26.7 5.81 2.25 2.42 6.53 2.12 1.1 1 0.917 0.872 0.335
x 3/8 13.6 3.98 20.6 4.44 2.27 2.37 5.10 1.63 1.13 0.870 0.880 0.340
L6 x 4 x 3/4 23.6 6.94 24.5 6.25 1.88 2.08 8.68 2.97 1.12 1.08 0.860 0.428
x 1/2 16.2 4.75 17.4 4.33 1.91 1.99 6.27 2.08 1.15 0.987 0.870 0.440
x 3/8 12.3 3.61 13.5 3.32 1.93 1.94 4.90 1.60 1.17 0.941 0.877 0.446
L6 x 3§x1/2 15.3 4.50 16.6 4.24 1.92 2.08 4.25 1.59 0.972 0.833 0.759 0.344
x 3/8 11.7 3.42 12.9 3.24 1.94 2.04 3.34 1.23 0.988 0.787 0.767 0.350
L5 x 3§x 3/4 19.8 5.81 13.9 4.28 1.55 1.75 5.55 2.22 0.977 0.996 0.748 0.464
x 1/2 13.6 4.00 9.99 2.99 1.58 1.66 4.05 1.56 1.01 0.906 0.755 0.479
x 3/8 10.4 3.05 7.78 2.29 1.60 1.61 3.18 1.21 1.02 0.861 0.762 0.486
x 1/4 7.0 2.06 5.39 1.57 1.62 1.56 2.23 0.830 1.04 0.814 0.770 0.492
L5 x 3 x l/2 12.8 3.75 9.45 2.91 1.59 1.75 2.58 1.15 0.829 0.750 0.648 0.357
x 3/8 9.8 2.86 7.37 2.24 1.61 1.70 2.04 0.888 0.845 0.704 0.654 0.364
x 1/4 6.6 1.94 5.11 1.53 1.62 1.66 1.44 0.614 0.861 0.657 0.663 0.371
L4 x 3§x 1/2 11.9 3.50 5.32 1.94 1.23 1.25 3.79 1.52 1.04 1.00 0.722 0.750
x 3/8 9.1 2.67 4.18 1.49 1.25 1.21 2.95 1.17 1.06 0.955 0.727 0.755
x 1/4 6.2 1.81 2.91 1.03 1.27 1.16 2.09 0.808 1.07 0.909 0.734 0.759
L4 x 3 x 1/2 11.1 3.25 5.05 1.89 1.25 1.33 2.42 1.12 0.864 0.827 0.639 0.543
x 3/8 8.5 2.48 3.96 1.46 1.26 1.28 1.92 0.866 0.879 0.782 0.644 0.551
x 1/4 5.8 1.69 2.77 1.00 1.28 1.24 1.36 0.599 0.896 0.736 0.651 0.558
L3§ x 3 x l/2 10.2 3.00 3.45 1.45 1.07 1.13 2.33 1.10 0.881 0.875 0.621 0.714
x 3/8 7.9 2.30 2.72 1.13 1.09 1.08 1.85 0.851 0.897 0.830 0.625 0.721
x 1/4 5.4 1.56 1.91 0.776 1.11 1.04 1.30 0.589 0.914 0.785 0.631 0.727
L3§ X2; ><1/2 9.4 2.75 3.24 1.41 1.09 1.20 1.36 0.760 0.704 0.705 0.534 0.486
>< 3/s 7.2 2.11 2.56 1.09 1.10 1.16 1.09 0.592 0.719 0.660 0.537 0.496
>< 1/4 4.9 1.44 1.80 0.755 1.12 1.1 1 0.777 0.412 0.735 0.614 0.544 0.506
L3 >< 2; >< 1,12 8.5 2.50 2.08 1.04 0.913 1.00 1.30 0.744 0.722 0.750 0.520 0.667
x 3/8 6.6 1.92 1.66 0.810 0.928 0.956 1.04 0.581 0.736 0.706 0.522 0.676
>< 1/4 4.5 1.31 1.17 0.561 0.945 0.911 0.743 0.404 0.753 0.661 0.528 0.684
1.3 >< 2 >< 1:2 7.7 2.25 1.92 1.00 0.924 1.08 0.672 0.474 0.546 0.583 0.428 0.414
>< 3/s 5.9 1.73 1.53 0.781 0.940 1.04 0.543 0.371 0.559 0.539 0.430 0.428
>< 1/4 4.1 1.19 1.09 0.542 0.957 0.993 0.392 0.260 0.574 0.493 0.435 0.440
L2; >< 2 >< 3/3 5.3 1.55 0.912 0.547 0.768 0.813 0.514 0.363 0.577 0.581 0.420 0.614
>< 1,14 3.62 1.06 0.654 0.381 0.784 0.787 0.372 0.254 0.592 0.537 0.424 0.626
.u1m:1\mx B TABLES 011 Pnomzlmns 693
1'
I xi “\.—~—-4—x
" E ya
P ___ -\ T
11 z
Table B-10 Unequal Leg Angles (SI Units) 1’
Axis X—X Axis Y—Y

Size and 1 s 1 s “is Z—Z
Thickness Mass Area (101 (101 r yc (101 (101 r If r
(111111) (ks/111) (1111112) mm‘) mm’) (111111) (111111) mm‘) mml) (111111) (111111) (111111) Tan Q!
L229 x 102 x 15.9 39.1 4985 27.0 188 73.7 85.3 3.46 43.4 26.4 21.8 21.5 0.216
x 123 31.7 4030 22.1 153 74.2 84.1 2.88 35.6 26.7 20.6 21.7 0.220
L203 x 152 x 25.4 65.8 8385 33.6 247 63 .2 67.3 16.1 146 43.9 41.9 32.5 0.543
x 191 50.3 6415 26.4 192 64.3 65.0 12.8 113 44.7 39.6 32.8 0.551
x 123 34.2 4355 18.4 131 65.0 62.7 9.03 78.5 45.5 37.3 33.0 0.558
L203 x 102 x 25.4 55.7 7095 29.0 231 64.0 77.5 4.83 64.6 26.2 26.7 21.5 0.247
x 191 42.7 5445 22.9 179 64.8 74.9 3.90 50.3 26.7 24.2 21.6 0.258
x 123 29.2 3710 16.0 123 65.8 72.6 2.81 35.2 27.4 21.8 22.0 0.267
L178 x 102 x 191 39.0 4960 15.7 138 56.4 63.8 3.77 49.7 27.7 25.7 21.8 0.324
x 123 26.6 3385 11.1 95.2 57.2 61.5 2.72 34.7 28.2 23.3 22.1 0.335
x 9.5 20.2 2570 8.57 72.8 57.7 60.2 2.12 26.7 28.7 22.1 22.4 0.340
L152 x 102 x 191 35.1 4475 10.2 102 47.8 52.8 3.61 48.7 28.4 27.4 21.8 0.428
x 123 24.1 3065 7.24 71.0 48.5 50.5 2.61 34.1 29.2 25.1 22.1 0.440
x 95 18.3 3230 5.62 54.4 49.0 49.3 2.04 26.2 29.7 23.9 22.3 0.446
L152 x 89 x 12.7 22.8 2905 6.91 69.5 48.8 52.8 1.77 26.1 24.7 21.2 19.3 0.344
x 95 17.4 2205 5.37 53.1 49.3 51.8 1.39 20.2 25.1 20.0 19.5 0.350
L127 x 89 x 191 29.5 3750 5.79 70.1 39.4 44.5 2.31 36.4 24.8 25.3 19.0 0.464
x 123 20.2 2580 4.16 49.0 40.1 42.2 1.69 25.6 25.7 23.0 19.2 0.479
x 95 15.5 1970 3.24 37.5 40.6 40.9 1.32 19.8 25.9 21.9 19.4 0.486
x 6.4 10.4 1330 2.24 25.7 41.1 39.6 0.928 13.6 26.4 20.7 19.6 0.492
L127 x 76 x 12.7 19.0 2420 3.93 47.7 40.4 445 1.07 18.8 21.1 19.1 16.5 0.357
x 95 14.6 1845 3.07 36.7 40.9 43.2 0.849 14.6 21.5 17.9 16.6 0.364
x 6A 9.82 1250 2.13 25.1 41.1 42.2 0.599 10.1 21.9 16.7 16.8 0.371
L102 x 89 x 12.7 17.7 2260 2.21 31.8 31.2 31.8 1.58 24.9 26.4 25.4 18.3 0.750
x 9.5 13.5 1725 1.74 24.4 31.8 30.7 1.23 19.2 26.9 24.3 18.5 0.755
x 6A 9.22 1170 1.21 16.9 32.3 29.5 0.870 13.2 27.2 23.1 18.6 0.759
L102 >< 76 x 12.7 16.5 2095 2.10 31.0 31.8 33.8 1.01 18.4 21.9 21.0 16.2 0.543
x 95 12.6 1600 1.65 23.9 32.0 32.5 0.799 14.2 22.3 19.9 16.4 0.551
x 6A 8.63 1090 1.15 16.4 32.5 31.5 0.566 9.82 22.8 18.7 16.5 0.558
L89 x 76 x 12.7 15.2 1935 1.44 23.8 27.2 28.7 0.970 18.0 22.4 22.2 15.8 0.714
x 95 11.8 1485 1.13 18.5 27.7 27.4 0.770 13.9 22.8 21.1 15.9 0.721
x 6A 8.04 1005 0.795 12.7 28.2 26.4 0.541 9.65 23.2 19.9 16.0 0.727
L89 x 64 x 12.7 14.0 1775 1.35 23.1 27.7 30.5 0.566 12.5 17.9 17.9 13.6 0.486
x 95 10.7 1360 1.07 17.9 27.9 29.5 0.454 8.70 18.3 16.8 13.6 0.496
x 6.4 7.29 929 0.749 12.4 28.4 28.2 0.323 6.75 18.7 15.6 13.8 0.506
L76 x 64 x 12.7 12.6 1615 0.866 17.0 23.2 25.4 0.541 12.2 18.3 19.1 13.2 0.667
x 95 9.82 1240 0.691 13.3 23 .6 24.3 0.433 9.52 18.7 17.9 13.3 0.676
x 6A 6.70 845 0.487 9.19 24.0 23.1 0.309 6.62 19.1 16.8 13.4 0.684
L76 x 51 x 12.7 11.5 1450 0.799 16.4 23.5 27.4 0.280 7.77 13.9 14.8 10.9 0.414
x 9.5 8.78 1115 0.637 12.8 23.9 26.4 0.226 6.08 14.2 13.7 10.9 0.428
x 6A 6.10 768 0.454 8.88 24.3 25.2 0.163 4.26 14.6 12.5 11.0 0.440
L64 x 51 x 95 7.89 1000 0.380 8.96 19.5 20.7 0.214 5.95 14.7 14.8 10.7 0.614
x 6A 5.39 684 0.272 6.24 19.9 20.0 0.155 4.16 15.0 13.6 10.8 0.626
694 APPENDIX B TABLES 0B PROPERTIES
Y
-1‘-
J"C
X_-L X
T
1’
Table B-1 1 Structural Tees (U.S. Customary Units)
Flange Stem Axis X—X Axis Y—Y
Depth
Area of Tee Width Thickness Thickness I S T yc I S r
Designation‘ (in?) (111-1 (in-) (in.) (in.) (in.4) (111.3) (in.) (111) (in.“) (in?) (in.)
W'I‘l8x115 33.8 17.950 16.470 1 .260 0.760 934 67.0 5.25 4.01 470 57.1 3.73
x80 23.5 18.005 12.000 1 .020 0.650 740 55.8 5.61 4.74 147 24.6 2.50
W'I‘l5x66 19.4 15.155 10.545 1 .000 0.615 421 37.4 4.66 3.90 98.0 18.6 2.25
x54 15.9 14.915 10.475 0.760 0.545 349 32.0 4.69 4.01 73.0 13.9 2.15
W'I‘l2x52 15.3 12.030 12.750 0.750 0.500 189 20.0 3.51 2.59 130 20.3 2.91
x47 13.8 12.155 9.065 0.875 0.515 186 20.3 3.67 2.99 54.5 12.0 1.98
x42 12.4 12.050 9.020 0.770 0.470 166 18.3 3.67 2.97 47.2 10.5 1.95
x31 9.11 11.870 7.040 0.590 0.430 131 15.6 3.79 3.46 17.2 4.90 1.38
WT9x38 11.2 9.105 11.035 0.680 0.425 71.8 9.83 2.54 1.80 76.2 13.8 2.61
x30 8.82 9.120 7.555 0.695 0.415 64.7 9.29 2.71 2.16 25.0 6.63 1.69
x25 7.33 8.995 7.495 0.570 0.355 53.5 7.79 2.70 2.12 20.0 5.35 1.65
x20 5.88 8.950 6.015 0.525 0.315 44.8 6.73 2.76 2.29 9.55 3.17 1.27
WT8x50 14.7 8.485 10.425 0.985 0.585 76.8 11.4 2.28 1.76 93.1 17.9 2.51
x25 7.37 8.130 7.070 0.630 0.380 42.3 6.78 2.40 1.89 18.6 5.26 1.59
x20 5.89 8.005 6.995 0.505 0.305 33.1 5.35 2.37 1.81 14.4 4.12 1.57
x13 3.84 7.845 5.500 0.345 0.250 23.5 4.09 2.47 2.09 4.80 1.74 1.12
WT7x60 17.7 7.240 14.670 0.940 0.590 51.7 8.61 1.71 1.24 247 33.7 3.74
x41 12.0 7.155 10.130 0.85 5 0.510 41.2 7.14 1.85 1.39 74.2 14.6 2.48
x34 9.99 7.020 10.035 0.720 0.415 32.6 5.69 1.81 1.29 60.7 12.1 2.46
x24 7.07 6.985 8.030 0.595 0.340 24.9 4.48 1.87 1.35 25.7 6.40 1.91
x15 4.42 6.920 6.730 0.385 0.270 19.0 3.55 2.07 1.58 9.79 2.91 1.49
x11 3.25 6.870 5.000 0.33 5 0.230 14.8 2.91 2.14 1.76 3.50 1.40 1.04
WT6x60 17.6 6.560 12.320 1 .105 0.710 43.4 8.22 1.57 1.28 172 28.0 3.13
x48 14.1 6.355 12.160 0.900 0.550 32.0 6.12 1.51 1.13 135 22.2 3.09
x36 10.6 6.125 12.040 0.670 0.430 23.2 4.54 1.48 1.02 97.5 16.2 3.04
x25 7.34 6.095 8.080 0.640 0.370 18.7 3.79 1.60 1.17 28.2 6.97 1.96
x15 4.40 6.170 6.520 0.440 0.260 13.5 2.75 1.75 1.27 10.2 3.12 1.52
x8 2.36 5.995 3.990 0.265 0.220 8.70 2.04 1.92 1.74 1.41 0.706 0.773
WT5x56 16.5 5.680 10.415 1 .250 0.755 28.6 6.40 1.32 1.21 118 22.6 2.68
x44 12.9 5.420 10.265 0.990 0.605 20.8 4.77 1.27 1.06 89.3 17.4 2.63
x30 8.82 5.110 10.080 0.680 0.420 12.9 3.04 1.21 0.884 58.1 11.5 2.57
x15 4.42 5.235 5.810 0.510 0.300 9.28 2.24 1.45 1.10 8.35 2.87 1.37
x6 1.77 4.935 3.960 0.210 0.190 4.35 1.22 1.57 1.36 1.09 0.551 0.785
WT4x29 8.55 4.375 8.220 0.810 0.510 9.12 2.61 1.03 0.874 37.5 9.13 2.10
x20 5.87 4.125 8.070 0.560 0.360 5.73 1.69 0.988 0.735 24.5 6.08 2.04
x12 3.54 3.965 6.495 0.400 0.245 3.53 1.08 0.999 0.695 9.14 2.81 1.61
x9 2.63 4.070 5.250 0.330 0.230 3.41 1.05 1.14 0.834 3.98 1.52 1.23
x5 1.48 3.945 3.940 0.205 0.170 2.15 0.717 1.20 0.953 1.05 0.532 0.841
WT3x10 2.94 3.100 6.020 0.365 0.260 1.76 0.693 0.774 0.560 6.64 2.21 1.50
x6 1.78 3.015 4.000 0.280 0.230 1.32 0.564 0.861 0.677 1.50 0.748 0.918
WT2x6.5 1.91 2.080 4.060 0.345 0.280 0.526 0.321 0.524 0.440 1.93 0.950 1.00
‘WT means structural T-section (cut from a W-section), followed by the nominal depth in inches, then the weight in pounds per foot of length.
APPENDIX B TABLES 011 Pnomzlrrms 695
_|_ —x
Table B-12 Structural Tees (SI Units)

