WENTWORTH-SMITH MATHEMATICAL SERIES

PLANE GEOMETRY

BY

GEORGE WENTWORTH
AND
DAVID EUGENE SMITH

GINN AND COMPANY

BOSTOX • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON'
ATLANTA • DALLAS • COLUMBUS • SAN FRANCISCO
 COPYRIGHT, 1888, 1899, BY G. A. WENTWORTH
COPYRIGHT,1910, 1913, BY GEORGE WENTWORTH

AND DAVID EUGENE SMITH

ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HAH
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

230.6

GINN AND COMPANY PRO- •

PRIETORS BOSTON U.S.A.

• •
 PREFACE
Long after the death of Robert Reeorde, England's first
great writer of textbooks, the preface of a new edition of
one of his works contained the appreciative statement that
the book was M entaiPd upon the People, ratified and signed
by the approbation of Time." The language of this sentiment
sounds quaint, but the noble tribute is as impressive to-day
as when first put in print two hundred fifty years ago.
With equal truth these words may be applied to the Geom-
etry written by George A. Wentworth. For a generation it
has been the leading textbook on the subject in America. It
set a standard for usability that every subsequent writer upon
geometry has tried to follow, and the number of pupils who
have testified to its excellence has run well into the millions.
In undertaking to prepare a work to take the place of
the Wentworth Geometry, the authors have been guided by
certain well-defined principles, based upon an extended in-
vestigation of the needs of the schools and upon a study
of all that is best in the recent literature of the subject. The
effects of these principles they feel should be summarized
for the purpose of calling the attention of the wide circle of
friends of the Wentworth-Smith series to the points of sim-
ilarity and of difference in the two works.
1. Every effort has been made not only to preserve but to

improve upon the simplicity of treatment, the clearness of ex-

pression, and the symmetry of page that characterized the
successive editions of the Wentworth Geometry. It has been
the purpose to prepare a book that should do even more than
maintain the traditions this work has fostered.
iii
iv PLANE GEOMETRY
2. The proofs have been given substantially in full, to the

end that the pupil may always have before him a model for
his independent treatment of the exercises.
3. The sequence of propositions has been improved in sev-
eral respects, notably in the treatment of parallels.
4. To meet a general demand, the number of propositions
has been decreased so as to include only the great basal theo-
rems and problems. A little of the less important material
has been placed in the Appendix, to be used or not as cir-
cumstances demand.
5. The exercises, in some respects the most important part

of a course in geometry, have been rendered more dignified in

appearance and have been improved in content. The number
of simple exercises has been greatly increased, while the diffi-
cult puzzle is much less in evidence than in most American
textbooks. The exercises are systematically grouped, appear-
ing in full pages, in large type, at frequent intervals. They
are not all intended for one class, but are so numerous as to
allow the teacher to make selections from year to year.
6. The introduction has been made as concrete as is reason-
able. Definitions have been postponed until' they are actually
needed, only well-recognized terms have been employed, the
pupil is initiated at once into the practical use of the instru-
ments, some of the reasons for studying geometry are early
shown in an interesting way, and correlation is made with
the simple algebra already studied.
The authors many friends of the Wentworth-
are indebted to
Smith and encouragement in the labor of
series for assistance
preparing this work, and they will welcome any further sug-
gestions for improvement from any of their readers.

GEORGE WENTWORTH
DAVID EUGENE SMITH
 CONTEXTS
Page
INTRODUCTION 1

BOOK I. RECTILINEAR FIGURES 25

Triangles
Parallel Lines
Quadrilaterals
.

.........
. .

.........
26
46
59
Polygons 68
Loci 73

BOOK THE CIRCLE

II.

Theorems
Problems
..........
..........
93
94
126

BOOK III. PROPORTION. SIMILAR POLYGONS . . . 151

Theorems
Problems .......... 152
182

BOOK IV. AREAS OF POLYGONS 191

Theorems 192
Problems 214

BOOK REGULAR POLYGONS AND CIRCLES

V.
Theorems
Problems
..........
..........
. . .227
228
242

APPENDIX
Symmetry
Maxima and Minima
..........
........
261

261
265
Recreations . . . . . . . . . .273

History of Geometry
.......
Suggestions as to Beginning Demonstrative Geometry

........
Applications of Geometry
. 277
285
289

INDEX ....'„., v
293
 SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

= equals, equal, equal to, Adj. adjacent.

is equal to, or Alt. alternate.
is equivalent to. Ax. axiom.
> is greater than. Const. construction.
< is less than. • Cor. corollary.
II parallel. Def. definition.

_L perpendicular. Ex. exercise.

Z angle. Ext. exterior.
A triangle. Eig. figure.

O parallelogram. Hyp. hypothesis.

rectangle. Iden. identity.
circle. Int. interior.
st. straight. Post. postulate.
rt. right. Prob. problem.
V since. Prop. proposition.
.*. therefore. Sup. supplementary.

These symbols take the plural form when necessary, as in the case of
A, &, ©.
lie,

The symbols + — x -f- are used as in algebra.

, , ,

There is no generally accepted symbol for "is congruent to," and the
words are used in this book. Some teachers use = or «, and some use
= but the sign of equality is more commonly employed, the context
,

telling whether equality, equivalence, or congruence is to be understood.

q. e. d. is an abbreviation that has long been used in geometry for
the Latin words quod erat demonstrandum, "which was to be proved."
q. e. f. stands for quod erat faciendum, "which was to be done."

vi
 PLAXE GEOMETRY

INTRODUCTION
1. The Nature of Arithmetic. In arithmetic we study compu-
tation, the working with numbers. We may have a formula
expressed in algebraic symbols, such as a = Lh. where a may
stand area of a rectangle, and b and respectively for
I.

the number of units of length in the base and height but the
:

actual computation involved in ap rach formula to a

particular case is part of arithmetic.

2. The Nature of Algebra. In al_:ebra we generalize the

arithmetic-;and instead of saying that the area of a rectangle
with base 4 in. and heig! 2 iI 2 s
i in., we express a
: .

general law by saying that a = bh. In arithmetic we may have

an equality, like 2 x 16 — 17= 49. but in algebra we make much
use of equations, like 2.r^l7=49. Algebra, therefore, is a
generalized arithmetic.

3. The Nature of Geometry. TVe are now about to begin another

branch of mathemat::-s. one not chiefly relating to numbers
although it uses numbers, and not prim, "oted to equa-
tions although using them, but one that is concerned principally
with the study of forms, such as triangles, parallelograms, and
circles. Many facts that are stated in arithmetic and algebra
are proved in geometry. For example, in geometry it is proved
that the square on the hypotenuse of a right triangle equals
the sum of the squares on the other two sides, and that the
circumference of a circle equals 3.1416 times the diameter.
1
 :

2 PLANE GEOMETRY
4. Solid. The block here represented is called a solid; it
isa limited portion of space filled with matter. In geometry,
however, we have nothing to do with the matter of which a

body is composed ; we study simply its shape and size, as in

the second figure.

That is, a physical solid can be touched and handled; a geometric
solid is the space that a physical solid is conceived to occupy. For
example, a stick is a physical solid ; but if we put it into wet plaster, and
then remove it, the hole that is left may be thought of as a geometric
solid although it is filled with air.

5. Geometric Solid. A limited portion of space is called a

geometric solid.

6. Dimensions. The block represented in § 4 extends in three

principal directions

(1) From left to right, that is, from A to D ;

(2) From back to front, that is, from A to B ;

(3) From top to bottom, that is, from A to E.

These extensions are called the dimensions of the block, and
arenamed in the order given, length, breadth (or width), and
thickness (height, altitude, or depth). Similarly, we may say
that every solid has three dimensions.
Very often a solid is of such shape that we cannot point out the length,
or distinguish from the breadth or thickness, as an irregular block of
it

coal. In the case of a round ball, where the length, breadth, and thick-
ness are all the same in extent, it is impossible to distinguish one dimen-
sion from the others.
 INTRODUCTION 3

7. Surface. The block shown in § 4 has six flat faces, each

of which is called a surface. If the faces are made smooth by
polishing, so that when a straight edge is applied to any one
of them the straight edge in every part will touch the surface,
each face is called & plane surface, or a plane.

These surfaces are simply the boundaries of the solid. They have no
thickness, even as a colored light shining upon a piece of paper does not
make the paper thicker. A board may be planed thinner and thinner,
and then sandpapered still thinner, thus coming nearer and nearer to
representing what we think of as a geometric plane, but it is always a
solid bounded by surfaces.

That which has length and breadth without thickness

called a surface.
^
8. Line. In the solid shown in § 4 we see that two adja-
cent surfaces intersect in a line. A line is therefore simply
the boundary of a surface, and has neither breadth nor thickness.
That which has length without breadth or thickness is called
a line.

A telegraph wire, for example,

is not a line. It is a solid. Even a
pencil mark has width and a very little thickness, so that it is also a solid.
But if we think of a wire as drawn out so that it becomes finer and finer,
it comes nearer and nearer to representing what we think of and speak
of as a geometric line.

9. Magnitudes. Solids, surfaces, and lines are called mag-

nitudes.

In the solid shown in § 4 we see that when two

10. Point.
linesmeet they meet in a point. A point is therefore simply
the boundary of a line, and has no length, no breadth, and
no thickness.
That which has only position, without length, breadth, or
thickness, is called a point.
We may think of the extremity of a line as a point. We may also
think of the intersection of two lines as a point, and of the intersection
of two surfaces as a line.
 ; ;

4 PLANE GEOMETRY
11. Representing Points and Geometric Magnitudes. Although
we only imagine such geometric magnitudes as lines or planes,
we may represent them by pictures.
Thus we represent a point by a fine dot, and I
~ 7
name it by a letter, as P in this figure.
/ /
We represent a line by a fine mark, and name
it by letters placed at the ends, as AB.
B
We represent a surface by its boundary lines, and name it by letters
placed at the corners or in some other convenient way, as ABCD.
We represent a solid by the boundary faces or by the lines bounding
the faces, as in § 4.

12. Generation of Geometric Magnitudes. We may think of

(1) A line as generated by a moving point

(2) A surface as generated by a moving line
(3) A solid as generated by a moving surface.
For example, as shown in the figure let the surface ABCD move to
the position WXYZ. Then
C Y
(1) A generates the line AW; j

(2) AB generates the surface A WXB ;

(3) ABCD generates the solid AY.

Of course a point will not generate a line / /tx
by simply turning over, for this is not mo- ^ *"
yy
tion for a point nor will a line generate a
;

surface by simply sliding along itself nor will a surface generate a solid
;

by simply sliding upon itself.

13. Geometric Figure. A point, a line, a surface, a solid, or

any combination of these, is called a geometric figure.
A geometric figure is generally called simply a figure.

14. Geometry. The science of geometric figures is called

geometry.
Plane geometry treats of figures that lie wholly in the same
plane, that is, of plane figures.
Solid geometry treats of figures that do not lie wholly in
the same plane.
 INTRODUCTION
15. Straight Line. A line such, that any part placed with it3

ends on any other part must lie wholly in the line is called a
straight line.
"For example, AB is a straight line, for if we take, say, a half inch of it,

and place it in on any other part of AB,

any vvay
but so that its ends lie in AB, then the whole of
the half inch of line will lie in AB. This is well shown by using tracing
paper. The word line used alone is understood to mean a straight line.
Part of a straight line is called a segment of the line. The term seg-
ment is applied also to certain other magnitudes.

16. Equality of Lines. Two straight-line segments that can

be placed one upon the other so that their extremities coin-
cide are said to be equal.
In general, two geometric magnitudes are equal if they can be
made to coincide throughout their whole extenj. We shall see later
that some figures that coincide are said to be congruent.

17. Broken Line. A line made up of

two or more different straight lines is

Called a broken line.

For example, CD is a broken line.

18. Rectilinear Figure. A plane figure

formed by a broken line is called a rec-
tilinear figure.

For example, ABCD is a rectilinear figure.

19. Curve Line. A line no part of which
is straight is called a curve line, or simply
a curve.
For example, EF is a curve line.

20. Curvilinear Figure. A plane figure formed

by a curve line is called a curvilinear figure.

For example, is a curvilinear figure with which

we are already familiar.
Some curvilinear figures are surfaces bounded by
curves and others are the curves themselves.
6 PLANE GEOMETRY
21. Angle. The opening between two straight lines drawn
from the same point is called an angle.

Strictly speaking, this is a plane angle. We shall

find later that there are angles made by curve lines and
angles made by planes.
The two lines are called the sides of the angle, and
the point of meeting is called the vertex.
An angle may be read by naming the letters desig-
nating the sides, the vertex letter being between the
others, as the angle A OB. An angle may also be desig-
nated by the vertex the angle 0, or by a small
letter, as
letter within, as the angle m. A
curve is often drawn to show the par-
ticular angle meant, as in angle m.

22. Size of Angle. The size of an angle depends upon the

amount of turning necessary to bring one side into the position
of the other.
One angle is greater
than another angle when
the amount of turning is
greater. Thus in these
compasses the first angle
is smaller than the second, which is also smaller than the third. The

length of the sides has nothing to do with the size of the angle.

23. Equality of Angles. Two angles that can be placed one

upon the other so that their vertices coincide and the sides of
one lie along the sides of the other are said to ^b
be equal.
For example, the angles A OB and A'0*B' (read
"i prime, O prime, B prime") are equal. It is well
to illustrate this by tracing one on thin paper and
placing it upon the other. q'*
^
24. Bisector. A point, a line, or a plane that divides a geo-
metric magnitude into two equal parts is called a bisector of
the magnitude.
For example, Jf, the mid-point of the line AB, M B
is a bisector of the line.
 INTRODUCTION
25. Adjacent Angles. Two angles that have the same vertex
and a common side between them are called adjacent angles.
For example, the angles AOB and BOC are
adjacent angles, and in § 26 the angleG AOB and
BOC are adjacent angles.

26. Right Angle. When one straight line

meets another straight line and makes the
adjacent angles equal, each angle is called a
right angle.
For example, angles AOB and BOC in this figure.
If CO is cut off, angle AOB is still a right angle.
27. Perpendicular. A straight line making a right angle with
another straight line is said to be perpendicular to it.

Thus OB is perpendicular to CA, and CA to OB. OB is also called a

perpendicular to CA, and is called the foot of the perpendicular OB.

28. Triangle. A portion of a plane bounded by three straight

lines is called a triangle. C
The lines AB, BC, and CA are called the sides
of the triangle ABC, and the sides taken together
form the perimeter. The points A, B, and C are -^ **

the vertices of the triangle, and the angles A, B, and C are the angles of
the triangle. The side AB upon which the triangle is supposed to rest
is the base of the triangle. Similarly for other plane figures.

29. Circle. A closed curve lying in a plane, and such that

all of its points are equally distant from a fixed point in the
plane, is called a circle.
The length of the circle is called the circumference.
The point from which all points on the circle are
equally distant is the center. Any portion of a circle
is an A straight line from the center to the circle
arc.
is a radius. A straight line through the center, termi-
<*cB
nated at each end by the circle, is a diameter.
Formerly in elementary geometry circle was taken to mean the space
inclosed, and the bounding line was called the circumference. Modern
usage has conformed to the definition used in higher mathematics.
8 PLANE GEOMETRY
30. Instruments of Geometry. In geometry only two instru-
ments are necessary besides pencil and paper. These are a
straight edge, or ruler, and a pair of compasses.
It is evident that all radii of the same circle are equal.

In the absence of compasses, and particularly for blackboard work, a

loopmade of string may be used. For the accurate transfer of lengths,
however, compasses are desirable.

31. Exercises in using Instruments. The following simple

exercises are designed to accustom the pupil to the use of
instruments. No proofs are attempted, these coming later in
the course.
This section may be omitted if desired, without affecting the course.

EXERCISE 1

1. From a given point on a given straight line required to

draw a perpendicular to the line.
Let AB be the given line and P be the ^N
given point.
It is required to draw from P a line per-
pendicular to AB.
With P as a center and any convenient ^ I —
radius draw arcs cutting AB at and Y.X
With X as a center and XY as a radius draw a circle, and with Y
as a center and the same radius draw another circle, and call one inter-
section of the circles C.
With a straight edge draw a line from P to C, and this will be the
perpendicular required.
 INTRODUCTION 9

2. From a given point outside a given straight line required

to let fall a perpendicular to the line. p
Let AB be the given straight line and P be the
given point.
It is
dicular to
required to draw from
AB.
With P as a center and any convenient radius
P a line perpen-
A
v
ir* ^
draw an arc cutting AB at and Y. X
With X
as a center and any convenient radius
draw a circle, and with T as a center and the same v
radius draw another circle, and call one intersection of the circles C.
With a straight edge draw a straight line from P to C, and this will
be the perpendicular required.
It is interesting to test the results in Exs. 1 and 2, by cutting the paper
and fitting the angles together.

3. Required to draw a triangle having two sides each equal

to a given line.
I
Let Ibe the given line.
It is required to draw a triangle having two sides
each equal to I.

With any center, as C, and a radius equal to I

draw an arc.
Join any two points on the arc, as A and 22,

with each other and with C by straight lines.

"£
A'-
Then ABC is the triangle required.

4. Required to draw a triangle having its three sides each

equal to a given line.
^ c
Let AB be the given line.

It is required to draw a triangle having its three

sides each equal to AB.
With 1 as a center and AB as a radius draw a
circle, and with B as a center and the same radius
draw another circle.

Join either intersection of the circles with A and B by straight lines.

Then ABC is the triangle required.
In such cases draw the arcs only long enough to show the point of
intersection.
 10 PLAJSTE GEOMETRY
5. Required to draw a triangle having its sides equal respec-
tively to three given lines.
Let the three lines be Z, m, and n.
What is now required ?

Upon any line mark off with the com-

passes a line-segment AB equal to I.

•
With A as a center and m as a radius
draw a circle with B as a center and
;

n as a radius draw a circle.

Draw^iC and BC. m-
Then ABC is the required triangle.

6. From a given point on a given line required to draw a

line making an angle equal to a given angle.

•#

Z IG
/
M •Q

Let P be the given point on the given line PQ, and let angle AOB be
the given angle.
What is now required ?

With O as a center and any radius draw an arc cutting AO at C and

BO at D.
With P as a center and OCasa radius draw an arc cutting PQ at M.
With M
as a center and the straight line joining C and D as a radius
draw an arc cutting the arc just drawn at N, and draw PN.
Then angle MPN is the required angle.

7. Required to bisect a, given straight line. •IN

Let AB be the given line.
It is required to bisect AB.
With lasa center and AB as a radius draw a circle,
and with 2? as a center and the same radius draw a circle. m -a
Call the two intersections of the circles X and Y.
Draw the straight line XY.
Then XY AB
section M,
bisects the line at the point of inter-
x
 INTRODUCTION 11

8. Required to bisect a given angle.

Let A OB be the given angle.
It is required to bisect the angle AOB.
With and any convenient radius
as a center
draw an arc cutting OA at X
and OB at Y.
With X
as a center and a line joining and X
F as a radius draw a circle, and with Y as a
center and the same radius draw a circle, and call one point of inter-

section of the circles P.

Draw the straight line OP.
Then OP is the required bisector.

9. By the use of compasses and ruler draw the following

figures: v -

The dotted lines show how to fix the points needed in drawing the
figure,and they may be erased after the figure is completed. In general,
in geometry, auxiliary lines (those needed only as aids) are indicated by
dotted lines.

10. By the use of compasses and ruler draw the following

figures

It is apparent from the figures in Exs. 9 and 10 that the radius of

the circle may be used in describing arcs that shall divide the circle into
six equal parts.
 :

12 PLANE GEOMETRY
11. By the use of compasses and ruler draw the following
figures :

12. By the use of compasses and ruler draw the following

figures

13. By the use of compasses and ruler draw the following

figures

In such figures artistic patterns may be made by coloring various

portions of tho drawings. In this way designs are made for stained-glass
windows, for oilcloth, for colored tiles, and for other decorations.

14. Draw a triangle of which each side is lj in.

15. Draw two lines bisecting each other at right angles.
 INTRODUCTION 13

16. Bisect each of the four right angles formed by two lines
bisecting each other at right angles.

17. Draw a line lj in. long and divide it into eighths of an

inch, using the ruler. Then with the compasses draw this
figure.

It is easily shown, when we come to

the measurement of the circle, that these
two curve lines divide the space inclosed
by the circle into parts that are exactly
equal to one another.
By continuing each semicircle to
make a complete circle another inter-
esting figure is formed. Other similar
designs are easily invented, and students
should be encouraged to make such
original designs.

18.In planning a Gothic window this drawing is needed.

The BC is drawn with A as a center
arc g
and i5 as a radius. The small arches
are described with A, D, and B as centers
and AD as a radius. The center P is found
/I
^
by taking A and B as centers and iE as
a radius. How may the points D, 2?, and
F be found ? Draw the figure.

19. Draw a triangle of which each side is 1 in. Bisect each

side, and with the points of bisection as centers and with radii

£ in. long draw three circles.

20. A baseball diamond is a square 90 ft. on a side. Draw
the plan, using a scale of y1^ in. to a foot. Locate the pitcher
60 ft. from the home plate.

21. A man travels from A directly east 1 mi. to B. He then

turns and travels directly north 1| mi. to C. Draw the plan
and find by measurement the distance A C to the nearest quarter
of a mile. Use a scale of J in. to a mile.
 :

14 PLANE GEOMETRY
22. A double tennis court is 78 ft. long and 36 ft. wide. The
net is placed 39 ft. from each end and the service lines 18 ft.
from each end. Draw the plan, using a scale of T\ in. to a foot,
making the right angles as shown in Ex. 1. The accuracy of
the construction may be tested by measuring the diagonals,
which should be equal.
23. At the entrance to New York harbor is a gun having
a range of 12 mi. Draw a line inclosing the range of fire,

using a scale of ^ in. to a mile.

24. Two forts are placed on opposite sides of a harbor

entrance, 13 mi. apart. Each has a gun having a range of
10 mi. Draw a plan showing the area exposed to the fire of
both guns, using a scale of TTff in. to a mile.
25. Two forts, A and B, are placed on opposite sides of a
harbor entrance, 16 mi. apart. On an island in the harbor, 12
mi. from A and 11 mi. from B, The fort A has a
is a fort C.
gun with a range of 12 mi., fort B one with a range of 11 mi.,
and fort C one with a range of 10 mi. Draw a plan of the
entrance to the harbor, showing the area exposed to the fire

of each gun.

26. A horse, tied by a rope 25 ft. long at the corner of a lot

50 ft. square, grazes over as much of the lot as possible. The

next day he tied at the next corner, the third day at the
is

and the fourth day at the fourth corner. Draw

third corner,
a plan showing the area over which he has grazed during the
four days, using a scale of J in. to 5 ft.

27. A gardener laid out a flower bed on the following plan

He made a triangle ABC, 16 ft. on a side, and then bisected
two of the angles. From the point of intersection of the bi-
sectors, P,he drew perpendiculars to the three sides of the
triangle,PX, PY, and PZ. Then he drew a circle with P as a
center and PX as a radius, and found that it just fitted in the
triangle. Draw the plan, using a scale of J in. to a foot.
 .

INTRODUCTION 15

32. Necessity for Proof. Although part of geometry consists

in drawing figures, this not the most important part. It is
is

essential to prove that the figures are what we claim them to be.
The danger of trusting to appearances is seen in Exercise 2.

EXERCISE 2

1. Estimate which is the longer line, AB or AT and how

much longer. Then
your estimate by test A) <B
measuring with the compasses or with a
f $
piece of paper carefully marked.

2. Estimate which is the longer line, AB or

CD, and how much longer. Then test your
estimate by measuring as in Ex. 1.

3. Look at this figure and state whether

AB and CD are both straight lines. If one
is not straight, which one is

it? Test your answer by us-

ing a ruler or the folded edge
of a piece of paper.

4. Look at this figure and

state whether AB and CD are
the same distance apart at A and C as
at B and D. Then test your answer as
in Ex. 1.

5 Look at this figure and state whether

AB will, if prolonged, lie on CD. Also
statewhether WX will, if prolonged, lie

on YZ. Then test your answer

by laying a ruler along the lines. Jr x
6. Look at this figure and state which
of the three lower lines is AB prolonged.
Then test your answer by laying a ruler
along AB.
16 PLANE GEOMETRY
33. Straight Angle. When the sides of an angle extend in
opposite directions, so as to be in the same straight line, the
angle is called a straight angle. ^^
For example, the angle A OB, as shown in this
figure, is a straight angle. The angle BOA, below the line, is also a
straight angle.

34. Right Angle and Straight Angle. It follows from the

definition of right angle (§ 26) that a right angle is half of a
straight angle.
In like manner, it follows that a straight angle equals twice
a right angle.

35. Acute Angle. An angle less than a right angle is called

an acute angle.
For example, the angle m, as shown in this figure, is
an acute angle.

36. Obtuse Angle. An angle greater than a right angle and

less than a straight angle is called an obtuse B
angle.
For example, the angle A OB, as shown in this
an obtuse angle.
figure, is V2.>

37. Reflex Angle. An angle greater than a straight angle

and less than two straight angles is called a reflex angle.

For example, the angle BOA, marked with a dotted curve line in the
figure in § 36, is a reflex angle.
When we speak of an angle formed by two given lines drawn from a
point we mean the smaller angle unless the contrary is stated.

38. Oblique Angles. Acute angles and obtuse angles are called
oblique angles.
The sides of oblique angles are said to be oblique to each
other, and are called oblique lines.
Evidently if we bisect a straight angle, we form two right angles if ;

we bisect a right angle or an obtuse angle, we form two acute angles j

if we bisect a reflex angle, we form two obtuse angles.

 INTEODUCTION 17

39. Generation of Angles. Suppose the line r to revolve from

the position OA about the point as a vertex to the posi-
tion OB. Then r describes or generates
the acute angle AOB, and, as we have seen
(§ 22) the size of the angle depends upon the
amount of rotation, the angle being greater
as the amount of turning is greater.

If r rotates still further, to the position OC, it

has then generated the right angle AOC and is

perpendicular to OA.
If r rotates still further, to the position OD, it has then generated the
obtuse angle A 01).
If r rotates to the position OE, it has then generated the straight
angle A OE.
If r rotates to the position OF, it has then generated the reflex
angle A OF.
If r rotates still further, past OG to the position OA again, it has
made a complete revolution and has generated two straight angles or
four right angles.

40. Sums and Differences of Magnitudes. If the straight line

AP has been generated by a point
moving from to P, the segments
.-1
A
P
BCD
( , | >p

AB, BC, CD, and so on, having been generated in succession,

then we call AC the sum of AB and BC. That is,

AC = AB -{-BC, whence AC — BC = AB.

If the angle A OB has been generated by the
line OA revolving about as a vertex from
the position OA, the angles AOB, BOC, and
COD having been generated in succession,
then we call angle AOC the sum of angles
AOB and BOC. That is, considering angles,
AOC = AOB + BOC, whence AOC- BOC = AOB.
In the same way that we may have the sum or the difference of lines
or of angles we may have the sum or the difference of surfaces or of solids.
18 PLANE GEOMETRY
41. Perigon. The whole angular space in a plane about a
point is called a perigon.
It therefore follows that a perigon equals the sum of two straight
angles or the sum of four right angles.

