Embedded and Real Time Systems

Answer all questions.

PART – A – (10*2=20marks)

1. Mention the parameters used to evaluate the performance of the CPU

Answer:
Pipelining
Caching
2. List out the functional and nonfunctional requirements that needs to be satisfied by
an embedded system.
Performance
Cost
Physical Size and Weight
Power Consumption
3. Draw the stages in a four cycle handshake protocol
Answer:
4. What is meant by a symbol table?
Answer:
The name of each symbol and its address is stored in a symbol table that is built during
the first pass. The symbol table is built by scanning from the first instruction to the last.

5. Distinguish between a task and a process

Answer:
TASK:
Most embedded system requires functionality and timing that is too complex to embody
in a single program. We break the system into multiple tasks in order to manage when
things happen. For example, when designing a telephone answering machine, we can
define recording a phone call and operating the user’s control panel as distinct tasks,
because they perform logically distinct operations and they must be performed at very
different rates
PROCESS:
A Process is a single execution of a program. If we run the same program two different
times, we have created two different processes. Each process has its own state that
includes not only its registers but all of its memory.
6. What is context switching?
Answer:
The set of registers that define a process are known as its context and switching from one
process’s register set to another is known as context switching.

7. Mention the necessity for a hardware accelerator in embedded system

Answer:
The design of accelerated systems is one example of hardware/software co-design—the
simultaneous design of hardware and software to meet system objectives. Processing
element for embedded multiprocessor is the accelerator. An accelerator is attached to the
CPU buses to quickly execute certain key functions.
8. Draw the CAN data frame packet format
Answer

9. What are the methods for testing a software modem?

Answer
Every internet device has a network interface card that it uses to connect to a network.
Each manufacturer of network interface card adds a unique number called a Media
Access Control number or MAC address to identify the device. If you enable MAC
address filtering for a wireless router or access point, then it will only accept connections
from the devices with the MAC addresses you entered. Other wireless devices might
detect your network but they won’t be able to connect, because their MAC addresses are
not specifies for access. It does not allow unknown devices to make connections.

10. What do you understand by “feature creep”?

Answer
The task of estimation definitely gets affected by a number of external factors such as
future creep, which means addition of new requirements while the project is being
executed. In fact this factor has so much impact on the execution of a software project
and is widely prevalent in the industry that the new software development life cycle have
been proposed and practiced in order to counter the ill effects of this future.

PART – B (5×13=65 Marks)

11. (a) (i) Write the ARM assembly language for the following C statement:
for(i = 0, f=0; i < N; i++)
F = f+ c[i]*x[i]; (7)
 11.(a) (ii) With relevant examples, explain in detail about the event driven state machine
for describing the behavior of a system. (6)

Reference Book Author Page Number

Computer as components Wayne wolf 27-30
Principles of Embedded
computing system Design,
2nd Edition
(OR)

11)(b) With neat diagrams, explain in detail about direct mapped cache organization and
set associative cache organization (13)

Reference Book Author Page Number

Computer as components Wayne wolf 113-119
Principles of Embedded
computing system Design,
2nd Edition

12) (a) (i) Explain the various debugging techniques used in embedded system design (7)
ii) Draw a state diagram of a bus bridge and explain it in detail (6)
Reference Book Author Page Number
Computer as components Wayne wolf (i) 184 -187
Principles of Embedded (ii) 162 -166
computing system Design,
2nd Edition
(OR)

12)(b)Explain in detail Compilation techniques (13)

Reference Book Author Page Number

Computer as components Wayne wolf 227-236
Principles of Embedded
computing system Design,
2nd Edition

13)(a) (i) With suitable examples, explain briefly about lightweight process and heavy
weight process (6)

(ii) Write a brief note on co-routine (7)

Reference Book Author Page Number

Computer as components Wayne wolf (i) 294-302
Principles of Embedded
computing system Design,
2nd Edition
13.(a) (i) Lightweight and heavyweight processes refer the mechanics of a multi-processing
system.

In a lightweight process, threads are used to divvy up the workload. Here you would see one
process executing in the OS (for this application or service.) This process would posess 1 or
more threads. Each of the threads in this process shares the same address space. Because threads
share their address space, communication between the threads is simple and efficient. Each
thread could be compared to a process in a heavyweight scenario.