_
W
Flange Stem Axis X—X Axis Y—Y

Depth
Area of Tee Width Thickness Thickness 1 (101 s (101 r J"c 1 (101 s (101 r
Designation‘ (1111112) (111111) (111111) (111111) (mm) mm‘) mm3) (111111) (111111) mm‘) mm‘) (111111)
WT457 >< 171 21805 455.9 418.3 32.0 19.3 389 1098 133 102 196 936 94.7
x 119 15160 457.3 304.8 25.9 16.5 308 914 142 120 61.2 403 63.5
WT381 x 98 12515 384.9 267.8 25.4 15.6 175 613 118 99.1 40.8 305 57.2
x 80 10260 378.8 266.1 19.3 13.8 145 S24 119 102 30.4 228 54.6
WT305 x 77 9870 305.6 323.9 19.1 12.7 78.7 328 89.2 65.8 54.1 333 73.9
x 70 8905 308.7 230.3 22.2 13.1 77.4 333 93.2 75.9 22.7 197 50.3
x 63 8000 306.1 229.1 19.6 11.9 69.1 300 93.2 75.4 19.6 172 49.5
>< 46 5875 301.5 178.8 15.0 10.9 54.5 256 96.3 87.9 7.16 80.3 35.1
WT229 x 57 7225 231.3 280.3 17.3 10.8 29.9 161 64.5 45.7 31.7 226 66.3
x 45 5690 231.6 191.9 17.7 10.5 26.9 152 68.8 54.9 10.4 109 42.9
x 37 4730 228.5 190.4 14.5 9.0 22.3 128 68.6 53.8 8.32 87.7 41.9
x 30 3795 227.3 152.8 13.3 8.0 18.6 110 70.1 58.2 3.98 51.9 32.3
WT203 x 74 9485 215.5 264.8 25.0 14.9 32.0 187 57.9 44.7 38.8 293 63.8
x 37 4755 206.5 179.6 16.0 9.7 17.6 111 61.0 48.0 7.74 86.2 40.4
>< 30 3800 203.3 177.7 12.8 7.7 13.8 87.7 60.2 46.0 5.99 67.5 39.9
x 19 2475 199.3 139.7 8.8 6.4 9.78 67.0 62.7 53.1 2.00 28.5 28.4
WTl78 x 89 11420 183.9 372.6 23.9 15.0 21.5 141 43.4 31.5 103 552 95.0
x 61 7740 181.7 257.3 21.7 13.0 17.1 117 47.0 35.3 30.9 239 63.0
x 51 6445 178.3 254.9 18.3 10.5 13.6 93.2 46.0 32.8 25.3 198 62.5
x 36 4560 177.4 204.0 15.1 8.6 10.4 73.4 47.5 34.3 10.7 105 48.5
x 22 2850 175.8 170.9 9.8 6.9 7.91 58.2 52.6 40.1 4.07 47.7 37.8
x 16 2095 174.5 127.0 8.5 5.8 6.16 47.7 54.4 44.7 1.46 22.9 26.4
WTl52 x 89 11355 166.6 312.9 28.1 18.0 18.1 135 39.9 32.5 71.6 459 79.5
x 71 9095 161.4 308.9 22.9 14.0 13.3 100 38.4 28.7 56.2 364 78.5
>< 54 6840 155.6 305.8 17.0 10.9 9.66 74.4 37.6 25.9 40.6 265 77.2
x 37 4735 154.8 205.2 16.2 9.4 7.78 62.1 40.6 29.7 11.7 114 49.8
x 22 2840 156.7 165.6 11.2 6.6 5.62 45.1 44.5 32.3 4.25 51.1 38.6
x 12 1525 152.3 101.3 6.7 5.6 3.62 33.4 48.8 44.2 0.587 11.6 19.6
WT127 x 83 10645 144.3 264.5 31.8 19.2 11.9 105 33.5 30.7 49.1 370 68.1
>< 65 8325 137.7 260.7 25.1 15.4 8.66 78.2 32.3 26.9 37.2 285 66.8
x 45 5690 129.8 256.0 17.3 10.7 5.37 49.8 30.7 22.5 24.2 188 65.3
x 22 2850 133.0 147.6 13.0 7.6 3.86 36.7 36.8 27.9 3.48 47.0 34.8
x 9 1140 125.3 100.6 5.3 4.8 1.81 20.0 39.9 34.5 0.454 9.03 19.9
WT102 x 43 5515 111.1 208.8 20.6 13.0 3.80 42.8 26.2 22.2 15.6 150 53.3
X 30 3785 104.8 205.0 14.2 9.1 2.39 27.7 25.1 18.7 10.2 99.6 51.8
x 18 2285 100.7 165.0 10.2 6.2 1.47 17.7 25.4 17.7 3.80 46.0 40.9
>< 13 1695 103.4 133.4 8.4 5.8 1.42 17.2 29.0 21.2 1.66 24.9 31.2
x 7 955 100.2 100.1 5.2 4.3 0.895 11.7 30.5 24.2 0.437 8.72 21.4
WT76 x 15 1895 78.7 152.9 9.3 6.6 0.733 11.4 19.7 14.2 2.76 36.2 38.1
X 9 1150 76.6 101.6 7.1 5.8 0.549 9.24 21.9 17.2 0.624 12.3 23.3
WT51 x 10 1230 52.8 103.1 8.8 7.1 0.219 5.26 13.3 11.2 0.803 15.6 25.4
‘WT means structural T-section (cut from a W-section), follcrwed by the nominal depth in rnrn, than the mass in kg per meter of length.
696 .u111|:1~rn1x B TABLES or Psomrrms
Table B-13 Properties of Standard Steel Pipe (U.S. Customary Units)

Dimensions
wan Properties
Nominal Outside Inside
Diam. Diam. Diam. Thickness Weight
d do di I w A I S F’
(in.) (in.] (111-) (in.) (lb/11) (111-2) (111-4) (111-3) (111)

Standard Weight
1 0 840 0.622 0.109 0.85 0.250 0.017 0.04 1 0.26
vu
1.050 0.824 0.113 0.13 0.333 0.037 0.07 1 0.33
1.315 1 .049 0.133 1.68 0.494 0.087 0.13 3 0.42
1.660 1 .380 0.140 2.27 0.669 0.195 0.23 5 0.54
1.900 1 .6 10 0.145 2.72 0.799 0.310 0.326 0.62
2.375 2.067 0.154 3.65 1.075 0.666 0.56 1 0.79
— 2.875 2.469 0.203 5.79 1.704 1.530 1 .064 0.95
3.500 3.068 0.216 7.58 2.228 3.017 1 .724 1.16
—
v~..1z:->1.6:._-m- .L»-
4.000 3.548 0.226 9.11 2.680 4.787 2.39 1.34
4.500 4.026 0.237 10.79 3.174 7.233 3.21 1.51
5.563 5.047 0.258 14.62 4.300 15.16 5.45 1.88
6.625 6.065 0.280 18.97 5.581 28.14 8.50 2.25
8.625 7.98 1 0.322 28.55 8.399 72.49 16.81 2.94
10.750 10.020 0.365 40.48 11.91 160.7 29.9 3.67
>-:- MO0 O\Ln-l=nu-I rMl\J- 12.750 12.000 0.375 49.56 14.58 279.3 43.8 4.38
Extra Strong
2
1.900
2.375
11 1.500
1.939
0.200
0.218
3.63
5.02
1.068
1.477
0.39 1
0.868
0.412
0.73 1
0.61
0.77
2; 2.375 2.323 0.276 7.66 2.254 1 .924 1 .33 8 0.92
3 3.500 2.900 0.300 10.25 3.016 3.894 2.23 1.14
4 4.500 3.826 0.337 14.98 4.407 9.610 4.27 1.48
6 6.625 5.761 0.432 28.57 8.405 40.49 12.22 2.20
Double Extra Strung
2
11 1.900
2.315
1.100
1.503
0.400
0.436
6.41
9.03
1.885
2.656
0.568
1.311
0.564
1 .104
0.55
0.70
2% 2.275 1.771 0.552 13.69 4.028 2.871 1 .997 0.84
3 3.500 2.300 0.600 18.58 5.466 5.993 3.42 1.05
4.500 3.152 0.674 27.54 8.101 15.28 6.79 1.37
O\-in 6.625 4.897 0.864 53.16 15.64 66.33 20.0 2.06
.u1m:1\mx B TABLES 011 Pnomzlrrms 697
Table B-111 Properties of Standard Steel Pipe (SI Units)

Dimensions
Properties
Nominal Outside Inside Wall
Diam. Diam. Diam. Thickness Mass I S
d do di I TH A ( 10° ) ( 103 ) 7'
(111111) (111111) (111111) (111111) (kg/111) (1111112) (111111‘) (111111’) (111111)

Standard Weight
13 21.3 15.8 2.77 1.264 161.3 0.007 0.672 6.6
19 26.7 20.9 2.87 1.681 214.8 0.015 1.163 8.5
25 33.4 26.6 3.38 2.499 318.7 0.036 2.179 10.7
32 42.2 35.1 3.56 3.376 431.6 0.081 3.851 13.7
38 48.1 40.9 3.68 4.045 515.5 0.129 5.342 15.8
51 60.3 52.5 3.91 5.428 693.5 0.277 9.193 20.0
64 73.0 62.7 5.16 8.611 1099 0.637 17.44 24.1
76 88.9 77.9 5.49 11.27 1437 1.256 28.25 29.5
89 101.6 90.1 5.74 13.55 1729 1.992 39.17 34.0
102 114.3 102.3 6.02 16.05 2048 3.011 52.60 38.4
127 141.3 128.2 6.55 21.74 2774 6.310 89.31 47.8
152 168.3 154.1 7.11 28.21 3600 11.71 139.3 57.2
203 219.1 202.7 8.18 42.46 5419 30.2 275.5 74.7
254 273.1 254.5 9.27 60.20 7684 66.9 490 93.2
305 323.9 304.8 9.53 73.71 9406 116.3 718 11 1.3
Extra Strong
38 48.3 38.1 5.08 5.399 689 0.163 6.75 15.4
51 60.3 49.3 5.54 7.466 953 0.361 1 1.98 19.5
64 70.0 59.0 7.01 1 1.39 1454 0.801 21 .93 23.5
76 88.9 73.7 7.62 1 5.24 1946 1.621 36.54 29.0
102 114.3 97.2 8.56 22.28 2843 4.000 69.67 37.6
152 168.3 146.3 10.97 42.49 5423 16.85 200 55.9
Double Extra Stmng

38 48.3 27.9 10.16 9.53 1216 0.236 0.564 13.9
51 60.3 38.2 11.07 13.43 1714 0.546 1.104 17.9
64 70.0 45.0 14.02 20.36 2600 1.195 1.997 21.4
76 88.9 58.4 15.24 27.63 3526 2.494 3.42 26.7
102 114.3 80.1 17.12 40.96 5226 6.360 6.79 34.8
152 168.3 124.4 21.95 79.06 10090 27.61 20.0 52.3
698 APPENDIX B 'r.m1.ss or Psomrrms
Table B-15 Properties of Standard Structural Timber (U.S. Customary Units)

Dimensions‘ Properties
Nominal Second Section
Size Dressed Weight Area Moment Modulus
bxh Size W A I S
(in.) (in) (lblfi) (in?) (inf) (in?)
2x4 1§x3§ 1.64 5.89 6.45 3.56