42. Complements, Supplements, and Conjugates. If the sum

of two angles is a right angle, each angle is called the comple-
ment of the other.
If the sum of two angles is a straight angle, each angle is
called the supplement of the other.
If the sum of two angles is a perigon, each
angle is called the conjugate of the other.
Thus," with respect to angle AOB,
the complement is angle BOC,
the supplement is angle BOD,
the conjugate is angle BOA (reflex),

43. Properties of Supplementary Angles. It is sufficiently evi-

dent to be taken without proof that
1. The two adjacent angles which one straight line makes with
another are together equal to a straight angle.
2. If the sum of two adjacent angles is a straight angle, their
exterior sides are in the same straight line.

44. Angle Measure. Angles are measured by taking as a unit

sJ (j
of a perigon. This unit is called a degree.
The degree is divided into 60 equal parts, called minutes, and
the minute into 60 equal parts, called seconds.
We write 5° 13' 12" for 5 degrees 13 minutes 12 seconds.
It is evident that a right angle equals 90°, a straight angle equals 180°,
and a perigon equals 360°.

45. Vertical Angles. When two angles have the same verteXj
and the sides of the one are prolongations of
the sides of the other, those angles are called
vertical angles.
In the figure the angles x and z are vertical angles,
as are also the angles w and y.
 —

INTRODUCTION 19

EXERCISE 3

1. Find the complement of 72°; of 65° 30'; of 22° 20' 15".

2. What is the supplement of 45° ? of 120° ? of 145° 5' ?

of 22° 20' 15" ?

3. What is the conjugate of 240°? of 280°? of 312° 10' 40"?

4. The complement of a certain angle x is 2x.
\2x
How many degrees are there in x ? \yx
5. The complement of a certain angle x is Sx. How many
degrees are there in x ?
6. What is the angle of which the complement is four times
the angle itself ?

7. The supplement of a certain angle x is 5x. >s

How many degrees are there in x ? 5r/&

8. The supplement of a certain angle x is 14 x. How many

degrees are there in x ?
9. What is the angle of which the supplement equals half
of the angle itself ?

10. How many degrees in an angle that equals its own com-
plement ? in one that equals its own supplement ?

11. The conjugate of a certain angle x is § x. ( J6 \

How many degrees are there in x ? s^

12. The conjugate of a certain angle x \^ \x. How many
degrees are there in x ?
13. How many degrees in an angle that equals a third of its

own conjugate ? in one that equals its own conjugate ?

14. Find two angles, x and y, such that their sum is 90° and
their difference is 10°.

15. Find two complementary angles such that their differ-

ence is 30°.

16. Find two supplementary angles such that one is 20°

greater than the other.
20 PLANE GEOMETRY
17. The angles x and y are conjugate angles, and their differ-
ence is a, straight angle. How many degrees are there in each ?
18. The angles x and y are conjugate angles, and their differ-
ence is zero. How many degrees are there in each ?
19. Of two complementary angles one is four fifths of the
other. How many degrees are there in each ?
20. Of two supplementary angles one is five times the other.
How many degrees are there in each ?
21. How many degrees are there in the smaller angle formed
by the hands of a clock at 5 o'clock ?

22. How many degrees are there in the smaller angle formed
by the hands of a clock at 10 o'clock ?

23. In this figure, if angle A OB is 38°, how

many BOC ? How many
degrees in angle in
angle COD? How many in angle DO A?
24. In the same figure, if angle A OB is equal to a third of
angle BOC, how many degrees in each of the four angles ?
25. In the angles of this figure, if w = 2 x, how
many degrees in each ? How many degrees in y ? \
How many degrees in z ? ^r
26. Eind the angle whose complement de- \
creased by 30° equals the angle itself.

27. Find the angle whose complement divided by 2 equals

the angle itself.

28. Draw a figure to show that if two adjacent angles have

their exterior sides in the same straight line, their sum is a
straight angle.
29. Draw a figure to show that the sum of all the angles
on the same side of a straight line, at a given point, is equal
to two right angles.
30. Draw a figure to show that the complements of equal
angles are equal.
 INTRODUCTION 21

46. Axiom. A general statement admitted without proof to

be true is called an axiom.
For example, it is stated in algebra that "if equals are added to
equals the sums are equal." This is so simple that it is generally accepted
without proof. It is therefore an axiom.

47. Postulate. In geometry a geometric statement admitted

without proof to be true is called a postulate.
For example, it is so evident that all straight angles are equal, that
this statement is a postulate. It is also evident that a straight line may
be drawn and that a circle may be described, and these statements are
therefore postulates of geometry.
Axioms are therefore general mathematical assumptions, while geo-
metric postulates are the assumptions peculiar to geometry. Postulates
and axioms are the assumptions upon which the whole science of mathe-
matics rests.

48. Theorem. A statement to be proved is called a theorem.

For example, it is stated in arithmetic that the square on the hypote-
nuse of a right triangle equals the sum of the squares on the other two
sides. This statement is a theorem to be proved in geometry.

49. Problem. A construction to be made so that it shall

satisfy certain given conditions is called a problem.
For example, required to construct a triangle all of whose sides shall
be equal. This construction was made in § 31, Ex. 4, and later it will be
proved that the construction was correct.

50. Proposition. A statement of a theorem to be proved or

a problem to be solved is called & proposition.
In geometry, therefore, a proposition is either a theorem or a problem,
TVe shall find that most of the propositions at first are theorems. After
we have proved a number of theorems so that we can prove that the
solutions of problems are correct, we shall solve some problems.

51. Corollary. A truth that follows from another with little

or no proof is called a corollary.

For example, since we admit that all straight angles are equal, it follows
as a corollary that all right angles are equal, since a right angle is half
of a straight angle.
 22 PLANE GEOMETRY
52. Axioms. The following are the most important axioms
used in geometry :

If equals are added to equals the sums are equal.

1.
'*
If equals are subtractedfrom equals the remainders are equal.
2.

3. If equals are multiplied by equals the products are equal.

f/4. If equals are divided by equals the quotients are equal.

In division the divisor is never zero.
A Z JP
-

*j 3
\
\5. Like powers or like positive roots of equals are equal.
We learn from algebra that the square root of 4 is + 2 or — 2, but of

course these are not equal. In geometry we shall use only the positive roots.

6. If unequals are operated on by positive equals in the same

way, the results are unequal in the same order.

Taking a>b and taking x and y as equal positive quantities, this
axiom states that
a + x > 6 + y, a — x > 6 — y, az>by, ->-, etc.
x y

7. If unequals are added to unequals in the same order, the

sums are unequal in the same order; if unequals are subtracted

from equals the remainders are unequal in the reverse order.
If a > &, c > d, and z = y, then a + c > b + d, and x — a < y — b.
8. Quantities that are equal to the same quantity or to equal
quantities are equal to each other.
9. A quantity may be substituted for its equal in an equation
or in an inequality.
Thus if x = b and if a + z = c, then a + 6 = c; and if a + z > c, then
a + b > c. Axiom 8 is used so often that it is stated separately, although
it is really included in Axiom 9.

10. If the first of three quantities is greater than the second,

and the second is greater than the third, then the first is greater
than the third.

Thus if a > 6, and if b > c, then a> c.

11. The whole is greater than any of its parts, and is equal
to the sum of all of its parts.
 INTRODUCTION 23

53. Postulates. The following are among the most impor-

tant postulates used in geometry. Others will be introduced
as needed.

1. One straight line and only one can be drawn through two
given points.
2. A straight line may be produced to any required length.

To produce AB means to extend it through B ;

to produce BA means to extend it through A.

3. A straight line is the shortest path between two points.

4. A circle may be described with any given point as a center
and any given line as a radius.
5. Any figure may be moved from one place to another with-
out altering its size or shape.
6. All straight angles are equal.

54. Corollary 1. Two pjoints determine a straight line.

This is only a brief way of stating Postulate 1.

55. Corollary 2. Two straight lines can intersect in only

one point.
For if they had two points in common they would coincide (Post. 1).

56. Corollary 3. All right angles are equal.

For all straight angles are equal (Post. 6), and a straight angle (§ 34)
is twice a right angle. Hence Axiom 4 applies.

57. Corollary 4. From a given point in a given line only

one perpendicular can be drawn to the line. C b
For if there could be two perpendiculars
to DA at 0, as OB and OC, we should have
angles AOB and AOC both right angles, which
is impossible (§ 56). jy

58. CorollaryEqual angles have equal complements,

5.

equal supplements, and equal conjugates.

59. Corollary 6. The greater of two angles has the less

complement, the less supplement, and the less conjugate.

 : :

24 PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 4

1. + Z x = 27° 30', find the value of Z z.

If 10°

2. If Z + 37° = i Z x + 40°, find the value of Z

a: a?.

3. If \Ax + Ab = hAb, find the value of Ax.

4. If Zx + Za = 4Za-Zx, find the value of Z a;.

.Fmc? the value of Ax in each of the following equations

/ 5. Ax +13° = 39°. Z* = 0.7Zz + 33°. 10.

6. Ax -17° = 46°. 11. Za: = 0.1 Zar +18°.

7. 2Zz = Za; + 23 . 12. | Zx = J Zz + 2J°.

8. 5Za: = 2Za; + 21 13. f Z.x = O.lZx + 14°.

.

9. 4Za: = jZa:+70 ^U^f Zic = JZicH-2

o
. .

15. 12Zz-f-17°= 9Zz + 32°.

16. 5Z^-22 30' = 2Z^-fll°.

o

17. 51°20'-fZx = 5°l' + 3Za-.

18. 73° 21' 4" - Z = 3° 3' 12" + 4 Z x.a;

19. If a; -f-20° = y and y — 5° = 2 a, what is the value of x

and of y ?

Find the value of x and of y in each of the following sets

of equations

20. x + y = 45°, 23. * + 2y = 21°,

tf-y = 35°. z + 3y = 26°15\
- 8 y = 0°,
21. x 24. x + y = 9° 20' 15",
+ 8*/ = 80°.
a 2tf-2/ = 12 25'15' ;
.

22. 2 + = 64°, a: i/ 25. x- y = 5'5",

V 3a;-y = 88 . 3 x .+ 4 y = 14° 50' 50".

26. If x < 10° and y = 7° 30', what can be said as to the

value of x + y?

27. In Ex. 26, what can be said as to the value of x^-y ?

 BOOK I

RECTILINEAR FIGURES

Proposition I. Theorem
60. If two lines intersect, the vertical angles are equal.

ir a
Given the lines AC and BD intersecting at 0.

To prove that Z.AOB = ACOD.

Proof. ZA0B + Z.B0C = 3l St. Z. §43
(
The two adjacent angles which one straight line makes with another
are together equal to a straight angle.)

Likewise Z.BOC + ACOD = a st. Z. §43

.'.Z.AOB + Z. BOC = Z BOC + Z COD. Post. 6
(All straight angles are equal.)

.\/LAOB = /.COD. Ax. 2

(If equals are subtracted from equals the remainders are equal.) Q.E.D.

61. Nature of a Proof. From Prop. I it is seen that a theorem

has (1) certain things given ; (2) a definite thing to be proved ;
(3) a proof, consisting of definite statements, each supported
by the authority of a definition, an axiom, a postulate, or some
proposition previously proved.
25
 ; ; ;; ;

26 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY

62. Triangles classified as to Sides. A triangle is said to be

scalene when no two of its sides are equal

isosceles when two of its sides are equal

equilateral when all of its sides are equal.

Scalene Isosceles Equilateral

63. Triangles classified as to Angles. A triangle is said to be

right when one of its angles is a right angle

obtuse when one of its angles is an obtuse angle
acute when all of its angles are acute angles
equiangular when all of its angles are equal.

^L: Right Obtuse Acute Equiangular

'
64. Corresponding Angles and Sides. If two triangles have
the angles of the one respectively equal to the angles of the
other, the equal angles are called corresponding angles, and the
sides opposite these angles are called corresponding sides.
Corresponding parts are also called homologous parts.

5. Square. A rectilinear figure having four equal sides and

four right angles is called a square.

66. Congruent. If two figures can be made to coincide in all

their parts, they are said to be congruent.

67. Corollary. Corresponding parts of congruent figures

arirequal.
When equal figures are necessarily congruent, as in the case of angles
or straight lines, the word equal is used. For symbols see page vi.
 TRIANGLES 27

Proposition II. Theorem

68. Two triangles are congruent if two sides and the
included angle of the one are equal respectively to two
sides and the included angle of the other.

A b x Y
Given the triangles ABC and XYZ, with AB equal to XY, AC
equal to XZ y
and the angle A equal to the angle X.
To prove that A ABC is congruent to A XYZ.
Proof. Place the A ABC upon the A XYZ so that A shall
fall on X and AB shall fall along XY. Post. 5

(
Any figure may be moved from one place to another without
altering its size or shape.)

Then B will fall on Y,

(For AB is given equal to XY.)

AC will fall along XZ,
(For AA is given equal to Z X.)
and C will fall on Z.
(For AC is given equal to XZ.)
.*. CB will coincide with ZY. Post. 1
(One straight line and only one can be drawn through two given points.)

.'. the two A coincide and are congruent, by § 66. q.e.d.

69. Corollary. Two right triangles are congruent if the

sides of the right angles are equal respectively.
The right angles are equal (§ 56). How does Prop. II apply ?
28 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 5

1. In this figure if Z a = 53°, how many degrees are there

in Zy? in Z.x? in Zz?
2. In Ex. 1, ifZ a were increased to 89°, what
would then be the size of A x, y, and z ?

3. In the square ABCD, prove that AC = BD.

In &ABC and BAD what two sides of the one are
known to be equal to what two sides of the other?
How about the included angles? Write a complete
proof as in Prop. II.

4. If ABCD is a square and P is the mid-

point of AB, prove that PC = PD.
What triangles should be proved congruent ? Can
this be done by Prop. II ? Write the proof.

5. How many degrees in an angle that equals

one fourth of its complement ? one tenth of its complement ?
6. How many degrees in an angle that equals twice its

supplement ? one third of its supplement ?

7. In the square ABCD the points P, Q,

R, S bisect the consecutive sides. Prove that
PQ=QR = RS = SP.
8. In the square ABCD the point P bisects
CD, and BM is made equal to AN, as shown in
this figure. Prove that PM — PN.
What two and included angle of one triangle
sides
must be proved equal to what two sides and included jv
angle of another triangle ?

^ v. Prove that to determine the distance AB

across a pond one may sight from A across a
post P, place a stake at A' making PA' = AP,
then sight along BP making PB' = BP, and
finally measure A'B\
 TRIANGLES 29

70. Drawing the Figures. Directions have already been given

(§ 31) for drawing the most common geometric figures. For
example, in Prop. II the complete work of drawing AXYZ
so that XY=AB, AX = Z.A, and XZ = AC, is indicated in
the following figures, the construction lines being dotted, as is

always the case in this book.

It is desirable to construct such figures accurately, employing com-

passes and ruler until such time as the use of these instruments is

thoroughly understood. Eventually, however, the figures should be

rapidly but neatly drawn, free-hand or with the aid of the ruler, as
the mathematician usually makes his figures.

71. Designating Corresponding Sides and Angles. It is helpful

in propositions concerning equality of figures to check the equal
parts so that the eye can follow the proof more easily. Thus it

would be convenient to represent the above figures as follows

Here AB and XY have one check, AC and XZ two checks, and the
equal angles A and X are marked by curved arrows.
If a figure is very complicated, there is sometimes an advan-
tage in using colored crayons or colored pencils, but otherwise
this expedient is of little value.

While such figures have some attraction for the eye they are not gen-
erally used in practice, one reason being that the student rarely has &
supply of colored pencils at hand when studying by himself.
 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition III. Theorem
72. Two triangles are congruent if two angles and
the included side of tJie one are equal respectively to
two angles and the included side of the other.

x Y
Given the triangles ABC and XYZ, with angle A equal to angle X,
angle B equal to angle F, and with AB equal to XY.
To prove that A ABC is congruent to AXYZ.
Proof. Place the A ABC upon the AXYZ so that AB shall
coincide with its equal, XY. Post. 5
(Any figure may be moved from one place to another without
altering its size or shape.)

Then AC will fall along XZ and BC along YZ.

(For it is given that ZA = ZX and ZB = ZY.)
.". C will fall on Z. § 55
(Two straight lines can intersect in only one point.)

.'. the two A are congruent. § 66

(If two figures can be made to coincide in all their parts, they
are said to be congruent.) Q.E.D.

73. Hypothesis. A supposition made in an argument is called

an hypothesis.
Thus, where it is said that ZA = ZX and ZB = Z F, we might say
that this is true "by hypothesis," instead of saying that ZA is given
equal to ZX, and ZB is given equal to ZY. The word is generally
used, however, for an assumption made somewhere in the proof.
 TRIANGLES 31

EXERCISE 6

1. In the square ABC B the point P bisects CD, and PQ and

PR drawn so that
are ZQPC = 30° and Z RPQ = 120°. Prove
that PQ = PP.
If ZQPC = 30° and ZRPQ =120°, what does ZDPE
equal ?

In the two triangles what parts are respectively

equal,and why ?
Write the proof in full. A
2. In this figure prove that if CM bisects Z A CB and is also
perpendicular to AB the triangle ABC is isosceles.
y

In &> AMC and BMC are two angles of the one respec-
tively equal to two angles of the other ? Why ?
The two triangles have one common side.
Write the proof in full. -»

V3. In the triangle ABC AC—BC and f

CM bisects the angle C.
Prove that CM
bisects the base AB. r
\/\. The triangle ABC has ZA equal to Z.B.
The point P bisects AB, and the lines PM
and PN are drawn so that Z.BPM=Z.NPA.
Prove that BM=AN.
H. The triangle ABC has Z A = Z B. The lines
AP and BQ are so drawn that ZBAP = ZQBA.
Prove that AP = BQ.

/ 6. Wishing to measure the distance across a river, some

boys sighted from A to a point P.
They then turned and measured AB
AP. They placed
at right angles to
a stake at 0, halfway from A to B,
and drew a perpendicular to AB at P.
They placed a stake at C, on this
perpendicular, and in line with and P. They then found
the width by measuring BC. Prove that they were right.
32 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition IV. Theorem
74. In an isosceles triangle the angles opposite the
equal sides are equal.
c

Given the isosceles triangle ABC with AC equal

y
to BC.

To prove that /.A = £B.

Proof. Suppose CD drawn so as to bisect Z A CB,
Then in the A ADC and BDC,
AC = BC, Given
CD = CD, Men.
(That is, CD is common to the two triangles.)

and Z.ACD = ZlDCB. Hyp,

(For CD bisects Z AC B.)

.'. A A DC is congruent to A BDC. §68

(
Two A are congruent if two sides and the included Z of the one are equal
respectively to two sides and the included Z of the other.)

.'.ZA=ZB. §67
(Corresponding parts of congruent figures are equal.) Q. E. D,

This proposition has long been known as the Pons asinorum, or Bridge
of Fools (asses). It is attributed to Thales, a Greek philosopher.
In an isosceles triangle the side which is not one of the two equal
sides is called the base.

75. Corollary. An equilateral triangle is equiangular.

Is an equilateral triangle a special kind of isosceles triangle ?

 TRIANGLES 33

EXERCISE 7

1. With the figure of Prop. IV, if AC = BC and CD bisects

ZC, prove that CD is _L to AB.
What angles must be proved to be right angles ? What
is a right angle ? Do these angles fulfill the require-
ments of the definition ?

2. In the adjacent figure AC—BC. Prove that

Z-m = Z n.

3. In the following figure AC = BC and A D = BD. Prove that

ZCBD = Z.DAC. c
"What angles are equal by Prop. IV ? Then what
axiom applies ?

4. In the figure of Ex. 3 prove that if a line A

is drawn from C to D, the A DBC is congruent
to the A DA C. ^ b
5. Two isosceles triangles, ABC and ABD, are constructed
on the same side of the common base AB. Prove
that ZCBD = ZDAC.
6. In the figure of Ex. 5 prove that a line
drawn through C and D bisects Z ADB.
What two triangles must be proved congruent ?

7. Inthisfigure.IC = £Cand^P=£Q. Prove that PC =QC.

Also prove that Z MPC = Z CQM. \<7

8. In this figure, if AC = BC, AP = BQ }

and PM=QM, prove that CM is _L to PQ.

What angles must be proved to be right angles ? J—p -fa q^b
9. In this figure P, Q, and R are mid-points of the sides of
the equilateral triangle ABC. Prove that PQR is <*

an equilateral triangle. r/\ q

Prove that &APR, BQP, and CBQ are congruent by-
using two propositions already proved.
34 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition V. Theorem
76. If two angles of a triangle are equal, the sides
opposite the equal angles are equal, and the triangle
is isosceles.

c o'

Given the triangle ABC, with the angle A equal to the angle B.

To prove that AC=BC.

Proof. Suppose the second triangle A'B'C' to be an exact
reproduction of the given triangle ABC.
Turn the triangle A'B'C' over and place it upon ABC so
that B' shall fall on A and A' shall fall on B. Post. 5

Then B'A' will coincide with AB. Post. 1

Since Z A = Z B',
' Given
and Z.A=AA\ Hyp.
,\AA=Z.B'. Ax. 8
.\ B'C will lie along AC.
Similarly A'C will lie along BC.

Therefore C will fall on both AC and BC, and hence at

their intersection.
.\B'C' = AC.
, ,

But B'C' was made equal to BC.

,\AC = BC, by Ax. 8. q.b.Dc

77. Corollary. An equiangular triangle is equilateral.

* k
 :

TRIANGLES 35

78. Kinds of Proof. In the five propositions thus far proved

in the text two different kinds of proof have been seen
(1) Synthetic. In Prop. I we put together some known truths
in order to obtain a new truth. Such a method of proof is known
as the synthetic method, and is the most common of all that are
used in geometry.
In this method we endeavor simply to find what propositions
have already been proved that will lead to the proof of the
proposition that is before us. This method was used in all the
exercises on pages 28, 31, and 33.

(2) By superposition. In Props. II and III we placed one figure

on another and then, by synthetic reasoning, showed them to
be identically equal. Such proof is known as a proof by super-
position. Superposition means
w placing on," and one figure is

said to be superposed on the other.

In Prop. V a special kind of proof by superposition was
employed, in which we superpose a figure on its exact dupli-
cate. This special method is rarely used, but in this proposi-
tion it materially simplifies the proof.

79. Converse Propositions. If two propositions are so related

that what is given in each is what is to be proved in the other,
each proposition is called the converse of the other.

E.g. in Prop. IV we have given

A C = BC, to prove that Z A = Z B.
In Prop. V we have given
Z A = Z B, to prove that AC = BC.
Hence Prop. V is the converse of Prop. IV, and Prop. IV is the con-
verse of Prop. V.

Not all converses are true, and hence we have to prove any
given converse.
E.g. the converse of the statement "Two right angles are two equal
angles" is "Two equal angles are two right angles," and this statement
is evidently false.
36 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition VI. Theorem
80. Two triangles are congruentWihe
three sides of the
one are equal respectively to the three sides of the other.

Given the triangles ABC and A'B'C't with AB equal to A'B\

AC equal to A'C, and BC equal to B'C
To prove that A ABC is congruent to A A'B'C
Proof. Let AB and A'B' be the greatest of the sides of the A.
Place A A'B'C next to A ABC so that A' shall fall on A y

the side A'B f

shall fall along AB, and the vertex C shall be
opposite the vertex C. Post. 5
Then B' will fall on B.
(For A'B' is given equal to AB.)

Draw CC.
Since AC = AC, Given
.\AACC' = Z.CC'A. §74
Since BC = BC, Given
.\ACCB = /_BC'C. § 74
.'.Z.ACC+Z. C'CB = Z CCA + Z BC'C. Ax. 1
Hence Z A CB = Z £CM. Ax. 11
(For Z AC Bis made up of Z A CC' and Z C'CB, and A BC'A is made
up of Z CCA and Z BC'C.)

.*. A ABC is congruent to A ABC 1

. § 68
S.AABC is congruent to A A'B'C, by Ax. 9. Q.B.D.
 TKIAKGLES 37

EXERCISE 8
V
1. Prove that a line from the vertex to the mid-point of
the base of an isosceles triangle cuts the triangle into two
congruent triangles.

2. Three iron rods are hinged at the ex-

tremities, as shown in this figure. Is the
figure rigid ? Why ?
Four iron rods are hinged, as shown in
3^

this figure.Is the figure rigid ? If not, where

would you put in the fifth rod to make it rigid ?
Prove that this would accomplish the result.
4. If two isosceles triangles are constructed on opposite
sides of the
•
same base, prove by Prop. VI and § 67 that
the line through the vertices bisects the
vertical angles.

5. In this figure AB = AD and CB = CD. ^^

Prove that AC bisects A BAD and Z DCB.
^U. In § 31, Ex. 8, it was shown how to bisect
an angle, this being the figure used. Draw PX
and PY, and prove by Prop. VI that PO bi-
sects Z.AOB.
7: In a triangle ABC it is known that A C = BC.
If ZA and Z B are both bisected by lines meet-
ing at P, prove that A ABP is isosceles.

8. In this figure it is known that Z m = Z n.

Prove that AC = BC.
(S From the vertices A and B of an equilateral triangle
lines are drawn to the mid-points of the opposite c
sides. Prove that these two lines are equal.

In &ABQ
and BAP show that the conditions of
congruence as stated in Prop. II are fulfilled.
 38 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition VII. Theorem
81. The sum of two lines from a given point to the
extremities of a given line is greater than the sum of
tivo other lines similarly drawn, but included by them.

B
Given CA and CB, two lines drawn from the point C to the
extremities of the line AB, and PA and PB two lines similarly
drawn, but included by CA and CB.

To prove that CA + CB >PA + PB.

Proof. Produce AP to meet the line CB at Q. Post. 2

Then CA + CQ >PA + PQ. Post. 3

(A straight line is the shortest path between two points.)

Likewise BQ + PQ >PB. Post. 3

Add these inequalities, and we have

CA + CQ + BQ + PQ>PA+PQ+PB. Ax. 7
{If unequals are added to unequals in the same order, the sums are unequal
in the same order.)

Substituting for CQ + BQ its equal CB, we have

CA + CB + PQ >PA +PQ + PB. Ax. 9
(A quantity may be substituted for its equal in an equation or in an
inequality.)

Taking PQ from each side of the inequality, we have

CA + CB >PA + PB }
by Ax. 6. Q.B.D.

'
 TRIANGLES 39

Propositions VIII. Theorem

82. Only one perpendicular can he drawn to a given
line from a giveiy^exiernal point.

Given a line XY, Pan external point, POa perpendicular to XY

from P, and PZ any other line from P to XY.
To prove that PZ is not _L to XY.
Proof. Produce PO to P', making OP' equal to PO. Post. 2

Draw P'Z. Post. 1

By construction POP' is a straight line.

.*. PZP' is not a straight line. Post. 1

Hence Z P'ZP is not a straight angle. §33

Since A POZ and ZOP' are -4, rt. §27
.'./.POZ = Z.ZOP\ §56
Furthermore PO = OP' y
Hyp.
and OZ = OZ. Iden.