In a heavyweight process, new processes are created to perform the work in parallel. Here (for
the same application or service), you would see multiple processes running. Each heavyweight
process contains its own address space. Communication between these processes would involve
additional communications mechanisms such as sockets or pipes. The benefits of a lightweight
process come from the conservation of resources. Since threads use the same code section, data
section and OS resources, less overall resources are used. The drawback is now you have to
ensure your system is thread-safe. You have to make sure the threads don't step on each other.
Fortunately, Java provides the necessary tools to allow you to do this.

13. (a) (ii) CO-ROUTINE:

Coroutines are computer program components that generalize subroutines for nonpreemptive

multitasking, by allowing multiple entry points for suspending and resuming execution at certain
locations. Coroutines are well-suited for implementing more familiar program components such
as cooperative tasks, exceptions, event loop, iterators, infinite lists and pipes.

Characteristics of a 'Co-routine'
Co-routines were implemented for use on very small devices, but are very rarely used in the field
these days. For that reason, while there are no plans to remove co-routines from the code, there
are also no plans to develop them further.

Co-routines are conceptually similar to tasks but have the following fundamental differences
(elaborated further on the co-routine documentation page):
1. Stack usage
All the co-routines within an application share a single stack. This greatly reduces the
amount of RAM required compared to a similar application written using tasks.
2. Scheduling and priorities
Co-routines use prioritised cooperative scheduling with respect to other co-routines, but
can be included in an application that uses preemptive tasks.
3. Macro implementation
 The co-routine implementation is provided through a set of macros.
4. Restrictions on use
The reduction in RAM usage comes at the cost of some stringent restrictions in how co-
routines can be structured.

Co-Routine Summary
Sharing a stack between co-routines results in much lower RAM usage.
Cooperative operation makes re-entrancy less of an issue.
Very portable across architectures.
Fully prioritised relative to other co-routines, but can always be preempted by tasks if the two
are mixed.
Lack of stack requires special consideration.
Restrictions on where API calls can be made.
Co-operative operation only amongst co-routines themselves.

(OR)
13) (b) Explain in detail about the power management and optimization for a process.
Illustrate the basic global power states supported by advanced configuration and power
interface(ACPI) (13)

Reference Book Author Page Number

Computer as components Wayne wolf 333-336
Principles of Embedded
computing system Design,
2nd Edition

14)(a) Bring out the difference between single threaded and multithreaded control of an
accelerator. With necessary sketches, explain briefly the system speedup evaluation for
single threaded implementation and multithreaded implementation (13)

Reference Book Author Page Number

Computer as components Wayne wolf 360-364
Principles of Embedded
computing system Design,
2nd Edition

(OR)

14)(b) Explain the bus arbitration scheme supported by Ethernet. Describe how an IP
packet may be sent from a client on one Ethernet to a client on a second Ethernet. The two
Ethernets are connected by a server (13)
Reference Book Author Page Number
Computer as components Wayne wolf 411-413
Principles of Embedded
computing system Design,
2nd Edition

15) (a) With relevant diagrams, explain the hardware and software architecture of a
Personal Digital Assistant (13)

A typical PDA has a touchscreen for entering data, a memory card slot for data storage,
and IrDA, Bluetooth and/or Wi-Fi. However, some PDAs may not have a touch screen, using
softkeys, a directional pad, and a numeric keypad or a thumb keyboard for input; this is typically
seen on telephones that are incidentally PDAs. In order to have the functions expected of a PDA,
a device's software typically includes an appointment calendar, a to-do list, an address book for
contacts, a calculator, and some sort of memo (or "note") program. PDAs with wireless data
connections also typically include an email client and a Web browser.

Typical methods of entering text on touchscreen PDAs include:

 A virtual keyboard, where a keyboard is shown on the touchscreen. Text is entered by

tapping the on-screen keyboard with a finger or stylus.
 An external keyboard connected via USB, Infrared port, or Bluetooth. Some users may
choose a chorded keyboard for one-handed use.
 Handwriting recognition, where letters or words are written on the touchscreen, and the
PDA converts the input to text. Recognition and computation of handwritten horizontal
and vertical formulas, such as "1 + 2 =", may also be a feature.

PDA (personal digital assistant) is a term for any small mobile hand-held device that
provides computing and information storage and retrieval capabilities for personal or business
use, often for keeping schedule calendars and address book information handy. The term
handheld is a synonym. Many people use the name of one of the popular PDA.