6 1% 2.54 9.14 241 8.57
8 11 3.39 12.2 571 15 .3
10
12
1%
111
4.29
5.19
15.4
18.7
116
206
24.4
35.8
4x4 31x35
8 8 3.65 13.1 14A 7.94
6 1:. 5.66 20.4 538 19.1
8 11 7.55 27.2 127 34.0
10
12
11
11;
9.57
11.6
34.4
41.7
259
459
54.5
79.9
6x6 sgxsg 8.40 30.3 763 27.7
8 11 11.4 41.3 193 51.6
10
12
11
11;
14.5
17.5
52.3
63.3
393
697
82.7
121
14 13; 20.6 74.3 1128 167
8x8 7% ><7% 15.6 56.3 264 70.3
10
12
1;
11;
19.8
23.9
71.3
86.3
536
951
113
165
14 13; 28.0 101 1538 228
16 151 32.0 116 2327 300
10 x 10 1 1 25.0 90.3 679 143
12 11; 30.3 109 1204 209
14 13; 35.6 128 1948 289
16 15; 40.9 147 2948 380
18 1712. 46.1 166 4243 485
12 >< 12 11§><11g 36.7 132 1458 253
14 13; 43.1 155 2358 349
16 15; 49.5 178 3569 460
18 17; 55.9 201 5136 587
20 19; 62.3 224 7106 729
‘Properties and weights are for dressed sizes.
APPENDIX B TABLES or rnomzlmss 699
Table B-16 Properties of Standard Structural 'fimber (SI Units)

Dimensions‘ Properties
Nominal Second Section
Size Dressed Mass Area Moment Modulus
bxh Size M A I S
(111111) (111111) (ks/111) (10 3 rnrnz) (10° mm‘) (103 inm
51 X 102 41 X 92 2.44 3.77 2.68 58.3
152 140 3.78 5.86 10.03 140
203 191 5.04 7.83 23 .8 251
254 241 6.38 9.88 48.3 400
305 292 7.72 12.0 85.7 587
102 X 102 92 X 92 5.43 8.46 5 .99 130
152 140 8.42 13.2 22.4 313
203 191 11.2 17.6 52.9 557
254 241 14.2 22.2 107.8 893
305 292 17.3 26.9 191.1 1310
152 X 152 140 X 140 12.5 19.6 31.8 454
203 191 17.0 26.7 80.3 846
254 241 21.6 33.7 163.6 1350
305 292 26.0 40.9 290 1980
356 343 30.6 48.0 470 2740
203 X 203 191 X 19 1 23.2 36.5 110 1150
254 241 29.4 46.0 223 1850
305 292 35.5 55.8 396 2700
356 343 41.6 65.5 640 3740
406 394 47.6 75.3 969 4920
254 X 254 241 X 24 1 37.2 58.1 283 2340
305 292 45.1 70.4 501 3420
356 343 52.9 82.7 810 4740
406 394 60.8 95.0 1227 6230
457 445 68.6 107 1766 7950
305 X 305 292 X 292 54.6 85.3 607 4150
356 343 64.1 100 981 5720
406 394 73.6 115 1486 7540
457 445 83.1 130 2138 5620
508 495 92.7 145 2958 11950
‘Properties and masses are for dressed sizes.
700 APPENDIX B TABLES or PttoPsa'1'1Bs
Table B-17 Properties of Selected Materials (U.S. Customary Units)

Exact values may vary widely with changes in composition, heat treatment, and mechanical working. More predse information can be obtained
from manufacturers.
Modulus Modulus C01B1fiC16t11
of of of
Specific .. Elastic Smggiha . Ummam Strength Endurance Elasticity Rigidity Percent Thermal
Weight Tension Comp. Shear Tension Comp. Shear Limit‘ (1000 (1000 Elongation Expansion
Materials (lbfin.3) (ksi) (ksi) (11181) (RS1) (ksi) (ksi) (ksi) ksi) ksi) m2 in. (10-1
Ferrous metals
Wrought iron 0.278 30 48 25 23 28 30‘ 6.7
Structural steel 0.284 36 66 28 29 11.0 28” 6.6
Steel, 0.2% C hardened 0.284 62 90 30 11.6 22 6.6
Steel, 0.4% C hot-rolled 0.284 53 84 38 30 11.6 29
Steel, 0.8% C hot-rolled 0.284 76 =I'57'=7'=7‘U‘
122 30 11.6 8
Cast irtm—gray 0.260 25 ._- 12 15 0.5 6.7
Cast iron—malleable 0.266 32 9 50 a-8a-wwo-w 25 20 6.6
Cast iron—nodular 0.266 70 100 25 4 6.6
Stainless steel (18-8)
b
annealed 0.286 36 8 85 40 28 12.5 55 9.6
b
cold-rolled 0.286 1 65 1’ 190 90 28 12.5 8 9.6
Steel, SAE 4340,
b
heat-treated 0.283 132 145 150 95 76 29 11.0 19
Nonferrous metal alloys
Aluminum, cast, 195-T6 0.100 24 25 36 30 7 10.3 3.8 5
Aluminum, wrought,
it
2014-T4 0.10] 41 41 24 62 38 18 10.6 4.0 20 12.5
Aluminum, wrought,
b
2024-T4 0.100 48 48 28 68 41 18 10.6 4.0 19 12.5
Altuninum, wrought,
b
6061-T6 0.098 40 40 26 45 30 13.5 10.0 3.8 17 12.5
Magnesium, extrusion,
b
AZSOX 0.066 35 26 49 21 19 6.5 2.4 12 14.4
Magnesium, sand cast,
b
A263-HT 0.066 14 14 40 19 14 6.5 2.4 12 14.4
Monel, wrought,
b
hot-rolled 0.319 50 b 90 40 26 9.5 35 7.8
Red brass, cold-rolled 0.316 60 75 15 5.6 4 9.8
b
Red brass, annealed 0.316 15 8 40 15 5.6 50 9.8
Bronze, cold-rolled 0.320 75 100 15 6.5 3 9.4
b
Bronze, annealed 0.320 20 "’ 50 15 6.5 50 9.4
b
Titanium alloy, annealed 0.167 135 1’ 155 14 5.3 13
b
lnvar, annealed 0.292 42 8 70 2] 8.] 4] 0.6
Nonmetallic materials
Douglas fir, green‘ 0.022 4.8 3.4 3.9 0.9 1.6
Douglas fir, air dry" 0.020 8.1 6.4 7.4 1.1 1.9
Red oak, green” 0.037 4.4 2.6 3.5 1.2 1.4 1.9
Red oak, air dry“ 0.025 8.4 4.6 6.9 1.8 1.8
Concrete, medium
strength 0.087 1.2 3.0 3.0 6.0
Concrete, fairly high
strength 0.087 2.0 5.0 4.5 6.0
“Elastic strength may be represented by proportional limit, yield point, or yield strength at a specified offset (usually 0.2 percent for ductile metals).
“For ductile metals (those with an appreciable ultimate elongation), it is customary to assume the properties in compression have the same values as those
in tension.
°Rotating beam.
"Elongation in 8 in.
’All timber properties are parallel to the grain.
srrstmrx B TABLES or rsomurrtss 701
Table B-18 Properties of Selected Materials (st Units)

Exact values may vary widely with changes in composition, heat treatment, and mechanical working. More precise information can be
obtained from manuhcturers.
Coeflicient
Modulus Modulus of
Elastic Strength” Ultimate Strength
Endurance of of Percent Thermal
Density Tension Comp. Shear Tension Comp. Shear Limit‘ Elasticity Rigidity Elongation Expansion
Materials (mg/m3) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (GPa) (GPa) in 50mm (l0_°!"C)
Ferrous metals
Wrought iron 7.70 210 330 160 190 12.1
Structural steel 7.87 250 450 190 200 76 11.9
Steel, 0.2% C hardened 7.87 430 620 210 11.9
Steel, 0.4% C hot-rolled 7.87 360 580 260 210
Steel, 0.8% C hot-rolled 7.87 520 a- a- cr
840 210 888
Cast iron—gray 7.20 170 O\\O 80 100 12.1
Cast iron—malleable 7.37 220 {J 340 u-Q6-u-u-u-u
170 11.9
Cast iron—nodular 7.37 480 690 170 11.9
{J b
annealed 7.92 250 590 270 190 86 17.3
Stainless steel (188)
{J b
cold~rol|ed 7.92 1140 13 10 620 190 86 17.3
Steel, SAE 4340,
{J
heat-treated 7.84 910 1000 1030 520 200 76
Nonferrous metal alloys
Aluminum, cast, 195-T6 2.77 160 170 250 50 71 26
Aluminum, wrought,
2014-T4 2.80 280 280 430 b 120 73 28 22.5
Aluminum, wrought,
2024-T4 2.77 330 330 470 .b 120 73 28 22.5
Aluminum, wrought,
6061-T6 2.71 270 270 3 10 b 93 70 26 22.5
Magnesium, extrusion,
AZ80X 1 .83 240 l 80 340 .{J 130 45 16 25.9
Magnesium, sand cast,
A263-HT 1 .83 100 96 270 .{J 100 45 l6 25.9
Monel, wrought,
hot-rolled 8.84 340 {J 620 b 270 180 65 14.0
Red brass, cold-rolled 8.75 410 520 100 39 17.6
Red brass, annealed 8.75 100 s 270 .b 100 39 17.6
Bronze, cold~rolled 8.86 520 690 100 45 16.9
Bronze, annealed 8.86 140 s 340 .b 100 45 16.9
{J b
Titanium alloy, annealed 4.63 930 1070 96 36
{J b
hwar, annealed 8.09 290 480 140 56 1.1
Nonmetallic materials
Douglas fir, green” 0.61 33 23 27
Douglas fir, air dry‘ 0.55 56 44 51
Red oak, green" 1 .02 30 18 24 3.4
Red oak, air dry" 0.69 58 32 48 - >->->- BOOL-I>—~
Concrete, medium
strength 2.41 8 21 21 10.8
Concrete, fairly high
strength 2.41 14 34 31 10.8
Elastic strength may be represented by proportional limit, yield point, or yield strength at a specified offset (usually 0.2 percent for ductile metals).
bl-‘or ductile metals (those with an appreciable ultimate elongation), it is customary to assume the properties in compression have the same values as those
in tension.
“Rotating beam.
a‘ Elongation in 200 mm.
’-‘All timber properties are parallel to the grain.

702 APPENDIX B TABLES or momrrms
Table B-19 Beam Deflection; and Slopes

Load and Support Slope at End Maximum Deflection Equation of Elastic Curve
Fm (I-engih L) (+ A) (+ upward) (+ upward)
1 y I P Q=_E PL}
vw = -‘ 2
ZEI SEI
0 =“'--._q"m1 atx=L at x = L
v =-%(3L-x)
B
2 J’ w Q=_£ wL“
GE] "‘"“='§Ei 2
v = -£1-:’fi(x’ - 41.; +613)
Qynm HIXIL atx=L
9
3 6 : _ WI. 3 WL4
w 2451 vmax = _'_" Z
30EI
atx = L
= -inn? -101.’; + 5L1’ - 3
0 Evmx atx = L 120EIL
6
6_+E v
_ El “‘“_—+iML2
2151 Mxz
v = i
0 vm, atx=L ZEI
atx=L
s J, Q Pb 6:_Pb(L2—b2) V _ Pb(L2—b2)3"2
—§—1 ‘ 61.21 "‘“ 9,/51.1-:1
I atx =0
n9'| I/92 atx = ./(L1 - b=);s Pb
v = -fiw - b1 -11)
Z-=|r-".L— Pa(L2 az)
V =_Pb(3L 2 _ 4-bl) osxsa
1’-w 9’=+ an-:1 lg” 48E!
b<a atx=L
Pail):
v=-i atx=a
SEII.
6 Y L/2 P 6 _ PL’
V ‘— 16E!
x atx = 0 PL3 v = —%(3L2 — 4x2)
vmu = -Z
’_‘_a> .5” 4351 L
Ci 6 _ PL: mx=Lfl OE-TEE
mm 2 — +1551
atx=L
7 Y W 6| : _ WL3
24E!
N
at x = O 5wL4
Fm :9 334.91
Vmnx = _ i
v = - 2—:2_I(;’ - 213;’ + L’)
HiQ 6 _ WL mx=Lfl
vmu “+2451
atx =L
ML}
V1-:mx=_i
X 9~/521
‘ atx=0
to /92 atx = L/J5 v = - ,2 —X2)
Q_ €:7 ML ML!
1»-m "1 “"5 v
==1==w
= —i
1651
atx=L not max
APPENDIX B TABLES or Pnornmms 703
Table B-20 Properties of Areas for llurved Bums
fig A = bu, - r.-) 1"c = '—"

J’2 "’
L 1' dA r,,
1?
1,. A P 7:
L} r,, I
b 2,-+0
=~—=l A=i(7',,—I';')
lei: bra I-n:!_b

!'(j_%
5%
foo
A P "0-"I Ti
A = pm, -r.-)
YT r I = ?i(2-b1+ bz) +?'a(b! +252)
i L ‘ 3(b1 + b2)
Ln, Ffl. /‘Q= 1n'l_b|_|_b2