.'. AOPZ is congruent to AOP'Z, §68

{Two A are congruent if two sides and the included Z of the one are
equal respectively to two sides and the included Z of the other.)

and Z OZP = ZP'ZO. § 67

<--Z.OZP, the half of ZTFZP, is not a right angle. § 34
.". PZ is not _L to XY, by § 27. Q.b.d
40 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition IX. Theorem
83. Two lines drawn from a point in a perpendicu-
lar to a given line, cutting off on the given line equal
segmentsfrom the foot of the perpendicular, are equal
and make equal angles with the perpendicular.

a o B
Given PO perpendicular to XY, and PA and PB two lines cutting
off on XY equal segments OA OB from
and 0.

To prove that PA = PB,

and AAPO = ZOPB.
Proof. In the A AOP and BOP,
Z POA and Z BOP are rt. A. § 27
(For PO is given ± to XY.)
.'.ZPOA=ZBOP. §56
(All right A are equal.)

Also OA = OB, Given

and PO = PO. Iden.
(That is, PO is common to the two &.)

.*. A A OP is congruent to A BOP. § £&

(Two & are congruent if two sides and the included A of the one are equal
respectively to two sides and the included Z. of the other.)

.'. PA = PB,
and ZAPO = ZOPB. §67
(Corresponding parts of congruent figures are equal.) Q. E. IX.
 TRIANGLES 41

Proposition X. Theorem
84. Of two lines drawn from a point in a perpen-
dicular to a given line, cutting off on the given line
unequal segments from the foot of the perpendicular,
the more remote is the greater.

Given PO perpendicular to XY, PA and PC two lines drawn

from P to XY y
and OA greater than OC.

To prove that PA >PC.

Proof. Take OB equal to OC, and draw PB.

Then PB = PC.
Produce PO to P', making OP' = PO, and draw P'A and P\fLp q
Then PA = P'A and PB = P'B. § 83
But PA + P'A >PB + P'B. 7
,'.2PA>2PB and PA >PB. Axs. 9 and 6
.*. PA>PC, by Ax. 9. Q.E.D.

85. Corollary. Only two equal obliques can be drawn from

a given point to a given line, and these cut off equal segments

from the foot of the perpendicular.

Of two unequal lines from a point to a line, the greater cuts

off the greater segment from the foot of the perpendicular.

For PB = PC, but PB cannot equal PA (§ 84). The segments OB
and OC are equal, for otherwise PB could not equal PC.
42 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XL Theorem
86. The perpendicular is the shortest line that can be
drawn to a given line from a given external point

Given a line XT, P an external point, PO the perpendicular, and

PZ any other line drawn from P to XT.
To prove that PO < PZ.
Proof. Produce PO to P\ making OP' = PO-, and draw P'Z.
Then PZ = P'Z. § 83
( Two lines drawn from a point in a _L to a given line, cutting off on the
given line equal segments from the foot of the J_, are equal.)

.\PZ + P'Z = 2 PZ. Ax. 1

Furthermore PO + P'O = 2 PO. Ax. 1
But PO + P'O <PZ + P'Z. Post. 3

.\2PO<2PZ. Ax. 9
.*. PO<PZ }
by Ax. 6. Q.e.d,

87. Hypotenuse. The side opposite the right angle in a right

triangle is called the hypotenuse.
The other two sides of a right triangle are usually called the sides.

88. Distance. The length of the straight line from one point
to another is called the distance between the points.
The length of the perpendicular from an external point to h
line is called the distance from the point to the line.
 TRIANGLES 43

Proposition XII. Theorem

89. Tivo right triangles are congruent if the hypote-
nuse and a side of the one are equal respectively to the
hypotenuse and a side of the other.

Given the right triangles ABC and i4 r 2?'C f , with the hypotenuse
AC equal to the hypotenuse A'C\ and with BC equal to B'C 1
.

To prove that A ABC is congruent to A A'B'C.

Proof. Place A ABC next to A A'B'C, so that BC shall fall
along B'C\ B shall fall on B\ and A and A' shall fall on opposite
sides of B'C Post. 5
Then C will fall on C",
(For BC is given equal to B'C'.)
and BA will fall along A'B' produced. §34
(For Z CBA + Z A'B'G'= a st. Z.)

Since AC = A'C,
.'.AB' = A'B'. 85
.*. A ABC is congruent to AA'B'C. 80
(Two & are congruent if the three sides of the one are equal respectively
to the three sides of the other.) Q. E. D.

90. Corollary. Two right triangles are congruent if any

two sides of the one are equal respectively to the corresponding
two sides of the other.
 44 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 9

1. ABCD is a square and M

is the mid-point of AB. With

M&s a center an arc is drawn, cutting BC at P and AD at Q,

Prove that A MBP is congruent to A MA Q, and p q
write the general statement of this theorem
without using letters as is done here.
This would read, "If an arc is drawn, with the mid-
point of one side of a square as a center, cutting the
sides perpendicular to that side, then the triangles cut off by," etc,

-—2. Draw a figure similar to that of Ex.1, but take a radius

such that the arc cuts BC

produced at a point above C, and
v AD above D. A
Then prove that MBP is congruent to A MA Q,
3. Prove that if from the point P the perpendiculars PM y

PN to the sides of an angle A OB are equal, the _

point P lies on the bisector of the angle AOB. N/\p
Write the general statement of this theorem
without using letters as is done here.
4. Prove that if the perpendiculars from the mid-point M of
the base AB of a triangle ABC to the sides of the
triangle are equal, then Z.A=Z.B. What then
follows as to the sides A C and BC ? Write the gen-
eral statement of this theorem without referring
to a special figure.

^5. Prove that if the perpendiculars from the extremities of

the base of a triangle to the other two sides are equal, the
triangle is isosceles.

6. Suppose OY _L OX. With as a center an arc is drawn

cutting OX at A and OY at B. Then with A
as a center an arc is drawn cutting OY at P,
and with B as a center and the same radius
an arc is drawn cutting OX at Q. Prove
that 0P = OQ.
"What triangles are congruent by Prop. XII ?
 TRIANGLES 45

Proposition XIII. Theorem

91. Two right triangles are congruent if the hypotenuse
and an adjacent angle of the one are equal respectively
to the hypotenuse and an adjacent angle of the other.

Given the right triangles ABC> A'B C\ with

!
the hypotenuse AC
equal to the hypotenuse A'C, and with angle A equal to angle A f
,

To prove that A ABC is congruent to AA'B'C.

Proof. Place A ABC upon A A 'B'C so that A shall fall upon
A' and AC shall fall along A'C. Post. 5
Then C will fall onC,
(For AC is given equal to A'C'.)

and AB will lie along A'B'.

(For ZA is given equal to Z A'.)
Then because C falls on C\
and AB and B' are rt. A, Given
(Since the & are given as rt. A.)

.'. CB will coincide with C'B'. §82

Only one perpendicular can be drawn to a given line from a
given external point.)

.*. A ABC is congruent to AA'B'C'. §66

(If two figures can be made to coincide in all their parts>
they are said to be congruent.) Q. E. D.
46 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETEY
Proposition XIV. Theorem
92. Two lines in the same plane perpendicular to the
same line cannot meet however far they are produced.
x
-B

Given the lines AB and CD perpendicular to XY at A and C

respectively.

To prove that AB and CD cannot meet however far they

are produced.

Proof. If AB and CD can meet if sufficiently produced, we

shall have two perpendicular lines from their point of meeting
to the same line.
But this is impossible. § 82
.*. AB and CD cannot meet. q.e.d.

93. Parallel Lines. Lines that lie in the same plane and
cannot meet however far produced are called parallel lines.

94. Postulate of Parallels. Through a given point only one

line can be drawn parallel to a given line.

As always in such cases the word line means straight line.

95. Corollary 1. Two lines in the same plane perpen-

dicular to the same line are parallel,

96. Corollary 2. Two lines in the same plane parallel to

a third line are parallel to each other.

For if they could meet, we should have two lines through a point
parallel to a line. Why is this impossible ?
 PARALLEL LINES 47

Proposition XV. Theorem

97. If a line is perpendicular to one of two parallel
lines, it is perpendicular to the other also.

X
o B
P

"n

Given AB and CD, two parallel lines, with XT perpendicular to

ilBand cutting CD at P.
To prove that XY is _L to CD.
Proof. Suppose MN drawn through P 1. to XY.
Then • MN to AB. is II §95
But CD is II to AB. Given
.*. CD and MN must coincide. §94
But AT is _L to MN. Hyp.
.'. XY is _L to CD. Q.E.D.

98. Transversal. A line that cuts two or more lines is called

a transversal of those lines.

99. Angles made by a Transversal.

If XY cuts AB and CD, the angles
a, d, g, f are called interior angles ;

by c, h, e are called exterior angles.

The angles d and /, and a and g,
are called alternate-interior angles ; q
the angles b and h, and c and e, are
called alternate-exterior angles.
The angles b and/, c and g, e and a, & and d are }
called exterior'
interior angles.
48 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XVI. . Theorem
100. If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, the
alternate-interior angles are equal.

Y
Given AB and CD, two parallel lines cut by the transversal XT
in the points P and Q respectively.
To prove that ZAPQ = ZZ>QP.
Proof. Through 0, the mid-point of PQ, suppose MN drawn
i_ to CD.
Then MN is likewise _L to AB. §97
{A line ± to one of two \\s is ± to the other.)

Now A PMO and QNO are rt. A. § 63

(Since A OMP and ONQ are rt. A.)

But Z POM =ZQON, § 60

(If two lines intersect, the vertical A are equal.)"

and OP = OQ. Hyp.

(For was taken as the mid-point of PQ.)

.*.A PMO is congruent to A QNO. § 91

( Two right & are congruent if the hypotenuse and an adjacent A of the one
are equal respectively to the hypotenuse and an adjacent Z of the other.)

.'.ZAPQ = ZDQP. §67"

(Corresponding parts of congruent figures are equal.) Q. E. D.
 PAKALLEL LINES 49

Proposition XVII. Theorem

101. When two lines in the same plane are cut by a
transversal, if the alternate-interior angles are equal,
the two lines are 'parallel.

Y
Given the lines AB and CD cut by the transversal XY in the
points P and Q respectively, so as to make the angles APQ and
DQP equal.
To prove that AB is II to CD.
Proof. Since we do not know that AB is II to CD, let us
suppose MN drawn through P II to CD.
We shall then prove that AB coincides with MN.
Now Z MPQ = Z DQP. § 100
{If two II lines are cut by a transversal, the alt.-int. A are equal.)

But Z APQ = Z DQP. Given

.'.ZAPQ = ZMPQ. Ax. 8
(Quantities that are equal to the same quantity are equal to each other.)

.'. AB and MN must coincide. § 23

(Def. of equal angles.)

But MN is II to CD. Hyp.

(For MNwas drawn II to CD.)

.'. AB, which coincides with MN, is II to CD. q.e.d.

This proposition is the converse of Prop. XVI, as denned in § 79.

50 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XVIII. Theorem
102. If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, the
exterior-interior angles are equal.

Y
Given AB and CD, two parallel lines, cut by the transversal XT
P and Q respectively.
in the points

To prove that Z BPX = ADQX.

Proof. Z BPX = ZAPQ. § 60
Z.APQ = Z.DQX. §100
.*. Z BPX = Z DQX, by Ax. 8. q.e.d.

103. Corollary 1. When two lines are cut by a transversal,

if the exterior-interior angles are equal, the lines are parallel.
The proofs of §§ 103 and 105 are similar to that of § 101.

104. Corollary 2. If two parallel lines are cut by a trans-

versal, the two interior angles on the same side of the trans-
versal are supplementary.

105. Corollary 3. When two lines are cut by a transversal,

if two interior angles on the same side of the transversal are

supplementary, the lines are parallel.

106. Corollary 4. If two parallel lines are cut by a trans-

versal, the alternate-exterior angles are equal.
 TRIANGLES 51

Proposition XIX. Theorem

107. The sum of the three angles of a triangle is equal
to two right angles.
c

A
Given the triangle ABC.

To prove that ZA + ZB+Z.C=2 rt. A.

Proof. Suppose BY drawn to AC, and produce AB

II to X
Then Z XB Y+ Z YBC + Z CBA = 2 rt. A. § 34
(For a st. Z equals 2 rt. A.)

But ZA=ZXBY, §102

and ZC = Z YBC. § 100
.'.Z.A+AB + AC = 2 xt.A, by Ax. 9. q.e.d.

108. Corollary 1. If two triangles have two angles of the

one equal to two angles of the other, the third angles are equal.

109. Corollary 2. In a triangle there can be but one right

angle or one obtuse angle.

110. Exterior Angle. The angle included by one side of a

figure and an adjacent side produced is called an exterior angle.
In the above figure Z XBC is an exterior angle, and AA and C are
called the opposite interior angles.

111. Corollary 3. An exterior angle of a triangle is equal

to the sum of the two opposite interior angles, and is therefore
greater than either of them.
52 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 10

1. Show that if we place a draftsman's

and draw A C, and
triangle against a ruler
move the triangle along as shown in the
figure and draw A'C, then A C is to A'C. II

2. In the next figure x = 60°. How many de-

grees in each of the other seven angles ?

3. In the next figure representing two pairs

of parallel lines certain angles are equal. State
these equalities in this form : a =c=g=e=
o = • • • , and give the reason in each case.

4. In the figure of Ex. 3 state ten pairs

of nonadjacent angles that are supplementary.
Thus + h = 180° and d + e = 180°.
: a
5. In the triangle ABC, AC =BC and DE is

drawn parallel to AB. Prove that CD = CE.

Write a general statement of the theorem.
-6. In the next figure AB is parallel to CD, and
Z.APQ is half of Z.QPB. How many degrees in
the various angles ? ^
"7. If Z YQD = 135°, how many degrees in the A
various angles ? a
Let Z DQP = x and Z YQD = y.
8. Then if

y— x— 100°, find the value of x and y.

^9. Let ZCQY=x and ZXPA=y. Then if x = J y, find
the value of x and y.

10. In the next figure x = 72° and x = § y. It is required to

know if the lines are parallel, and why.

11. In the figure of Ex. 10 suppose x = 73° and

y — x = 32°. It is required to know if the lines
are parallel, and why.
 TKIANGLES 53

The three angles of a triangle are x, y, and z. Find the

value of 2, given the values of x and y as follows :

12. x = 10°, y= 30°. 17. x = 37°, = 48°.y

13. x = 20°, y = 20°. 18. x = 63°, y = 29°.
14. x = 75°, y = 50°. 19. x =75° 29', y = 68° 41'„

15. x = 38°, y = 76°. 20. a;= 82° 33', y = 75° 48'.

16. x = 49°, y = 92°. 21. x = 69° 58', y = 82° 49'.

22. In a certain right triangle one angle is 37°. What is the

size of the other acute angle ?

23. In a certain right triangle one angle is 36° 41'. What is

the size of the other acute angle ?

24. In a certain right triangle one angle is 29° 48' 56"

What is the size of the other acute angle ?

25. In a certain right triangle one acute angle is two thirds

of the other. How many degrees are there in each ?

26. In a certain right triangle one acute angle is twice as

large as the other. How many degrees are there in each ?

27. In a certain right triangle the acute angles are 2x and

5 x. Find the value of x and the size of each angle.
28. In a certain triangle one angle is twice as large as
another and three times as large as the third. How many
degrees are there in each ?

29. In a certain isosceles triangle one angle is twice another

angle. How many degrees in each of the three angles ?

30. In this figure what single angle equals

a + c ?^ To the sum of what angles is q equal ?
fc

also r ?| From these relations find the number /a

Z5f "degrees in p+q+ r.

31. Prove Prop. XIX by first drawing a parallel to AB

through C, instead of drawing BY.
54 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XX. Theorem
112. The sum of any two sides of a triangle is greater
than the third side, and the difference between any two

sides is less than the third side.

A B
Given the triangle ABC, with AB the greatest side.

To prove that BC + CA >AB, and AB-BC<CA.

Proof. BC + CA >AB. Post. 3
(A straight line is tfye shortest path between two points.)

Since BC + CA>AB,
.\CA>AB — BC) Ax. 6
or, AB — BC<CA. Q.E.D.

EXERCISE 11

State in what cases it is possible to form triangles with rods

of the following lengths, and give the reason :

1. 2 in., 3 in., 4 in. 4. 7 in., 10 in., 20 in.

2. 3 in., 4 in., 7 in. 5. 8 in.,

9J in., 18 in.

3. 6 in., 7 in., 9 in. 6. 9| in.,

10J in., 12J in.

7. In this figure prove that AB+ BOAD+DC.

Why is DB+BODC?
What is the result of adding AD to these unequals ?

8. How many degrees are there in each

angle of an equiangular triangle ? Prove it.
 TRIANGLES 55

Proposition XXI. Theorem

113. If two sides of a triangle are unequal, the angles

opposite these sides are unequal, and the angle opposite

the greater side is the greater.

A B
Given the triangle ABC, with BC greater than CA.

To prove that Z BA OZB.

Proof. On CB suppose CA' taken equal to CA.
Draw AX. Post. 1

Then A AXC is isosceles. § 62

Then Z CXA = Z XA C. § 74
(In an isosceles A the A opposite the equal sides are equal.)

But Z CXA >ZB. § 111

(An exterior Z of a A is greater than either opposite interior Z.)

Also ZBAOZ XA C. Ax. 11

(For Z XA C is a part of ZBAC.)

Substituting in this inequality for Z.XAC its equal. Z CAM,

we have the inequality
Z.BAOZ.CXA. Ax. 9

Since Z BA C> Z CXA

and Z CAM > Z B,
.'. Z.BAOZB. Ax. 10
(If the first of three quantities is greater than the second, and the second i§
greater than the third, then the first is greater than the third.) Q.E. D,
56 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETKY
Proposition XXII. Theorem
114. If two angles of a triangle are unequal, the sides
opposite these angles are unequal, and the side opposite
the greater angle is the greater,

Given the triangle ABC, with the angle A greater than the angle B,

To prove that BOCA.

Proof. Now BC is either equal to CA, or less than CA, or
greater than CA.
But if BC were equal to CA,
then the ZA would be equal to the Z.B. §74
(For they would be A opposite equal sides.)

And if CA were greater than BC,

then the Z B would be greater than the Z.A. § 113
But if CA is not greater than BC, this is only another way
of saying that BC is not less than CA.
We have, therefore, two conclusions to be considered,

Z.A=Z.B,
and Z A< Z B.
Both these conclusions are contrary to the given fact that
the ZA is greater than the Z B.
Since BC cannot be equal to CA or less than CA without
violating the given condition, .'.BOCA. q.b.d.

This proposition is the converse of Prop. XXI.

 TRIANGLES 57

Proposition XXIII. Theorem

115. If two triangles have two sides of the one equal
respectively to two sides of the other, hut the included
angle of the first triangle greater than the included
angle of the second, then the third side of the first is

greater than the third side of the second.

cf

y y
Given the triangles ABC and XFZ, with CA equal to ZX and
BC equal to YZ y
but with the angle C greater than the angle Z.

To prove that AB >XY.

Proof. Place the A so that Z coincides with C and ZX falls
along CA. Then X on A, since ZX is given equal to CA,
falls

and Z Y falls within Z A CB, since Z C is given greater than Z Z.

Suppose CP drawn to bisect the Z YCB, and draw YP.

Then since CP = CP, Iden.
CY=CB, Given
d Z YCP = Z PCB ,
Hyp.
.' . APYC is congruent to APBC. §68
PY=PB.
.'. §67
Now AP + PY>AY. Post. 3
.\AP + PB>AY. Ax. 9
.'.AB>AY. Ax. 11
,\AB>XY, by Ax. 9. Q. B. D,
58 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XXIV. Theorem
If two triangles have two sides of the one equal
116.

respectively to two sides of the other, hut the third side

of the first triangle greater than the third side of the

second , then the angle opposite the third side of the first
is greater than the angle opposite the third side of
the second.

A B X Y
Given the triangles ABC and XYZ, with CA equal to ZX and BC
equal to YZ
y
but with AB greater than XY.

To prove that Z C is greater than the Z Z.

the

Proof. Now the Z C is either equal to the Z Z, or less than

the Z Z, or greater than the Z Z.

But if the Z C were equal to the Z Z,

then the A ABC would be congruent to the A XYZ, § 68
(For it would have two sides and the included Z of the one equal respectively
to two sides and the included A of the other.)
and AB would be equal to XY. § 67
And if the ZC were less than the Z Z,
then AB would be less than XY. § 115
Both these conclusions are contrary to the given fact that
AB is greater than XY,

r. ZOZ.Z. q.e.d.

This proposition is the converse of Prop. XXIII.

 QUADRILATERALS 59

117. Quadrilateral. A portion of a plane bounded by four

straight lines is called a quadrilateral.

118. Kinds of Quadrilaterals. A quadrilateral may be

a trapezoid, having two sides parallel
a. parallelogram, having the opposite sides parallel.

If the nonparallel sides are equal, a trapezoid is called isosceles.

A quadrilateral with no two sides parallel is called a trapezium.

Trapezoid Parallelogram Trapezium

119. Kinds of Parallelograms. A parallelogram may be

a rectangle, having its angles all right angles
a rhombus, having its sides all equal.

A parallelogram with all its angles oblique is called a rhomboid.

Rectangle Rhombus Rhomboid

120. Base. The side upon which a figure is supposed to

rest is called the base.
If a quadrilateral has a side parallel to the base, this is called the
upper base, the other being called the lower base.
In an isosceles triangle the vertex formed by the equal sides is taken
as the vertex of the triangle, and the side opposite this vertex is taken as
the base of the triangle.

121. Altitude. The perpendicular distance between the bases

of a parallelogram or trapezoid is called the altitude.
The perpendicular distance from the vertex of a triangle to
the base is called the altitude of the triangle.

122. Diagonal. The straight line joining two nonconsecutive

vertices of any figure is called a diagonal.
60 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XXV. Theorem
123. Two angles whose sides are parallel each to each
are either equal or supplementary.

Given the angle AOB and the lines WY and XZ parallel to the
sides and intersecting at P, the figure being lettered as shown.

To prove that Z.p = Z.O, and that /.p' is supplementary

to Z.O.

Proof. Let OA meet XZ at M. Then in the figure

Z.O = Z.m, and £p = £m. §102

{If two II lines are cut by a transversal, the ext.-int. A are equal.)

;.Ap = ^0. Ax. 8

Also Z.p f
is the supplement of A p. § 42
.'. £p* is supplementary to Z. 0, by § 58 q.e.d.

If the sides of two angles are parallel each to each, under what
circumstances are the angles equal, and under what circumstances are
they supplementary ?

Corollary. The opposite angles of a parallelogram

124.
are equal, and any two consecutive angles are supplementary.

Draw the figure and explain how it is known that any angle is the
supplement of its consecutive angle. If two opposite angles are supple-
ments of the same angle, show that § 58 applies.
 QUADRILATERALS 61

Proposition XXVI. Theorem

125. Tht opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal.

A
Given the parallelogram ABCD.
To prove that BC = AD, and AB == DC.
Proof. Draw the diagonal AC.
In the A. ABC and CD A,
AC = AC, Iden.

ZBAC = Z.DCA,
and Z ACB = Z CAD. § 100
.-. A ABC is congruent to A CDA. § 72
.\BC = AD and S
.45 = DC. by 67. § q.e.d.

126. Corollary 1. A diagonal divides a parallelogram into

two congruent triangles.
Upon what theorem does this depend ?

127. Corollary 2. Segments of parallel lines end off by

parallel lines are equal
How does this follow from the proposition ?

128. Corollary 3. Two parallel lines are everywhere equally

distant from each other.
If AB and CD are parallel, what can
be said of _£ dropped from any points in
AB to CD (§ 127) ? Hence what may G D~
be said of all points in AB with respect to their distance from CD °
62 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XXVII. Theorem
129. If of a quadrilateral are
the opposite sides equal,,

the figure is a parallelogram.

B
Given the quadrilateral ABCD, having BC equal to AD, and
AB equal to DC.

To prove that the quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram.

Proof. Draw the diagonal A C.

In the A ABC and CDA,
BC = AD, Given
AB = DC, Given
and AC = AC. Iden.
.*. A ABC is congruent to A CD A. § 80
(Two & are congruent if tUe three sides of the one are equal respectively
to the three sides of the other.)

.'.ZBAC = ZDCA,
and ZACB = ZCAD. §67
.-. AB is II to DC,
and BC is II to AD. § 101
(When two lines in the same plane are cut by a transversal, if the
alt. -int. A are equal, the two lines are II.)

.*. the quadrilateral ABCD is a O, by § 118. Q.e.d.

This proposition is the converse of Prop. XXVI.

 QUADRILATERALS \ 63

Proposition XXVIII. Theorem

If two sides of a quadrilateral are equal and
130.

parallel, then the other two sides are equal and par-
allel, and the figure is a parallelogram.

Given the quadrilateral ABCD> having AB equal and parallel

to DC.
To prove that the quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram.
Proof. Draw the diagonal A C.
In the A ABC and CDA,
AC = AC, Iden.
AB = DC, Given
and ABAC = ADC A. §100
(If two II lines are cut by a transversal, the alt.-int. A are equal.)

.'. A ABC is congruent to A CDA. § 68

(
Two A are congruent if two sides and the included Z of the one are
equal respectively to two sides and the included A of the other.)

= AD,
.'.BC
and ZACB = ZCAD. §67
.-.BC is II to AD. §101
(When two lines in the same plane are cut by a transversal, if the
alt.-int. A are equal, the two lines are II.)

But AB is II to DC. Given

.'. the quadrilateral ABCD is a £7, by § 118. q.e.d.
64 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XXIX. Theorem
131. The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each
other.
o

B
Given the parallelogram ABCD, with the diagonals AC and BD
intersecting at 0.

To prove that AO = OC,

and BO = OD.
Proof. If we can show that the A ABO is congruent to the
AC DO, or that the ABCO is congruent to the ADAO, the
proposition is evidently proved, since the corresponding sides
of the congruent triangles will be equal.
Now in the A ABO and CDO,
AB = CD, § 125
(The opposite sides of a E3 are equal.)

ABAO = ZDCO,
and Z OBA = Z ODC. § 100
(If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, the alternate-interior
angles are equal.)

.'.A ABO is congruent to A CDO. § 72

(Two & are congruent if two A and the included side of the one are
equal respectively to two A and the included side of the other.)

.'.AO = OC,
and BO = OD. § 67
(Corresponding parts of congruent A are equal.) Q. E. IX
 QUADRILATERALS 65

Proposition XXX. Theorem

132. Two
parallelograms are congruent if two sides
and the included angle of the one are equal respectively
to two sides and the included angle of the other.

A B A' B'

Given the parallelograms ABCD and A'B'C'D', with AB equal

to A'B', AD to A'D', and angle A to angle A'.

To prove that the UJ are congruent.

Proof. Place the O
ABC'D upon the A'B'C'D' so that AB O
shall fall upon and coincide with its equal, A'B'. Post. 5

Then AD will fall along A'D',

(For ZA given equal to Z A'.)
is

and D will fall on D'.