Most PDAs have a small keyboard. Some PDAs have an electronically sensitive pad on
which handwritng can be received. Apple's Newton, which has been withdrawn from the market,
was the first widely-sold PDA that accepted handwriting. Typical uses include schedule and
address book storage and retrieval and note-entering. However, many applications have been
written for PDAs. Increasingly, PDAs are combined with telephones and paging systems.

A personal digital assistant (PDA) is a handheld device designed to facilitate organizational

ability from a mobile platform. While the original PDAs were somewhat limited to keeping
address, phone, calendar, and task lists, today’s PDA can function as a cellular phone, fax,
provide Internet connectivity, and much more. There are many different types of PDAs, but most
models work with either Palmtop software or a special version of Microsoft Windows called
Windows Mobile. All models can interface with a laptop or desktop system, though optional
accessories may be required. Synchronization between computer and PDA is one of the most
popular features of this digital device.

(OR)
(b) (i) Write short notes on System on Silicon(SoS) and also illustrate the advantages and
limitations of SoS. (6)

ANSWER:

A system on a chip or system on chip (SoC or SOC) is an integrated circuit (IC) that integrates
all components of a computer or other electronic system into a single chip. It may contain digital,
analog, mixed-signal, and often radio-frequency functions—all on a single chip substrate. A
typical application is in the area of embedded systems.

SoC FPGAs integrate an ARM-based hard processor system (HPS) consisting of processor,
peripherals, and memory interfaces with the FPGA fabric using a high-bandwidth interconnect
backbone. It combines the performance and power savings of hard intellectual property (IP) with
the flexibility of programmable logic.

These user-customizable ARM-based SoC FPGA are ideal for the following:

 Reducing system power, cost, and board size by integrating discrete processors and digital signal
processing (DSP) functions into a single FPGA
 Differentiating your end product with custom hardware and software

 Adding support for virtually any interface standard or protocol in the FPGA

 Extending product life and revenue through hardware and software updates in the field

 Improving system performance via high-bandwidth interconnect between the processor and the
FPGA

(ii) With the help of UML diagrams, mention the operation and functionalities supported by a data
compressor. (7)

Reference Book Author Page Number

Reference Book
Computer as components Wayne wolf 134-146
Principles of Embedded
computing system Design, 2nd
Edition

PART – C (1 * 15 = 15Marks)
16. (a) (i) Bring out the difference between static scheduling and dynamic scheduling
policies. (4)

Static vs dynamic scheduling:

Static is the base priority, the one given to the process by the system when the process is created.
Without privilege a process can only increase (nice) above the base priority, or reset it to base. a
higher number gives lower priority when processes fight for CPU time.

Static scheduling (optimized by compiler)

– When there is a stall (hazard) no further issue of instructions
– Of course, the stall has to be enforced by the hardware.

Dynamic is set by the kernel itself. Whenever a process blocks or it has to wait for another
process, the dynamic priority is raised. A process that waits a lot there for gets higher priority
than a process that uses a lot of CPU time.

Dynamic scheduling (enforced by hardware)

– Instructions following the one that stalls can issue if they do not produce structural hazards or
dependencies.

(ii) Given the following set of periodic processes running on a single CPU, what is the maximum
execution time for P5 for which all the processes will be schedulable using RMS?
(6)

Process CPU time Deadline

P1 1 10
P2 18 100
P3 2 20
P4 5 50
P5 x 25

Solution:
(iii) Explain the application for FOSS tools for embedded system development (5)

Free and open-source software (FOSS) is computer software that can be classified as both free

software and open-source software. That is, anyone is freely licensed to use, copy, study, and
change the software in any way, and the source code is openly shared so that people are
encouraged to voluntarily improve the design of the software. This is in contrast to proprietary
software, where the software is under restrictive copyright and the source code is usually hidden
from the users.

