650 Competitive Physics: Thermodynamics, Electromagnetism and Relativity

zero current going through the internal resistances. Therefore, the short-
circuit current is Isc = I1 + I2 and the equivalent Norton current is
Ieq = I1 + I2 .
Notice that even if the branches containing the current sources included an
additional resistor connected in series, the above results would not change.
Therefore, any resistor connected in series to a current source can be ignored
(this is why the internal resistance of a current source must be connected
in parallel). Finally, we can repeat this algorithm (k − 1) times when there
are k current sources connected in parallel between terminals A and B, with
the jth current source Ij possessing internal resistance Rj , to obtain the
following equivalent Norton resistance and current.
1
Req = k 1
,
j=1 Rj


k
Ieq = Ij .
j=1

In light of the above transformations, we have the following idea: if we want

to add components in parallel, we convert everything into current sources
to reduce them into a single current source. Conversely, if we want to add
components in series, we convert everything into voltage sources. Therefore,
we can simplify the circuit in Fig. 9.43 in the following manner, where the
last two are the equivalent Thevenin and Norton circuits with respect to the
two terminals.

Figure 9.43: Simplification of complex circuit

9.5 Y-Δ Transformations

The Y-Δ transformations are a set of mathematical rules and simplifications
to convert between a circuit consisting of resistors arranged in a “Y-shape”
(Fig. 9.44) and another that is arranged in a “Δ-shape” (Fig. 9.45).
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DC Circuits 651

Figure 9.44: Y-circuit

Figure 9.45: Δ-circuit

By convention, the alphabetical subscripts of the resistors in the Δ-circuit

correspond to the nodes opposite to the sides containing the resistors. For
example, the opposite of Ra is node 1 while the opposite of Rb is node 2.
The transformations from the Δ to Y circuit are

Rb Rc
R1 = ,
Ra + Rb + Rc
Ra Rc
R2 = ,
Ra + Rb + Rc
Ra Rb
R3 = .
Ra + Rb + Rc

An easy way to remember the resistance of a resistor directly adjacent to a

particular node in the Y-circuit is to take the product of the resistances of
the resistors adjacent to that node in the Δ circuit and divide it by the sum
of all the resistances. The inverse transformations from the Y to Δ circuit are

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Ra = ,
R1
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652 Competitive Physics: Thermodynamics, Electromagnetism and Relativity

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rb = ,
R2
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rc = .
R3
Another easy way to remember the resistance of a particular resistor in the
Δ-circuit is to take the sum of all possible combinations of the product of
pairs of resistances in the Y-circuit and divide it by the resistance in the
Y-circuit that corresponds to the node opposite to that particular resistor.
Proof: The existence of these equivalent transformations and the equivalent
resistances can be proven by the principle of superposition. These two circuits
are said to be equivalent if the voltages between pairs of nodes (V12 , V23 , V31 )
are the same in the two circuits for any currents (I1 , I2 , I3 ) entering the
corresponding nodes (N1 , N2 , N3 ) and vice-versa (identical currents, given
fixed voltages).
The resistances of the two circuits can be tuned to satisfy the forward
condition by considering the superposition of three different set-ups with
currents
 
I1 − I2 I2 − I1
, ,0 ,
3 3
 
I2 − I3 I3 − I2
0, , ,
3 3
 
I1 − I3 I3 − I1
, 0, ,
3 3
which in combination gives
 
2I1 − I2 − I3 2I2 − I1 − I3 2I3 − I1 − I2
, , .
3 3 3
Furthermore, I1 + I2 + I3 = 0 as required by Kirchhoff’s junction rule which
implies that the superposition of those circuits give an equivalent circuit
with currents

(I1 , I2 , I3 )

entering nodes (N1 , N2 , N3 ) which is the general set-up of concern. Thus, if

we are able to show that the two circuits satisfy the first condition (identical
voltages given incoming currents) in the three sub-problems, we will also be
able to prove that the two circuits satisfy the first condition for any general
currents flowing into the nodes.
November 13, 2018 7:8 Competitive Physics 9.61in x 6.69in b3255-ch09 page 653