(For AD given equal to A'D".)
is

Now DC and D'C are both II to A 'B' and are drawn through D'.
.-.DC will fall along D'C. § 94
(
Through a given point only one line can be drawn II to a given line.)

Also BC and B'C are both II to A 'D' and are drawn through B'.
.'. BC will fall along B'C. § 04
.'. C will fall on C. § 55
.'. the two UJ coincide and are congruent, by § 66. *.e.».

133. Corollary. Two rectangles having equal bases and

equal altitudes are congruent
How is this shown to be a special case under the above proposition ?
What sides are equal, and what included angles are equal ?
66 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XXXI. Theorem
If three or more parallels intercept equal seg-
134.

ments on one transversal, they intercept equal segments

on every transversal.

Given the parallels AB, CD, EF, GH, intercepting equal segments
BD, DF, FH on the transversal BH, and intercepting the segments
AC, CE, EG on another transversal.

To prove that AC=CE = EG.

Proof. Suppose AP, CQ, and ER drawn II to BH.

A APC, CQE, ERG = A BDC, DFE, FHG respectively. § 102

But A BDC, DFE, FHG are equal. § 102
A APC, CQE, ERG are equal.
.'. Ax. 8
AP, CQ, ER are parallel. § 96
Also A CAP, ECQ, GER are equal. § 102
Now AP = BD, CQ = DF, ER = FH. § 127
(Segments of parallels cut off by parallels are equal.)

But BD = DF= FH. Given

.'.AP=CQ = ER. Ax. 8
.*. A CPA, EQC, and GRE are congruent. § 72
.\AC = CE = EG, by § 67. Q.e.d.
 QUADEILATERALS 6T

135. Corollary 1. If a line is parallel to one side of a tri-

angle and bisects another side, it bisects the third side also.

Let BE be II to BC and bisect AB. Suppose a line is drawn through

A II to BC. Then how do we know this line to
be II to BE ? Since it is given that the three
lis intercept equal segments on the transversal
AB, what can we say of the intercepted seg-
ments on AC ? What can we then say that BE
does to AC?
Write the proof of this corollary in full.

136. Corollary 2. The line which joins the mid-points

of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side, and is

equal to half the third side.

A line BE drawn
through the mid-point of AB, to BC, divides II AC
inwhat way (§ 135) ? Therefore the line joining the mid-points of AB
and AC coincides with this parallel and is to II

BC. Also since EF drawn to AB bisects AC, II

how does it divide BC ? What does this prove

as to the relation of BF, FC, and BC ? Since
BFEB is a O (§ 118), what do we know as to
the^ equality of BE, BF, and \BC ?
Write the proof of this corollary in full.

137. Corollary 3. The line joining the mid-points of the

nonparallel sides of a trapezoid is parallel to the bases and

is equal to half the sum of the bases.

Draw the diagonal BB. In the A ABB

join E, the mid-point of AB, to F, the mid-
point of BB. Then, by § 136, what relations ^\
exist between EF and AB ? In the A BBC
join F to G, the mid-point of BC. Then what
relations exist between FG and BC ? Since
this relation exists, what relation exists between AB and FG ? But only
one line can be drawn through F to AB (§ 94). Therefore FG is the
II

prolongation of EF. Hence EFG is parallel to AB and CB, and equal

to ±(AB + BC).
Write the proo£ of this corollary in full.

V
^
68 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
138. Polygon. A portion of a plane bounded by a broken
line is called a polygon.

The terms sides, perimeter, angles, vertices, and diagonals are employed
in the usual sense in connection with polygons in general.

139. Polygons classified as to Sides. A polygon is

a triangle, if it has three sides
a quadrilateral, if it has four sides
a pentagon, if it has five sides
a hexagon, if it has six sides.
These names are sufficient for most cases. The next few names in
order are heptagon, octagon, nonagon, decagon, undecagon, dodecagon.

A polygon is equilateral, if all of its sides are equal.

140. Polygons classified as to Angles. A polygon is

equiangular, if all of its angles are equal

convex, if each of its angles is less than a straight angle
concave, if it has an angle greater than a straight angle.

Equilateral Equiangular Hexagon Convex Concave

An angle of a polygon greater than a straight angle is called a reentrant

angle. When the term polygon is used, a convex polygon is understood.

141. Regular Polygon. A polygon that is both equiangular

and equilateral is called a regular polygon.

142. Relation of Two Polygons. Two polygons are

mutually equiangular, if the angles of the one are equal to
the angles of the other respectively, taken in the same order
mutually equilateral, if the sides of the one are equal to the
sides of the other respectively, taken in the same order
congruent, if mutually equiangular and mutually equilateral,
since they then can be made to coincide.
 POLYGONS 69

Proposition XXXII. Theorem

143. The sum of the interior angles of a polygon is
equal to two right angles, taken as many times less two
as the Jig ure has sides.

Given the polygon ABCDEF, having n sides.

To prove that the sum of the interior A = (n — 2) 2 rt. A.

Proof. From A draw the diagonals AC, AD, AE.

The sum of the A of the A is equal to the sum of the A of
the polygon. Ax. 11
Xow there are (n — 2) A.
(For there is one A for each side except the tvjo sides adjacent to A.)

The sum of the A of each A=2 rt. A. § 107

.*. the sum of the A of the (n — 2) A, that is, the sum of the
A of the polygon, is equal to (n — 2) 2 rt. A, by Ax. 3. q.e.d.

144. Corollary 1. The sum of the angles of a quadrilateral

equals four right angles; and if the angles are all equal, each
is a right angle.

145. Corollary 2. Each angle of a regular polygon of n

2(7i—2)
sides is equal to — — right angles.
70 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 12 J
1. W,hat is the sunx^of the angles of (a) a pentagon ? (b) a
^
hexagon )h (c) a heptagon ? (d) an octagon ? (e) a decagon g }
(/) a dodecagon\?i/(<7) a polygon of 24 sides ?
2. What is the size of each angle of (a) a regular pentagon ?
(b) a regular hexagon ? (c) a regular octagon ? (d) a regular
decagon ? (e) a regular polygon of 32 sides ?

3. How many sides has a regular polygon, each angle of

which is If right angles ?

4. How many sides has a regular polygon, each angle of

which is If right angles ?
5. How many sides has a regular polygon, each angle of
which is 108°?
6. How many sides has a regular polygon, each angle of
which is 140°?
7. How many sides has a regular polygon, each angle of
which is 156°?
Four of the angles of a pentagon are
8. 120°, 80°, 90°, and
100° respectively. Find the fifth angle.

9. Five of the angles of a hexagon are 100°, 120°, 130°, 150°,

and 90° respectively. Find the sixth angle.

10. The angles of a quadrilateral are x, 2x, 2x, and Sx.

How many degrees are there in each ?

11. The angles of a quadrilateral are so related that the sec-

ond is twice the first, the third three times the first, and the
fourth four times the first. How many degrees in each ?

12. The angles of a hexagon are x, 2^x, 3£#, 2 x, 2x, and x.

How many degrees are there in each ?

13. The sum of two angles of a triangle is 100° and their

difference is 40°. How many degrees are there in each of the
three angles of the triangle ?
 POLYGONS 71

Proposition XXXIII. Theorem

The sum of the exterior angles of a polygon,
146.

made by producing each of its sides in succession, is

equal to four right angles.

Given the polygon ABCDE, having its n sides produced in

succession.

To prove that the sum of the exterior A = 4:rt. A.

Proof. Denote the interior A of the polygon by a, b, c, d, e f

and the corresponding exterior A by a', b\ c\ d\ e'.

Then, considering each pair of adjacent angles,

A a + A a'— a st. A,
and Ab + Ab'= a st. A. §43
(
The two adjacent A which one straight line makes with another are
together equal to a straight Z.)

In like manner, each pair of adj. A=a st. A.

But the polygon has n sides and n angles.
Therefore the sum of the interior and exterior A is equal
to n A, or 2 n rt. A.
st. Ax. 3
But the sum of the interior A = (n — 2) 2 A rt. § 143

= 2nvtA-4: rt. A.
.*. the sum of the exterior z§ == 4 rt. A by Ax. 2
y
q.e.d,
72 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 13

1. An exterior angle of a triangle is 130° and one of the

opposite interior angles is 52°. Find the number of degrees in

each angle of the triangle.
2. Two consecutive angles of a rectangle are bisected by
lines meeting at P. How many degrees in the angle P?
3. Two angles of an equilateral triangle are bisected by lines
meeting at P. How many degrees in the angle P?
4. The two base angles of an isosceles triangle are bisected
by lines meeting at P. The vertical angle of the triangle is 30°.
How many degrees in the angle P?
5. The vertical angle of an isosceles triangle is 40°. This
and one of the base angles are bisected by lines meeting at P.
How many degrees in the angle P?
6. One exterior angle of a parallelogram is one eighth of the
sum of the four exterior angles. How many degrees in each
angle of the parallelogram ?

7. How many degrees in each exterior angle of a regular

hexagon ? of a regular octagon ?

8. In a right triangle one acute angle is twice the other.

How many degrees in each exterior angle of the triangle ?

9. Make out a table showing the number of degrees in each

interior angle and each exterior angle of regular polygons of
three, four, five, • • • , ten sides.

10. If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, the

figure is a parallelogram. R
11. In this parallelogram ABCD, AP =
CR, and BQ = DS. Prove that PQRS is s
/_
A * D
also a parallelogram.

12. If the mid-points of the sides of a parallelogram are

connected in order, the resulting figure is also a parallelogram.
 LOCI OF POINTS 73

147. Locus. The path of a point that moves in accordance

with certain given geometric conditions is called the locus of
the point.
Thus, considering only figures in a plane, a
x u y
.

B
point at a given distance from a given line of y- '-
y
indefinite length is evidently in one of two lines
parallel to the given line and at the given distance from it. Thus, if AB
is the given line and d the given distance, the locus is evidently the
pair of parallel lines XY and X'Y\ ^
The locus of a point in a plane at a given distance r / \
from a given point O is evidently the circle described about j r \

O as a center with a radius r. 1 O }

The plural of locus (a Latin word meaning "place") is xx /

loci (pronounced lo-si).

We may think of the locus as the place of all points that satisfy cer-
tain given geometric conditions, and speak of the locus of points. Both
expressions, locus of a point and locus of points, are used in mathematics.

EXERCISE 14

State without proof the following loci in a plane :

1. The locus of a point 2 in. from a fixed point 0.

2. The locus of the tip of the minute hand of a watch.

3. The locus of the center of the hub of a carriage wheel
moving straight ahead on a level road.
%. The locus of a point 1 in. from each of two parallel lines
that are 2 in. apart.

5. The locus of a point on this page and 1 in. from the edge.
6. The locus of the point of a round lead pencil as it rolls
along a desk.
7. The locus of the tips of a pair of shears as they open,
provided the fulcrum (bolt or screw) remains always fixed in
one position.
8. The locus of the center of a circle that rolls around another
circle, always just touching it.
 :

74 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY

148. Proof of a Locus. To prove that a certain line or group
of lines is the locus of a point that fulfills a given condition, it

is necessary and sufficient to prove two things

1. That any point in the supposed locus satisfies the condition.

2. That any point outside the supposed locus does not satisfy
the given condition.

For example, if we wish to find the locus of

a point equidistant from these intersecting lines
A B, CD, it is not sufficient to prove that any
point on the angle-bisector PQ is equidistant from
AB and CD, because this may be only part of the locus. It is necessary
to prove that no point outside of PQ satisfiesIn fact, in
the condition.
this case there is another line in the locus, the bisector of the Z. BOD,
as will be shown in § 152.

149. Perpendicular Bisector. A line that bisects a given line

and is perpendicular to it is called the perpendicular bisector of
the line.

EXERCISE 15

Draw the following loci, giving no proofs :

1. The locus of a point J in. below the base of a given

triangle ABC.
2. The locus of a point -J-
in. from a given line AB.
3. The locus of a point 1 in. from a given point 0.

4. The locus of a point J in. outside the circle described

about a given point with a radius lj in.

5. The
locus of a point J in. within the circle described
about a given point with a radius l£ in.

6. The locus of a point \ in. from the circle described about

a given point with a radius \\ in.

7. The locus of a point \ in. from each of two given, parallel

lines that are 1 in. apart.
 LOCI OF POINTS 75

Proposition XXXIV. Theorem

150. The locus of a point equidistant from the extrem-
ities of a given line is the perpendicular bisector of
that line. ^

\
\
3l
Given YO, the perpendicular bisector of the line AB.

To prove that YO is the locus of a point equidistant from

A and B.
Proof. Let P be any point in YO, and C any point not in YO.

Draw the lines PA, PB, CA, and CB.

Since AO = BO, Given
and OP = OP, Iden.
.*. rt. A A OP is congruent to rt. A BOP. § 90
.'.PA=PB. §67
Let CA cut the _L at D, and draw DB.
Then, as above, DA = DB.
But CB<CD + DB. Post. 3
.*. CB<CD + DA. Ax. 9
.\CB<CA. Ax. 11
.*. YO is the required locus, by § 148. q.e.d.

151. Corollary. Two points each equidistant from the

extremities of a line determine the perpendicular bisector of

the line.
76 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XXXV. Theorem
152. The locus of a point equidistant from two given
intersecting lines is a pair of lines bisecting the angles

formed by those lines.

Given XX 1
and YY' intersecting at 0, AC the bisector of angle
X'OY, and BD the bisector of angle YOX.

To prove that thepair of lines AC and BD is the locus of

a point equidistant from XX' and YY\
Proof. Let P be any point on A C or BD, and Q any point not on
AC or BD. Let PM and QR be _L to XX', PN and QS to YY'.
Since Z MOP = A PON, Given
and OP = OP, Iden.
.'. rt. A OMP is congruent to rt. A ONP. § 91
.'.PM=PN §67
Let QS cut AO at P'. Draw P'T _L to XX', and draw QT.
Then, as above, PT= P'S.
But P'T + P'Q>QT, Post. 3

and QT>QR. §86

,'.P'T + P'Q>QR. Ax. 10
Substituting, P'S + P'Q > QR, or QS > QR. Ax. 9
the pair of lines is the required locus, by § 148. q.b.d
 METHODS OF PROOF 77

153. The Synthetic Method of Proof. The method of proof in

which known truths are put together in order to obtain a new
truth is called the synthetic method.
This is the most of the theorems already given. The
method used in
proposition usually suggestssome known propositions already proved,
and from these we proceed to the proof required. The exercises on this
page and on pages 78 and 79 may be proved by the synthetic method.

154. Concurrent Lines. If two or more lines pass through the

same point, they are called concurrent lines.

155. Median. A line from any vertex of a triangle to the

mid-point of the opposite side is called a median of the triangle.

EXERCISE 16

1. two triangles have two sides of the one equal respec-

If
tively totwo sides of the other, and the angles opposite two equal
sides equal, the angles opposite the other two equal sides are
equal or supplementary, and if equal the triangles are congruent.
Let AC = A'C, BC = B'C, and ZB = Z B'.
Place AA'B'C on A ABC so that B'C shall coincide with BC, and
Z A' and Z A shall be on the same side of BC.

Since ZB'= ZB, B'A' will fall along what line ? Then A' will fall at
A some other point in BA, as D. If A' falls at A, what do we know
or at
about the congruency of the &A'B'C and ABC ?
If A' falls at £>, what about the congruency of the & A'B'C and BBC ?
Since CD = C'A' = CA, what about the relation of ZA to Z CDA ?
Then what about the relation of the A CDA and BDC ?
Then what about the relation of the A A and BDC ?
Draw figures and show that the triangles are congruent

1. If the B and B' are both right or both obtuse.

given angles
2. If the angles A and A' are both acute, both right, or both obtuse.
3. If AC and A'C axe not less than BC and B'C respectively.
78 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
2. The bisectors of the angles of a triangle are concurrent in

a point equidistant from the sides of the triangle.

The two angles, as AD and BE, intersect
bisectors of as at 0,
Why? Now show that O is equidistant from AC and
AB, also from BC and AB, and hence from AC and
BC. Therefore, where does lie with respect to the

bisector CF?
This point is called the incenter of the triangle.

3. The perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle are

concurrent in a point equidistant from the vertices.
The _L two sides, as QQ? and RR',
bisectors of intersect as at 0.
Why ? Now show that is equidistant from B

and C, also from C and A, and hence from A

and B. Therefore, where does lie with respect

to the ± bisector PP' ?

This point is called the circumcenter of the
triangle.

4. The perpendiculars from the vertices of a triangle to the

opposite sides are concurrent.
Let theJs be AQ, BR, and CP. Through A, B, C suppose B'C, C'A\

and A 'B'
drawn to CB, AC, and BA respec-
II

tively. Now show that C'A = BC = AB'. In the

same way, what are the mid-points of C'A' and
A'B' ? How does this prove that A Q, BR, and CP
are the _L bisectors of the sides of the A A'B'C ?
Proceed as in Ex. 3.
This point O is called the orthocenter of the triangle.

5. The medians of a triangle are concurrent in a point two

thirds of the distance from each vertex to the middle of the
opposite side.
Two medians, as A Q and CP, meet as at O. Y is the mid-point of A 0,
If
and X of CO, show that YX and PQ are AC and
II to
equal to £ AC. Then show that AY=YO=OQ, and
CX = XO = OP. Hence any median cuts off on any
other median what part of the distance from the ver-
tex to the mid-point of the opposite side ?
This point is called the centroid of the triangle. A
 METHODS OF PKOOF 79

6. The bisectors of two vertical angles are in b

the same straight line.
C —
— o/s^
~^Pj
7. The bisector of one of two vertical angles N s^/
bisects the other. d
/8: The bisectors of two supplementary adjacent angles are
perpendicular to each other.
9. The bisectors of the two pairs of vertical angles formed

by two intersecting lines are perpendicular to each other.

10. If the bisectors of two adjacent angles are -Y ,b

perpendicular to each other, the adjacent angles \^^M

are supplementary. °

11. If an angle is bisected, and if a line is drawn B M ^

through the vertex perpendicular to the bisector,
this line forms equal angles with the sides of the
given angle.
12. The bisector of the vertical angle of an isosceles triangle
bisects the base and is perpendicular to the base.
13. The perpendicular bisector of the base of an isosceles
triangle passes through the vertex and bisects the %
angle at the vertex.
14. If the perpendicular bisector of the base of
a triangle passes through the vertex, the triangle
is isosceles.

15. Any point in the bisector of the vertical angle of an isos-

celes triangle is equidistant from the extremities of the base,

16. If two isosceles triangles are on the same base, a line

passing through their vertices is perpendicular to the base.
and bisects the base.

17. Two angles whose sides are perpendicular each to each

are either equal or supplementary.

Under what circumstances are the angles equal, and under what
Circumstances are they supplementary ?
 a

80 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY

156. The Analytic Method of Proof. The method of proof that
asserts that a proposition under consideration is true if another
proposition is true, and so on, step by step, until a known
truth is reached, is called the analytic method.
This is the method resorted to when we do not see how to start the
ordinary synthetic proof. The exercises on this page and on pages 81
and 82 may be investigated by the analytic method.

EXERCISE 17

1. The mid-point of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is

equidistant from the three vertices.

GivenM the mid-point of AC, the hypotenuse of the A ABC. rt.

To provethat M equidistant from A, B, and C.

is

We may reason thus M equidistant from A, B, and C AM=BM.

: is if

Why is this the case ?

AM- BM if the _L MN cuts A ABM into two
congruent A.
A ANM is congruent to A BNM if AN = NB.
But AN does equal NB (§ 135), because MN
is II to CB, and AM = MC.
Therefore the proposition is true.
We may now, our proof, begin with this last step and work
in writing
backwards, as in the synthetic proofs already considered.

2. If one acute angle of a right triangle is double the other,

the hypotenuse is double the shorter side.

Given ZA
= Z a, and ZC = Z2a, to prove that AC is double BC
Let M
be the mid-point of AC. Then AC is double BC if AM=BC.
Why ? Now if we draw MN to CB, what can II

be said of the relation of AN and NB ? Why?

Then what may be said of &ANM and BNM?
Why ? Then what may be said of A and BM ? M
of Z a and Z q ? Therefore the proposition is
true if BM=BC. But BM= BC if Z 2a = Zr,
or if Z 2 a = Z a + Z q, or if Za — Zq. But Z Zq because we have
proved that AM — BM.
Now reverse this reasoning and write the proof in the usual synthetic
form.
 METHODS OF PROOF 81

3. A median of a triangle is less than half the sum of the

two adjacent sides.
Given CM a median of the A ABC.
To prove that CM <i(BC + CA)
Now CM<i(BC + CA),
if 2CM<BC + CA.
This suggests producing CM by its owi length to P,
and drawing AP.
Then CP = 2 CM,
and 2CM<BC+ CA CP<BC + CA. if

But CP<AP + CA. Post. 3

CP<£C + (M if BC = ^LP,
.-.

and BC = APiiA MBC is congruent to Alf^lP. §67

But A MB C is congruent to A MAP, §68
for MB = MA, Given
CM=MP, Hyp.
and /.BMC = Z AMP. §60
.-. CP<BC + CA.
.-. CJf<i(J3C + (M).

4. The line which bisects two sides of a triangle is parallel

to the third side. a
Given AD equal to BB, and AE equal to EC.
To prove that BE is II to BC.
Suppose a line drawn from C II to BA, and suppose DE
produced to meet it at G.
BE is to BC if BCGB is a O.
II § 118
BCGB is a O if CG = BB. § 130
CG = BB\i each is equal to AB. Ax. 8
Now BB = AB, Given
and CG = AB if A CGE is congruent to A ABE. § 67

But A CGE is congruent to A J.D^, § 72

for #C = AE, Given

^ C#G = Z AEB, § 60
and ZGCE = ZA. §100
82 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETKY
5. Two isosceles triangles are congruent if a side and an
angle of the one are equal respectively to the corresponding
side and angle of the other.
The A are congruent if what three corresponding parts are equal ?

6. The
bisector of an exterior angle of an isosceles tri-

angle, formed by producing one of the equal

sides through the vertex, is parallel to the base.
AE is II to BC if what angles are equal ? These angles
are equal if Z CAD is twice what angle in the A?
7. If one of the equal sides of an isosceles triangle is pro-
duced through the vertex by its own length, the line joining
the end of the side produced to the nearer end of
the base is perpendicular to the base.
Z DBA Z if it equals the sum of what A of A ABD ? c
is a rt. /
It equals this sum if Z p equals what angle and Z q equals
what other angle ?

8. If the equal sides of an isosceles triangle are produced

through the vertex so that the external segments are equal,
the extremities of these segments are equidistant from the
extremities of the base respectively.

9. If the line drawn from the vertex of a triangle to the

mid-point of the base is equal to half the base, the angle at
the vertex is a right angle.
10. If
angle a line
through any point in the bisector of an
is drawn parallel to either side of
„/
/^^^P
^
the angle, the triangle thus formed is isosceles, o A
11. Through any point C in the line AB an intersecting line
is drawn, and from any two points in this line equidistant from
C perpendiculars are drawn to AB or AB produced. Prove that
these perpendiculars are equal.
12. The lines joining the mid-points of the sides
of a triangle divide the triangle into four congruent
triangles.
 METHODS OF PKOOF 83

157. The Indirect Method of Proof. The method of proof that

assumes the proposition false and then shows that this assump-
tion is absurd is called the indirect method or the reductio ad
absurdum.
This method forms a kind of last resort in the proof of a proposition,
after the synthetic and analytic methods have failed.

EXERCISE 18

1. Given ABC and ABD, two triangles on the same base AB,

and on the same side of it, the vertex of each triangle being
outside the other triangle. Prove that if A C equals
AD, then BC cannot equal BD.
Assume that BC = BD and show that the result is absurd,
since it would make D fallon C, which is contrary to the
given conditions.

On the sides of the angle XOY two equal segments OA

2.

and OB are taken. On AB a triangle A PB is constructed with

AP greater than BP. Prove that OP cannot
bisect the angle XOY.
P
Assume that OP does bisect ZXOY. What is
the result ? Is this result possible ? ^
3.From M, the mid-point of a line AB, MC is drawn oblique
to AB. Prove that CA cannot equal CB. c
Assume that CA does equal CB. What is the
result ? Is this result possible ?

4. If perpendiculars are drawn to the sides

A M
of an acute angle from a point within the angle, they cannot
inclose a right angle or an acute angle.
Assume that they inclose a right angle and show that this leads to an
absurdity. Similarly for an acute angle.

5. One of the equal angles of an isosceles triangle is five

ninths of a right angle. Prove that the angle at the vertex

cannot be a right angle.
Assume that it is a right angle. Is the result possible ?
 :

84 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY

158. General Suggestions for proving Theorems. The following
general suggestions will often be helpful

1. Draw the figures as accurately as possible.

This is especially helpful at first. A proof is often rendered difficult
simply because the figure is carelessly drawn. If one line is to be laid off
equal to another, or if one angle is to be made equal to another, do this
by the help of the compasses or by measuring with a ruler.

2. Draw as general figures as possible.

you wish to prove a proposition about a triangle, take a scalene tri-
If
angle. If an equilateral triangle, for example, is taken, it may lead to
believing something true for every kind of a triangle, when, in fact, it
is true for only that particular kind.

3. After drawing the figure state very clearly exactly what

is given and exactly what is to be proved.

Many of the difficulties of geometry come from failing to keep in mind

exactly what is given and exactly what is to be proved.

4. Then proceed
synthetically with the proof if you see how
to begin. If you do not see how to begin, try the analytic method,
stating clearly that you could prove this if you could prove that,
and so on until you reach a known proposition.
5. If two lines are to be proved equal, try to prove them corre-
sponding sides of congruent triangles or sides of an isosceles
,

triangle, or opposite sides of a parallelogram, or segments between

parallels that cut equal segments from another transversal.

6. If two angles are to be proved equal, try to prove them

alternate-interior or exterior-interior angles of parallel lines, or
corresponding angles of congruent triangles, or base angles of
an isosceles triangle, or opposite angles of a parallelogram.
7. If one angle is to be proved greater than another, it is prob-
ably an exterior angle of a triangle, or an angle opposite the
greater side of a triangle.

8. If one line is to be proved greater than another, it is prob

ably opposite the greater angle of a triangle.
 :

EXERCISES 85

EXERCISE 19

Prove the following propositions referring to equal lines

1. If the sides AB and AD of a quad-

rilateral ABCD are equal, and if the di-
agonal AC bisects the angle at A, then
BC is equal to DC.
A B
2. A line is drawn terminated by two parallel lines. Through
itsmid-point any line is drawn terminated by the parallels.
Prove that the second line is bisected by the first. %

Dv C
3.. In a parallelogram ABCD the line BQ / -^^^ ^^j
bisects AD, and DP bisects BC. Prove that ^A^^^^^
BQ and DP trisect A C.
A.
L^_^Jb
4. On the base AB any
of a triangle ABC c
point P is taken. The lines AP, PB, BC, and z/^\r
C-4 are bisected by W, X, Y, and Z respec- si K
tively. Prove that XY is equal to WZ. A w p x b

5. In an isosceles triangle the medians drawn to the equal

sides are equal.

