An important issue in optimizing learning is the extent to which the learning of

the thing facilitates the learning of something else. If everything we learned was
specific to the situation in which, it was learned, the amount of learning that
would have to be crammed into a lifetime would be phenomenal. Fortunately,
most learning is readily transferable. Fortunately, most learning are readily
transferable with some modification to a number of different situations.
TRANSFER OF LEARNING:
• According to crow and crow: “The carryover of
habits of thinking feeling or working of knowledge or
skills from one learning area to another is usually
referred to as TRANSFER OF LEARNING.
• Guthrie and powers: “Transfer may be defined as a
process of extending and applying behavior.
TYPES OF TRANSFER:
• Positive transfer occurs when prior learning assists new learning.
• Negative transfer occurs when prior learning hinders or interferes
with new learning.
• Zero transfer occurs when prior learning has no influence on
new learning.
TRANSFER OF LEARNING THEORIES:

1.FORMAL DISCIPLINE THEORY

2.THEORY OF IDENTICAL ELEMENT
3.THEORY OF GENERALIZATION
FORMAL DISCIPLINE THEORY
• This is the oldest of all the transfer theories. It is also known as faculty theory of
transfer because it is based on faculty school of psychology. This theory held that
the mind is composed of so many independent faculties like memory,
imagination, attention, thinking ,reasoning, and judgement. According to this
theory these components of mind might be trained or improved through vigorous
exercise like muscles of the mind and muscles of the body. This theory believes
that a particular faculty works in every situation.
FORMAL DISCIPLINE THEORY (CONTINUATION)
• The term formal implies that it is the form of the activity not its content. If the activity is in the
form of imagination then imagination power should be trained no matter what student is
going to imagine. The term discipline implies the real spirit of the theory. We can train each
faculties no matter whether student is interested or not. Followers of this theory suggest that
reasoning and imagination developed through the study of geometrical proposition and can
be used in solving various problems.
• Some psychologist do not accept formal discipline theory as improvement in one single
activity may not improve the other and present day curriculum various skill and faculties
taught directly.
THEORY OF IDENTICAL ELEMENT
• This theory was put forth by Thorndike. According to him there is transfer from
one situation to another to the extent that the same elements or components are
found in different situation. These identical element may be in the form of
content or technique. He stated that the study of a particular subject can be
helpful in the study of another subject. The knowledge of mathematics is useful
in the study of problems in physics because both are interrelated, they have
certain elements or components common to each other.
SIMILARITY OF CONTENT:

• The study of sanskrit helps in the study of Indian languages (Hindi, Tamil, etc.) to the extent
that the two languages contain identical components such as vocabulary and grammatical
construction. There is transfer of knowledge from Algebra to Geometry and Physics to the
extent that some elements like number, symbols, equation also occurs in physics and
geometry.
SIMILARITY OF TECHNIQUES:
• When techniques are the same in two situation then transfer of learning takes
place rapidly. Skill acquired in typing may be useful in computer typing. An
individual who has learned proper balance in riding bicycle can apply that skill in
his learning to ride a motorcycle, in both situations technique is similar. Hence,
transfer of learning takes place.
THEORY OF GENERALIZATION
• This theory was put forth by C.H. Judd (1908). According to him degree of
transfer is proportional to degree of generalization. This theory says that transfer
occurs when a person learns a principle or an idea in one situation and then is
able to apply in another situation. Thus, transfer result from the application of
general ideas or skills or habits or attitude. Transfer through generalization is
possible only when systematization and organization of the knowledge and skill
takes place. If they are not systematized, they have little transfer value in other
situation. It will depend upon the individual's ability to generalize his experience.
JUDD'S EXPERIMENT:
• Judd demonstrated his experiment to explain his theory. He performed his experiment on
children and that experiment was to hit the target under water with darts. He divided the
class into two groups, one was experimental group and other was control group. The
experimental group was given a full theoretical and practical explanation of the law of
refraction and the other group was not given any experimental training. It was found that in
hitting the target under water experimental group work well compared to control group
because experimental group knew the law of refraction. The general conclusion is that the
understanding of the theoretical principle of generalizing experience contribute greatly in the
performance of experimental group.
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATION
• Transfer of learning takes place because of similarity of content and techniques, and because of
generalization. Hence, teacher should show similarity in different content and teach how to use it.