DC Circuits 653

Let us consider the first sub-problem with currents ( I1 −I

3 ,
2 I2 −I1
3 , 0) flow-
ing into the nodes. This is equivalent to connecting the ends of a battery of
a certain emf to nodes N1 and N2 . The voltage between N1 and N3 in the
Δ-circuit can be determined as
V13 = I13 · Rb
where I13 is the current flowing from node 1 to node 3. I13 can be calculated
from the current divider principle as
Rc I1 − I2
I13 = · ,
Ra + Rb + Rc 3
Rb Rc I1 − I2
V13 = · .
Ra + Rb + Rc 3
Next, the voltage between N1 and N3 in the Y-circuit in this sub-problem is
I1 − I2
V13 = R1 · .
3
In order for the two V13 in the two circuits to be the same,
Rb Rc
R1 = .
Ra + Rb + Rc
A similar process can be applied to ensure that V23 is the same in both
circuits. The criterion for this is
Ra Rc
R2 = .
Ra + Rb + Rc
We do not need to find another condition for the two V12 ’s in the two circuits
to be equal, as the equivalence of the two voltages above already guarantees
so (V12 = V13 − V23 ). Lastly, this entire procedure can be used to determine
the appropriate resistances for the two circuits in the other sub-problems.
Then, six equations for three variables, which are thankfully coherent, are
obtained. The solutions are
Rb Rc
R1 = , (9.6)
Ra + Rb + Rc
Ra Rc
R2 = , (9.7)
Ra + Rb + Rc
Ra Rb
R3 = . (9.8)
Ra + Rb + Rc
This shows that the resistances in the circuits can be tuned to satisfy the
first condition. Moving on, we then need to prove that the currents (I1 , I2 , I3 )
654 Competitive Physics: Thermodynamics, Electromagnetism and Relativity

entering the nodes (N1 , N2 , N3 ) are equal in both circuits for any voltages
between pairs of nodes (V12 , V23 , V13 ). The appropriate resistances that fulfil
this requirement can be determined by considering the superposition of the
following set-ups with voltages:
(V12 , 0, 0),
(0, V23 , 0),
(0, 0, V13 ).
Let us consider the first sub-problem. The current I2 in the Δ circuit is
simply
V12
I2 = .
Rc
The current I2 in the Y-circuit can also be computed as
V12
I2 = R1 R2 +R2 R3 +R3 R1
.
R3
Equating these, we obtain
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rc = .
R3
Similarly, if we impose the requirement that the two I3 ’s must be equal in the
two circuits under the conditions of this sub-problem, it can be concluded
that
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rb = .
R2
Again, the condition for I1 to be equal in both circuits is automatically satis-
fied as a consequence of Kirchhoff’s junction rule. Then, a similar process can
be applied to the rest of the sub-problems to obtain a total of six equations
which can be reduced to the following three unique equations.
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Ra = , (9.9)
R1
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rb = , (9.10)
R2
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rc = . (9.11)
R3
Finally, it can be shown that the set of Eqs. (9.6)–(9.8) is entirely coherent
with the set of Eqs. (9.9)–(9.11) after some algebraic manipulation. There-
fore, the Δ and Y-circuits are equivalent if either set of equations is satisfied.
 DC Circuits 655

The two sets of equations can each be used as a transformation rule between
the circuits. Given a particular direction of transformation, the more conve-
nient set of equations is usually preferred. Equations (9.6)–(9.8) are usually
used to transform the Δ-circuit to the Y-circuit while Eqs. (9.9)–(9.11) usu-
ally function as the inverse transformations.

Application

The Y-Δ transformations are often used to simplify circuits with nodes that
are interlinked by resistors. They act as a slightly more efficient substitute
for Kirchhoff’s laws, though the calculation of the equivalent resistances can
sometimes be tedious. Most of the time, the Y-Δ transformations should be
used when the direct application of Kirchhoff’s laws is the only other feasible
method and when the other sleights-of-hand discussed earlier are inapplica-
ble. However, note that a conversion from a Y-circuit to a Δ-circuit elimi-
nates the node at the center of the “Y”. Thus, information that pertains to
that eliminated node is harder to be retrieved from the equivalent Δ-circuit.
Problem: Determine currents I1 and I2 in Fig. 9.46.

Figure 9.46: Initial circuit (Y-circuit)

The Y-circuit demarcated by the nodes N1 , N2 and N3 can be trans-

formed to a Δ configuration with resistances

Ra = Rb = Rc = 3R1 .

Therefore, the equivalent circuit in Fig. 9.47 can be obtained.

The equivalent resistance of the entire circuit can be computed to be
3R12 + 5R1 R2
Req = .
5R1 + 3R2
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656 Competitive Physics: Thermodynamics, Electromagnetism and Relativity

Figure 9.47: Equivalent circuit (Δ-circuit)

Thus,
5R1 + 3R2
I1 = ε.
3R12 + 5R1 R2
However, I2 cannot be computed directly from the equivalent Δ-circuit and
must instead be determined by subtracting I4 from I3 . I3 and I4 can eventu-
ally be calculated as the following expressions from the rules regarding series
and parallel connections of resistors.
3R1 + R2
I3 = ε,
3R12 + 5R1 R2
4R1
I4 = ε.
3R12 + 5R1 R2
Hence,
R2 − R1
I2 = I3 − I4 = ε.
3R12 + 5R1 R2