6. In the square ABCD, CD is bisected by Q, and P and R

are taken on AB so that AP equals BR. Prove that PQ
equals RQ. c

7. In this figure AC = £C, and AP = BQ =

CR = CS. Prove that Q# = PS. /-p- g 1?

8. Prom the vertex and the mid-points of the equal sides of

an isosceles triangle lines are drawn perpendicular to the base.
Prove that they divide the base into four equal parts.

9. In the quadrilateral ABCD it isknown D Q p Q

that AB is parallel to DC, and that angle C
equals angle D. On CD two points are taken
such that CP=DQ. Prove that AP = BQ.
86 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 20

Prove the following propositions referring to equal angles :

1. In this figure it is given that A C = BC,

and that BQ and AR bisect the angles YBC

and CAX respectively. Prove that AAPB
is isosceles.

2. If through the vertices of an isosceles

triangle lines are drawn parallel to the oppo-
site sides, they form an isosceles triangle.

3. If the vertical angles of two isosceles triangles coincide,

the bases either coincide or are parallel.
n
4. In which direction must the side of a
triangle be produced so as to intersect the
bisector of the opposite exterior angle ?
Consider the cases, ZA<ZC, ZA = ZC, ZA>ZC. *
5. The bisectors of the equal angles of an isosceles triangle
form, together with the base, an isosceles triangle.

6. The bisectors of the base angles of an equilateral triangle

form an angle equal to the exterior angle at the
vertex of the triangle.

7. If the bisector of an exterior angle of a

triangle is parallel to the opposite side, the tri-
angle is isosceles.

8. A line drawn parallel to the base of an isosceles triangle

makes equal angles with the sides or the sides produced.

9. A line drawn at right angles to AB, the base of an
isosceles triangle ABC, cuts AC at P and BC produced at Q.
Prove that PCQ is an isosceles triangle. b
p
10. In this figure, if AB = CD, and Z A = Z C, \ /
then BD is parallel to AC. \ £
 EXERCISES 87

EXERCISE 21

Prove, the following propositions by showing that two tri-

angles ire congruent

1. A perpendicular to the bisector of an angle forms with

the sides an isosceles triangle.

2. If two lines bisect each other at right angles, any point in

either is equidistant from the extremities of the other.

3. From B a perpendicular is drawn to the bisector of the

angle A of the triangle ABC, meeting it at X
}
and meeting AC
or AC produced at Y. Prove that BX = XY.
4. any point equally distant from two parallel
If through
lines two drawn cutting the parallels, they intercept
lines are
equal segments on these parallels.

5. If from the point where the bisector of an

angle of a triangle meets the opposite side, >r
^. .

drawn to the other two sides, and

parallels are
A
y^y^
terminated by the sides, these parallels are equal.

6 The diagonals of a square are perpendicular to each other

and bisect the angles of the square.

7. If from a vertex of a square there are drawn line-seg-

ments to the mid-points of the two sides not adjacent to the

vertex, these line-segments are equal.

8. If either diagonal of a parallelogram bisects one of the

angles, the sides of the parallelogram are
all equal.

9. On ABC equi-
the sides of any triangle
lateral triangles ARB are con-
BPC, CQA,
structed. Prove that AP = BQ = CR.
How can we prove that A ABP congruent tois

A RBC ? Also that A ARC is congruent to A ABQ ?

Does this prove the proposition ?
 88 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 22
Prove the following propositions relating to the sum of the
angles of a polygon :

1. An exterior angle of an acute triangle or of a right

triangle cannot be acute.

2- If the sum of two angles of a triangle equals the third

angle, the triangle is a right triangle.
3. If the line joining any vertex of a triangle to the mid-
point of the opposite side divides the triangle into two isos-
celes triangles, the original triangle is a right triangle.

4. If the vertical angles of two isosceles triangles are sup-

plements one of the other, the base angles of the one are
complements of those of the other.

5. Erom the extremities of the base AB of &

triangle ABC perpendiculars to the other two sides
are drawn, meeting at P. Prove that the angle P is ^4. J>b
the supplement of the angle C. p
6. If two sides of a quadrilateral are parallel, and the other
two sides are equal but not parallel, the sums of the two pairs
. of opposite angles are equal.
x 7. The bisectors of two consecutive angles of a parallelogram
are perpendicular to each other.
8. The exterior angles at B and C of any
triangle ABC are bisected by lines meeting
at P. Prove that the angle at P together
with half the angle A equals a right angle.

9. The opposite angles of the quadrilateral formed by

the bisectors of the interior angles of any quadrilateral are
supplemental.

10. Show that Ex. 9 is true, if the bisectors of the exterior

angles are taken.
 EXERCISES 89

EXERCISE 23

Prove the following propositions referring to greater lines or

greater angles

1. In the triangle ABC the angle A is bisected by a line

meeting BC at D. Prove that BA is greater than BD, and CA
greater than CD.

2. In the quadrilateral ABCD it is known that AD is the

longest side and BC the shortest side. Prove that the angle B
is greater than the angle D, and the angle C greater p
than the angle A.
3. A line is drawn from the vertex A of a square

ABCD so as to cut CD and to meet BC produced

in P. Prove that A P is greater than DB.

4. If the angle between two adjacent sides of a parallelo-

gram is increased, the length of the sides remaining unchanged,
the diagonal from the vertex of this angle is diminished.

5. Within a triangle ABC a point P is taken

such that CP = CB. Prove that AB is always
greater than A P.
6. In a quadrilateral ABCD it is known that AD equals BC
and that the angle C is less than the angle D. Prove that the
diagonal AC is greater than the diagonal BD.
7. In the quadrilateral ABCD it is known that AD equals
BC and that the angle D is greater than the angle C. Prove
that the angle B is greater than the angle A. c

8. In the triangle ABC the side AB is greater ®/

than A C. On AB and A C respectively BP is taken

equal to CQ. Prove that B Q is greater than CP.
p
G
9. The sum of the distances of any point from
the three vertices of a triangle is greater than
half the sum of the sides.
90 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 24

Prove the following miscellaneous exercises :

1. The line joining the mid-points of the nonparallel sides

of a trapezoid passes through the mid-points of D c
the two diagonals.
How isEF related to AB and DC ? Why ?
Since EF bisects BC and AD, how does divide AC it

and BD? Why?

2. The lines joining the mid-points of the
consecutive sides of any quadrilateral form
a parallelogram.
How are PQ and SR related to AC ?
3. If the diagonals of a trapezoid are equal, the trapezoid is
isosceles. c jy

Draw CE and DF A. to AB.

How is A ABF related to A BCE ? Why ?
Then how is Z FAD related to Z CBA ?
Then how is A ABC related to A BAD ? Why ?
4. If from the diagonal DB, of a square ABCD, BE is cut off
equal to ^C, and EF is drawn perpendicular to
F C
BD, meeting DC at F, then Di? is equal to EF and
also to FC.
How many degrees in A EDF and DZtf ? How is DE
related to EF? Why? ^ "•»

Then how is rt. A BEF related to rt. ABCF? Why ?

5. hexagon are equal and parallel,
If the opposite sides of a
the diagonals that join opposite vertices meet in a point.

6. If perpendiculars are drawn from the four

vertices of a parallelogram to any line outside the
parallelogram, the sum of the perpendiculars from
one pair of opposite vertices equals the sum of
those from the other pair.
How are x + y and w+ z related to k ?
 EXERCISES 91

EXERCISE 25
Examination Questions
1. The sum of the four sides of any quadrilateral is greater
than the sum of the diagonals, ,-i—
2. The lines joining the mid-points of the sides of a square,
taken in order, form a square.-f-

3. In a quadrilateral the angle between the bisectors of two

consecutive angles is one half the sum of the other two angles, -j—

(ij If the opposite sides of a hexagon are equal, does it follow

that they are parallel ? Give reasons for your answer.

(§. In a triangle ABC the side BC is bisected at P and AB

is bisected at Q. AP is produced to R so that AP = PR, and
CQ is produced to S so that CQ = QS. Prove that 5, B, and R
are in a straight line.

6. If the diagonals of a parallelogram are equal, all of the

angles of the parallelogram are equal. -J-

7. In the triangle ABC, Z A = 60° and Z B > Z C. Which

is the longest and which is the shortest side of the triangle ?
Prove it.

8. How many sides has a polygon each of whose interior

angles is equal to 175° ?

Given the quadrilateral ABCD, with AB equal to AD,

9.

and BC equal to CD. Prove that the diagonal AC bisects the

angle DCB and is perpendicular to the diagonal BD.

10. In how many ways can two congruent triangles be put

together to form a parallelogram ? Draw the diagrams.

11. The sides of a polygon of an odd number of sides are

produced to meet, thus forming a star-shaped figure. What is

the sum of the angles at the points of the star?
The propositions in Exercise 25 are taken from recent college entrance
examination papers.
92 BOOK I. PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 26
Review Questions
1. Define and illustrate rectilinear and curvilinear figures.
2. Upon what does the size of an angle depend ?

3. What is meant by the bisector of a magnitude ? Illus*

trate when the magnitude is a line ; an angle.
4. Define perpendicular and state three facts relating to a
perpendicular to a line.

5. Name and define the parts of a triangle and such special

lines connected with a triangle as you have thus far studied.
6. Classify angles.

7. Classify triangles as to angles ; as to sides.

8. Define and illustrate complementary, supplementary, and

conjugate angles.
9. What are the two classes of assumptions in geometry ?

Give the list of each.

10. State all of the conditions of congruency of two triangles.

11. What is meant by the converse of a proposition ?

12. Are two triangles always congruent if three parts of the

one are respectively equal to three parts of the other ?

13. State three tests for determining whether one line is

parallel to another.

14. State the proposition relating to the sum of the angles of

a triangle, and state a proposition that can be proved by its use.

15. State a proposition relating to two unequal angles of a

triangle ; to two unequal sides of a triangle.

16. Must a triangle be equiangular if equilateral ? Must a

triangle be equilateral if equiangular ?

17. Classify polygons as to sides ; as to angles.

18. Define locus and give three illustrations.

 BOOK II

THE CIRCLE
159. Circle. A closed curve lying in a plane, and such that
all of its points are equally distant from a fixed point in the
plane, is called a circle.

160. Circle as a Locus. It follows that the locus of a point in

a plane at a given distance from a fixed point is a circle.

161. Radius. A straight line from the center to the circle is

called a radius.

162. Equal Radii. It follows that all radii of the same circle
or of equal circles are equal, and that all circles of equal radii
are equal.

163. Diameter. A straight line through the center, termi-

nated at each end by the circle, is called a diameter.
Since a diameter equals two radii, it follows that all diameters of the
same circle or of equal circles are equal.

164. Arc. Any portion of a circle is called an arc.

An arc that is half of a circle is called a semicircle.
An arc less than a semicircle is and an arc greater
called a minor arc,
than a semicircle is called a major arc. The word arc taken alone is gen-
erally understood to mean a minor arc.

165. Central Angle. If the vertex of an angle is at the center

of a circle and the sides are radii of the circle, the angle is

called a central angle.

An angle is said to intercept any arc cut off by its sides, and
the arc is said to subtend the angle.
94 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition I. Theorem
166. In the same circle or in equal circles equal cen-
tral angles intercept equal arcs ; and of two unequal
central angles the greater intercepts the greater arc.

Given two equal circles with centers and 0', with angles A OB
and A'O'B' equal, and with angle AOC greater than angle A'0*B'\

To prove that 1. arc AB = arc A B' f

2. arc AC> arc A'B\

Proof. 1. Place the circle with center O on the circle with
center 0' so that Z. AOB shall coincide with its equal, Z.A'0'B'.
In the case of the same circle, swing one angle about O until
it coincides with its equal angle. Post. 5

Then A falls on A', and B on B'. § 162

(Radii of equal circles are equal.)

.*. arc AB coincides with arc A'B'. § 159

(Every point of each is equally distant from the center.)

Proof. 2. Since Z.AOC is greater than Z.A'0'B', Given

and ZAOB = ZA '0'B\ Given
therefore A AOC is greater than A AOB. Ax. 9
Therefore OC lies outside A AOB.
.'. arc ^4 C> arc ^45. Ax. 11
But arc AB = arc A 'B r
.

.'. arc A C> arc A 'B', by Ax. 9. Q. b. d.

 CENTRAL ANGLES 95

Proposition II. Theorem

167. In the same circle or in equal circles equal arcs
subtend equal central angles ; and of two unequal arcs
the greater subtends the greater central angle.
Given two equal circles with centers and ', with arcs AB and
A'B f
equal, and with arc AC greater than arc A'B'.

To prove that 1. ZAOB = Z A'O'B';

2. Z.AOOZ A'O'B'.
Proof. 1. Using the figure of Prop. I, place the circle with
center on the circle with center 0' so that OA shall fall on
its equal O'A', and the arc AB on its equal A'B'. Post. 5

Then OB coincides with O'B'. Post. 1

.\ZAOB = Z A'O'B'. §23
Proof. 2. Since arc ^4C>arc A'B', it is greater than arc AB,
the equal of arc A'B', and OB lies within the Z.AOC. Ax. 9
.'./.AOO/-AOB. Ax. 11
.'.ZAOOZ.A'0'B', by Ax. 9. Q.E.D.

This proposition is the converse of Prop. I.

168. Law of Converse Theorems. Of four magnitudes, a, b, x, y,

if
(1) a > b when x>y,
(2) a = b when x = y,
and (3) a < b when x<y,
then the converses of these three statements are always true.
For when o > b it is impossible that x = y, for then a would equal b
by (2) or that x < y, for then a would be less than b by (3). Hence x > y
;

when a > b. In the same way, x = y when a = 6, and x < y when a < b.
169. Chord. A straight line that has its extremi-
ties on a circle is called a chord.

A chord is said to subtend the arcs that it cuts from a

circle. Unless the contrary is stated, the chord is taken
as subtending the minor arc.
96 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition III. Theorem
170. In the same
or in equal circles, if two
circle

arcs are equal, they are subtended by equal chords;

and if two arcs are unequal, the greater is subtended
by the greater chord.

Given two equal circles with centers and 0', with arcs AB and
AW equal, and with arc AF greater than arc A'B 1
.

To prove that 1. chord AB = chord A'B'

2. chord AF> chord A'B'.
Proof. 1. Draw the radii OA, OB, OF, O'A', O'B'.
Since OA = O'A', and OB = O'B', § 162
and Z A OB = Z A 'O'B', § 167
(In equal (D equal arcs subtend equal central A.)

.'. A OAB is congruent to A O'A'B', § 68

and chord A B = chord A 'B'. § 67

Proof. 2. In the A OAF and O'A'B',

OA = O'A', and OF = O'B', § 162

but Z A OF is greater than Z 4 'O'B'. § 167
(in egimZ <D, o/ iioo unequal arcs the greater subtends the greater central Z. )

.*. chord AF> chord A'B', by § 115. q.e.d.

171. Corollary. In the same circle or in equal circles, the

greater of two unequal major arcs is subtended by the less chord.

 ARCS AND CHORDS 97

Proposition IV. Theorem

172. In the same circle or in equal circles, if tivo

chords are equal, they subtend equal arcs ; and if two

chords are unequal, the greater subtends the greater arc.

Given two equal circles with centers O and 0', with chords AB
and A !?
1 1
equal, and with chord AF greater than chord A'B'.

arc AB = arc A B ;
f f
To prove that 1.

2. arc AF> arc A'B'.

Proof. 1. Draw the radii OA, OB, OF, O'A', O'B'.

Since = O'A', and OB = O'B',

OA §162
and chord AB = chord A 'B ', Given
.-. A OAB is congruent to A O'A'B', §80
and ZAOB = Z.A'0'B'. §67
arc AB — arc A
.
* . 'B'. §166

Proof. 2. In the A 0.4 F and O'A'B',

OA = 0'A', and OF = O'B', §162

but chord A F > chord A 'B'. Given
.'.Z.AOF>Z.A'0'B'. §116
.*. nvc AF> arc A'B', by § 166. Q.E.D.

This proposition is the converse of Prop. III.

173. Corollary. In the same circle or in equal circles the

greater of two unequal chords subtends the less major arc.
98 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition V. Theorem
174. A line through the center of a circle perpendicular
to a chord bisects the chord and the arcs subtended by it.

Given the line PQ through the center of the circle AQBP,

perpendicular to the chord AB at M.
To prove that AM= BM, arc AQ = arc BQ, and arcAP =
arc BP.
Proof. Draw the radii OA and OB.

Then since OM=OM, Iden.

and OA = OB, § 162
A A MO is congruent to A BMO.
.*. rt. rt. § 89
AM=BM, and ZAOQ = ZQOB.
.\ §67
Likewise Z POA = Z BOP. | 58
. arc A Q
*
. = arc BQ, and arc A P = arc BP, by § 166. Q. e. d.

175. Corollary 1. A diameter bisects the circle.

176. Corollary 2. A line through the center that bisects

a chord, not a diameter, is perpendicular to the chord.

177. Corollary 3. The perpendicular bisector of a chord

passes through the center of the circle and bisects the arcs
subtended by the chord.
How many bisectors of the chord are possible ? How many _L bisec-

tors ? Therefore with what line must this coincide (§ 174) ?

 ARCS AND CHORDS 99

Proposition VI. Theorem

178. In the same circle or in equal circles equal chords
are equidistant from the center , and chords equidistant
from the center are equal.

Given AB and CD, equal chords of the circle ACDB.

To prove that AB and CD are equidistant from the center 0.
Proof. Draw OP _L to AB, and OQ _L to CD.
Draw the radii OA and OC.
OP bisects AB, and OQ bisects CD. § 174
Then since AP = CQ, Ax. 4
and / OA = OC, § 162
.*. rt. A OPA is congruent to rt. A OQC. § 89
.'.OP = OQ. §67
.*. AB and CD are equidistant from 0, by § 88. q.e.d.

Given OP and OQ, equal perpendiculars from the center O to the

chords AB and CD.
To prove that AB = CD.
Proof. Since OA = OC, § 162
and OP=OQ, Given
.\ rt. A OPA is congruent to rt. A OQC. § 89
.'.AP=CQ. §67
.'. AB = CD, by Ax. 3. q.b.d,
tOO BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition VII. Theorem
179. In the same circle or in equal circles, if two
chords are unequal, they are unequally distant from
the center, and the greater chord is at the less distance.

Given a circle with center 0, two unequal chords AB and CD,

AB being the greater, and OP perpendicular to AB, and OQ per-
pendicular to CD.

To prove that OP <0Q.

Proof. Suppose AE drawn equal to CD, and OR _L to AE.
Draw PR.
OP bisects AB, and OR bisects AE. § 174
(A line through the center of a circle _L to a chord bisects the chord.)

ButAB>CD. Given
.*. AB >AE the equal of CD.
y
Ax. 9
AP>AR.
.'. Ax. 6
.'.ZARP>ZRPA. § 113
(If two sides of a A are unequal, the A opposite these sides are unequal,
and the Z opposite the greater side is the greater.)

.'. /.PRO, the complement of ZARP, is less than ZOPR,

the complement of Z.RPA. §59
.'.OP<OR. §114
But OR=OQ. §178
.'. OP<OQ, by Ax. 9. Q.e.d.
 AKCS AKD CHORDS 101

Proposition VIII. Theorem

180. In the same circle or in equal circles, if two
chords are unequally distant from the center, they are
unequal, and the chord at the less distance is the greater.

Given a circle with center 0, two chords AB and CD unequally

distant from 0, and OP, the perpendicular to AB, less than OQ,
the perpendicular to CD.

To prove that AB > CD.

Proof. Suppose AE drawn equal to CD, and OR _L to AE.
Now OP<OQ, Given
and OR =OQ. §178
.'.OP<OR. Ax. 9
Drawing PR, Z.PRO<Z. OPR. § 113
.\ Z ARP, the complement of Z PRO, is greater than Z RPA,
the complement of Z OPR. § 59

AP>AR.
.*. §114
But AP = \AB, and AR = \AE. §174,
AB>AE.
.'. Ax. 6
But CD = AE. Hyp.
AB>CD, by Ax. 9.
.*. Q.e.d.

This proposition is the converse of Prop. VII.

181. Corollary. A diameter of a circle is greater than

any> other chord.
102 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETRY
182. Secant. A straight line that intersects a circle is called
a secant. In this figure AD is a secant.
Since only two equal obliques can be drawn
to a line from an external point (§ 86), and
since the two equal angles which radii make
(§ 74)with any secant where it cuts the circle
cannot be right angles (§ 109), they must be
oblique and hence it follows that a secant can
;

intersect the circle in only two points.

183. Tangent. A straight line of unlimited length that has

one point, and only one, in common with a circle is called a
tangent to the circle.

In this case the circle is said to be tangent to the line. Thus in the
figure, BC is tangent to the circle, and the circle is tangent to BC.
The common point is called the point of contact or point of tangency.
By the tangent from an external point to a circle is meant the line-
segment from the external point to the point of contact.

EXERCISE 27
1. A radius that bisects an arc bisects its sub-
tending chord and is perpendicular to it.

2. On a circle the point P is equidistant from

two radii OA and OB. Prove that P bisects the
arc AB.
3. In this circle the chords AM and MB are
equal. Prove that M bisects the arc AB and that
the radius OM bisects the chord AB.
4. On a circle are five points, A, B, C, D, E, so
placed that AB, BC, CD, DE are equal chords.
Prove that AC, BD, CE are equal chords, and
that AD and BE are also equal chords.

5. If two chords intersect and make equal angles

with the diameter through their point of intersec-
tion, these chords are equal.
 #

SECANTS AND TANGENTS 103

Proposition IX. Theorem

184. A line perpendicular to a radius at its extrem-
ity on the circle is tangent to the circle.

a p
Given a circle, with XY perpendicular to the radius OP at P.

To prove that XY is tangent to the circle.

Proof. From draw any other line to XY, as OA.

Then OA > OP. § 86

.*. the point A is outside the circle. § 160
Hence every point, except P, of the line XY is outside the
circle.

Therefore XY is tangent to the circle at P, by § 183. q.e.d.

185. Corollary 1. A tangent to a circle is perpendicidar

to the radius drawn to the point of contact.
For OP is the shortest line from O to XY, and is therefore ± to XY;
that is, XY is _L to OP.

186. Corollary 2. A perpendicular to a tangent at the

point of contact passes through the center of the circle.

For a radius is _L to a tangent at the point of contact, and therefore a

_L erected at the point of contact coincides with this radius and passes
through the center of the circle.

187. Corollary 3. A perpendicidar from the center of a

circle to a tangent passes through the point of contact.
What does § 86 say about this perpendicular ?
104 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETRY
188. Concentric Circles. Two circles that have the same center
are said to be concentric.

EXERCISE 28
1. The shortest chord that can be drawn through a given
point within a circle is that which is perpendicular
to the diameter through the point.
Show that any other chord, CD, through P, is nearer
than is AB.
2. CD
The diameter bisects the arc AB. Prove
that Z.CBA=ZBAC.
What kind of a triangle is A ABC ?
3. Tangents at the extremities of a diameter
are parallel.

4. The arc AB is greater than the arc BC. OP

and OQ are perpendiculars from the center to AB
and BC respectively. Prove that Z QPO is greater a
than Z OQP.
5. What is the locus of the center of a circle tangent to the
line XY at the point P? Prove it.

What two conditions must be shown to be fulfilled ?

6. What is the locus of the mid-points of a number of par-

allel chords of a circle ? Prove it.

7. Three equal chords, AB, BC, CD, are placed /^T^^

end to end, and the radii OA, OB, OC, OD are D)
drawn. Prove that Z A OC = Z BOD.
8. All equal chords of a circle are tangent to a
concentric circle.

9. If a number of equal chords are drawn in

this eircle, the figure gives the impression of a
second circle inside the first and concentric with
it. Explain the reason.
 SECANTS AND TANGENTS 105

Proposition X. Theorem
189. Two parallel lines intercept equal arcs on a circle,

m ,F

Fig. 2

Case 1. When the parallels are a tangent and a secant (Fig. 1).
Given AB, a tangent at P, parallel to CD, a secant.

To prove that arcCP = arc DP.

Proof. Suppose PP' drawn _L to AB at P.

Then PP' is a diameter of the circle. § 186

And PP' is also _L to CD. § 97
.
' . arc CP = arc DP. § 174

Case 2. When the parallels are both secants (Fig. 2).

Given AB and CD, parallel secants.

To prove that arc AC = arc BD.

Proof. Suppose EF to CD and tangent to the circle at M.
II

Then arc AM = arc BM, and arc CJIf = arc DM. Case 1
arc AC = arc BD.
.". Ax. 2

Case 3. When the parallels are both tangents (Fig. 3).

Given AB, a tangent at E, parallel to CD, a tangent at F.

To prove that arc FGE = arc FHE.

Proof. Suppose a secant GH drawn II to AF.
Then arc GE = arc HE, and arc FG = arc FH. Case 1
. arc FGE = arc FHE, by Ax. 1.
*
. 0- b. ix
 106 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETBY
Proposition XI. Theorem
190. TJirough three points not in a straight line one
circle, and only one, can he drawn.

Given A, B, C, three points not in a straight line.

To prove that one circle, and only one, can be drawn through
A, B, and C.

Proof. Draw AB and BC.

At the mid-points of AB
and BC suppose Js erected.
These some point 0, since AB and BC are
Js will intersect at

neither parallel nor in the same straight line.

The point is in the perpendicular bisector of AB, and is

therefore equidistant from A and B; the point is also in

the perpendicular bisector of BC, and is therefore equidistant

from B and C. § 150

Therefore is equidistant from A, B, and C.

Therefore a circle described about as a center, with a

'
radius OA, will pass through the three given points. § 160
The center of any circle that passes through the three points
must be in both of these perpendicular bisectors, and hence at
their intersection. As two straight lines can intersect in only
one point (§ 55), is the only point that can be the center of

a circle through the three given points. Q. e. d.

191 . Corollary. Two circles can intersect in only two points.

two circles have three points in common, can
If it be shown that they
coincide and form one circle ?
 SECANTS AXD TAXGEXTS 107

Proposition XII. Theorem

192. The tangents to a circle drawn from an external
point are equal, and make equal angles with the line
joining the point to the center.

Given PA and PB, tangents from P to the circle whose center is

0, and PO the line joining P to the center 0.

To prove that PA = PB, and ZAPO=Z OPB.
Proof. Draw OA and OB.
PA is _L to OA, and PB is _L to OB. § 185
(A tangent to a circle is J. to the radius drawn to the point of contact.)

In the rt. A PA and PBO,

PO = PO, Iden.

and OA = OB. § 162

.*. rt. APAO is congruent to rt. A PBO. § 89
.'. PA = PB, and Z APO = Z OPB, by § 67. q.b.d.

193. Line of Centers. The line determined by the centers of

two circles is called the line of centers.
194. Tangent Circles. Two circles that are both tangent to the
same line at the same point are called tangent circles.
Circles are said to be tangent internally or externally, according as they
lieon the same side of the tangent line or on opposite sides. E.g. the
two circles shown in the figure on page 110 are tangent externally.
The point of contact with the line is called the point of contact or point
of tangency of the circles.
108 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 29
1. Show
that the reasoning of § 190 will not hold for four
points,and hence that a circle cannot always „ b
be drawn through four points.