AP To-T‘; T3"
A=:rrb2
T_
L :-~- /);d%i=21r(r¢—‘/rgjbz)
A=:rrbh
dz! Zarb
f.7=T(’"~"5"")
‘T'i"rT
A = (c — r;)b| + (d — c)tw + (r,, — d]b;
I r, = §[1>1(¢= -,3) +W= -¢11+b2(r3 -d=)

dA =b,m5+¢,,1n-+b,1n'Z
d
j-
§'——%
~‘*" A P I‘; C d
Kr
I‘?
c_
mop-no
nmax 705
INDEX
Allowable load, 594-595 flexural strains in, 352-354
Allowable stress, 594-595, 601-602 flexural stress formula for, 356
Allowable stress design, 264-265 flexural stresses in, 354-356
Allowable stress method, 601 load-shear relation for, 376-3 79
American standard beams (S-shapes), neutral axis in, 352, 355
686-687 normal stresses in, 354-356
American standard channels (C-shapes), of two materials, 441-442
688-689 reinforced concrete, 445-446
Angle of twist, 278, 281-282, 287-289 section modulus of, 356
Angle sections (L-shapes): shear diagram for, 379-380
equal legs (table), 690-691 shear-moment relation for, 376-379
unequal legs (table), 692-693 shearing force in, 351, 366-368
Applied force, 3 shearing stress formula for, 393
Area: shearing stresses in, 391-396
mixed second moment of, 356, 412, 675-676 statically determinate, 351
polar second moment of, 280, 618, 660 statically iI1dC1ICHl'1lI1fi1§C, 351
second moment of, 280, 355, 659-682 types of, 349-351
Assumptions:
in centr'ic loading formula, 189-190 Bearing stress, 51, 55-56
in elastic curve equation, 487-488 Bending moment:
in flexure formula, 352-354 defined, 35
in shearing stress formula, 391-394 diagrams, 367, 379-380
in torsion formula, 277-279 equations, 366-368
Axial: sign convention for, 367
deformation, 189-190 Boundary conditions:
force, 48 for beams, 489, 491
loading, 48, 189-190 for columns, 580
strain, 123, 159, 177 Buckling, defined, 578
stress, 247
Axial-force diagram, 53, 192-193 Cantilever beam, defined, 350
Axially loaded members: Castigliano, Alberto, 532
inelastic behavior, 239-240 Castigliano’s theorem, 532-535, 560
statically detenuinate, 189-190, 201-203 Center:
statically indeterminate, 209-212 of flexure, 431
Balanced design, 446 of twist, 431
Beam deflections: Channel sections (C-shapes), 688-689
due to shearing stress, 530-531 Circular shafis:
statically detenninate: deformations in, 277-279
by energy methods, 532-536 elastic torsion formula for, 279-281
by integration methods, 489-490, 502-503 normal stresses in, 295-297
with singularity flmctions, 507-509 shearing stresses in, 279-281, 295-297
by superposition methods, 520 statically indeterminate, 303
statically indeterminate: strains in, 277-279
by energy methods, 560 Clapeyron, B.P.E., 532
by integration methods, 542 Clapeyron’s theorem, 532-533
by superposition methods, 550 Clebsch, A., 507
Beams: Coefficient:
bending moment in, 366-368 of thermal expansion, 176
bending moment diagram for, 367, 379-380 of selected materials (table), 700-701
curved, 430-432 Column codes, 594-595
definition of, 349 Column formulas:
deflection of, 489, 502, 507, 520, 530, 532 empirical, 592-595
elastic curves for, 487-490 Euler, 581
706 nmsx
Colunms: for columns, 606
centric loading of, 579-581 for torsional loads, 339
critical load for, 581 Diagram:
critical stress, 581 angle of twist, 281-283, 287-289
defined, 578 axial-force, 53, 192-193
eccentric loading of, 600-602 bending-moment, 367, 379-380
effect of end conditions on, 587-5 89 deformation, 212, 214
effective length of, 588 displacement, 209
empirical formulas for, 592-595 polar, 308
Euler’s formula for, 581 shear force, 367, 379-380
slendemess ratio for, 581 stress-strain, 153
Combined loadings, 254-255, 315-316, 457 for selected materials, 156, 15s, 16c»1s1 239440
Compatibility equation, 209 torque, 284
Components: Differential equation of the elastic curve:
of a stress, 66, 73 for beams, 487-489
ofa strain, 129-130 for columns, 580
Compressive strain, 124 Displacement, 121, 202-203, 281-283
Compressive stress, 49 Distortion, defined, 129
Concentrated force, 2 Double shear, defined, 49
Concept: Ductile material, defined, 158
of strain, 2, 122 Ductility, defined, 158
of stress, 2, 48 Duleau, A., 277, 331
Continuous beam, defined, 350
Coulomb, C.A., 277, 391 Eccentrically loaded columns, 600-602
Coulomb’s theory, 638 allowable stress method, 601
Couple: interaction method, 601-602
bending, 35 Effective column length, 588
twisting, 35 for various end conditions, 588-5 89
Creep: Elastic:
defined, 157 failure, 264
limit, 159 flexure formula, 356
Critical buckling load, 581 limit, defined, 157
Critical stress, 581 torsion formula, 279-281
Curvature, 488 Elastic constants, related, 159, 168
Curved beams, 430-432 Elastic curve, differential equation of:
Cylindrical pressure vessels,: for beams, 487-489
thick-walled, 257-262 for columns, 580
thin-walled, 247-249 Elasticity, modulus of:
defined, 155-156
Deflection of beams: of selected materials (table), 700-701
by energy methods, 532-536, 560 Elastoplastic material, 158, 239, 325, 423
by integration method, 489-490, 502-503, 542 Elongation, percent:
with singularity filnctions, 507-509 defined, 159
by superposition method, 520, 550 of selected materials (table), 700-701
Deformation: Empirical column formulas, 592-595
axial, 123, 189-190 End conditions:
defined, 121-122 for beams, 350
diagram, 212, 214 for columns, 587-589
flexural, 352-354 Equations of equilibrium, 4
plastic, 157 Equation of elastic curve, 491, 493, 496, 4 97
torsional, 277-279, 281-283 Equilibrium:
Design: equations, 4
balanced, 446 of a deformable body, 30
for axial loads, 264-265 of a rigid body, 4-5
for bending loads, 475-478, 567 states of, 578
nroax 707
Euler, Leonard, 579 Hoop stress, 247

Euler buckling loaci 581 Horsepower, 301
Extensometer, 155 Huber, M.T. 639
External forces, 3 Huber-I-Ienke-von Mises theory, 639
Factor of safety, 265 Impact factor, 626

Failure: Inelastic behavior:
defined, 264 axial loading, 239-240
elastic, 264 flexural loading, 422-423
fracture, 264 torsional loading, 325-326
mode, 264 Integration method:
slip, 264 for beam deflections, 489-490, 502, 503, 542
yielding, 264 with singularity functions, 507-509
Flexural: interaction method, 601-602
loading, 351 Internal forces, 3, 34-35
strains, 352-3 54 Isotropic materials:
stresses, 354-356, 450-452 defined, 164
Flexure fonnula, 356 generalized Hooke’s law for, 164-168
Force:
applied, 3 Joints, method of, 10
axial, 48 Jourawski, D.J., 391
concentrated, 2
contact, 2 Lame, G., 257
defined, 2 Limit state, 445
distributed, 2 Load:
dynamic, 624 allowable, 594-595
external, 3 axial, 48, 189-190
gravitational, 2 combined, 254-255, 315-316, 457
internal, 3, 34-35 concentrated, 2
normal, 35, 49, 66, 73 critical buckling, 581
resultant, 66, 72-73, 109 dead, 3
shear, 35, 50, 66 distributed, 2
surface, 2 dynamic, 624
transverse shear, 393-395 energy, 624
work of, 532, 615 Euler buckling, 581
Free-body diagram, 5 flexural, 351
impact, 4, 624
Galileo, 1 repeated, 4
General state of stress, 108-1 13 shear:
Generalized Hooke’s law, 164-168 double, 49
Gravitational force, 2 punching, 49
Guest, J.J., 638 single, 49
Guest’s theory, 638 static, 3
Gyration, radius of, 664-665 sustained, 3
torsional, 276
Heaviside, O. 507 transverse, 366-367, 393, 431
Homogeneous material, 177 Load resistance factor design (LRFD), 264
Hooke’s law: Load-shear relation for beams, 376-379
for a biaxial state of stress, 155 Longitudinal strain, 159
for a general state of stress, 164-168
for a plane state of stress, 164-166 Matching conditions, 490
for shearing stresses, 166-168 Materials:
for a triaxial state of stress, 164-168 selected stress-strain diagrams for, 156, 158, 160-161,
for a uniaxial state of stress, 155 239-240
Hooke, Robert, 155 table of selected properties, 700-701
708 nmsx
Maximmn: Parallel-axis theorem, 660-661, 676
in-plane shearing strain, 136 Pascal (unit of stress), 52
in-plane shearing stress, 88 Percent:
normal strain, 136 elongation, 159
normal stress, 66-67, 87, 100, 110-111, 296 of selected materials (table), 700-701
shearing strain, 136 reduction in area, 159
shearing stress, 66-67, 88, 100-101, 111-112, 296 Permanent set, 157
Mechanics of materials, defined, 1, 3 Pin-ended columns, defined, 579
Meridional stress, 247 Plane strain, 130-133
Method: transformation of, 130-133
ofjoints, 10 Plane stress, 74-77
of sections,10 transformation of, 75-77
of superposition: Plastic deformation, defined, 157
for beam deflections, 520, 550 Poisson, Simeon, 159
for combined stresses, 254-255, 315-316, 457 Poisson’s ratio, 145, 159
for thermal strains, 177 Polar second moment, 280, 618, 660
Mixed second moments, 356, 412, 675-676 Power transmission, 300-301
Modulus: Pressure vessels:
of elasticity: cylindrical, 247-249
defined, 155-156 spherical, 246-247
for selected materials (table), 700-701 thick-walled, 257-262
of resilience, defined, 616 thin-walled, 246-250
of rigidity: Principal:
defined, 157 planes, 87, 110
for selected materials (table), 700-701 strains, 135-136
of toughness, defined, 616 stresses, 85-90, 100, 110-111
secant, 157 defined, 87
shear, 157 in flexural members, 405-407
tangent, 157 by Mohr’s circle, 100-102
Young’s, 156 Principle of superposition, 164
Mohr, Otto, 98 Proportional limit, 157
Mohrh circle: Punching shear, 49
for strains, 140-141
for stresses, 98-102 Radius of gyration, 664-665
Moment diagram, 367, 379-380 Rankine, W.J.M., 637
Reactions, 3
Neutral: Recovery, defined, 157
axis, 352, 355 Reinforced beams, 441
surface, 352, 355 Reinforced concrete beams, 445-446
Newton (unit of force), 52 Resilience, modulus of, 616
Normal: Resistance strain gage, 143-144
force, 35, 49, 66, 73 Resisting:
strain, 122, 130-131 moment, 351, 367
axial, 123 shear, 351, 366-367
flexural, 352-354 torque, 276
maximum and minimum, 136 Restrained beam, defined, 350
sip convention for, 124, 133 Resultant stress, 72, 109
stress, Rigid body, defined, 4
axial, 247 Rigidity, modulus of, 157
flexural, 354-356, 450-452 for selected materials (table), 700-701
maximum and minimum, 66-67, 87, 100, 110-111 Rosette analysis, 144
sign convention for, 66, 74-77
Safety, factor of, 265
Orthotropic materials, 181 Saint-Venant, Barre de, 237, 332, 391
Overhanging beam, defined, 349 Saint-Venant’s principle, 237, 406
nrosx 709
Secant modulus, defined, 157 Statically indetenuinate members:

Second moments: with axial loads, 209-212
ofarea, 280, 355, 659-682 with flexural loads:
of composite shapes, 669-670 by energy methods, 560
dimensions of, 660 by integration methods, 542
mixed, 356, 412, 675-676 by superposition methods, 550
parallel-axis theorem, 660-661, 676 with torsional loads, 303
polar, 280, 618, 660 Stifi' (design), 30
principal, 679-681 Strain, defined, 2, 122
radius of gyration for, 664-665 axial, 123, 159, 177
rectangular, 659 compressive, 124
tables of, for conunon shapes, 669-670, 677 flexural, 352-354
transfer of axes for, 660-661 lateral, 177
Section modulus, 356 longitudinal, 159
Sections, method of, 10-11 maximum normal, 136
Service load, 446 maximum shearing, 136
Shear, defined, 49-50, 66 in-plane, 136
double, 49 measurement, 142-145, 155
horizontal, 392-395 nominal, 155
longitudinal, 393-395 normal, 122, 130-131
punching, 49 plane, 1 30-1 33
resisting, 351 principal, 135-136
single, 49 shearing, 122, 123,131-132
transverse, 393-395 sign convention for, 124, 133
vertical, 393-395 tensile, 124
Shear center, 431-434 thermal, 176-177
Shear flow, 333-334, 433 torsional shearing, 277-279
Shear force, 35, 50, 66 total 177
Shear force diagram, 367, 379-380 transformation equations for 130-133
Shear modulus, defined, 157 transverse 177
Shear-moment relation for beams, 376-379 true, 155
Shearing strain, 122, 123, 131-132 two-dimensional, 130-133
maximum, formula for, 136 units of, 124
sign convention for, 124, 133 Strain energy, 532-536, 615-619
Shearing stress, 49, 66 for axial loads, 617
maximum, formula for, 66-67, 88-89, for bending loads, 619
101, 296 for torsional loads, 618
sign convention for, 66, 74, 76-77 for transverse shear, 619
Shrink fitting, 257 Strain energy intensity, 533, 616
Sign convention: Strain energy method, 625-627
for beam deflections, 487-488 Strain gage, 143-144, 155
for bending moments, 367 Strain hardening, 157, 239
for normal strains, 124, 133 Strain rosette, 144
for normal stresses, 66, 74, 76-77 Strength:
for shearing strains, 124, 133 ultimate, 158
for shearing stresses, 66, 74, 76-77 of selected materials (table), 700-701
for transverse shear in beams, 367 yield, 158
for torsion, 282 of selected materials (table), 700-701
Simple beam, defined, 349 Stress, defined, 2, 48
Single shear, defined, 49 allowable, 53
Singularity fimctions, 508-509 axial, 247
Slenderness ratio, 581 average bearing, 51, 55-56
Slip, defined, 157 average normal, 49
Slip failure, 264 average shearing, 49
Spherical pressure vessels, 246-247 average total, 66
710 nmsx
Stress, defined, (Contal) Superposition method:
bearing, 51, 55-S6 for beam deflections, 520, 550
circumferential, 247 for combined loading, 254-255, 315-316,
compressive, 49 457
critical, 581 for 11116111131 strains, 177
flexural, 354-356, 450-452 Surface force, 2
hoop, 247
maximum normal, 65-67, 85-90, 100, 110-111, Table:
296 of column codes, 594
by Mohr’s circle, 100-102 of deflections and slopes of beams, 702
maximum shearing, 66-67, 85-90, 100-101, of properties of areas, 669-670, 677
111-1 12, 296 for curved beams, 703
in-plane, 88 of properties of materials, 700-701
by Mohr’s circle, 100-102 of properties of rolled-steel shapes, 684-695
meridional, 247 of properties of standard steel pipe, 696-697
normal, 49, 66 of properties of structural timber, 698-699
compressive, 49 Tangent modulus, defined, 157
on inclined plane, 65-68 Temperature effects, 176-177, 225
tensile, 49 Tensile:
plane, 74-77 strain, 124
principal, 85-90, 405-407 stress, 49
by Mohr’s circle, 100-102 test, 153-155
punching shear, 49 Theories of failure:
resultant, 72, 109 Coulomb-Mohr, 650-651
shearing, 49, 66, 279-281, 391-396 Coulomb’s Theory, 638
sign convention, 66, 74, 76-77 distortion-energy, 639-642
tangential, 66, 247 Guest’s theory, 638
tensile, 49 Huber-Henke-von Mises theory, 639
thermal, 225 maximum-normal-stress, 637-638, 650-651
torsional shearing, 279-281 maximum-shear-stress, 638-639
lII'HIlSf0l'IT1fl1Il0I1 equations, 75-77 Rankine’s theory, 637
true, 155 Thermal expansion, coefficient of, 176
two-dirnensional, 74-77 for selected materials (table), 700-701
units of, 51-52 Thermal:
Stress Concentrations: strain, 176-177
axial loading, 234-237 stress, 225
flexural loading, 418-420 Thick-walled pressure vessels, 257-262
torsional loading, 322-323 Thin-walled pressure vessels:
Stress concentration factor: cylindrical, 247-249
axial loading, 235-236 spherical, 246-247
flexural loading, 419-420 Torque, 35, 276
torsional loading, 322-323 Torque diagram, 284, 286
Stress ellipsoid, 1 10-111 Torsion:
Stress-strain diagrams, 153 of circular shafis, 276-283
for selected materials, 156, 158, 160-161, of noncircular shafts, 331-333
239-240 of thin-walled tubes, 333-334
Stress-strain equations: Torsional displacement, 281-283
for isotropic materials, 164-168 Torsional loading, 276
for orthotropic materials, 180-183 Torsional shearing strain, 277-2 79
Stress-strain-temperature equations, Torsional shearing stresses, 279-281
176-177 Transformation equations:
Stress trajectory, 234, 406 for plane strain, 130-133
Stress vector, 72-74, 109 for plane stress, 75-77
Structural tees (T-shapes), 694-695 Transformed cross section, 442
Superposition, principle of, 164 Transverse shearing force, 393-395
nrosx 711
True: Unsymmetrical bending, 410-413