Reduction of Circuits

The utility of the Y-Δ transformations is not only restricted to the intercon-
version between the two types of circuits. In fact, the Y-Δ transformations
imply that any network of resistors can be converted into an equivalent Y or
Δ-circuit with respect to three terminals, analogous to how an arbitrary net-
work of resistors can be reduced to a single equivalent resistor with respect
to two terminals. To show this, let the three terminals of concern be A, B
and C. If there is another node D that is connected to all of A, B and C
via paths of resistors, observe that we can see A, B, C and D as a Y-circuit
with D at the center and transform it into a Δ-circuit to eliminate node D.
 DC Circuits 657

Repeating this for all other such nodes, we will only be left with nodes that
are connected to a pair of terminals (in A, B and C) or a lone terminal. Nodes
in the former classification can be reduced to equivalent resistors between
the corresponding pairs of terminals to form the corresponding sides of the
equivalent Δ-circuit while nodes in the latter classification are meaningless
in the context of determining the network’s response when terminals A, B
and C are connected to external entities as they are not linked to at least
one pair of terminals. Hence, any network can be reduced to an equivalent
Δ and thus Y-circuit, with respect to three terminals.
In fact, the equivalent Y-circuit can be easily constructed if we know the
equivalent resistance between the three possible pairs of terminals. Adopting
the notation in Fig. 9.44, if the equivalent resistances between (N1 , N2 ),
(N1 , N3 ) and (N2 , N3 ) are R12 , R13 and R23 , we have the following set of
linear equations
R1 + R2 = R12 ,
R1 + R3 = R13 ,
R2 + R3 = R23 ,
whose solutions are
R12 + R13 − R23
R1 = , (9.12)
2
R12 − R13 + R23
R2 = , (9.13)
2
−R12 + R13 + R23
R3 = . (9.14)
2
This equivalence can be applied in tandem with the previous techniques to
solve harder variations of problems such as the following.
Problem: Determine the equivalent resistance between points A and C in
the infinite triangular grid of resistors depicted in Fig. 9.48. Each edge of
a triangle has resistance R and the edge between points A and B has been
removed.
We can deem the absent connection between points A and B as two
resistors R and −R connected in parallel across these points. Then, we can
determine the equivalent Y-circuit of the imaginary resistor R in this branch
and the rest of the grid (i.e. a complete grid) with respect to the three
terminals A, B and C. The resistance between any pair of these terminals
is simply that between two adjacent nodes in a complete infinite triangular
grid. This can be computed via the principle of superposition.
658 Competitive Physics: Thermodynamics, Electromagnetism and Relativity

Figure 9.48: Infinite circuit with edge AB removed

Suppose that we inject 1A current into a certain node 1 in the com-

plete grid and withdraw it entirely at infinity — 16 A current will flow from
node 1 to a neighboring node (name this node 2) via the resistor directly
connecting them as a result of symmetry. In a similar vein, consider a new
set-up where we withdraw 1A current from node 2 and inject 1A current
at infinity. 16 A current again flows from node 1 to node 2 via the branch
directly connecting them. Superposing these set-ups, 1A current is injected
into node 1, circulated within the infinite grid and finally withdrawn from
node 2. No current enters or leaves from infinity. In this process, the current
directly flowing across the resistor R connecting nodes 1 and 2 is 16 + 16 = 13 A
which implies that the voltage between these nodes is R3 . Since R3 voltage
is required to circulate 1A current through the grid via nodes 1 and 2, the
equivalent resistance of the infinite grid with respect to these nodes is R3 .
Returning to the original problem, since the equivalent resistance between
any pair out of the terminals A, B and C is R3 for a complete infinite grid,
the equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 9.49.
The Y-circuit is the equivalent of the complete grid with respect to A,
B and C ( R6 resistors because the equivalent resistance between any two
terminals is R3 ). Remember that we have to include the −R resistor between
A and B as they are actually disconnected. The equivalent resistance between
 DC Circuits 659

Figure 9.49: Equivalent circuit between terminals A, B and C

A and C can be computed from the rules of series and parallel connections.
R − 5R
6 · 6
R
3
RAC = + 4R
= R.
6 − 6 8

9.6 Infinite Networks

Often, it is extremely important to astutely abuse symmetrical properties
when tackling infinitely large and repeating circuits. Usually, this involves
defining the quantity of interest as a variable and constructing a equation
in that variable by utilizing the fact that breaking off or adding one sub-
unit to the infinite network does not change the resultant quantity, since the
network extends forever.
Problem: Find the equivalent resistance of the infinite resistor ladder in
Fig. 9.50 across nodes A and B.

Figure 9.50: Infinite ladder of resistors

We observe that if we break off the right side of the circuit along

line CD, we obtain the exact same network.4 Furthermore, this excised

4
Equivalently, we could have added another two resistors on the right.