2. Tangents to a circle at A, B, C, points

on the circle,meet in P and Q, as here shown.
Prove that AP + QC = PQ.
3. If a quadrilateral has each side tangent to
a circle, the sum of one pair of opposite sides
equals the sum of the other pair.
In this figure, SP + QR = PQ + RS.

4. The hexagon here shown has each side

tangent to the circle. Prove that A B + CD -j- EF
= BC + DE + FA.
5. In this figure CF is a diameter perpen-
dicular to the parallel chords DB and EA, and
arc AB = 40° and arc BC = 50°. How many de-
grees are there in arcs CD, DE, EF, and FA ?

6. In this figure XFis tangent to the circle

at B y
the chord CA is perpendicular to the
diameter BD, and the arc CD = 150°. How
many degrees are there in arc AB ?
7. If a quadrilateral has each side tangent to
a circle, the sum of the angles at the center
subtended by any two opposite sides is equal to a straight angle.

8. AP and CQ are parallel tangents meeting a

third tangent QP, as shown in the figure. O be-
ing the center, prove that the angle POQ is a
right angle.
Are A, O, and C in the same straight line ? Draw OA
and OC, and find the relations of the A at O to those at P and Q.
 :

LINE OF CENTERS 109

Proposition XIII. Theorem

195. If two circles intersect, the line of centers is the

perpendicular bisector of their common chord.

Given and 0', the centers of two intersecting circles, AB the

common chord, and 00' the line of centers.

To prove that 00' is _L to AB at its mid-point

Proof. Draw OA, OB, O'A, and O'B.

OA = OB, and O'A = O'B. § 162

.'. and 0' are two points, each equidistant from A and B.
.'. 00' is the perpendicular bisector of AB, by § 151. q.e.d.

196. Common Tangents. A tangent to two circles is called a

common external tangent if it does not cut the line-segment
joining the centers, and a common internal tangent if it cuts it.

EXERCISE 30
Describe the relative position of two circles if the line-segment
joining the centers is related to the radii as stated in Exs. 1-5,
and illustrate each case by a figure

1. The line-segment greater than the sum of the radii.

2. The line-segment equal to the sum of the radii.

3. The line-segment less than the sum but greater than the
difference of the radii.

4. The line-segment equal to the difference of the radii.

5. The line-segment less than the difference of the radii.

 :

110 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETRY

Proposition XIV. Theorem
197. If two circles are tangent to each other, the line
of centers passes through the point of contact.

B
Given two circles tangent at P.

To prove that P is in the line of centers.

Proof. Let AB be the common tangent at P. § 194
Then a _L to AB, drawn through the point P, passes through
the centers and 0'. § 186

(A ±to a tangent at the point of contact passes through the center

of the circle.)

Therefore the line determined by and O', having two points

in common with this _L, must coincide with it. Post. 1
.*. P is in the line of centers. q.e.d.

EXERCISE 31
Describe the relative position of two circles having tangents
as stated in Exs. IS, and illustrate each case by a figure

1. Two common external and two common internal tangents.

2. Two common external tangents and one common internal

tangent.

3. Two common external tangents and no common internal

tangent.

4. One common external and no common internal tangent.

5. No common tangent.
 TANGENTS 111

6. The line which passes through the mid-points of two

parallel chords passes through the center of the circle.
two circles are tangent externally, the tangents to them
7. If
from any point of the common internal tangent are equal.
8. If two circles tangent externally are tangent to a line
AB at A and B, their common internal tangent bisects AB.
9. The line drawn from the center of a circle to the point
of intersection of two tangents is the perpendicular bisector of
the chord joining the points of contact.

The diameters of two circles are respectively 2.74

10. in. and
3.48 in. Find the distance between the centers of the circles
if they are tangent externally. Find the distance between the
centers of the circles if they are tangent internally.

11. Three circles of diameters 4.8 in., 3.6 in., and 4.2 in. are

externally tangent, each to the other two. Find the perimeter

of the triangle formed by joining the centers.

12. A circle of center and radius r' rolls around a fixed

circle of radius r. What is the locus of ? Prove it.
13. The line drawn from the mid-point of a chord to the
mid-point of its subtended arc is perpendicular to the chord.

14. If two circles tangent externally at P are tangent ^to a

line AB at A and B, the angle BPA is a right angle.

15. Three circles are tangent externally at the points A, B,

and C, and the chords AB and AC are produced to cut the

circle BC &t D and E. Prove that BE is a diameter.

16. If two radii of a circle, at right angles to each other,

when produced are cut by a tangent to the circle at A and B,

the other tangents from A and B are parallel to each other.

17. two common external tangents or two common

If inter-

nal tangents aredrawn to two circles, the line-segments inter-

cepted between the points of contact are equal.

112 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETRY
198. Measure. The number of times a quantity of any kind
contains a known unit of the same kind, expressed in terms of
that known unit, is called the measure of the quantity.
Thus we measure the length of a schoolroom by finding the number of
times it contains a known unit called the foot. We measure the area of
the floor by finding the number of times it contains a known unit called
the square foot. You measure your weight by finding the number of
times it contains a known unit called the pound. Thus the measure of
the length of a room may be 30 ft., the measure of the area of the floor
may be 600 sq. ft., and so on.
The abstract number found in measuring a quantity is called
its numerical measure, or usually simply its measure.

199. Ratio. The quotient of the numerical measures of two

quantities, expressed in terms of a common unit, is called the
ratio of the quantities.
Thus, if a room is 20 ft. by 35 ft., the ratio of the width to the length
is 20 ft. -^ 35 ft., or §§, which reduces to %. Here the common unit is 1 ft.

The ratio of a to 6 is written -, or a 6, as in arithmetic : and algebra.

6
Thus the ratio of 20° to 30° is §§, or §, or 2 3. :

200. Commensurable Magnitudes. Two quantities of the same

kind that can both be expressed in integers in terms of a com-
mon unit are said to be commensurable magnitudes.
Thus 20 ft. and 35 ft. are expressed in integers (20 and 35) in terms
of a common unit (1 ft.); similarly 2 ft. and 3| ft., the integers being
4 and 7, and the common unit being \ ft.

The common unit used in measuring two or more commensurable

magnitudes is called their common measure. Each of the magnitudes is
called a multiple of this common measure.

201. Incommensurable Magnitudes. Two quantities of the

same kind that cannot both be expressed in integers in terms
of a common unit are said to be incommensurable magnitudes.
Thus, if a = V2 and 6 = 3, there js no number that is contained an
integral number of times in both V2 and 3. Hence a and b are, in this
case, incommensurable magnitudes.
 MEASUREMENT 113

202. Incommensurable Ratio. The ratio of two incommensur-

able magnitudes is called an incommensurable ratio.
Although the exact value of such a ratio cannot be expressed
by an integer, a common fraction, or a decimal fraction of a
limited number of places, it may be expressed approximately,

Thus suppose - = V2.

b
Now V2 = 1.41421356 •••, which is greater than 1.414213
but less than 1.414214. Then if a millionth part of b is taken
as the unit of measure, the value of a : b lies between 1.414213
and 1.414214, and therefore differs from either by less than
0.000001.
By carrying the decimal further an approximate value may
be found that will differ from the ratio by less than a billionth,

a trillionth, or any other assigned value.

That is, for practical purposes all ratios are commensurable.

For example, if - > — but < , then the error in taking either of
b n n

these values for r is less than -, the difference of these ratios. But by
b , n
increasing n indefinitely, - can be decreased indefinitely, and a value of

the ratio can be found within any required degree of accuracy.

EXERCISE 32

Find a common measure of:

1. 32 in., 24 in. 3. 5} in.,
3J in. 5.
6J da., 2} da.

2. 48 ft., 18 ft. 4. 2§ lb., lj lb. 6. 14.4 in., 1.2 in

Find the greatest common measure of:

7. 64 yd., 24 yd. 9. 7.5 in., 1.25 in. 11. 2| ft., 0.25 ft.

8. 51 ft., 17 ft. 10. SI in.,

0.33J in. 12. 75°, 7° 30'.

13. If a : b = "v3, find an approximate value of this ratio that

shall differ from the true value by less than 0.001.
114 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETRY
203. Constant and Variable. A quantity regarded as having
a fixed value throughout a given discussionis called a constant,

but a quantity regarded as having different successive values

is called a variable.

204. Limit. When a variable approaches a constant in such

a way that the difference between the two may become and
remain less than any assigned positive quantity, however
small, the constant is called the limit of the variable.
Variables can sometimes reach their limits and sometimes not. E.g. a
chord may increase in length up to a certain limit, the diameter, and
it can reach this limit and still be a chord it may decrease, approaching
;

the limit 0, but it cannot reach this limit and still be a chord.

205. Inscribed and Circumscribed Polygons. If the sides of a

polygon are all chords of a circle, the polygon is said to be
inscribed in the circle ; if the sides are all tangents to a circle,

the polygon is said to be circum-

scribed about the circle.

The
circle is said to be circum-
about the inscribed polygon,
scribed
and to be inscribed in the circum-
Circumscribed
scribed polygon. Polygon

206. Circle as a Limit. If we inscribe a square in a circle,

and then inscribe an octagon by taking the mid-points of the
four equal arcs for the new vertices, the octa-
gon is greater than the square but smaller than
the area inclosed by the circle, and the perim-
eter of the octagon is greater than the perim-
eter of the square (§ 112).
By continually doubling the number of sides
in this way it appears that the area inclosed by the circle is the
limit of the area of the polygon, and the circle is the limit of

its perimeter, as the number of sides is indefinitely increased.

Hence we have limiting forms as well as limiting values, the form of
the circle being the limit approached by the form of the inscribed polygon.
 LIMITS 115

207. Principle of Limits. If, while approaching their respec-

tive limits, tivo variables are always equal, their limits are equal.
Let AX and BY increase in
length in such a way that they
always remain equal, and let

their respective limits be AL

and BM. -\M

To prove that AL = BM.

Suppose these limits are not equal, but that AZ = BM.
Then since X may reach a point between Z and L we may
have AX>AZ, and therefore greater than its supposed equal,
BM ; but B Y cannot be greater than BM. Therefore we should
have AX>BY, which is contrary to what is given.
Hence AL cannot be greater than BM, and similarly BM
cannot be greater than AL. .'. AL = BM. q.e.d.

208. Area of Circle. The area inclosed by a circle is called

the area of the circle.

It is evident that a diameter bisects the area of a circle.

209. Segment. A portion of a plane bounded by an arc of a

circle and its chord is called a segment
of the circle.
If the chord is a diameter, the segment is

called a semicircle, this word being commonly

used to mean not only half of the circle but also
the area inclosed by a semicircle and a diameter.

210. Sector. A portion of a plane

bounded by two radii and the arc of the circle intercepted by
the radii is called a sector.
If the arc is a quarter of the circle, the sector is called a quadrant.

211. Inscribed Angle. An angle whose vertex is on a circle,

and whose sides are chords, is called an inscribed angle.

An angle is said to be inscribed in a segment if its vertex is on the arc
of the segment and its sides pass through the ends of the arc.
116 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XV. Theorem
212. In the same circle or in equal circles two central
angles have the same ratio as their intercepted arcs.

in

Given two equal circles with centers and 0\ AOB and A O B f f f

being central angles, and AB and A'B' the intercepted arcs.

Z.A'0'B' arc A'B'

To prove that
Z.AOB arc AB

Case 1. When the arcs are commensurable (Figs. 1 and 2).

Proof. Let the arc m be a common measure of A'B' and AB.
Apply the arc m as a measure to the arcs A'B' and AB as
many times as they will contain it.

Suppose m is contained a times in A'B\ and b times in AB.

arcA 'B' a
Then
&vcAB b

At the several points of division on AB and A'B' draw radii.

These radii will divide Z.AOB into b parts, and Z.A'0'B f

into a parts, equal each to each. § 167

. ZA'O'B' a
'''
Z.AOB ~~b

ZA'O'B' arc A'B'

~ » by Ax. 8. Q.b.,i>.
Z-AOB arc ,45

Case 2 may be omitted at the discretion of the teacher if the incom-

mensurable cases are not to be taken in the course.
 MEASURE OF ANGLES 117

Case 2. When the arcs are incommensurable (Figs. 2 and 3).

Proof. Divide AB into a number of equal parts, and apply

one of these parts to A'B' as many times as A'B' will contain it.
Since AB and A'B' are incommensurable, a certain number
of these parts will extend from A' to some point, as P, leaving
a remainder PB' less than one of these parts. Draw O'P.

By construction AB and A'P are commensurable.

A A' O'P arc A'P
Case 1
A A OB sltcAB

By increasing the number of equal parts into which AB is

divided we can diminish the length of each, and therefore can

make PB' less than any assigned positive value, however small,
Hence PB' approaches zero as a limit as the number of parts
of AB is indefinitely increased, and at the same time the
corresponding angle PO'B' approaches zero as a limit. § 204
Therefore the arc A 'P approaches the arc A 'B' as a limit, and
the AA'O'P approaches the AA'O'B' as a limit.

-
.*. *i. wi
•

the variable
arc,4'P
arc -42*
— approaches are^g
1
——
v.

arc.4.S
..
as a limit,

A A' O'P approaches AA'O'B'

and the variable .
7 A OB as a limit.
2_ yl Ox> ^.

_
But
Z.l'O'P
^
AAOB ; ,
,

is always
J equal
^ to
arc^4£
arc.47>
— >

as .4'P varies in value and approaches ^4'i?' as a limit. Case 1

.-.
AA'O'B'
^n
—
= arc A'B' -,
.
by e OA ^
J §207.
q.e.d.
AAOBt
arc AB
213. Numerical Measure. We therefore see that the numerical
measure of a central angle (in degrees, for example) equals the
numerical measure of the intercepted arc. This is commonly
expressed by saying that a central angle is measured by the
intercejjted arc.
118 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XVI. Theorem
214. An inscribed angle is measured by half the in-
tercepted arc.
b b B

Given a circle with center and the inscribed angle B, inter-

cepting the arc AC.

To prove that ZB is measured by half the arc AC.
Case 1. When O is on one side, as AB (Fig. 1).

Proof. Draw OC.

Then V OC=OB, §162
= Z.C.
.'.Z.B §74
But Z.B + /.C = Z-AOC. § 111
.'.2Z.B = Z.AOC. Ax. 9
.'.Z.B = % Z.AOC. Ax. 4
But Z A OC is measured by arc A C. §213
.'. i Z AOC is measured by J arc AC. Ax. 4
.'. Z.B is measured by J arc AC. Ax. 9

Case 2. When lies within the angle B (Fig. 2).

Proof. Draw the diameter BD.

Then Z ABB is measured by \ arc AB,
and Z BBC is measured by J arc BC. Case 1
.-. Z ABB -f Z D^C is measured by \ (arc ^4Z> + arc BC),
or Z. ABC is measured by £ arc ^.C
 MEASURE OF ANGLES 119

Case 3. When lies outside the angle B (Fig. 3).

Proof. Draw the diameter BD.

Then Z DBC is measured by J arc DC,

and /.DBA is measured by \ arc DA. Case 1
.*. Z DBC — Z DBA is measured by % (arc DC — arc DA),
or Zi5C is measured by \ arc^.C. q.e.d

Fig. 4 Fig. 6

215. Corollary 1. An angle inscribed in a semicircle is a

right angle.
For it is half of a central straight angle, as in Fig. 4.

216. Corollary 2. An angle inscribed in a segment greater

than a semicircle is an acute angle, and an angle inscribed in
a segment less than a semicircle is an obtuse angle.

See AA and B in Fig. 5.

217. Corollary 3. Angles inscribed in the same segment

or in equal segments are equal.
Why is this ? (Fig. 6.)

218. Corollary 4. If a quadrilateral is inscribed in a

circle, the opposite angles are supplementary ; and, conversely,
if two opposite angles of a quadrilateral are supplementary,
the quadrilateral can be inscribed in a circle. _

For the second part, can a circle be passed through A,

/f\/\\
B, C (§ 190) ? If it does not pass through D also, can you II ^y >~~~^ A
show that A D would be greater than or less than some other b^^\/
angle (§111) that is supplementary to^B?
120 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 33
1. A parallelogram inscribed in a circle is a rectangle.
2. A trapezoid inscribed in a circle is isosceles.

3. The shorter segment of the diameter through a given

point within a circle is the shortest line that can
be drawn from that point to the circle. f p\
Let P be the given point. Prove PA shorter than any V yX
other line PX from P to the circle.
4. The longer segment of the diameter through a given point
within a circle is the longest line that can be drawii from that
point to the circle.

5. The diameter of the circle inscribed in

a right triangle is equal to the difference
between the hypotenuse and the sum of /^ y I

the other two sides.

6. A line from a given point outside a circle passing through

the center contains the shortest line-segment that can be drawn
from that point to the circle.

Let P be the point, the center, A the point ^Sf

where PO cuts the circle, and C any other point on
the circle. How does PC+CO compare with PO?
7. A line from a given point outside a circle passing through
the center contains the longest line-segment (to the concave
arc) that can be drawn from that point to the circle.

8. Through one of the points of intersection of two circles

a diameter of each circle is drawn. Prove that

the line joining the ends of the diameters passes
through the other point of intersection.
9. If two circles intersect and a line is drawn

through each point of intersection terminated by

the circles, the chords joining the corresponding
ends of these lines are parallel.
 MEASURE OF ANGLES 121

Proposition XVII. Theorem

219. An angle formed by two chords intersecting
within the circle is measured by half the sum of the

intercepted arcs,
B

Given the angle AOB formed by the chords AC and BD.

To prove that A AOB is measured by % {arc AB 4- arc CD).

Proof. Draw AD.
Then Z AOB = Z A + Z D. § 111
(An exterior Zo/aA is equal to the sum of the two opposite interior A.)

But ZA is measured by J arc CD, § 214

(An inscribed A is measured by half the intefcepted arc.)

and ZD
measured by J arc AB.
is § 214
,\ Z. AOB is measured by J (arc AB + arc CD), by Ax. 1. q.e.d.

Discussion. If is at the center of the circle, to what previous prop-

osition does this proposition reduce ?
If is on the circle, as at B, to what previous proposition does this
proposition reduce ?

Suppose the point remains as in the figure, and the chord AC

swings about as a pivot until it coincides with the chord BD. What
can then be said of the measure of A AOB and COD ? What can be said
as to the measure of ABOC and DO A ?
It is also possible to prove the proposition by drawing a chord AE
parallel to BD. and showing that A AOB — A A. since they are alternate-
interior anglesformed by a transversal cutting two parallels. Now A A
is measured by \ arc CE. But arc CE = arc CD + arc DE, or arc CD +
atcAB, since arc AB = arc DE (§ 189). Therefore A AOB, which equals
A A, is measured by \ (arc AB + arc CD).
122 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETRY
Pboposition XVIII. Theorem
220. An angle formed by a tangent and a chord drawn
from the point of contact is measured by half the in-
tercepted arc.

Given the chord PQ and the tangent XY through P.

To prove that Z QPX is measured by half the arc QSP.
Proof. Suppose the chord QR drawn from the point Q par-
allel to the tangent XY.
Then arc PR = arc QSP. § 189
(Two parallel lines intercept equal arcs on a circle.)

Also Z QPX = Z PQR. § 100

(If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, the alternate-interior
angles are equal.)

But Z PQR is measured by \ arc PR. § 214

(An inscribed Z is measured by half the intercepted arc.)

Substitute Z QPX for its equal, the Z PQR f

and substitute arc QSP for its equal, the arc PR.
Then Z QPX is measured by J arc QSP, by Ax. 9. Q.BO
Discussion. By half of what arc is Z YPQ, the supplement of Z QPX^
measured ?

If PQ should be drawn so as to be perpendicular to XY, by what

would A YPQ and QPX be measured ?
Suppose PQ swings about the point P as a pivot until it coincides
with XY, by what will Z YPQ be measured ? By what will Z QPX be
measured, and what will it equal ?
 MEASURE OF ANGLES 123

Proposition XIX. Theorem

221. An angle formed by two secants, a secant and
a tangent, or two tangents, drawn to a circle from an
external point, is measured by half the difference of
the intercepted arcs.

Fig. 1 Fig. 3

Given two secants PBA and PCD, from the external point P.

To prove that Z P is measured by I (arc DA — arc BC).

Proof. Suppose the chord BX drawn II to PCD (Fig. 1).

Then arc BC = arc DX. § 189

Furthermore arc XA = arc DA — arc DX.
.'. arc XA = arc DA — arc BC. Ax. 9
Also AP = Z.XBA. §102
But Z XBA is measured by J are XA. §214
Substitute Z.P for its equal, the A XBA,
and substitute arc DA — arc BC for its equal, the arc XA,
Then Z P is measured by \ (arc DA — arc BC), by Ax. 9. Q.B. d.

If the secant PBA Y swings around to tangency, it becomes

the tangent and Fig. 1 becomes Fig. 2. If the secant PCD
PB
also swings around to tangency, it becomes the tangent PC and
Fig. 2 becomes Fig. 3. The proof of the theorem for each of
these cases is left for the student
124 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 34
1. If two circles touch each other and two lines are drawn
through the point of contact terminated by the circles, the chords
joining the ends of these lines are parallel.
This could be proved if it could be shown that
ZA equals what angle ? To what two angles can
these angles be proved equal by § 220 ? Are those
angles equal ?

2. If one side of a right triangle is the diameter of a circle,

the tangent at the point where the circle cuts the hypotenuse
bisects the other side.

If OE is II to BO = OA, what is the

AC, then because
relation of BE to EC ?
The proposition therefore reduces
to proving that OE is parallel to what line ? This can be
proved if Z BOE can be shown equal to what angle ?

3. If from the extremities of a diameter AD

two chords, A C and DB, are drawn intersecting •

at P so as to make Zy1P£ = 45°, then zLBOC

is a right angle.

4. The radius of the circle inscribed in an equilateral tri-

angle is equal to one third the altitude of the ^

triangle.

To prove this we must show that AF equals what

line? It looks as if AF might equal EF, and EF
equal OF. Is there any way of proving A OFE equi-
lateral ? of proving A AEF isosceles ?
5. If two lines are drawn through any point in a diagonal
of a square parallel to the sides, the points where these lines
meet the sides lie on the circle whose center
is the point of intersection of the diagonals.
OY = OZ if A are congruent? Why are
what two
these & congruent OY = OX if what two A are con-
?

grueot ? OX — OW if what two A are congruent ?

 PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY 125

222. Positive and Negative Quantities. In

geometry, as in algebra, quantities may be
distinguished as positive and as negative.
Thus as we consider temperature above zero posi-
tiveand temperature below zero negative, so in this
figure, if OB is considered positive, then OD may be
considered negative. Similarly, if OA is considered
positive, thenOC may be considered negative.
Likewise with respect to angles and arcs, if the
rotating line OA moves in the direction of AB,
counterclockwise, the angle and arc generated are
considered positive. If it rotates in the direction
AB\ like the hands of a clock, the angle and arc
generated are considered negative.

223. Principle of Continuity. By considering the distinction

between positive and negative magnitudes, a theorem may
often be so stated as to include several particular theorems.
For example, The angle included between two lines that cut or
are tangent to a circle is measured by half the sum of the

intercepted arcs.
In particular : 1. If the lines intersect at the center, half the sum of
the arcs will then become simply one of the arcs, and the proposition
reduces to that of § 213.
2. If the lines are two general chords, we have the case of § 219.
3. If the point of in-
tersection P moves to the -<

circle, we have the case

of § 214, one are becom-
ing zero.
4. If P moves outside the circle, then the smaller arc passes through
zero and becomes negative, so that the sum of the arcs becomes their
arithmetical difference (§ 221).
AVe may continue the discussion so as to include all the cases of
the propositions proved from § 213 to § 221.

When the reasoning employed to prove a theorem is con-

tinued as just illustrated, so as to include several theorems,
we are said to reason by the Principle of Continuity.
126 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETRY
224. Problems of Construction. At the beginning of the study
of geometry some directions were given for simple construc-
tions, so that figuresmight be drawn with accuracy. It was
not proved at that time that these constructions were correct,
because no theorems had been studied on which proofs could
be based. It is now purposed to review these constructions, to
prove that they are correct, and to apply the methods employed
to the solution of more difficult problems.

225. Nature of a Solution. A solution of a problem has one

requirement that a proof of a theorem does not have.
In a theorem we have three general steps (1) Given, (2) To
:

prove, (3) Proof. In a problem we have four steps (1) Given, :

(2) Required (to do some definite thing), (3) Construction (show-

ing how to do it), (4) Proof (that the construction is correct).
We prove a theorem, but we solve a problem, and then prove
that our solution is a correct one.
In the figures of this text given lines are shown as full, black lines
construction lines and lines required are shown as dotted lines.

226. Discussion of a Problem. Besides the four necessary

general steps in treating a problem, there is a desirable step
to be taken in many cases. This is the discussion of the prob-
lem, in which is considered whether there is more than one
solution, and other similar questions.

For example, suppose the problem is this Required from a given point
:

to draw a tangent to a circle.

After the problem has been solved we may discuss it thus In general, :

if the given point is outside the circle, two tangents may be drawn,

and these tangents are equal (§ 192); if the given point is on the circle
only one tangent can be drawn, since only one perpendicular can be
drawn to a radius at its extremity (§ 184) if the given point is within
;

the circle, evidently no tangent can be drawn.

In the discussion the Principle of Continuity often enters, the figure
being studied for various positions of some given point or line, as was
done in the discussions on pages 121 and 122.
 PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION 127

Proposition XX. Problem

227. To let fall a perpendicular upon a given line

from a given external point.

p\

%/
A ^^^_Jtf _^' B

Given the line AB and the external point P.

Required from P to let fall a _L upon AB.

Construction. With P as a center, and a radius sufficiently

great, describe an arc cutting AB at X and Y. Post. 4

With X and Y as centers, and a convenient radius, describe
two arcs intersecting at C. Post. 4
Draw PC. Post. 1

Produce PC to intersect AB at M. Post. 2

Then PM is the line required. Q. e. f.

Proof. Since P and C are by construction two points each

equidistant from X and Y, they determine the perpendicular
to XY at its mid-point. § 151
(Two points each equidistant from the extremities of a line determine
the _L bisector of the line.) Q. E. D.

Discussion. The following are interesting considerations :

That PC produced will really intersect AB, as stated in the construc-

tion, is shown in the proof.
A convenient radius to take for the two intersecting arcs is XY.
If C falls on P, take C at the other intersection of the arcs below AB,
as is seen in the figure of Ex. 2, p. 9.
To obtain a radius for the first circle, draw any line from P that will
cut AB, and use that.
128 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XXI. Problem
228. At a given point in a given line, to erect a per-
pendicular to the line.

S i
n

/ i
i

SB ->'
i 1

\x r y\
j

J5>-
Fig. 1 Fig. 2

Given the point P in the line AB.

Required to erect a A. to AB at P.

Case 1. When the point P is not at the end of AB (Fig. 1).

Construction. Take PX = PY. Post 4
With X and Y as centers, and a convenient radius, describe
arcs intersecting at C. Post. 4

Draw CP. Post. 1

Then CP is _L to AB. q.e.f.