strain, 155
stress, 155 Von Mises, R. 639
Truss analysis:
method ofjoints, 10 Warping of cross sections, 277-278
method of sections, 10-11 Watt (unit of power) 301
Truss assumptions, 9 Weight, defined, 2
Twist, angle of, 278, 281-282 Wide-flange sections (W-shapes), 684-685
Twisting couple, 35 Work:
Twisting moment, 35 defined, 300
of a couple, 300
Ultimate: ofa force, 532, 615
elongation, defined, 159 Work hardening, 157
strength, 146 Work-kinetic energy method, 627-629
defined, 158
for selected materials (table), Yield:
700-701 point, defined, 158
Units of measurement: for selected materials (table), 700-701
of power, 300-301 strength, defined, 158
of second moments of area, 660 for selected materials (table), 700-701
of strain, 124 Young’s modulus, 156
of stress, 51-52 Young, Thomas, 156
Answers
Chapter 1 1-32 c =(85.0j+147.1k)N

1) = (294k) N
1-1 T= (153.33 +3.667W) 115 F“ = (-35.01 + 147.2k) N
1~"= (133.33 +2.667W) 115 1-34 P15 = 214 N
1-2 n=nwN P,, = 462 N
T, = 317N P,, = SOON
73 = 1717 N 1-35 A = 25.3115 4 81.9“
1-4 N,-,~ = 424N 51> 45* T8,, = 10.35115 7 39.33
A = 300 N -> c = 10.6710 ‘=1; 75.2-=
1-7 1>=10.46115 *1; 15* 1-38 T = 403 N
N, = 24.1115 11> 753 N,-,~ = 201 N <-
Np = 14.94115 is 75> NC = 471 N 4
1-9 co; 33.3 kip (c) 1-39 (3) Wm, = 4.93 kip
cs; 23.1 kip (T) (15) T - 6.22 klp
FG: 17.32 kip (T) (6) A=11.3s kip 4‘: 31.33
1-10 P = 9.131 kN 4! 30= l-42 6 = 20.100
Np - 3.93 kN is 603 1-54 AB: 25 kN (c)
N, = s.06 kN its 60~= BC: 50 kN (T)
1-12 A = 2 kN ¢ co; 50 kN (c)
M, = llkN-m '1 1-55 = 0115
1-15 A = 61.5115 51> 77.59 = 30 lb (c)
B = 13.33 115 -1 = 23610 - in.
1-17 A = 200.3115 as 56.43 1-57 = 417 115 (c)
ND = 130.0115 = 23.3 115
1-18 F = 342 N <1; 66.3-3 = 667111 - in.
1-20 co; 9.66 kN (c) 1-59 = 7.90 kip (c)
PG: 3.66 kN (T) = 14.77 kip (c)
1-23 = 12.36 kip = 20.7 kip (c)
1-25 = 413115 = 25.3 kip (c)
= 205 lb 1-60 =0N
= 445 11> = -197.6 N
1-26 = 603 N = 42.5 N- m
= 439 N 1-64 =(-101 - l0k)kN
= 925 N =(-121- 6.251 + 16k) kN - 111
1-29 >2*F§*?é.-"I13-I:4'1= 224 115 <1: 63.43
"° 1-65 = 45.0 lb (T)
r,,,,- = 566 11> is 45¢ = 15.00113
c = 447 115 <1; 26.6=- assa*=1: '==i;1=a.,:=0:~="1s0115
= ass - 1p.
W-2 Answsas
1-68 -1.543 kN(T) 2-36 Imp, = 40.6 mm

= 2.57kN 2-39 (a) qb = 53.13" Y
= 0.300kN - I11 (13) Pm, = 75.0 kip
1-73 1-1§*<"v=700 115
<1;20=' 2-40 (a) 0,, = 18.75 MPa (T)
N = 131616 in 60° r,,, = -10.83 MPa
1-74 AB: 9.31 kN (T) (b) rm, = 25.0 1\/[Pa
AC: 0.50 kN (c) rm, = 12.50 MPa
ac; 6.22 kN (c) 2-45 0,, = 14.23 ksi (T)
co; 7.62 kN (c) 1-,), = +11.82 ksi
1-76 P = 3.41kN
2-46 0,, = 121.5 MPa (T)
1-79 (a) P, = 877 lb (C)
K,=280lb r,,;, = -9.64 MPa
M,=-700115-it 2-48 0,), = 155.2 MPa (C)
(b) P, = 750 lb (T) rd, = +53.8 MPa
V, = 13.33 116 2-51 am, = 18.29 psi (C)
M, = 1000115 - ft 1.-,1, = +73.4 psi
1-81 = 150115 2-52 0,, = 70.3 MPa (T)
= (9231 - 116.7k) 16 r,,;, = +45.7 MPa
= (-2781 — 200] + 267k) lb
2-55 b 3 3.59 in.
1-82 = 3340 N
= 3390 N 2-57 (a) r,,. = -5100 psi
eo§w>v= 4060 N (b) 0,. = 150 ps1 (C)
2-58 (a) 0,, = 221 MPa (T)
(b) r,, = +61.0 MPa
Chapter 2 2-60 (a) 0, = 125.0 MPa (T)
2-l != 0.1207 in. r, = +75.0 MPa
(b) 0,, = 185.7 MPa (T)
2-2 U71 = 106.6 MPa (T)
0,. = 64.3 MPa (T)
U3 = 133.3 MPa (T)
r,,. = +441 MPa
<16.= 53.3 MPa (T)
2-4 amp = 7.68 MPa (T) 2-63 (o,),,,,,, — 7.52 ksi
2-7 (L(),,,(,, = 2.55 in. 2-69 11,1 = 12.34 ksi (T) d 73.7“
(L;),,,,,, = 3.40 in 6,, = 17.34 ksi (c) <0 16.31=
2-9 dm“ = 3.18 in.
6,, = 0 ksi
2- 10 05¢: = 5.62 MPa (T)
6, = 6,, = 14.84 ksi
2-70 0,, = 77.7 1\/[Pa (T) 41 34.71‘
2- 13 d,,,, = 0.0300 in.
0,; = 7.72 MPa (C) T 55.3°
2-14 a = 53.3 mm 0,3 = 0 MPa
2-16 1:15 — 4.61 MPa 1:, = rm“ = 42.7 MPa
rm = 5.15 MPa
1:45 = 6.30 MPa
2-73 6,, = 14.00 ksi (T) -2 13.43
6,2 = 6.00 ksi (c) A1 71.63
2- 19 rp = 117.9 psi 6,, = 0 ksi
2-22 (a) r,, = 34.7 MPa 6, = p,,,, = 10.00 ksi
(b) T5 = 31.4 MPa 2-75 6,, = 30.4 ksi (T) <6 28.5-=
2-23 (a) app = 49.3 psi 6,, = 6.57 ksi (T) .6: 61.5=
(h) :5 = 627 psi 6,, = 0 ksi
2-25 dmin — 0.788 in. 6, = 11.93 ksi
2-31 an = 18.29 psi (C) 6,, = 15.21 ksi
1:, = 73.4 psi 2-76 0,1 = 44.0 MPa (T) Al 33.7°
2-32 0,, = 75.6 MPa (T) 0,2 = 18.00 MPa (T) ‘Q 56.3
= -57.0 MPa 0,3 = 0 MPa
2-35 = 36.87" 1:, = 13.00 MPa
"e<I>;1 = 75.0 kip rm, = 22.0 MPa
ANSWERS W-3
2-80 (a) cpl, = 23.6 MPa (T) 2-104 cpl = cm = 73.8 MPa (T)
Tm», = -32.9 MPa Up} = up, = 9.41 MPa (T)
(b) cpl = 45.0 MPa (T) AC 90.0" Up; = Umin = MP3
cpl = 27.0 MPa (C) d 0° ‘rm, = 58.5 MPa
cp; = 0 MPa 2-106 Up] = cm, = 262 MPa (T)
rp = rm“ = 36.0 MPa Up; = Jim _ NIP8
2-81 cx = 9.86 ksi (T) Up} = U...-... = 51.5 MPa (c)
c,. = 17.86 ksi (C) Imp, = 157.0 MPa
Hp = 15.0“ 2-109 (a) cpl = cm“ = 9.15 ksi (T)
2-84 (a) cpl, = 56.4 MPa (C) up = am, = 22.4 ksi (c)
rpl, = -1-47.2 MPa Up; = amm = 31.1 ksi (c)
(b) cpl = 10.00 MPa (T) 4Q 26.6" ‘Emu = 20.4 ksi
cp; = 90.0 L/[Pa (C) T 63.4” (b) 63, = 45.6“
Up] = 0 MP3 9,, = 45.1-=
rp = rm“ = 50.0 MPa 9,, = 9s.4=-
2-85 cl, — 5.00 ksi (T) 2-110 (a) O-P11 0...... = 131.3 MPa (T)
1,, = -5.00 ksi Up} = ail“ = 23.4 MPa (T)
2-86 cm = 40.0 MPa (C) Up; = O‘;-l-li_n = MP3
rm = 0 MPa rmlx = 63.0 MPa
2-89 cpl = 31.0 ksi (T) AT 26.6" (b) l9l, = 44.64°
cp; = 1.000 ksi (T) ‘Q1 63.4"‘ 0,, = 61.24:“
Up; = 0 l9l, = 59.20"
rp = 15.00 ksi 2-113 0),. = 11.30 ksi (T)
Tm“ = 15.50 ksi UCE = 42.2 ksi (T)
2-90 cpl = 77.7 MPa (T) i 34.7" 2-114 (*1) (A-(B)mi.n = 577 mmz
cp; — 7.72 MPa (C) “C 55.3“ (AB(']n1i_n = 1155 mm:
Upj = 0 MPa (b) (d-i)min = In-In
rp = rm, = 42.7 MPa (d,g)ml,l = 33.2 mm
2-92 cpl = 60.4 MPa (T) A’! 22.5" 2-116 Pm = 98.7 kN
cp; = 10.35 MPa (C) ‘C 67.5"
2-119 (a) cpl = 15.00 ksi (T) '5-C 26.6“
Upj = 0 MPa
Up} = 5.00 ksi (T) ¢fl 614*
rp = rm = 35.4 MPa
Up, = 0 ksi
2-94 (a) cpl = 98.2 MPa (T) ‘Q; 16.8” — 5.00 ksi
cp; = 118.2 MPa (C) A’! 73.2" rm“ = 1.50 ksi
cp; = 0 MPa (b) Up, = 2.04 ksi (T)
rp = rm“ = 108.2 MPa lp, = -4.60 ksi
(b) cpl, = 60.3 MPa (C)
rpl, = -95.8 MPa
2-95 (a) cpl = 10.40 ksi (T) ‘=5 25.7“
cp; = 2.40 ksi (C) i 64.3" Chapter 3
cp; = 0 ksi
rp = Tm“ = 6.40 ksi 3-1 s = 2080 _u.in.lin.
(b) Gab = 7.68 ksi (T) 3-2 AL = 0.480 mm
Tpl, = +5.24 ksi 3-5 y = 0.0200 rad
2-98 c,, = 71.9 MPa (T)
3-6 1/pp = 1560 grad
1,, = 10.95 MPa
3-9 (a) spc = 1400 ,uin.fin.
2-99 c,, = 14.29 ksi (T)
(b) EEC = 1250 pinjin.
1,, = 4.15 ksi
2-101 c,, = 16.00 ksi (T) 3-10 (a) sl-E = 8100 p,mfm
1,, — 1.633 ksi (b) Egg = 7770 ,u.m/m
2-103 cpl = cm, = 22.2 ksi (T)
3-12 (a) AL = 5.00 mm
UP2 = clm = 7.30 ksi (T) (b) am = 1667 ,1.m1/m
cp; = cm-pl = 19.47 ksi (C) (c) am = 5000 lum/m
rm“ = 20.8 ksi 3-15 yp = 0.0279 rad
W-4 ANSWERS
3-16 5'11 = -2420 gm:'m 3-43 s, = -295 gin..~'in.