The benefits of using FOSS can include decreasing software costs, increasing security and
stability (especially in regard to malware), protecting privacy, and giving users more control
over their own hardware. Free, open-source operating systems such as Linux and descendents
of BSD are widely utilized today, powering millions of servers, desktops, smartphones
(e.g. Android), and other devices. Free software licenses and open-source licenses are used
by many software packages

(OR)

15.(b) (i) Assume that a system has a two-level cache: The level 1 cache has a hit rate of
90% and the level 2 cache has a hit rate of 97%. The level 1 cache access time is 4ns, the
level 2 access time is 15ns, and the level 3 access time is 80ns. What is the average memory
access time? (5)

(ii) Assume an A/D converter is supplying samples at 44.1 kHz. If the interrupt handler
executes 100 instructions obtaining the sample and passing it onto the application routine,
how many instructions can be executed on a 20MHz ARM processor that executes 1
instruction per cycle? (5)
(iii) Explain briefly on internet enabled systems. (5)

Reference Book Author Page Number

Reference Book
Computer as components Wayne wolf 416-421
Principles of Embedded
computing system Design, 2nd
Edition

**********

UNIT – V

1. What is PDA?

PDA (personal digital assistant) is a term for any small mobile hand-held device that provides
computing and information storage and retrieval capabilities for personal or business use, often
for keeping schedule calendars and address book information handy. The term handheld is a
synonym. Many people use the name of one of the popular PDA.

2. What are FOSS Tools?

Free and open-source software (FOSS) is computer software that can be classified as both free
software and open-source software. That is, anyone is freely licensed to use, copy, study, and
change the software in any way, and the source code is openly shared so that people are
encouraged to voluntarily improve the design of the software. 

3. Write short notes on System on Silicon (SoS)?

A system on a chip or system on chip (SoC or SOC) is an integrated circuit (IC) that integrates
all components of a computer or other electronic system into a single chip. It may contain digital,
analog, mixed-signal, and often radio-frequency functions—all on a single chip substrate. A
typical application is in the area of embedded systems.

4. What are the various benefits of using FOSS tools?

The benefits of using FOSS can include decreasing software costs, increasing security and
stability (especially in regard to malware), protecting privacy, and giving users more control
over their own hardware. Free, open-source operating systems such as Linux and descendents
of BSD are widely utilized today, powering millions of servers, desktops, smartphones
(e.g. Android), and other devices. Free software licenses and open-source licenses are used
by many software packages.

5. How we say ARM-based SoC FPGA are ideal?

 Reducing system power, cost, and board size by integrating discrete processors and
digital signal processing (DSP) functions into a single FPGA
 Differentiating your end product with custom hardware and software
 Adding support for virtually any interface standard or protocol in the FPGA
 Extending product life and revenue through hardware and software updates in the field
 Improving system performance via high-bandwidth interconnect between the processor
and the FPGA

6. What are the methods of entering text on touchscreen PDAs?

 A virtual keyboard, where a keyboard is shown on the touchscreen. Text is entered by

tapping the on-screen keyboard with a finger or stylus.
 An external keyboard connected via USB, Infrared port, or Bluetooth. Some users may
choose a chorded keyboard for one-handed use.
 Handwriting recognition, where letters or words are written on the touchscreen, and the
PDA converts the input to text. Recognition and computation of handwritten horizontal
and vertical formulas, such as "1 + 2 =", may also be a feature.

7. Draw the UML Collaboration diagram for Data Compressor

8. what are the three methods of Class for Data Compressor?

■ Encode performs the basic encoding function. It takes in a 1-byte input symbol and returns two values: a boolean
showing whether it is returning a full buffer and, if the boolean is true, the full buffer itself.
■ New-symbol-table installs a new symbol table into the object and throws away the current contents of the internal
buffer.
■ Flush returns the current state of the buffer, including the number of valid bits in the buffer.
9. Draw the state diagram for encode behavior

10. What is Data Compressor?

The data compressor takes in a sequence of input symbols and then produces a stream of output
symbols. Assume for simplicity that the input symbols are one byte in length. The output
symbols are variable length, so we have to choose a format in which to deliver the output data.

PART -B
1. With the help of UML diagrams, mention the operation and functionalities supported by
a data compressor.

Reference Book Author Page Number

Reference Book
Computer as components Wayne wolf 134-146
Principles of Embedded
computing system Design, 2nd
Edition

2. Write short notes on System on Silicon(SoS) and also illustrate the advantages and
limitations of SoS.

ANSWER:
A system on a chip or system on chip (SoC or SOC) is an integrated circuit (IC) that integrates
all components of a computer or other electronic system into a single chip. It may contain digital,
analog, mixed-signal, and often radio-frequency functions—all on a single chip substrate. A
typical application is in the area of embedded systems.