Proof. P and C, two points each equidistant from X and Y,

determine the _L bisector of XY, by § 151. q.e.d.

Case 2. When the point P is at the end of AB (Fig. 2).

Construction.Suppose P to coincide with B.
Take any point outside of AB, and with as a center and
OB as a radius describe a circle intersecting AB at X.

From X draw the diameter XY, and draw BY. Post. 1

Then BY is ± to vl£. q.e.f.

Proof. Z5 is a right angle. § 215

.-. BY is ± to AB, by §27. Q.e.d.

Discussion. If the circle described with O as a center is tangent to

AB at B, then OB is the required perpendicular (§ 185).
 PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION '
129

Proposition XXII. Problem

229. To bisect a given line.

M B

Given the line AB.

Required to bisect AB.

Construction. With A and B as centers and AB as a radius
describe arcs intersecting at X and Y, and draw AT. Post. 4
Then XY bisects AB. q.e.f.

Proof. XY bisects A B, by §151. q.e.d.

Proposition XXIII. Problem

230. To bisect a given arc.

Given the arc AB.

Required to bisect AB.

Construction. Draw the chord AB. Post. 1
Draw CM, the perpendicular bisector of the chord AB. § 229
Then CM bisects the arc AB. Q.E.F.

Proof. CM bisects the arc AB, by § 177. Q.E.D.

130 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETKY
Proposition XXIV. Problem
231. To bisect a given angle.
B

o
Given the angle AOB.

Required to bisect Z. A OB. \

Construction. With as a center and any radius describe an
arc cutting OA at X and OB at Y. Post. 4
With X and Y as centers and IFas a radius describe arcs
intersecting at P. Post. 4

Draw OP. Post. 1

Then OP bisects A AOB. q.b.f.

Proof. Draw PX and PY.

Then prove that the A OXP and YP are congruent. § 80
Then Z.AOP = A POB, by § 67. Q. E. D.

EXERCISE 35

1. To construct an angle of 45° ; of 135°.

2. To construct an angle of 22° 30' ; of 157° 30'.

3. To construct an equilateral triangle, having given one

side, and thus to construct an angle ot 60°.
4. To construct an angle of 30°; and thus to trisect a right
angle.

5. To construct an angle of 15°; of T 30'; of 195°; of 345°.

6. To construct a triangle having two of its angles equal

to 75°. Is the triangle definitely determined ?
 PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION 131

Proposition XXV. Problem

232c From a given point in a given line, to draw a
line making an angle equal to a given angle.

p—
i

Given the angle A OB and the point P in the line PQ.

Required from P to draw a line making with the line PQ

an angle equal to A A OB,
Construction. With as a center and any radius describe an
arc cutting OA at C and OB at D. Post. 4
With P as a center and the same radius describe an arc MX,
cutting PQ at M, Post. 4
With M as a center and a line joining C and D as a radius
describe an arc cutting the arc MX at X. Post. 4

Draw PN. Post. 1

Then Z QPX = Z ,1 OB. Q. E. F.

Proof. Draw CD and MX.

Then prove that the A PMX and OCD are congruent. § 80
Then Z QP.Y = Z A OB, by § 67. Q. E. D<

233. Corollary. Through a given external point, to draw

a line parallel to a given line.

Let AB be the given line and P the given external

p
/'

point. C -V-i—
Draw any line XPY through P, cutting AB as in /q
the figure. /
Draw CD through P, making Zp = Zq. /
The line CD will be the line required.
132 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XXVI. Problem
234. To divide a given line into a given number of
equal parts.

A
I
r^zr

\ / / /

^o
Given the line AB.

Required to divide AB into a given number of equal parts.

Construction. From A draw the line AO, making any con-
venient angle with AB. Post. 1
Take any convenient length, and by describing arcs apply
it to A as many times as is indicated by the number of parts
into which AB is to be divided. Post. 4
Prom. C, the last point thus found on A 0, draw CB. Post. 1
From the division points on A draw parallels to CB. § 233
These AB into equal parts.
lines divide q.e.f.

Proof. These lines divide AB into equal parts, by § 134. o. e. d.

EXERCISE 36
1. To divide a given line into four equal parts.

2. To construct an equilateral triangle, given the perimeter.

3. Through a given point, to draw a line which shall make
equal angles with the two sides of a given angle.
4. Through a given point, to draw two lines so that they
shall form with two intersecting lines two isosceles triangles.

5. To construct a triangle having its three angles respec-

tively equal to the three angles of a given triangle.
 PEOBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION 138

Proposition XXVII. Problem

235. To construct a triangle when tivo sides and the
included angle are given.

b
-

A
,x
—
/ n
\

A
Z 4- -— X
,'C B

Given b and c two sides of a triangle, and the included angle.

Required to construct the triangle.

Construction. On any line as AX, by describing an arc, mark

off AB equal to c. Post. 4

At A construct Z BAD equal to Z 0. § 232

On AD, by describing an arc, mark off A C equal to b. Post. 4

Draw BC. Post. 1

Then A ABC is the A required. q.e.f,

Proof. (Left for the student.)

236. Corollary 1. To construct a triangle when a side and

two angles are given.
There are two cases to be considered : (1) when the given side is
included between the given angles and ; (2) when it is not (in which
case find the other angle by § 107).

237. Corollary 2. To construct a triangle when the three

sides are given.

238. Corollary 3. To construct a parallelogram when two

sides and the included angle are given.
Combine § 235 and § 233.
134 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XXVIII. Problem
239. To construct a triangle when two sides and the
angle opposite one of them are given.

b/ / \a

A 3k=
BT- B ~
Given a and b two sides of a triangle, and A the angle opposite a c

Required to construct the triangle.

Construction. Case 1. If a is less than b.

Construct Z XA Y equal to the given Z A. § 232

On A Y take A C equal to h.

From C as a center, with a radius equal to a, describe an arc

intersecting the line AX at B and B'.

Draw BC and B'C, thus completing the triangle.

Then both the A ABC and A B'C satisfy the conditions, and
hence we have two constructions. q.e.f
This is called the ambiguous case.

Discussion. If the given side

CB, the arc described from C will
to the _L
touch AX, and there will be but one con-
struction, the rt. A ABC.
a is equal

x \a
s
If the given side a is less than the per- ~A ~ ~~B*~
pendicular from C, the arc described from
C will not intersect or touch AX, and hence
a construction is impossible.
If Z A is right or obtuse, a construc-
tion is impossible, since a <b ;
for the side V \

of a triangle opposite a right or obtuse angle

is the longest side (§ 114).
si -kK
 PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION 135

Case 2. If a is equal to b.

If the given Z A is acute, and a = b. the arc described

from C as a center, and with a radius equal to a, will cut
the line WX
at the points A and _ A
There is therefore but one triangle that V<£

satisfies the conditions, namely the isos- u- \ / \ / _

celes A ABC. A ^ -^ B

Discussion. If the ZA is right or obtuse, a construction is impossible

when a = b ; for equal sides of a triangle have equal angles opposite them,
and a triangle cannot have two right angles or two obtuse angles (§ 109).

Case 3. If a is greater than b.

If the given AA is acute, the arc described from C will

cut the line WX on opposite sides of A, at B and B'. The
A ABC satisfies the conditions, but the A AB'C does not,
for it does not contain the acute A A.
C '

There is then only one triangle that .

t^/^nN j

satisfies the conditions, namely the w B\^ v

__ v'_ v
A ABC. < ^ B
If the given Z. A is right, the arc described
from C cuts the line WX on opposite sides of AC \«
a/ I

.I at the points B and

and we have the ^ / 16 \
B', /
'

two congruent right triangles ABC and AB'C " "js^-^t-"^""-

5

that satisfy the conditions.

If the given zl .1 is obtuse, the aro de- \ c
scribed from C cuts the line WX on , a / X\a
opposite sides of A, at the points
B'. The Ai5C satisfies the conditions,
B and -^ v/
B —y \ jg

but the A AB'C does not. for does not it contain the obtuse
/LA. There is then only one triangle that satisfies the con-

ditions, namely the A ABC.

Discussion. TVe therefore see that when a > o, we have only one
triangle that satisfies the conditions, for the two congruent right tri-

angles give us only one distinct triangle.

136 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XXIX. Problem
240. To circumscribe a circle about a given triangle.

^ — -JO

Given the triangle ABC.

Required to circumscribe a O about A ABC.

Construction. Draw the perpendicular bisectors of the sides
^j5and^C. §229
Since AB is not the prolongation of CA, these Js will inter-

sect atsome point 0. Otherwise they would be and one of II,

them would have to be _L to two intersecting lines. § 82

With as a center, and a radius OA, describe a circle. Post. 4

The O ABC is the O required. q.e.f.

Proof. The point is equidistant from A and B, and also is

equidistant from A and C. § 150

.*. the point O is equidistant from A, B, and C.
.*. a O described with as a center, with a radius equal to OA,
will pass through the vertices A, B, and C, by § 160. q.e.d.

241. Corollary 1. To describe a circle through three points

not in the same straight line.

242. Corollary 2. To find the center of a given circle or

of the circle of which an arc is given.

243. Circumcenter. The center of the circle circumscribed

about a polygon is called the circumcenter of the polygon.
 PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION 137

Proposition XXX. Problem

244. To inscribe a circle in a given triangle.

p *
Given the triangle ABC.

Required to inscribe a O in A ABC.

Construction. Bisect the A A and B. § 231
Prom 0, the intersection of the bisectors, draw OP J_ to the
side AB. § 22?

With as a center and a radius OP, describe the O PQR.

The O PQR is the O required. q.e.f.

Proof. Since is in the bisector of the A A, it is equidistant

from the sides AB and AC; and since is in the bisector of
the AB, it is equidistant from the sides AB and BC. § 152
.*. a circle described with as a center, and a radius OP,
will touch the sides of the triangle, by § 184. q.e.d.

245. Incenters and Excenters. The center of a circle inscribed

in a polygon is called the incenter of the polygon.
The intersections of the bisectors
of the exterior angles of a triangle
are the centers of three circles, each
tangent to one side of the triangle
and the two other sides produced.
These three circles are called escribed
circles and their centers are called
;

the excenters of the triangle.

138 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XXXI. Problem
246. TJirough a given point, to draiv a tangent to a
given circle.

Fig. 1

Given the point P and the circle with center O.

Required through P to draw a tangent to the circle.

Case 1. When the given point is on the circle (Fig. 1).

Construction. Prom the center O draw the radius OP. Post. 1
Through P draw XY ± to OP. § 228
Then XY is the tangent required. q.e.f.

Proof. Since XY is _L to the radius OP, Const.

.'. XY is tangent to the O at P, by § 184. q.e.d.

Case 2. When the given point is outside the circle (Fig. 2).

Construction. Draw OP. Post. 1

Bisect OP. § 229
With the mid-point of OP as a center and a radius equal to

\ OP, describe a circle intersecting the given circle at the

points M and N, and draw PM.
Then PM is the tangent required. Q.E.F.

Proof. Draw OM.

Z. OMP is a right angle. §215
.-. PMia _L to OM. §27
.'. PM is tangent to the circle at M, by § 184 Q. E. D.

Discussion. In like manner, we may prove PN tangent to the given 0.

 PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION 139

Proposition XXXII. Problem

247. Upon a given line as a chord, to describe a segment
of a circle in which a given angle may be inscribed.

Given the line AB and the angle m.

Required on AB as a chord, to describe a segment of a circle

in which Z m may be inscribed.

Construction. Construct the Z.ABX equal to the Z m. §232
Bisect the line AB by the _L PO. § 229
From the point B draw BO _L to XB. § 228

With 0, the point of intersection of PO and BO, as a center,

and a radius equal to OB, describe a circle.

The segment BQA is the segment required. q.e.f.

Proof. The point is equidistant from A and B. § 150

.'. the circle will pass through A and B. § 160
But BX is _L to OB. Const.
.*. BX is tangent to the O. § 184
.-. Z ABX is measured by \ arc AB. § 220

But any angle, as the Z Q, inscribed in the segment BQA is

measured by ^ arc AB. § 214

Z Q = ZABX.
.*. Ax. 8
But Z BX = Z m.
.4 Const.

,*. Zmmay be inscribed in the segment BQA, by § 217. q. b.d.

140 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETRY
248. How to attack a Problem. There are three common
methods by which to attack a new problem
(1) By synthesis

(2) By analysis

(3) By the intersection of loci.

249. Synthetic Method. If a problem is so simple that the

solution is obvious from a known proposition, we have only to
make the construction according to the proposition, and then
to give the synthetic proof, if a proof is necessary, that the
construction is correct.

It is rarely the case, however, that a problem is so simple as to allow

this method to be used. We therefore commonly resort at once to the
second method.

250. Analytic Method. This is the usual method of attack,

and is as follows :

(1) Suppose the problem solved and see what results follow.
(2) Then see if it is possible to attain these results and thus
effect the required construction in other words, try to work
;

backwards.
The third method, by the intersection of loci, is considered on page 143.

251. Determinate, Indeterminate, and Impossible Cases. A

problem that has a definite number of solutions is said to be
determinate. A problem that has an indefinite number of solu-
tions is said to be indeterminate. A problem that has no solu-
tion is said to be impossible.
For example, to construct a triangle, having given its sides, is deter-
minate ; to construct a quadrilateral, having given its sides, is indetermi-
nate ; to construct a triangle with sides 2 in., 3 in., and 6 in. is impossible.

252. Discussion. The examination of a problem with refer-

ence to all possible conditions, particularly with respect to the
number of solutions, is called the discussion of the problem.
Discussions have been given in several of the preceding problems.
 SOLUTION OF PROBLEMS 141

253. Applications of the Analytic Method. The following are

examples of the use of analysis in the solution of problems.

EXERCISE 37
1. In a triangle ABC, to draw PQ parallel to the base AB,
cutting the sides in P and Q, so that PQ shall equal AP -\- BQ.
Analysis. Assume the problem solved.
Then AP must equal some part of PQ, as PX,
and BQ must equal QX.
But if AP = PX, what must Z PXA equal ?
v PQ is to AB, what does Z PXA equal ?
II

Then why must ZBAX = Z XAP ?

Similarly, what about Z QBX and Z XBA ?

Construction. Now reverse the process. What should we do to A A and

B in order to fix X? Then how shall PQ be drawn ? Now give the proof

2. To construct a triangle, having given the perimeter, one

angle, and the altitude from the vertex of the given angle.
Analysis. Let ABC be the triangle, ZC the given angle, and CP
the given altitude, and assume that the problem is solved.
Since the perimeter is

given as a definite line, we X

now try producing AB and
BA , making BN = BC, and
AM = AC. ^
and
Then
Zn =
Zm — what angle, M ^H?±
what angle ?
P'B
±± X
Then Zm + Zn + Z MCN = 180°.
But Z MCN = Z m' + ZACB + Z n'.
.-. 2Zm + 2Zn + ZACB = 180°. (Why?)
.-. Zm + Zn + IZACB = 90°,
or Zm + Zn = 90°- \ZACB.
Z MCN = 90° + ZACB. (Why ?)
.-.
\

Z MCN is known. .-.

Construction. Now reverse the process. Draw MN equal to the perim-

eter. Then on MN construct a segment in which Z MCN may be inscribed
(§ 247). Draw XC to MN at the distance CP from MN, cutting the arc
II

at C. Then A and B are on the _L bisectors of CM and CN. Why ?

142 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETRY
3. To draw through two sides of a triangle a line parallel
to the third side, so that the part intercepted
between the sides shall have a given length.
If PQ = d, what does AR equal ? How will you
reverse the reasoning ? A r b
4. To draw a tangent to a given circle so that it shall be
parallel to a given line.

5. To construct a triangle, having given a side, an adjacent

angle, and the difference of the other sides.

If AB, ZA, and AC — BC are known, what points are

determined ? Then can XB be drawn ? What kind of a tri-
angle is A XBC ? How can C be located ?

6. To construct a triangle, having given two angles and

the sum of two sides.

Can the third Z be found ? Assume the prob-

AX = AB + BC, what kind of a
—^
lem solved. If
triangle is A BXC ? What does Z CBA equal ? -A*— lk X
Is Z X known ? How can C be fixed ?

7. To construct a square, having given the diagonal.

To draw through a given point P between

8. the sides of
an angle A OB a line terminated by the sides B
n//
of the angle and bisected at P.
If PM = PN, and PR is II to AO, what can you »/X j>
say as to OR and RN? Can you now reverse this? / / X
Similarly, if PQ is II to BO, is OQ = to QM? ° Q M A

9. To draw a line that would bisect the angle formed by

two lines if those lines were produced to meet.
If AB and CD are the given lines, consider what would be the con-
ditions they could be produced to meet at 0. Then the
if
q
bisector of Z would be the _L bisector of PQ, a line drawn /|\

so as to make equal angles with the two given lines.

Now reverse this. How can we draw PQ so as to make
ZP = ZQ? Draw BR to DC, and lay off BR = BQ.
II

Then draw QRP and prove that this is such a line. Then / MR \

draw its _L bisector.

 EXERCISES IN LOCI 143

254. Intersection of Loci. The third general method of attack

mentioned in § 248 is by intersection of loci. This is very con-
venient when we wish to find a point satisfying two conditions,
each of which involves some locus.

EXERCISE 38

1. To find a point that is i in. from a given point and \ in.

T
from a given line. -.-^r_-_-_^_

If P is the given point, what is the locus of a —

* : 4 B
a point \ in. from P ? If AB is the given line, '»
_^__ /

AB ? *»-— -"
what is the locus of a point ^ in. from
These two loci intersect in how many points at most Discuss the
solution.

2. To find a point that is J in. from one given point and § in.
from another given point.

Discuss the number of possible points answering the conditions.

3. To find a point that is J in. from the vertex of an angle

and equidistant from the sides of the angle.

4. To find a point that is equidistant from two intersecting

linesand \ in. from their point of intersection.
How many such points can always be found ?
5. To find a point that is | in. from a given point and equi-
distant from two intersecting lines.

Discuss the problem for various positions of the given point.

6. To find a point that is J-

in. from a given point and equi-
distant from two parallel lines.
Discuss the problem for various positions of the given point.

7. Find the locus of the mid-point of a chord of a given

length that can be drawn in a given circle.

8. Find the locus of the mid-point of a chord drawn through

a given point within a given circle.
144 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETRY
9. To describe a circle that shall pass through a given point
and cut equal chords of a given length from two parallels.

Analysis. Let A be the given point, BC and BE the given parallels,

MN the given length, and the center of the required circle.
Since the circle cuts equal chords from two
parallels, what must be the relative distance J>
/'" E
of its center from each ? Therefore what line I ^>A
must be one locus for ? F ]P
Draw the ± bisector of MN, cutting FG at P. /
0\
j

How, then, does PM compare with the radius £ M \ N c

of the circle required ? How shall we then find
a point O on FG that is at a distance PM from A ? Do we then know
that is the center of the required circle ?

10. To describe a circle that shall be tangent to each of two

given intersecting lines.

11 To find in a given line a point that is equidistant from

two given points.

12. To find a point that is equidistant from two \\

^vp
given points and at a given distance from a third p \x'
q
given point.
13. To describe a circle that has a given radius and passes

through two given points.

14. To find a point at given distances from two given points.

15. To describe a circle that has its center in a given line

and passes through two given points.

16. To find a point that is equidistant from two given points

and also equidistant from two given intersecting lines.

17. To find a point that is equidistant from two given points

and also equidistant from two given parallel lines. ,

18. To find a point that is equidistant from c ,^~~~\ J*

two given intersecting lines and at a given dis- ^^iiV;

tance from a given point. J^r^s^
19. To find a point that lies in one side of
A '

Y D
a given triangle and is equidistant from the other two sides,
 EXERCISES 145

255. General Directions for solving Problems. In attacking a

new problem draw the most general figure possible and the
solution may be evident at once. If the solution is not evident,
see if it depends on finding a point, in which case see if two
loci can be found If this is not the case, assume the problem
solved and try to work backwards, — the method of analysis.
EXERCISE 39

1. To draw a common tangent to two given circles.

If the centers are O andand the radii r and r', the tangent QR
C/
seems to be II from (X to a circle whose radius is r — r/
to O'M, a tangent .

If this is true, we can easily reverse the process. Since there are two
tangents from C, so there are two common tangents.
In the right-hand figure the tangent QR seems to be to (7Af, a tangent
II

from Of to a circle whose radius is r + r'. If this is true, we can easily

reverse the process There are four common tangents in general.

2. To draw a common tangent to two given circles, using the

following figures.

3. The locus of the vertex of a right triangle, having a

given hypotenuse as its base, is the circle described upon the
given hypotenuse as a diameter.
4. The locus of the vertex of a triangle, having a given base
and a given angle at the vertex, is the arc which forms with
the base a segment in which the given angle may be inscribed-
 :

146 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETRY

To construct an isosceles triangle, having given
5. The base and the angle at the vertex.

6. The base and the radius of the circumscribed circle.

7. The base and the radius of the inscribed circle.

8. The perimeter and the altitude. c

Let ABC be the A required, EF the given
perimeter. The altitude CD passes through the %^'.
AD B *F
middle of EF, and the & EA C, BFC are isosceles

To construct a right triangle, having given :

9. The hypotenuse and one side.

10. One side and the altitude upon the hypotenuse.

11. The median and the altitude upon the hypotenuse.
12. The hypotenuse and the altitude upon the hypotenuse.
13. The radius of the inscribed circle and one side.

14. The radius of the inscribed circle and an acute angle.

To construct a triangle, having given :

15. The base, the altitude, and an angle at the base.

16. The base, the altitude, and the angle at the vertex.

17. One side, an adjacent angle, and the sum of the other sides.

18. To construct an equilateral triangle, hav- — ,c

ing given the radius of the circumscribed circle.

19. To construct a rectangle, having given one

side and the angle between the diagonals.
20. Given two perpendiculars, A B and CD,
intersecting in 0, and a line intersecting
these perpendiculars in E and F; to con- N
struct a square, one of whose angles shall ^
coincide with one of the right angles at 0,
and the vertex of the opposite angle of the
square shall lie in EF. (Two solutions.)
 EXERCISES 147

21. A straight rod moves so that its ends con-

stantly touch two fixed rods perpendicular to
each other. Find the locus of its mid-point.

22. A line moves so that it remains par-

allel to a given line, and so that one end
lies on a given circle. Find the locus of the
other end.
23. Find the locus of the mid-
point of a line-segment that is drawn

from a given external point to a given

circle.

24. To draw from two given points

lines
P and Q which shall meet on a given line /«
AB and make equal angles with AB.
v Z BEQ Z PEC,
= =
Z CEP' Z PEC. (Why ?)
.-. /E
But it is easy to make Z CEP = Z PEC, by mak-
/

ing PP' _L AB, and CP = PC, and joining P' and Q.

/

25. To find the shortest path from a point P to a line AB

and thence to a point Q.
q
Prove that
= ZPEC.
PE + EQ<PF+ FQ, where Z BEQ ^^\>'''///
This shows that a ray of light from a point to a A C ;
/ $-'' F B
plane mirror and thence to another point takes the U^""
shortest possible path.

26. The bisectors of the angles included by the opposite

sides (produced) of an inscribed quadrilateral intersect at
right angles.
Arc AX — arc MD
= arc XB — arc CM.
Arc YA — arc BN
= arc BY- arc NC.
arc YX + arc NM
.-.

= arc MY + arc XN.

Z YIX = Z XIN. (Why ?)
.-.

How does this prove the proposition ? Discuss the impossible

 ;

148 BOOK II. PLA^E GEOMETRY

27. Construct this design, making the figure
twice this size.

Construct the equilateral A. Then describe the small

© with half the side of the A as a radius. Then find
the radius of the circumscribing O.

28. A circular window in a church has a de-

sign similar to the accompanying figure. Draw
it, making the figure twice this size.
This is made from the figure of the preceding exer-
cise, by erasing certain lines.

29. Two ft. 6 in. and 2 ft. 3 in. respec-

wheels of radii 1
tively are connected by a belt, drawn straight between the
points of tangency. The centers being 6 ft. apart, draw the
figure mathematically. Use the scale of 1 in. to the foot.

30. A water wheel is broken and all but a fragment is lost.

A workman wishes to restore the wheel. Make a

drawing showing how he can construct a wheel
the size of the original.
^^
31. In this figureZm = 62°, andZ?i=28 .

Eind the number of degrees in each of the

other angles, and determine whether AB is
a diameter.
32. In this figure Z£=41°, ZA = 65°,
and Z.BDC = 97°. Eind the number of
degrees in each of the other angles, and
determine whether CD is a diameter.
33. Construct or explain why it is im-
possible to construct a triangle with sides 3 in., 2 in., 6 in.

also one with sides 5 in., 7 in., 12 in.; also one

with sides 2 in., 1 in., lj in.

34. Show how to draw a tangent to this circle p|

at the point P, the center of the circle not being
accessible.
 EXERCISES 149

EXERCISE 40

1. In a circle whose center is the chord AB is drawn so

that Z BAO = 27°. How many degrees are there in Z.AOB?
2. In a circle whose center is the chord AB is drawn so
that A BAO = 25°. On the circle, and on the same side of AB
as the center 0, the point D is taken and is joined to A and B.
How many degrees are there in Z.ADB?
3. TVhat is the locus of the mid-point of a chord of a circle

formed by secants drawn from a given external point ?

4. In a circle two perpendiculars OM and

whose center is

ON are drawn to the chords AB and CD respectively, and it

is known that Z NMO = Z ONM. Prove that AB = CD.

5. Two circles intersect at the points A and B. Through

A a variable secant is drawn, cutting the circles at C and D.
Prove that the angle DBC is constant.

6. Let A and B be two fixed points on a given circle, and M

and N be the extremities of a rotating diameter of the same
circle. Find the locus of the point of intersection of the
lines AM and BX.

7. Upon a line AB a segment of a circle containing 240° is

constructed, andsegment any chord PQ subtending an

in the
arc of 60° is drawn. Find the locus of the point of intersection
of AP and BQ also of A Q and BP.
;

8. To construct a square, given the sum of the diagonal and

one side. J>,

Let ABCD be the square required, and CA the di- — a/ x

^g
agonal. Produce CA, making AE = AB. &ABC and ~*~~-<<. /'
ABE are isosceles and ABAC = ZACB = 45°. Find ^
the value of Z E. Construct Z CBE. Xow reverse the reasoning.

The propositions in Exercise 40 are taken from recent college entrance

examination papers
150 BOOK II. PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 41

Review Questions
1. Define the word circle and the principal terms used in
connection with it.

2. What is meant by a central angle ? How is it measured ?

3. What is meant by an inscribed angle? How is it measured?
4. State the general proposition covering all the cases that
have been considered relating to the measure of an angle formed
f
by the intersection of two secants.
5. State all of the facts you have learned relating to equal
chords of a circle.

6. State all of the facts you have learned relating to unequal

chords of a circle.

7. State all of the facts you have learned relating to tangents

to a circle.
8. How many points are required to determine a straight
line ? two parallel lines ? an angle ? a circle ?