sp = -1334 gin.1'in.
3-17 (=1) EAL‘ = +596 gin./in.
sp; = -1853 gin./in.
01) em; = +1196 gin.fin.
sp; = 0 gin.!in.
3-19 (F1) 6, = +2000 giniin. yp = ymu = 2080 grad
sp = -1000 gin./in.
1/,3, = 0 rad 3-46 s, = +437 gmfm
(ll) 8,, = +1250 gin./in. 6p = +33.69"
sp; = +187.5 gmfrn
3-20 s, = +500 gmfrn
spp = 0 gm/1n
sp = -199.9 gm/In
yp = 813 grad
ya, = -600 grad
ymp, = 1000 grad
3-24 sp = -{-35.4 gmfm
ya. = -1983 grad
3-47 6', = +300 gin./in.
sp. = -500 gin.fin.
3-25 (11) ym = +425 grad 7113- = +600 grad
01) 6‘), = +1675 gin./in. sp3 = 0 gin.!in.
3-27 Sp] = +666 ginjin. T 15.5" yp = yum - 1000 grad
Sp; = -266 gin./in. A3 .74.5" 3-48 s, = +800 gmfm
Sp} = 0 gin.1'in.
SP2 = -640 gm/m
YP = yum = 933 grad yxp = +960 grad
3-28 spl = +1007 gm/n1 20 10.7" sp; = 0 gm/m
app = -367 gm/In T 79.3" yp = ymax = grad
sp, = 0 gm./rn
3-51 spl = +966 gin.1/in. T 6 59»
7P = yum = 1374 grad 6,2 = -241 gin.fin. 20 as 4
3-31 Sp1 = +768 gin.!in. =5 5.8" sp3 = 0 gin../in.
Sp; = - 1018 gin./in. T 84.2" yp = yum = 1207 grad
Sp; = 0 gin./in. 3-52 spl = +1072 gmhn J 19 3
VP =ymax = ,U.I‘3d
spg = -505 gm/m T 70 7
3-33 spl = +880 gin./in. d 33.7" sp;l = 0 gm/m
Sp-)2 = +360 ginjin. ‘T 56.3"
YP = ymax = flfad
Sp} = 0 gin./in.
= 520 grad 3-56 yxp = +912 grad
YP
6p = +35.89°
Ym ax = 880 grad
Sp: = -180.0 gmfrn
3-34 Sp1 = -404 gmlm AZ 25.9" sp; = 0 grnfm
Sp; = -1116 gm/In T 64.1" yp = yum = 960 grad
Sp; = 0 gn]/rn
3-59 (a) 2, = +750 gin./in.
YP = 712 grad
Ym ll, = 1116 grad
sp = -250 gin./in.
yxp = -750 grad
3-36 = +970 gmfm AI 25.1"
Sp)
(6) 6,. = +315 0116.761. <1; 1s 4
Sp; = +580 gm./m T 64.9" 8,, = -375 am./m. 20 11 6»
Sp; = 0 gm/m Sp} = 214 gin./in.
YP = 391 grad yp = yum = 1250 grad
Ym ll, = 970 grad
3-39 ya, = :1:1227 grad
3-60 (a) ex = -555 gm/m
6‘, = +1295 gmfm
9:1 = :1:18.06° 1/,3. = -214 grad
spl = +680 gin./in.
Sp} = 0 gin./in. (b) spl = +1301 gm/m T 86 7
spz = -561gmfrn A! 3 3°
7P = )/mu = 2080 grad
SP3 = -317 gm/111
3-40 ya, = :1:3320 grad
yp = ym“ = 1862 grad
9P = 3:35.84"
Sp; = -2000 grn/In 3-62 (a) 2,, = +780 gm/m
Sp; = 0 gm/rn s, = -251 gmfrn
VP = yum = 3500 grad yxp = -782 grad
ANSWERS W-5
(b) spl = +911 gmfm T 18.6" 4-7 (6) E = 26,100 ksi

Sp; = -383 gm/In A: 71.4‘: (6) 6,6 = 40 1661
sp3 = -260 gm/n1 (6) 6.,, = 13 1161
yp = ymax = flfad (0) 6... (0.05%) = 44 1161
3-63 spl = +317 gin./in. 41 52.3" (6) 6... (0.2%) = 41 661
sp; = -131.4 gin./in. T 37.6" (1) 6, = 65 ksi
SP] = -79.7 gin./in. (g) 69,- = 91.6 1611
yp = ymp, = 449 grad (6) E, = 1815 1161
(1) E, = 14,310 ksi
3-65 (a) spl = +924 gin./in. AZ 16.3"
SP2 = +301 gin./in. T 73.7" 4-9 6, = 8.90 ksi (T)
8p; = -525 gin./in. 6,. — 0.330 1161 (c)
yp = 623 grad 6,). = -1.538 ksi
ymp, = 1449 grad 4-10 6,, = 114.8 MP8 (T)
(b) 6",, = +336 gin./in. 6,. = 193.8 MPa (c)
3-67 (6) 6,,l = +1244 661./16. 4! 50.9= 6,. = 64.6 MPa
sp; = +506 gin./in. T 39.1" 4-13 8,, = +375 gin./in.
5),; = -862 ginjin. sp = -58.0 gin./in
yp = 737 grad 8, = +50.0 gin./in.
ymax = 2110 grad 11,? = +477 grad
(b) 5",, = +1049 gin./in. 1/)6 = +412 grad
yzx = ,U'.1'1':l.d
3-68 ECE =
4-14 .9, = +1825 gmfm
3-69 (6) 66- = 931 gin./in. sp = -1910 gm./m
(6) E51: = 313 616./16. 8, = +458 gmfm
3-71 (a) 6‘, = 2850 ginfin. 1/,0. = +1275 grad
(b) y,,, = -1700 grad yp, = +1749 grad
3-74 spl = +1645 gm/m -41 66.0" 1/3 = +2770 grad
SP2 = -1045 gm/m T 24.0" 4- 1 6 c, = 64.7 MPa ('1')
sp; = 0 grnfm c_,. = 2.49 MPa (T)
yp = y,-pp, = 2690 grad 1,3. = -42.8 MPa
3-76 spl = +785 gm./rn T 73.2" 4-1 9 8, = +267 gin./in.
sp; = -945 gm./m A7 16.8" 8, = -80.0 gin./in.
SP3 = 0 gm/rn H1 = -433 grad
yp = yum = 1730 grad 4-20 (a) c, = 36.6 MPa (C)
cl. = 248 MPa (T)
rxp = -16.43 MPa
Chapter 4 (6) 6,,l = 249 MP6 (T) <4; 86.1=
4-1 E = 15,000 ksi 6p = 31.5 MPa (c) .6: 3.38
Up; -= 0
v = 0.333
G = 5630 ksi rp = rm“ = 143.3 MP3.
4-2 1; = 18.1 GPa 4-21 design fails

6 = 0.326 4-25 Ax = 0.000810 in.
6,, = 354 MPa 4-26 (a) EL = 2.12 mm
4-4 (6) E = 10.0 GPa 6,1,, = 0.0889 mm
Up; = MP8 dd,‘ = mm
(c) O-“ff = 450 MPa (b) 61 = -2.57rnrn
(d) cy, (0.05%) = 220 MPa 6,), = -0.1080 mm
(e) cp, (0.2%) = 275 MPa 56,- = —0.0720 mm
(1) cf = 450 MPa 4-27 AT: 150.3 "F
(g) cpr = 483 MPa
(6) E, = 1.000 GPa 4-30 AT: 403 "C
(1) E, = 8.89 GPa 4-31 b = 0.0472 in. T
W-6 ANSWERS
4-34 (a) c = 50.0 MPa (T) 5-12 (a) 6 — 3.89 mm

(h) 8 = -441 gmfm (13) A: O-I = 80.0 MPa (T)
(c) 8,; = —0.0338 mm cry = rm. = 0
4-37 cl = 54.5 ksi E = 101.9MPa (T)
02 — 6.84 ksi = tn. = 0
‘figHq
T11 = 1.560 ksi (c) 86 = 1395 gmlm
4-38 sl = +829 gm/m (d) Ad: —0.01l51mm
82 = -454 gm/m 5-13 (a) 6 = 0.01405 in.
Y1; = grad (b) cx =1l.32ksi
4-41 8, = 0.0329 in. cy = 1,). =0
8,. = 0.001369 in.
(c) 8, = 390 gin./in.
4-45 (a) E65 = 25,000 ksi
8). = -117.1gin./in.
E1599 = 14,000 ksi
(b) cp (75) = 56.5 ksi 1/pp = Ograd
0:)! (1600) = 21.5 ksi 5-16 (ml = 8.73 mm
4-46 8,, = +154.2 gm/rn 5-17 Slpml =20.30638 in.
5 I Yi L
4-48 8 = 0.001953 mm 5-19
3K1
4-S 1 (a) T = 88.7 "F. 5-22 Smp, = 3.07 mm
(b) gap — 0.343 1n. 5-25 (6) 8,“, = 0.116216.
4-54 (a) 0, = 93.3 MPa (T) 866- = 0.081616.
cp = 100.1 MPa (T) (6) 6 = 0.116216. .4
rp. = 18.66 MPa 1» = 0.161316. 1
(b) cpl = 115.7 MPa (T) 41 50.2" 5-26 (3) 6,65 =
cp; = 77.7 MPa (T) T 39.8" 65¢‘ =
6,, = 0 MP6 (6) 6 = 0.261666 ->
6,, = 18.91 MP6
6..., = 51.8 MP6 v = 2.95 mm 1.
5-28 (6) 6,, = 149.8 MP8 (T)
666 = 101.1 MP8 (c)
Chapter 5 (6) 8),, = 4.8166-6
(S55 =
5-1 8 = 0.0549 in.
5-2 (6) 8,“, = 0.560 666 (9) 6 =1.5966616 <-
(13) 83¢‘ = H1111
1» = 8.82666 1
(c) 8foffl{ = 1.160rnrn 5-31 SAD = 0.0565 16
5-4 (6) 8..-, — 3.31 666 8,), = 0.061216.
(6) 8,,_,, = 5.63 666 8CD = 0.0490 16.
P = 100.3 1616
5-7 (6) 8 = -0.116316. 5-34 (9) 6) = 56.6 MP6 (c)
(6) 8 = -0.159316. 6p = 84.9 MP6 (T)
5-9 (6) 8 — 0.00100 16. (6) 8,, — 0.849 666 1,
(9) /1: 0,, = 1,). =0 5-35 (6) 66 = 1.291 1661 (c)
6, = 2000 661 (T) 66 = 20.9 166 (c)
B:c,=1:,).=0 (6) 85 = 0.0144116.
6,. = 5000 661 (T) 5-37 6,, = 6.02 1661 (T)
6p = 1.95 661 (T)
C:c,=1:,).=0 d6
5-40 - = 1.952
cp = 2500 psi (T) d6
5-10 (a) 8,, = 0.313 mm 5-41 (a) 0,, = ksi
(b) 8,,,,pl = 1.865 rnrn 6, = 12.13 1661 (T)
(c) 8,, = 781 gmfm 66 12.13 1661 (c)
(d) cm“ = 156.3 MPa (I1) =6. = 0.0306 16. ->
1111181111118 W-7
5-42 x = 49.6 mm 5-85 (a) c = 35.0 ksi

5-44 (a) UP = 1.074 MPa (T) (b) c = 43.8 ksi
cp = 11.93 MPa (T) (c) 5 = 0.0420 in.
(b) x = 200.1023 mm 5-86 (a) Ubarrom = ma
Ur0P = 159.2 MP8
5-45 6); = 0.001839 in.
(b) cppllppl = 95.5 MPa (T)
SC = 0.00368 in. c,pp = 302 MPa (T)
5-48 (a) cs = 327 MPa (T) 5-88 (a) GA = 245 MPa
c_.l = 125.6 MPa (C) cp = 275 MPa
(6) 8,, = 0.432 1661066611) (b) Tc = 119.5 MPa
5-49 0'5 = 48.8 ksi (c) rm“ A = 122.7 MPa
Up = 25.6 ksi (C) Tm“ 5 = 137.5 MPa
5-52 (a) 6.18 = 4.24 l\/[Pa (T) (d) Up = 8.40mm 1
65¢ = 4.24 MP3 (C) 5-89 Pm = 414 kip
O1‘); = 0 MP3 5-91 (a) 0,) = 32.0 ksi
(1)) rm“ — 2.12 MP8 cl; = 36 ksi
(C) d');(-_- = -0.0581 mm (b) 1,; = 32.6 ksi
(8) Ad = +0.529 X 10-1 666 5-96 c = 3.75 1%/[Pa
(6) 8,45 = +531 [1111/1'11 5-97 rpm = 0.400 in.
5-53 (8) CIA = 2.21 kS1(C) 5-100 c,, = 5.34 MPa
U3 — 2.911{S1(C) rm = -1.85111/11-‘a
(1)) ‘Emu’; = 1.103 KS1
5-101 (a) 0,, = 7.20 ksi
Tm“ 3 = 1.457 1£S1
c), = 14.40 ksi
(C) ‘CC = 0.1565 1(51
(b) .9, = +90.3 ginjin.
((1) VD = 0.0124911’). .1,
8,, = +418 gin.firL
5-59 (a) c = +13.25 ksi (T) 5-104 (a) c,, = 57.1 MPa (T)
(b) 5 = 0 rm = 20.2 MPa
(0) c = 0 (b) 6",, = 77.4 grnfm
(6) 8 = -0.1000 16. sh = 354 gmfm
5-60 (a) c = 75.0 MPa (T) (c) rm“ = 42.0 MPa
(b) Ad = -0.0804mr11 (d) rm“ = 43.4 MPa
5-63 (a) cf = 1.166 ksi (C) 5-105 (a) cl = 23.5 ksi
65 = 9.51 1611 (c) c; = 16.79 ksi
(6) 8 = +0.0081816 (b) p = 336 psi
5-64 [TAB I MP3 5-110 c, = 23.4 MPa
6_.,p = 22.1 MP6 c_,. = 50.0 MPa
5-66 (a) ETA = 177.4 MPa (T) 1,? = 0 MPa
0'5 = 96.8 MPa (T) 5-113 p = 265 psi
(b) rm“ ,l = 88.7 MPa 5-114 £66161 = +3.96 grn/m
rm“ B = 48.4 MPa 0'§10°P = -11.0969 gm/In
(c) 16- = 226 MPa 5-118 (a) c, = 171.2 MPa
(d) Uf = 0.410mm 1, (b) c, = 96.2 MP8
5-69 (a) c = 1333 psi (T) (c) Tm“ = 123.1 MPa
(b) c = 0 ps1 5-121 p (max) = 18.00 ksi
92.5 5-123 (a) rpm = 37.1 ksi
5-70 c = —2 MPa (C)
(1 + x) (b) c, = -7.51 ksi
5-71 (a) GA = 32.0 ksi c, = 31.8 ksi
U5 = 26.0 ksi 5-124 F = -457 kN/m
(b) UL‘ = 0.0798 in. J, 5-126 imp = 51 mm
5-79 Pm, = 16.63 kip 5-127 Use W8 x 24
5-82 rm“ = 12.00 mm 5-129 all); (min) = 0.874 in.
5-83 31),, = 2.92 in. dp); (min) = 1.070 in.
W-8 ANSWERS
5-130 by 158.2 mm 6-29 (a) cm“ = 2.83 ksi (T)