• Teacher should provide varied experiences to the student .

• Greater transfer from subject matter can be achieved by changing the methods of teaching. Teacher
should use appropriate method as per demand of the subject matter.
• Emphasis should be given on correlation is important. Previous knowledge may be used in the new
task.
• Coordination between theoretical knowledge and practical experience should be done in the classroom.
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATION
(CONTINUATION)
• The teacher should keep in mind that for maximum transfer, the generalization should be
thoroughly mastered and completely understood.
• Teacher should make use of the law of association for providing different types of knowledge.
• Teacher should remember that transfer is not accomplished with equal facility or in equal
amounts by all individuals. It depends upon one's ability to generalize his experience and the
ability to perceive relationship between two situations.
REASONING
• Piaget proposed a developmental theory of moral reasoning in which children progress from
a naive understanding of morality based on behavior and outcomes to a more advanced
understanding based on intentions. Piaget's views of moral development were elaborated
by Kohlberg into a stage theory of moral development. There is evidence that the moral
reasoning described in stage theories is not sufficient to account for moral behavior. For
example, other factors such as modeling (as described by the social cognitive theory of
morality) are required to explain bullying.
PROBLEM-SOLVING
• It is a mental process that involves discovering, analyzing and solving problems. The ultimate
goal of problem-solving is to overcome obstacles and find a solution that best resolves the
issue.
• The best strategy for solving a problem depends largely on the unique situation. In some
cases, people are better off learning everything they can about the issue and then using
factual knowledge to come up with a solution. In other instances, creativity and insight are
the best options.
NATURE OF PROBLEM-SOLVING

• Goal specific
• Deliberate and purposeful
• Attempts at the removal of interference
• Results in novel procedures or novel products
THE STEPS IN PROBLEM-SOLVING
1. Identifying the problem: while it may seem like an obvious step, identifying the problem is not always as simple as it
sounds. In some cases, people might mistakenly identify the wrong source of a problem, which will make attempts to
solve it inefficient or even useless.

2. Defining the problem: after the problem has been identified, it is important to fully define the problem so that it can
be solved.

3. Forming a strategy: the next step is to develop a strategy to solve the problem. The approach used will vary
depending upon the situation and the individual's unique preferences.

4. Organizing information: before coming up with a solution, we need to first organize the available information. What
do we know about the problem? What do we not know? The more information that is available, the better prepared we
will be to come up with an accurate solution.
THE STEPS IN PROBLEM-SOLVING (CONTINUATION)
5. Allocating resources: of course, we don't always have unlimited money, time and other resources to solve a
problem. Before you begin to solve a problem, you need to determine how high priority it is. If it is an important
problem, it is probably worth allocating more resources to solving it. If, however, it is a fairly unimportant
problem, then you do not want to spend too much of your available resources into coming up with a solution.

6. Monitoring progress: effective problem-solvers tend to monitor their progress as they work towards a solution.
If they are not making good progress toward reaching their goal, they will re-evaluate their approach or look for
new strategies.

7. Evaluating the results: after a solution has been reached, it is important to evaluate the results to determine if
it is the best possible solution to the problem. This evaluation might be immediate, such as checking the results
of a math problem to ensure the answer is correct, or it can be delayed, such as evaluating the success of a
therapy program after several months of treatment.
PROBLEM SOLVING AND EDUCATION
• Applying Innovative Teaching Methods in class like, brainstorming, co-operative & collaborative learning, group
discussion or activity etc.
• Provide Meaningful and Practical Problems in Different Subject Areas
• Keep the Level of Motivations and the Difficulty Level of the Problem Moderate
• Provide the Variety
• Provide the Practice
• Provide the Self Expression to Generate Ideas
• Provide Incomplete Solution to Enhance Curiosity
• Provide for Healthy Competition
• Provide Conducive Class Environment
• Encourage Scientific Thinking
• Discussing Current Issues and Social Problems in the Classroom