SoC FPGAs integrate an ARM-based hard processor system (HPS) consisting of processor,
peripherals, and memory interfaces with the FPGA fabric using a high-bandwidth interconnect
backbone. It combines the performance and power savings of hard intellectual property (IP) with
the flexibility of programmable logic.

These user-customizable ARM-based SoC FPGA are ideal for the following:

 Reducing system power, cost, and board size by integrating discrete processors and digital signal
processing (DSP) functions into a single FPGA
 Differentiating your end product with custom hardware and software

 Adding support for virtually any interface standard or protocol in the FPGA

 Extending product life and revenue through hardware and software updates in the field

 Improving system performance via high-bandwidth interconnect between the processor and the
FPGA

3. With relevant diagrams, explain the hardware and software architecture of a

Personal Digital Assistant

A typical PDA has a touchscreen for entering data, a memory card slot for data storage,
and IrDA, Bluetooth and/or Wi-Fi. However, some PDAs may not have a touch screen, using
softkeys, a directional pad, and a numeric keypad or a thumb keyboard for input; this is typically
seen on telephones that are incidentally PDAs. In order to have the functions expected of a PDA,
a device's software typically includes an appointment calendar, a to-do list, an address book for
contacts, a calculator, and some sort of memo (or "note") program. PDAs with wireless data
connections also typically include an email client and a Web browser.

Typical methods of entering text on touchscreen PDAs include:

 A virtual keyboard, where a keyboard is shown on the touchscreen. Text is entered by

tapping the on-screen keyboard with a finger or stylus.
 An external keyboard connected via USB, Infrared port, or Bluetooth. Some users may
choose a chorded keyboard for one-handed use.
 Handwriting recognition, where letters or words are written on the touchscreen, and the
PDA converts the input to text. Recognition and computation of handwritten horizontal
and vertical formulas, such as "1 + 2 =", may also be a feature.

PDA (personal digital assistant) is a term for any small mobile hand-held device that
provides computing and information storage and retrieval capabilities for personal or business
use, often for keeping schedule calendars and address book information handy. The term
handheld is a synonym. Many people use the name of one of the popular PDA.
 Most PDAs have a small keyboard. Some PDAs have an electronically sensitive pad on
which handwritng can be received. Apple's Newton, which has been withdrawn from the market,
was the first widely-sold PDA that accepted handwriting. Typical uses include schedule and
address book storage and retrieval and note-entering. However, many applications have been
written for PDAs. Increasingly, PDAs are combined with telephones and paging systems.

A personal digital assistant (PDA) is a handheld device designed to facilitate organizational

ability from a mobile platform. While the original PDAs were somewhat limited to keeping
address, phone, calendar, and task lists, today’s PDA can function as a cellular phone, fax,
provide Internet connectivity, and much more. There are many different types of PDAs, but most
models work with either Palmtop software or a special version of Microsoft Windows called
Windows Mobile. All models can interface with a laptop or desktop system, though optional
accessories may be required. Synchronization between computer and PDA is one of the most
popular features of this digital device.

UNIT – 5

1. What is Hardware/Software co-Design?

Hardware/software co-design: The simultaneous design of hardware and software components
to meet system requirements.

2. What is FOSS tools and mention any 4used in the development of Embedded system?

FOSS tool is the free open source software. It can be available free as a open source in the
internet site one can easily download it for free. Eg. Sci lab.

3. An Accelerator is not a Co-processor justify?

Accelerator is not a coprocessor because coprocessor are connected or used internal to cpu to
execute the instructions. But accelerator used as the interface or interacts CPU and does not
execute the instructions.

4. What are the requirements of Data Compression?

5. Draw the diagram for insert behavior

6. Write short note on Set-Top-Box?

A Set-top-box is an information appliance device that generally contains a tv tuner input and
displays output to a television set and an external source of signal turning the source signal into
content in a form that can then be displayed on the television.

7. State the definition of the Data Compressor Class?

8. Show the relationship between the classes in the data compressor

9. Compare and contrast software modem and standard modem

Software Modem:
It consists of minimal number of hardware
It works on the hosts platform
It consists of co – processor
Standard Modem:
It consists of large number of hardware

10. What is PDA?

 PDA (personal digital assistant) is a term for any small mobile hand-held device that
provides computing and information storage and retrieval capabilities for personal or
business use, often for keeping schedule calendars and address book information handy.
The term handheld is a synonym. Many people use the name of one of the popular PDA.