b5 = 165.9 mm (b) cm, = 9.55 ksi (C)
5-133 (I48 = 4.07 ksi (C) (c) 6 = -0.0439 rad
05¢ = 34.0 ksi (T) 6-30 Tmp,l=9.71kN-m
cg); = 12.73 ksi (T)
6-33 (6) 1,1,, = 50016 - 0
Sm) = +0.0213 in. (6) Tc), = 25016 - 11
5-134 Pm, = 393 kN (c) Imp, (motor) = 11.46 ksi
5-136 0'31) = 120.0 MPa (T) cm“ (motor) = 11.46 ksi (T) & (C)
05¢ = 133.3 MPa (C) (d) rm, (power) = 15.65 ksi
0,, = 3.49 n1m ,1, cm“ (power) = 15.65 ksl (T) & (C)
5-139 (a) A4 (min) — 0.419 in! 6-34 Tm“ = 9.14 kN - m
Ap (mm) = 1:067 inz
6-38 dmlp = 93.2 mm
(b) 8,, = 0.1800 m.
8,; = 0.1600 in. 6-40 (a) P = 286 kw
5-142 (a) cc = 240 MP8 (T) (b) 6 = 0.0600 rad
cg = 156 MPa (C) 6-4 1 (a) r = 3.96 ksi
(h) VA = 1.944mm T (b) 6 = 0.00528 rad
5-143 cm = 496 psi (T) 6-45 dmp, (motor) — 1.880 in
c, = 1489 psi (T) dmm (power) = 3.35 in.
5-146 (a) cl = 186.5 MPa 6-46 (a) dl = 80.4 mm
(b) AD = 0.213 mm (b) dz = 57.9 n:|m
(c) 6 = 0.0538 rad
6-49 (a) rm, = 16.04 ksi
C hapter 6
(b) 6 = -0.0321 rad
6-1 TAB = +80 kip - R 6-50 (a) r, = 8.99 MPa
THC Z ' fl rp, = 10.23 MPa
Tc-D = +20 kip - 11 (h) 8 = 0.00360 rad
TD; = +45 kip - f1
6-52 (a) Tm“ = 13.28 kN - m
6-2 Tm“ = 30 kN - m
(I1) 1.6 = 10.0 MP6
6-4 TBC = N ' H1
6-54 (a) r_,, = 44.3 MPa
Tc-D = 400 N - m T5 I NIP?!
TUE = 250 N - n1 rs = 101.3 MPa
6-7 dmlp — 2.78 in. (b) 9 = 0.0633 rad
6-9 (a) rm = 3.51 ksi 6-55 (a) 8 = 0.01801 rad
(b) 6 = -0.00288 rad (b) 6 = 0.01698 rad
6-10 (a) rm, = 71.3 MPa (c) % error = 5.75%
(b) Hp,-5 = +0.001910 rad
6-57 t— 0.0393 in.
(c) 6E)_.l = +0.0439 rad
6-12 (a) dm = 65.4 mm 6-60 (a) 1.48 = 124.4 MPa
(b) 6 = 0.0724 rad 61¢ = 110.6 MP6
(6) 0 = -0.0255 661
6-15 (a) Tmp. = 9.94 kip - in. (C) O'mu1|"=O'm5x(;=1244 3
(b) 6, = 0.1559 rad
6-62 (a) T= 15.81 kN-m
6-17 (a) d_,lp = 0.535 in.
(b) r = 158.3 MPa
(h) dp-D = 0.394 in.
(c) L = 31.2 m. 6-63 dc = 0.0564 in.
db = 0.219 in.
6-18 (a) rm = 67.9 I1/[Pa
(b) rm. = 79.6 11/[Pa 6-66 (a) rl; = 86.3 MPa
(c) 6 = 0.0295 rad (b) T5 = 116.4 MPa
6_ 21 (r+16L)’-61] (c) 65 = -0.0582 rad
6-20 6-75 cpl = 5.10 ksi (T)
— 31tGmr3|: (r +mL )3
6 : 3TL op; = 1.118 ksi (C)
6-23 1.-mp, = 3.11 ksi
16Gt1rr3
1111181111118 W-9
6-76 (a) c,=0 6-142 (6) 4. = 63 .4 666

cy=c,=0 66 = 19.9 666
T,y=40.7MPa (b) l9_.l)g = 0.0483 rad
Ix..=r,p=0 6-144 (6) amp, = 99.3 1661
(b) cpl = 56.6 MPa (T) (b) 9 = -0.288 rad
cpl = 29.3 MPa (C) 6-147 (6) T: 341016-16.
rm“ = 43.0 MP8 (b) 1,, = 462 psi
6-78 (pp, = 3.17 kN - m (6) 0 = -0.00418 166
6-80 Pm, = 1006 kN 6-150 1.‘ = 87.1 MP3
6-81 cpl = 8.25 ksi (T) 6-151 Use 23/4 in. dia.
cp; = 2.06 ksi (C)
rm“ = 5.16 ksi
6-83 Tm, = 109.0 kip - in. Chapter 7
6-86 T = 455 N - m
6-87 p = 203 psi 7-1 M, = 24.0 1616 -16.
T= 1203 kip - in. 7-2 6 = 11.16 MPa (T)
6-92 r-1 = 81.5 MPa 7-4 (6) 6,, = 5.00 MP6 (T)
6-93 = 18.11 ksi (6) Uf = 2.50 MPa (c)
6-96 = 6.37 kN - 111 (6) 6,, = 6.25 MP6 (T)
6-98 Q.“-i“| = 79 mm 7-7 (a) M: 21.3 kip - in.
6-100 (a) T=23.6kN-m (6)11 = 85.3 1616-16.
(b) % increase = 33.3% 7-9 (6)11, = 31501616 -16.
6-101 (a) T=360kip-in. (b) M‘. = 55601616-16.
(b) T= 390 kip - in. 7-10 M, = 1.15 1661-61
6-103 (a) yr = 4000 gin./in. 7-12 6..., = 4.19 MP6 (T)
(b) T= 164.3 kip - in. 6),... — 2.91 MP6 (c)
6-106 (8) T: 279 kN/m 7-15 (6) 6,,,p = 13.91 1661 (T)
(b) 6 = 0.500 rad (6) 6,,,,, — 1.36 661 (c)
6-107 (a) T=400 kip - in. 7-16 (6) 6 = 252 MP6
(b) 19 = 0.216 rad (b) M = -5.251681-61
6-110 T = 20.9 kN - I11 7-18 R = 9.11 16
6-111 T = 756 kip - in. 7-21 (6) 6, = 10.48 1661(0)
6-119 Tm, = 2.52 kip - in. (6) 6,, — 1.86 661 (T)
6-120 (a) TM (rect) = 1176 N - I11 7-27 V, = (-1000) 16
Tm (sq) = 1380 N - m = (-10006-) 16- 0
(b) 9 (rest) = 0.00968 rad 7-28 = (-26) 1661
B (sq) — 0.00909 rad = (-61) 661 - 66
6-122 (pp, = 3.18 mm 7-30 = (-156 + 45) 1661
6-125 (a) rm“ = 7.25 ksi ,3= (-1.562 + 456) 1610 -16
$5$3
(b) Bcpl = -0.01042 rad 7-33 c = 3000 psi (T)
6-126 T = 2.47 kN - I11 7-35 (6) V, = (-2000) 16
6-129 Tm, = 320 kip - in. M, = (-20006 - 6000) 16 - 0
(b) V, = (3600) lb
6-132 For 60 1-pm: dp)" = 110 mm
For 6000 rpm: dmlll = 25 mm
M, = (36006 - 6000) 16 - 11
(c) V, = (—1000x + 5600) lb
Use speed of6000 rpm
M, = (-50061 + 56006 - 8000) 16 - 11
6-133 Use a 2 in. dia. (d) V, = (-2400) lb
6-136 Use 50 mm dia. M, = (—2400x + 24,000) lb - f1
6-138 Use 45 mm dia. 7-36 (a) V, = -12(x+2)kN
6-141 (a) Imp. = 15.28 ksi M.=(-614-246-24)16N-61
(6) app, = +0.10o2 X10-3 1-60 (b) V, = (-12x+50.4) kN
(c) 6(1),, = -0.377 x l0“3 rad 114, = (-6042 +50.4x-24) kN - n1
W-10 ANSWERS
(5) V, = (2.4) kN 7-58 aw = 132.2 MP5 (T, bot)

M, = (2.4x-1»-72) kN - 51 5..., = 132.2 MP5 (c, lbp)
(<1) V, = (-21.6) kN 7-62 am, = 46.3 MPa (r)
M, =(—21.6x+216)kN -m 0,,,_._,,,C = 139.0 MPa
7-38 (5) V, = (-155+ 25.5) kN 7-64 Vb = 0 kN,14.75 kN
M, = (-7.558 + 25.5; - 10.32) kN - n1 V1 = 6.75 kN, 1.75 kN
(b) 5 = 44.1 MP5 (T) VL5 = -2.25 kN
(5) 5 = 53.0 MP5 (c, top) V3 = -2.25 kN, -7.25 kN
5 = 53.0 MP5 (T, bbl) V4 = -7.25 kN, 0 kN
10 Ml = 10.75 kN - tn, 15.75 kN - n1
7-41 (3) V, = (— cos E) kip
Tl’ 10 M,,,,,,, = 15.94 kN - m
M, = (10.13 515 %) kip - ft ML; = 15.63 kN - m
M3=12.25kN-m,7.25kN-rn
(b) V,,,,,, = 3.12 kip 7-65 w = 10.43 kipffl
M,,,,,, =10.13 kip - ft
(5) V,=(-1000x-+5600) lb 7-67 (a) am“; = 10.73 ksi (T, bot)
M, = (-5005* + 5600x— 8000) lb - ft a,,,,,,,¢ = 10.73 ksi (C, mp)
(b) 05¢ = 2.08 ksi (T)
7-42
400
(=1) V.= (-2
200
- —5i5°5)kl~l (c) Ll = 584 psi
zrr rr 8
7-70 (a) VG = 0 kN, (P — 0.1Px) kN
400 1600 TEX V, = (P — 0.1Px) kN, (-0.lPx) kN
M, = ‘:?(X-4)+ $605
Vm = (—0.1Px) kN, 0 kN
(b) Vmax = Vx=U = M, = (Px — 0.1Px2) kN
Mmax =Mx=l.7573 = 34-1 RN ' I11 (I3) x = 5.00 111
7-49 V, = 0 lb, 3000 lb 7-72 1:, = 0
V4 = 3000 lb, 1000 lb 1:), = 187.5 kPa
11,, = 1000 lb, -5000 lb 1:, = 250 kPa
11,, = -5000 lb, 0 lb 7-73 (a) 1: = 142.7 psi
M4 = 12,000 lb - R (la) l: = 167.6 psi
M,, =10001b-fl,-50001b-R (c) rm, = 199.7 psi
M1;,= -5000lb- fl,0lb-fl At the neutral axis
7-50 VD = 0 kN, -15 kN 7-75 rm, = 1259 psi
V25 = -l5 kN,15.5 kN
7-78 am“ = 68.7 MP2 (T, top)
V55 = 15.5 kN, --4.5 kN
om“ = 68.7 MPa (C, bot)
V15 = -4.5 kN, 0 kN rm, = 11.66 MPa
M15 = kN - I11
At the neutral axis
M55 I '-9 kN ' I11
7-79 (a) cr,,,,,, = 1196 psi (T)
7-52 VD = 0 kN, 5.5 kN Atx=2fianc1y= -3 in
V3 = 5.5 kN, -4.5 kN (b) rm, = 96.7 psi
V7 = -4.5 kN, -24.5 kN Atx=0fial:ldy=:l:1.5in.
V“; = -24.5 kN, 15 kN
V(5 = 15 kN, 0 kN
7-82 (a) rm = 783 kPa
(II) TE; = kPa
M3 = 16.5 kN - I11
M, = -1.5 kN - 55 (C) T_l\,',g = kpfl
Mm = -75 kN - m (d) am, = 12.33 MPa (T)

7-85 (a) F} = 519 lb
7-55 VD = 0 lb, 1800 lb
(b) s = 2 in.
V5 = 1800 lb, 300 lb
V“, = 300 lb 7-86 (a) F5 = 28.5 kN
VL5 = -2200 lb, 0 lb (b) a},,,,, = 24.6 mm
M5 = 9000 lb - fi, 800011) - fl 7-89 s = 10 in.
M19 = 9500 lb - fi 7-94 apl = 86.1 MPa (T) A! 15.20°
M19_g = 9680 lb - R op; = 6.35 MPa (C) T 74.80“
7-57 am“; = 1787 psi (T) op; = 0 MPa
am,“ = 1072 psi (C) rp = r,,,,,,, = 46.2 MPa
ANSWERS W-11
7-95 5,, = 14.96 ksi (T) <9 23.65 7-139 t— 0.350 in.
5,, = 2.34 ksi (c) A 66.4'= 7-140 (a) e = 10.71 mm
5,, = 0 MP5 (b) 1,, = 17.14 Mpa
1,, = ‘rm, = 46.2 MPa 7-143 (a) e = 1.429 in.
7-98 5,,,,, = 176.2 MP5 (T) (b) 7,, = 643 psi
i,,,,, = 96.3 MP5 7-144 e = 19.00 mm <-
7-99 5,,“ = 20.00 ksi rw = 5.82 MPa
5,,,,, = 10.00 ksi 7-146 (a) e = 4R7':r
7-102 (5) 5,,,,. = 169.4 MPa (b) 1,, = 4.58 MPa
i,,,,,, = 96.2 MP5 7-147 (a) e = 2R ’
(b) 5,,,,, = 163.5 MP5 (b) 7,, = 350 ps1
i,,,,,, = 34.3 MP5 7-150 0,, — 9.19 MP3 (C)
7-104 (5) ,6 = 67.4-= ,1
(b) 5,, = 66.5 MP5 (c) 7-151 or, = 10.35 ksi (T)
5,, = 70.3 MP5 (T) 7-154 14+,,,,, = 81.1 mm
7-105 (5) ,6 = 75.3'= '1 7-157 wm, = 19971b/fl
(b) (7.5 = 15l9l=3i (T) 7-158 0,, = 4.56 MPa (T)
5,, =15l9psi(C) 0, = 77.1 MPa (T)
7-108 (3) ff.-1 = 0 MP3 7-163 Mm, = 49.2 kip - ii
(b) 6 = 45.0” '1 7-164 0, = 5.30 MPa (C)
(5) 5,, = 16.46 MPa (c) 0, = 90.4 MPa (T)
5,, = 16.46 MP5 (T) 7-166 v.(,,_.,_, = 12.62 kN/n1
7-109 (5) 5,, = 3.00 151 (T) 7-168 (a) A, = 1688 mmz
(b) ,6 = 34.73 1 (b) M = 91.4 kN - m
(5) 5,, = 4.69 ksi (T) 7-171 b = 4.24 in.
5,, = 4.331 ksi (c) 7-173 0, = 6.56 ksi (T)
7-112 (5) 5, = 32.9 MP5 (c) 0,, = 6.86 ksi (C)
(b) ,6 = 30.93 '1 7-174 Mm, = 150.4kN -m
(5) 5,, = 99.6 MP5 (T) 7-176 rm = 71.8 MPa
5,, = 97.0 MPa (c) 7-177 ac =4.78 ksi (T)
7-113 (5) cu = 1.933 ksi (T) 0,, = 12.87 ksi (C)
5,, = 1.933 ksi (c) 7-179 Up] = 4.71 ksi (T) & 21.52"
5,, = 0 ksi op; = 0.732 ksi (C) T 68.48°
(b) 6 = 63.5" 1 op; = 0 ksi
7-116 M = 565 N -111 rm = 1:, = 2.72 ksi
7-117 5 = 0.0625 111. 7-182 om, = 125.0 MPa (C)
7-120 A0 = 67.3% 7-183 I1 = 1.035 in.
7-122 = 250 mm 7-186 Up] = 43.2 MPa (T) A3 34.37“
7-126 = 145.5 kN - In op; = 20.2 MPa (C) ‘=5 55.63"
= 161.3 kN - I11 0,3 = 0 ksi
rm = 7,, = 2.72 ksi
7-127 "‘583$= 24,600 kip - iii.
M, = 27,500 kip - iii. 7-187 0,0,, = 2110 psi (T)
7-129 M,/196 = 1.500 03,, = 2470 psi (C)
7-131 M,/M, = 1.743 7-189 0,, = 1000 psi (T)
0,, = 200 psi (C)
7-132 113;,/M = 2.00
0;: = 1800 psi (C)
7-135 (a) a = 3.78 in. Up = 600 psi (C)
(b) M = 1553 kip - 1.11. 7-192 0,, — 8.75 MPa (T)
(5) M,/M = 1.714 up = 1.25 MP3 (T)
-5‘/EM y1_72
7-137 13.75 MP5 (c)
U‘ 661 6 5,, = 6.25 MPa (c)
W-12 ANSWERS
7-194 0,, = 1.250 MPa (T) Chapter 8

op = 8.75 MPa (T)
3-1 P
(5) 5 = —(-53 + 31.25 - 2L’)
0,; = 6.25 MP3 (C) 6E1
(TD = 13.75 MP3 (C) PL3
7-196 P = 330 kN (b]55l=fi~l-
M = 12.78 kN - m PL2
M = 8.25 kN - I11 (C) 8,; = E d
7-197 O11 top: q,,1 = 13.90 ksi (T)

op, = 0.489 ksi (C) 3-2 (5) 5 = $65‘ + 41.5’ - 62251)
op, = 0 psi L4
rm“ = tp — 7.19 ksi 00 85 = % 1
On bottom: op, = 0.489 ksi (T)
wL3
op; = 13.90 ksi (C) (C)9g=mq
op; = 0 psi
rm, = 2,, = 7.19 ksi 3-4 (5) 5 = Luz’ + 5L“5 - 425)
7-199 Q = 393 lb 120EIL
P = 49.1 lb WL4
7.00 in.
00 6.. = E 1
7-202 amp = 1.314 MP3 (T) L3
0,-,0, = 2.09 MPa (C)
7-203 T: 140.1 kip - in. 8-7 SM — 0.242 in. 1.
V = 10.51 kip
M=91.1 kip- in.
3-10 (5) 5 = l(-25‘ + 325‘ - 31.25’)
48EI
7-208 Use 203 x 254-mm timber (h) 8,“, = 14.461:nm 1‘
7-209 Use 4 x 12-in.timbe1' 3-11 (5) 5 = %(-35* + 225’ + 121.158 -111.35)
7-211 Use W18 x 60 section
7-212 Use S305 x 47 section 13wL4
7-214 Use S203 x 27 section “"1 *7“ = M 1
7-217 (a) om, = 10.00 ksi (C) 3-13 (5) 5 = L045“
48EI
- 3225)
(I1) M = 544 kip - iii.
7-218 om, = 206 MPa (T) PL2
0,0,, = 137.1 11/[Pa (C) O’) 9" = 16Ei' <5
7-220 Vp = 0 kN, -10 kN PL’
6B = —
V2 = -10 kN 16151 52
V4 = -26 kN, 36 kN
V5 = 4 kN (0 3.5 = 4%, 1
Vm = 4 kN, -16 kN
I/,5 = - 16 kN, 0 kN 8-14 (5) 3,=10.37pi5i1
M; = -20 kN - m (I1) 85=22.05im 1
M4 = -56 kN - m 8-16 5;; = 57.9mm.1.
M3 = 24 kN - m 17PL3
M19 = kN - I11
8-19
‘*4 = 63? *
7-223 A1 A: y = -2.37 in., z = 2.37 in. 8-22 (5) 5 = -xfi + 62*‘; - 52°)
0,, = 4680 psi (C)
L4
At B:y= -1.37 in., z = 5.63 in.
5 = L
U5 = 5980 psi (T) (bl " 72.61 1'
7-225 M = 6840 kip - in. 11wL‘
M, = 7560 kip - in. 8-23
5” = % 1
7-226 rm, = 7.81 MPa 7PL3
e = 25.0 mm 8-26 (3) 53 = E -1
7-229 Pm, = 9.63 kip 23 PL3
7-232 Use two L178 x 102 x 9.5-mm angles 0=)s5=@1
ANSWERS W-13
L3
8-27 (2) v = £(x3 - 3ax2)
E
(6) 6,, = 0.0262 % '3;
ma=% <0R5=9§%5-ml Tr
4wL
(c)a=% R3= ? T
7wL4
8-29
is = F13 * 8-46 mb=%§1
205wa4
8-32
6" - m 1 m4=%§1
PL2 8-47 55 — 0.0503 in. 1.
8-33 (3) B.4 = —
E1 W PL3
8-49 (3) 56' = E ~1-
23PL3
amnx = U 1 PL3
24EI 03') 51,14 = E T
8-36 (5) 5 = l(-5‘ + 4L1; - 31.") 8-50 83 = 0
24EI _ 29WL4
@6=%§1
8-53
9-ifiri
2wL“
8-54 (a)56=fil-
8-37 (5) 5 = L655 + 5L"x - 425)
120EIL
(b)5c= 1-
wL4
0?) 55 — 3? ~1-
8-56 (a)51= ¢
8-39 (5) 5 = L65’ + 72°55 - 62*)
840EIL3 ®)&i;5= 1
L4
5 = L.
(b) "‘ 14061 1 8-59 (3)52-=%T
wL
(C) V6 = T T '75
WL2
8-60 (a)=i.=121%§l
””=w~ @)&572= 1
340 (5) 5 = L65“ + 20235’ - 45135’)
360EIL2
13wL“
{¢)45=%j¢
9) is = M 1 8-63 5 =L
L4
‘ 15311
342 (5) 5 = L0 32L“5b5 g - 452L251 7PL3
2:rz/‘E1 8-71
<9 5" = W 1
+8(2r - 2).'|‘l'L3X + 47r(4 -~ 7r)L4:l QB = 2PL 2 QC
L -1 1 EI
(b) 6, = 0.1039% 7PL3
09) 5c = E -1
10n=%?¢ SPL2
4wL2 96' = E 7‘
M,,=— 8-72 5,, = 12.58 mm 1,
712 A’
37wL“
343 (5)5 __ 3n4EI[—24L
21” 4- "X -5 2 L5 3 +(24+5 2 )1. 3 5]
515% 8-74
‘C = 62? 1
4 17wL" PL3)
W15 1
(b) 6.5 = 0.00369? 377 <“”"=(W*fiI
2wL“ SPL3
(c) Sm“ — 0.00870 E1 9) is = (7 T W)
E11
W-14 ANSWERS
PL3 3-124 11, = E

24 T
8-79
53 = E 1 7wL
8.80
WL‘
56 - m 1 V”=YT
8-82 8;; = 5.42 mm _|, WL2
4lwL“ M“’=F"~
8-85
‘*3 - m 1 l3P 4
3-127 R, = T
SPL3
8-87
5" = E 1L4
3P
.41
R.=_
8-88
5" = iii 1 R0=§T
P
8-90 8¢~=14.77mm J,
8-93 ac = 0.32115 1, 3-123 (5) R, = SP
ET
8-95 % increase = 0.458 % 11P
8-96 % increase = 0.579 %
L4 "FY
8-99 5.4 = 1? ~l' 3PL
M5:
L3 T
6,, = % 7? 7PL3
(11031-7=fi
PL’
8-100
5" = 375 T 3-130 (5) R__, = 7wL
F
16PL3
8-102
53" = % 1L4
RB Z
5wL
T
8-104
5“ = iii? 1 Rf =
WL
Fl
29 L‘
8-105
‘*4 = 5:? 1 00 M-*I= E
5wL4 16
8-107
5" = m 1 4P 1
3-131 11,, = I
49 ,1.“
8-110
5" = QT1 23P
17 L‘ "F? 1
8-lll
‘*4 Z J? 1 _E
8-115
3 L V” 22¢
3PL
5L M3 = F
8-133 VA = wL T
WL2
MFT" M-1
WL2
wL2 =T
8-116
M-is V(_' I WL T
PL
8-118 M=— wl. 2
2
8-121
L MCZT“
3M
2L R3 = E T
3M
M4=F~
wL2
"=5 1
wL M
8-122 P=— M425 /'\'
12¢

William Riley, Leroy Sturges, Don Morris - Mechanics of Materials-John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (2007)

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William Riley, Leroy Sturges, Don Morris - Mechanics of Materials-John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (2007)

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Mechanics ofMaterials

JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.

This book is primed on acid free paper.

I Discussion ofthe stress element ir1 Chapter 2 is expanded.

Material properties and the relationship between

accuracy of the given data and the expected accuiacy of the

6-9 STRESS CONCENTRATIONS IN CIRCULAR 8-6 DEFLECTIONS BY SUPERPOSITION 520

Because the complete scope of these problems is obviously too comprehensive

1-2 CLASSIFICATION OF FORCES

/..--— Floor decking

be different under short-time loading and sustained loading. An impact load is a

1-3 EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY

EF, =0 EF}. =0 EF, =0 (1-3)

EM, =0 EMy =0 EM, =0 (1-4)

sF,=0 2F,=0 2M,=0 (1-5)

2F, =0 >:F,,=0 (1-6)

1 EXHIIIPIB PIOIJIBIII I-I The rigid structure showninFig. 1-5a is sub-

zF,,=0 21-",.=0 >:M,.=0 (=1)

A, = 5000 lb Ay = 0.04795 lb T = 7071 lb (6)

Although results should always be reported as accurately as possible, the numbers

A, = 5000 lb A,. = 0 lb T = 7070 lb A55-

F=3329N w=83.39 Nfm EF, =0 EIFy=0 EMA =0

AX Thus, the reactions at supports A and B are

P The maximum difference in the results + —> EF, = Q A, = 0

A, = 0 N Ay = 5850 N B = 3640 N Alls-

EXHIIIPIB Pfﬂblﬁlll 1 3 The truss shown m Fig l-"la supports one

Thus, the support reactions a.re

A, = 0 lb A}. = 1275 lb E = 425 lb ABS-

P By Newton’s third law (action-reaction), a

r,;,,- = 505 lb (T) TM = 660 lb (C) Ans-

+ L EMC = 0; T3006) + 42502) = 0

1 Example Problem 1-4 A bag Clfpfltfltflfls is sitting 011 the chair bf

H -._ "](x>:j\ {ll T-/<

c_‘:i‘~."‘} " —*—"9 A ii/V

0.1 m ,1__/ 0.2 m 0.2 rn A B

0-1667 m "‘~ 0.1333 m

where 6 = tan“(3/5) = 30.96“. The ﬁrst equation is satisﬁed identically. The

Fy=67.2N D_,,=l6.80N D, =F,,—24N

Now the equations of equilibrium for member BH are

F, = l15.1N C; =—9l.0N C,,=57.0N

Then the forces acting on member BH are

+ —> E15; = (k -28 cos 30.96‘ +l15.1— 91.0 = 0.08925 E 0 24.6 N I

+ L EMF = ll 28(0.3) + 57.0 (0.1667) — 91.0 (0.2777) + 24.6(0.3)

A, = —120.0 lb Ay = 75.0 lb C = 120.0 lb A115-

+1/EM); = 0; 4(75)+12r,,¢ —12(75.0)= 0

Tm; = 50.0 lb B = 130.0 lb A115-

1 Example Problem 1-6 Determine the reaction at support A of the

Thus, the reaction at A is

A,,=0N A,.=0N A,=200N Ans-

i Example Problem 1-7 A 1000-lb load is securely fastened to a

+—>-EF,,=0: T3ccos6;;—T,u,-cos6,;=0 (11)

Solving Eq. (a) for TA3 gives

and substituting Eq. (c) into Eq. (b) gives

fromacar as showninFig . Pl-2 . D etermrne

Figure P1-2 - P1-5

Vt“ 1-13 A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P1-13

Figure P1-10 FigureP1-13

1-11 A 30-lb force P is applied to the brake pedal of an automo-

1-12* A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Fig. P1-12. P

Jlr’ 3 kjq Figure P1-14