PART –B

1. Discuss about Set-Top-Box.

A set-top box (STB) or set-top unit (STU) is an information appliance device that
generally contains a TV-tuner input and displays output to a television set and an
external source of signal, turning the source signal into content in a form that can then
be displayed on the television screen or other display device. They are used in cable
television, satellite television, and over-the-air television systems, as well as other uses.
UHF converter

Before the All-Channel Receiver Act of 1962 required US television receivers to be able to tune
the entire VHF and UHF range (which in North America was NTSC-M channels 2 through 83
on 54 to 890 MHz), a set-top box known as a UHF converter would be installed at the receiver to
shift a portion of the UHF-TV spectrum onto low-VHF channels for viewing. As some 1960s-era
12-channel TV sets remained in use for many years, and Canada and Mexico were slower than
the US to require UHF tuners to be factory-installed in new TVs, a market for these converters
continued to exist for much of the 1970s.

Cable converter

Cable television represented a possible alternative to deployment of UHF converters as

broadcasts could be frequency-shifted to VHF channels at the cable head-end instead of the final
viewing location. However, most cable systems could not accommodate the full 54-890 MHz
VHF/UHF frequency range and the twelve channels of VHF space were quickly exhausted on
most systems. Adding any additional channels therefore needed to be done by inserting the extra
signals into cable systems on nonstandard frequencies, typically either below VHF channel 7
(midband) or directly above VHF channel 13 (superband).

These frequencies corresponded to non-television services (such as two-way radio) over-the-air

and were therefore not on standard TV receivers. Before cable-ready TV sets became common in
the late 1980s, an electronic tuning device called a cable converter box was needed to receive the
additional analog cable TV channels and transpose or convert the selected channel to analog
radio frequency (RF) for viewing on a regular TV set on a single channel, usually VHF channel
3 or 4. The box allowed an analog non-cable-ready television set to receive analog encrypted
cable channels and was a prototype topology for later date digital encryption devices. Newer
televisions were then converted to be analog cypher cable-ready, with the standard converter
built-in for selling premium television (aka pay per view). Several years later and slowly
marketed, the advent of digital cable continued and increased the need for various forms of these
devices. Block conversion of the entire affected frequency band onto UHF, while less common,
was used by some models to provide full VCR compatibility and the ability to drive multiple TV
sets, albeit with a somewhat nonstandard channel numbering scheme.
Newer television receivers greatly reduced the need for external set-top boxes, although cable
converter boxes continue to be used to descramble premium cable channels according to carrier-
controlled access restrictions, and to receive digital cable channels, along with using interactive
services like video on demand, pay per view, and home shopping through television.

Closed captioning box

Set-top boxes were also made to enable closed captioning on older sets in North America, before
this became a mandated inclusion in new TV sets. Some have also been produced to mute the
audio (or replace it with noise) when profanity is detected in the captioning, where the offensive
word is also blocked. Some also include a V-chip that allows only programs of some television
content ratings. A function that limits children's time watching TV or playing video games may
also be built in, though some of these work on main electricity rather than the video signal.

Digital television adapter

The transition to digital terrestrial television after the turn of the millennium left many existing
television receivers unable to tune and display the new signal directly. In the United States,
where analog shutdown was completed in 2009 for full-service broadcasters, a federal subsidy
was offered for coupon-eligible converter boxes with deliberately limited capability which
would restore signals lost to digital transition.

2. Discuss in detail about Hardware and Software co-design?

Reference Book Author Page Number

Reference Book
Computer as components Wayne wolf 401-405
Principles of Embedded
computing system Design, 2nd
Edition
3. Explain the application for FOSS tools for embedded system development

Free and open-source software (FOSS) is computer software that can be classified as both free

software and open-source software. That is, anyone is freely licensed to use, copy, study, and
change the software in any way, and the source code is openly shared so that people are
encouraged to voluntarily improve the design of the software. This is in contrast to proprietary
software, where the software is under restrictive copyright and the source code is usually hidden
from the users.

The benefits of using FOSS can include decreasing software costs, increasing security and
stability (especially in regard to malware), protecting privacy, and giving users more control
over their own hardware. Free, open-source operating systems such as Linux and descendents
of BSD are widely utilized today, powering millions of servers, desktops, smartphones
(e.g. Android), and other devices. Free software licenses and open-source licenses are used
by many software packages