9. Name one kind of magnitude that you have learned to

trisect, and state how you proceed to trisect this magnitude.

10. In order to construct a definite triangle, what parts must

be known ?
f
11. What are the important methods of attacking a new
problem in geometry ? Which is the best method to try first ?

12. What is meant by determinate, indeterminate, and im-

possible cases in the solution of a problem ?

13. Distinguish between a constant and a variable, and give

an illustration of each.

14 Distinguish between inscribed, circumscribed, and escribed

circles.

15. What is meant by the statement that a central angle is

measured by the intercepted arc ?

 BOOK III

PROPORTION. SIMILAR POLYGONS

256. Proportion. An expression of equality between two
equal ratios is called a proportion.

257. Symbols. A proportion is written in one of the fol-

lowing forms :
— = - a :b = c
; : d: a : b : : c : d.
b d
This proportion is read " a is to b as c is to d" ; or " the ratio of a to b
is equal to the ratio of c to d."

258. Terms. In a proportion the four quantities compared

are called the terms. The first and third terms are called the
antecedents; the second and fourth terms, the consequents.
The first and fourth terms are called the extremes; the second
and third terms, the means.
Thus in the proportion a :b = c :d, a and c are the antecedents, b
and d the consequents, a and d the extremes, b and c the means.

259. Fourth Proportional. The fourth term of a proportion

is called the fourth proportional to the terms taken in order.
Thus in the proportion a : b = c : d d
, is the fourth proportional to
a, 6, and c.

260. Continued Proportion. The quantities a, b, c, d, • • • are

said to be in continued proportion, if a b : =b : c =e : d= • • *.

If three quantities are in continued proportion, the second

is called the mean proportional between the other two, and the
third is called the third proportional to the other two.
Thus in the proportion a : b = b : c, b is the mean proportional between
a and c, and c is the third proportional to a and b.

151
152 BOOK III. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition I. Theorem
In any proportion the product of
261. the extremes is
equal to the product of the means.
Given a:b=c:d.
To prove that ad = be.
Proof. ? = -,• §257
b d
Multiplying by bd, ad = bc, by Ax. 3. q.e.d.

262. Corollary 1. The mean proportional between two

quantities is equal to the square root of their product.
For if a-.b — b : c, then b 2 = ac (§ 261), and 6 = Vac, by Ax. 5.

263. Corollary 2. If the two antecedents of a proportion

are equal, the two consequents are equal.

264. Corollary 3. If the product of two quantities is equal

to the product of two others, either two may be made the extremes

of a proportion in which the other two are made the means.

a c
For if ad = be, then, by dividing by bd, - = -, by Ax. 4.
b d

Proposition II. Theorem

265. If four quantities are in proportion, they are in

proportion by alternation that is, the first term is to ;

the third as the second term is to the fourth.

Given a: b = c:d.
To prove that a-.c — b-.d.

Proof. ad = be. §261

a b
Dividing by cd, Ax. 4
c d
or a : c =b : d, by § 257. q.e. d.
 THEORY OF PROPORTION 153

Proposition III. Theorem

Iffour quantities are in proportion they are in
266. ,

proportion by inversion that is, the second term is to

;

the first as the fourth term is to the third.

Given a:b = c: d.

To prove that b: a = d: c.

Proof. be = ad. § 261

Dividing each member of the equation by ac,

h d
- = -> A
Ax. 4
JL

a e

or b : a = d:c, by § 257. q.e.d.

Proposition IV. Theorem

267. Iffour quantities are in proportion, they are in,

proportion by composition; that is, the sum of the first

two terms is to the second term as the sum of the last
two terms is to the fourth term.
Given b= c: d.
a :

To prove that a + b :b = c + d: d.

Proof. t = -,' §257

a
Adding 1 to each member of the equation,
a
*
+1 =$+*. Ax. 1

or
a +b c +d
b d
•'• a + b :b == c -f- d : d, by § 257. Q.E.D.

Tn a similar manner it may be shown that

a + b : a -= c + d:c.
154 BOOK III. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition V. Theorem
268. If four quantities are in proportion, they are in

proportion by division; that is, the difference of the

first two terms is to the second term as the difference

of the last two terms is to the fourth term.

Given a : b =c : d.

To prove that a — b: b = c — d\ d.
^ a
-
c
= -•
Proof. §257

L' Ax. 2
b d
a —b c —d
or
b d
.*. a — b :b = c — d: d, by § 257 Q.E.D.

In a similar manner it may be shown that

a — b:a =c— d:c

Proposition VI. Theorem

269. In a series of equal ratios, the sum of the ante-
cedents is to the sum of the consequents as any ante-
cedent is to its consequent.

Given a\b=.c:d=e:f=g:h.
To prove that a + c-\-e + g:b + d +f+ h — a\b.
~ a
Proof.
«. T
Let r= = -c = -e = £-.
-.
g
b d f h
Then a= br, c = dr, e=fr, g = hr. Ax. 3
.'.a + c + e + g= (b + d+f+h)r. Ax. 1

"b+d+f+h b

•\a + c + e + (/:b + d+f+h = a:b, by § 257. Q.E.D

 THEORY OF PROPORTION 155

Proposition VII. Theorem

270. Like powers of the terms of a proportion are in
proportion.

Given a b
: =c : d.

To prove that a n :b n = cn : dn .

Proof. f = 3- §257
b a
n n
a c
•'•^ = ^' by Ax. 5. q.e.d.

Proposition VIII. Theorem

271. If three quantities are in continued proportion,
the first is to the third as the square of the first is to
the square of the second.

Given a:b=b:c.
To prove that a: c —a 2
:b
2
.

Proof. a = a
2 2
,
Iden.
and ac = b 2
. §261
a2 a a2
' 2
Ax. 4
ac c b
.*. a:c =a 2
:b
2
,
by § 257. q.e.d.

272. Nature of the Quantities in a Proportion. Although we

may have ratios of lines, or of areas, or of solids, or of angles,
we treat all of the terms of a proportion as numbers.
If b and d are lines or solids, for example, we cannot
a c
multiply each member of — = — by bd, as in § 261.
O CL

Hence when we speak of the product of two geometric magni-

\iudes,we mean the product of the numbers that represent them
ivhen expressed in terms of a common unit.
156 BOOK III. PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 42
1. Prove that aib = ma mb. :

2. If a i b =c i d, and m n=p : i
q, prove that am bn=cp i : dq

If a:b = c: d, prove the following :

3. a d = be d
i : 7. ma nb = me nd.
2
. i :

4. lib = cad. 8. a —lib = bc — dibd.

5. ad:6 = c:l. 9. a +1 l = &c d d. :

-f- :

6. ma ib = mcid. 10. 1: be = 1: ad.

11. + 5 & — o = c + c — d. <x : cZ :

In Ex. 11, use § 267 and § 268, and Ax. 4. In this case a, 6, c, and d
are said to be in proportion by composition and division.

If a:b = 5 prove : c, the following :

12. cib = bia. 14. (b + -Vac)(b — Vac) = 0.

13. a:c = £ :c 2 2
. 15. ac-l:b-l = b+l:l.
16. If 2:7=3 :a, show that 2x = 21, anda;=10£.

Find the value of x in the following :

17. Ii7=3ix. 29. a;: 2.7=7: 5.4,

18. 2i9 = 5ix. 30. x 8.1i= 0.3 0.9. :

19. 4:28 = 3:z. 31. 2 :* = 32. :*::

20. 2:8 = ^:12. 32. 7ix = x:2S.

21. 3:5 = ^:9. 33. 1:1 + ^ = ^-1:3.
22. 7: 21 = xi 5. 34. 5:x-2 = x + 2:l.
23. 3:5 = ^+1:10, 35. cc:2a = 3a:6.
2

24. 8:15 = 2^ + 3:45, 36. xi±a = 2a ix 2 2

.

25. 0.8:^ = 4:9. 37. ail=x-l:7.

26. 0.7:^ = 21:15. 38. x +lix -1=3:2,
27. 0.25:^ = 5:8. 39. 3 ix+ 4 = - 4: 3. sc

28. a: 1.3 = 4: 0.26, 40. abib = b-cxibc-x.

 PROPORTIONAL LINES 157

Proposition IX. Theorem

273. If a line is drawn through two sides of a tri-

angle parallel to the third side, it divides the tivo sides

proportionally.
A

EL \F

u/
B^- *<7

Given the triangle ABC, with EF drawn parallel to BC.

To prove that EB AE = FC AF. : :

Case 1. When AE and EB are commensurable.

Proof. Assume that MB is a common measure of AE and EB,

Let MB be contained m times in EB, and n times in AE.

Then EB:AE = m:n.

(For m and n are the numerical measures of EB and AE.)

At the points of division on EB and AE draw lines II to BC.

These lines will divide AC intom+ n equal parts, of which
FC will contain m parts, and AF will contain n parts. § 134

.*. FC :AF=m:n.
,'.EB:AE = FC:AF, by Ax. 8. Q.e.d.

For practical purposes this proves the proposition, for even if AE and

EB are incommensurable, we can, by taking a unit of measure small

enough, find the measure of AE and EB to as close a degree of approxi-
mation as we may desire, just as we can carry v2 to as many decimal
places as we wish, although its exact value cannot be expressed rationally.
On this account many teachers omit the incommensurable case dis-
cussed on page 158, or merely require the proof there given to be read
aloud and explained by the class.
 •

158 BOOK III. PLANE GEOMETRY

Case 2. When AE and EB are incommensurable,

B u
Proof. Divide AE into a number of equal parts, and apply
one of thebe parts to EB as many times as EB will contain it.

Since AE and EB are incommensurable, a certain number of

these parts will extend from E to some point G, leaving a
remainder GB less than one of these parts.
Draw GH II to BC.
Then EG AE = FH: AF.
: Case 1

By increasing the number of equal parts into which AE is

divided, we can make the length of each part less than any
assigned positive value, however small, but not zero.
Hence GB, which is less than one of these equal parts, has
zero for a limit. § 204
And the corresponding segment HC has zero for a limit.

Therefore EG approaches EB as a limit,

and FH approaches FC as a limit.

—— —
the variable
AE approaches AE- a
.*. - as limit,

FH FC
the variable —— approaches —— as a
AF ^
and limit.
AF
But —— is always equal to -— Case 1
AE AF
by§2 07.
,.ff = g,
 PROPORTIONAL LINES 159

274. Corollary 1. One side of a triangle is to either of

its segments cut off by a line parallel to the base as the third
side is to its corresponding segment
For EB:AE = FC : AF. § 273
By composition, EB + AE AE = FC + AF: AF,
:
§ 267
or AB:AE = AC:AF. Ax. 11

275. Corollary 2. Three or more parallel lines cut off

proportional intercepts on any two transversals.
Draw AN II to CD. A c
Then AL = LM = GK, MN = KB.
CG, § 127 F L l\
\«

and
Now AH:AM=AF:AL=FR:LM,
AH: A M = EB MN. :
§274
§ 273
»
i

I
.\AF:CG=FH:GK = HB:KD. Ax. 9
\

EXERCISE 43
1. In the figure of § 275, suppose AH =5 in., AF=2 in.,

and Cii:= 6 in. Find the length of CG. d_ c

2. In this square PQ is to AB. II If a side of the l

square is 10 in.,DB = 14.14 in. If DP = 3 in.,

what is the length of DQ?

3. The sides of a triangle are respectively 3 in., 4 in., and

5 in. A line is drawn parallel to the 4-inch side, cutting the
3-inch side 1 in. from the vertex of the largest angle. Find
the length of the two segments cut from the longest side.

4. Two pieces of timber 1 ft. wide are fitted together at

right angles as here shown. AB is 8 ft. long, AC 6 ft. long,
and the distance BC, along the dotted line, c
is 10 ft. A carpenter finds it necessary to
saw along the dotted line. Find the length
of the slanting cut across the upright piece
across the horizontal piece.
3,
160 BOOK III. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition X. Theorem
276. If a line divides two sides of a triangle propor-
tionally from the vertex, it is parallel to the third side,

B C
Given the triangle ABC with EF drawn so that

EB_FC
AE~ AF'
To prove that EF is to BC. II

Proof. Suppose that EF is not parallel to BC.

Then from E draw some other line, as EH, parallel to BC.
Then AB AE = AC AH.
: : §274
(One side of a A is to either of its segments cut off by a line II to the

base as the third side is to its corresponding segment.)

But EB:AE = FC:AF. Given

.'. EB + AE:AE = FC-\- AF:AF }
§267
or AB:AE = AC:AF. Ax. 11
.\AC:AF=AC:AH. Ax. 8
.'.AF=AH. §263
(For the two antecedents are equal.)

,'. EF and EH must coincide. Post. 1

(For their end points coincide.)

But EH is II to BC. Const

.'. EF, which coincides with EH, is II to BC. Q.E.Do

This proposition is the converse of Prop. IX.

 PROPORTIONAL LINES 161

277. Dividing a Line into Segments. If a given line AB is

divided at P, a point between the extremities A and Z>, it is

said to be divided internally into the segments and PB-, AP

and if it is divided at P\ a point in the prolongation of BA, it is
said to be divided externally into the segments AP* and P'B.

P' A P B

In either case the length of the segment is the distance from the
point of division to an extremity of the line. If the line is divided
internally, the sum of the segments is equal to the line ; and if the line
is divided externally, the difference of the segments is equal to the line.

Suppose it is required to divide the given line AB internally

and externally in the same ratio: as, for example, in the ratio
of the two numbers 3 and 5.

P' A P B

We divide AB into 3 + 5, or 8, equal parts, and take 3 parts

from A ; vre then have the point P, such that

AP:PB = 3:o. (1)

Secondly, we divide AB into 5 — 3, or 2, equal parts, and lay

offon the prolongation of BA three of these equal parts ; we
then have the point P', such that

AP':P'B = 3:o. (2)

Comparing (1) and (2), we have

AP:PB = AP':P'B.

278. Harmonic Division. If a given straight line is divided

internally and externally into segments having the same ratio,

the line is said tc be divided harmonically.

Thus the line AB has just been divided internally and externally in
the same ratio. 3 : 5, and AB is therefore said to be divided harmonically

at P and P' m the ratio 3 : 5.

162 BOOK III. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XI. Theorem

279. The bisector of an angle of a triangle divides

the opposite side into segments which are proportional
to the adjacent sides.

M
Given the bisector of the angle C of the triangle ABC> meeting
AB at M.
To prove that AM: MB = CA: CB.
Proof. From A draw a line II to MC.
This line must meet BC produced, because BC and MC
cannot both be parallel to the same line. § 94
Let this line meet BC produced at E.
Then AM: MB = EC :CB. §273
(If a line is drawn through two sides of a A parallel to the third side, it

divides the two sides proportionally .)

Also ZACM=Z.CAE, §100

(Alt.-int. A o/ll lines are equal.)

and Z MCB = Z.AEC. § 102

(Ext.-int. A of II lines are equal.)

But Z A CM = Z MCB. Given

.'.ZCAE = ZAEC. Ax. 8
EC=CA.
.'. §76
Put CA for its equal EC in the first proportion.

Then AM:MB=CA:CB f
by Ax. 9. q.e.d.
 PKOPORTIONAL LINES 163

Proposition XII. Theorem

280. The of an exterior angle of a triangle

bisector

divides the opposite side externally into segments which

are proportional to the adjacent sides.

A -°

Given the bisector of the exterior angle ECA of the triangle ABC,
meeting BA produced at M'.

To prove that AM' M'B = CA

: : CB.

Proof. Draw AF II to M'C, meeting BC at F.

Then AM' M'B = FC

: : CB. § 274
(One side of a A is to either of its segments cut off by a line II to

the base as the third side is to its corresponding segment.)

Now Z E CM' = Z CFA ,

§ 102
and Z M'C A =Z.FAC. § 100
But ZECM'=ZM'CA. Given
.'.ZCFA=Z.FAC. Ax. 8
.\CA = FC. §76
Put CA for its equal FC in the first proportion.

Then ^M': jlf '£ = CA : C£, by Ax. 9. q.e.d.

Discussion. In case CA = CB, what is the arrangement of the lines ?

281. Corollary. TJie bisectors of the interior angle and the

exterior angle at the same vertex of a triangle, meeting the
opposite side, divide that side harmonically.
164 BOOK III. PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 44
1. In a triangle ABC, AD = 6.5, CA = 6, £C = 7. Find the
segments of AB made by the bisector of the angle C.

2. In a triangle ABC, CA = 7.5, BC = 7,AB = 8. Find the

segments of CA made by the bisector of the angle B.
3. The sides of a triangle are 12, 16, 20. Find the segments
of the sides made by bisecting the angles.
4. If a spider, in making its web,

makes A'B' to AB, B'C to BC, CD'

II II

IIto CD, D'E' to DE, and E'F' to EF,

II II

and then runs a line from F' to FA, II

will it strike the point A'? Prove it.

5. From any point within the triangle ABC the lines

OA, OB, OC are drawn and are bisected respectively by A', B\
and C. Prove that Z CBA = Z C'B'A'.
6. Prove Ex. 5 if the point is outside the triangle.

7. From any point within the quadrilateral ABCD lines are

drawn to the vertices A, B, C, D, and are bisected by A ', B', C D\
1

Prove that Z CBA = Z C'B'A 1

.

8. If a pendulum swings at the point O, cutting two paral-

lel lines at P and Q respectively, the ratio OP OQ is constant. :

9. Through a fixed point Pa line is drawn cutting a fixed

line at X. PX is then divided at Y so that the ratio PY:YX
is constant. Find the locus of the point FasI moves along
the fixed line.
10. From the point P on the side CA of the triangle ABC
parallels to the other sides are drawn meeting AB in Q and BC
in R. Prove that AQ: QB = BR-.RC.
11. In the triangle ABC, P and Q are taken on the sides CA
and BC so that AP PC = BQ
QC. AR is then drawn
: : parallel
to P£, meeting CB
produced in R. Prove that CB is the mean
proportional between CQ and Cis!.
 SIMILAR POLYGONS 165

282. Similar Polygons. Polygons that have their correspond-

ing angles equal, and their corresponding sides proportional,
are called similar polygons.

Thus the polygons ABODE and A'B'C'D'E' are similar, if the A A, B,

C, D, E are equal respectively to the A A', B', C, IX, E', and if
AB A'B' = BC B'C = CD CD* = DE D E' = EA E'A'.
: : : :
/
:

Similar polygons are commonly said to be of the same shape.

283. Corresponding Lines. In similar polygons those lines

that are similarly situated with respect to the equal angles
are called corresponding lines.
Corresponding lines are also called homologous lines.

284. Ratio of Similitude. The ratio of any two corresponding

lines in similar polygons is called the ratio of similitude of
the polygons.
The primary idea of similarity is likeness of form. The two
conditions necessary for similarity are

1. For every angle in one of the figures there must be an

equal angle in the other.
2. The corresponding sides must be proportional.

Thus Q and Q* are not similar ; the corresponding sides are

proportional, but the corresponding angles are not equal. Also
R and PJ are not similar; the corresponding angles are equal,
but the corresponding sides are not proportional.

/
Q R'

In the case of triangles either condition implies the other.

 ;

166 BOOK III. PLANE GEOMETRY

Proposition XIII. Theorem
285. Two mutually equiangular triangles are similar,

Given the triangles ABC and A B C\ } ]

having the angles A, Z?, C
equal to the angles A\ B' y
C* respectively.

To prove that A ABC and A'B'C' are similar.

the

Proof. Since the A are mutually equiangular, Given

we have only to prove that

AB = AC A'C = BC B'C.
: A'B' : : § 282
Place the AA'B'C on the A ABC so that ZC shall coincide
with its equal, the ZC, and A'B' take the position PQ. Post. 5

Then Zp = Z A. Given
.*. PQ is II to AB. § 103
.'.AC:PC = BC: QC §274
that is, AC:A'C' = BC:B'C. Ax. 9
Similarly, by placing the A A 'B'C on the A ABC so that Z B'
shall coincide with its equal, the Z B, we can prove that
AB:A'B' = BC:B'C.
.'. AB A'B' = AC A'C = BC B'C. Ax. 8
: : :

.-. A^4£C is similar to AA'B'C, by § 282. q.e.d.

286. Corollary 1. :7W triangles are similar if two angles

of the one are equal respectively to two angles of the other.

287. Corollary 2. Two right triangles are similar if an

acute angle of the one is equal to an acute angle of the other
 SIMILAR POLYGONS 167

Proposition XIV. Theorem

288. If have an angle of the one equal
tioo triangles

to an angle of the other, and the including sides propor-

tional, they are similar.

Given the triangles ABC and A'B'C with the , angle C equal to
the angle C and with CA CA' = CB CB'.
: :

To prove that the A ABC and A'B'C are similar.

Proof. Place the A A'B'C on the A ABC so that AC shall

coincide with its equal, the Z C. Post. 5
Then let A A'B'C take the position of the APQC.
CA CB
Now .

Given
CA'~ CB''
CA CB
that is, Ax. 9
cp~~cq'
CA — CP CB — CQ
.-. §268
CQ
PA _ QB
or
CP~ CQ
,\ PQ is to AB.
II
§ 276
(If a line divides two sides of a A proportionally, it is II to the third side.)

.'. Z.p = Z A,
and Aq = AB. § 102
Now = AC.Z.C Given
.'. A PQC is similar to A ABC. § 285
'. A A'B'C is similar to A ABC q.b.d.
168 BOOK III. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XV. Theorem
289. If two triangles have their sides respectively
proportional, they are similar.

B A' b'

Given the triangles ABC and A'B'C, having

AB A'B = BC B'C = CA:C'A'.
:
1
:

To prove that the A ABC and A'B'C are % similar.

Proof. Upon CA take CP equal to C'A', and upon CB take

CQ equal to C'B'-, and draw PQ.
Now CA C A' = BC:B'C.
:
,
Given
Or, since '
CP = C'A and CQ = C'B',
', Const
CA :CP = CB: CQ. Ax. 9
Also Z.C = ZC. Iden.
.'. A ABC and PQC are similar. §288
(If two A have an angle of the one equal to an angle of the other, and
the including sides proportional, they are similar.)

.'.CA:CP = AB:PQ-, §282

that is, CA:C'A' = AB: PQ. Ax. 9
But CA: C'A' = AB:A'B'. Given
.'.AB:PQ = AB:A'B'. Ax. 8
.'.PQ = A'B'. §263
Hence the A PQC and A'B'C are congruent §80
But A PQC has been proved similar to A ABC.
.'. A A'B'C is similar to A ABC. q.e.d.
 SIMILAR POLYGONS 169

Proposition XVI. Theorem

290. Two triangles which have their sides respectively
parallel, or respectively perpendicular, are similar.

Given the triangles ABC and A'B'C' , with their sides respec-
tively parallel ; and the triangles DEF and D'E'F' , with their sides
respectively perpendicular.

To prove that 1. the A ABC and A'B'C are similar;

2. the A DEF and D'E'F' are similar.
Proof. 1. Produce BC and AC to B'A', forming Ax and y.

Then A B = Zx(§ 100), and AB' = Ax. §102

.\AB = AB'. Ax. 8
In like manner, A A = AA'.
.-. A ABC is similar to A A'B'C. § 286

2. Produce BE and FD to meet £>'£' and F'D' at P and 72.

The quadrilateral E'QEP has Z^> and q right angles. Given

A E' and P£Q are supplementary.

.*. § 144
But Ay and PEQ are supplementary. § 43
Therefore Ay = AE'. § 58
In like manner, Ax = AD'.
.'.A DEF is similar to A D'E'F, by § 286. Q.E.D.

Discussion. The parallel sides and the perpendicular sides respectively

are corresponding sides of the triangles.
170 BOOK III. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XVII. Theorem
291.The perimeters of two similar polygons have the
same ratio as any tivo corresponding sides.

Given the two similar polygons ABODE and A'B'C'D'E', with

p and p 1
representing their respective perimeters.

To prove that p:p' = AB: A'B'.

AB BC CD DE EA
_
Proof
,

'
^+ =BC+&c'=W
AB
=
CD+DE +
We>
EA
z=
&a>'
AB
_
§282
___

§ 269
' '
A'B' + B'C'+C'D'+D'E' + E'A' A'B'

,\p :p' = AB: A'B', by Ax. 9. Q.e.d.

EXERCISE 45
1. The corresponding altitudes of two similar triangles have
the same ratio as any two corresponding sides.

2. The base and altitude of a triangle are 15 in. and 7 in.

respectively. The corresponding base of a similar triangle is
3.75 in. Find the corresponding altitude.

3. If two parallels are cut by three concurrent transversals,

the corresponding segments of the parallels are proportional.

4. The point P is any point on the side OX of the angle

XOY. From P a perpendicular PQ is let fall on OY. Prove

that for any position of P on OX the ratio OP PQ : is constant,
and the ratio PQ: OQ is constant.
 SIMILAR POLYGONS 171

5 In drawing a map of a triangular field with sides 75 rd.,

60 rd., and 50 rd. respectively, the longest side is drawn 1 in.
long. How long are the other two sides drawn ?

6. This figure represents part of a diagonal scale used by

draftsmen. The distance from to 10
is 1 centimeter, or 10 millimeters. Show
how to measure 5 mm. 1 mm. ; ; 0.9 mm.
0.5 mm. 1.5 mm. On what proposition
;

does this depend ? 10

7. This figure represents a pair of proportional

compasses used by draftsmen. By adjusting the
screw at 0, the lengths OA and OC, and the corre-
sponding lengths OB and OD, may be varied pro-
portionally. Prove that A OAB is always similar
to AOCD. I£OA = 3 in. and OC = 5 in., then AB
is what part of CD ?
ABCD is any polygon and P is any
8.

point. On AP any point A 'is taken and A'B' -FVr

is drawn parallel to AB as shown. Then

i?'C and CD' are drawn parallel to BC and

CD. Is D'A' parallel to DA ? Is A'B CD'
1

similar to ABCD ? Prove it.

9. If two circles are tangent externally, the corresponding

segments of two lines drawn through the point of contact and
terminated by the circles are proportional.

10. If two circles are tangent externally, their common ex-

ternal tangent is the mean proportional between their diameters.

11. ABand AC are chords drawn from any point A on

a and AD is a diameter. If the tangent at D intersects
circle,

AB and A C at E and F, the triangles ABC and AEF are similar.

12. If AD and BE are two altitudes of the triangle ABC y
the
triangles DEC and ABC are similar.
172 BOOK III. PLANE GEOMETBY
Proposition XVIII. Theorem
292. If two polygons are similar, they can he sepa-
rated into the same number of triangles, similar each to
each, and similarly placed.

Given two similar polygons ABCDE&nd A'B'C'D'E' with angles

A, B, C, D, E equal to angles A\ B\ C D E respectively.
f
,
f
,
f

To prove that ABODE and A'B'C'D'E' can be separated

into the same number of triangles, similar each to each, and

similarly placed.

Proof. ] Draw the corresponding diagon; •ds DA, DA .

', and
DB, D'B'.
Z E = Z E',
Since §282
and DE : D'E' = EA : EA', §282
.'. ADEA and D'E A' are similar. §288
In like manner, A DBC and D'B'C are similar*
Furthermore Z BA E = / B'A 'E', §282
and /DAE = /DA'E'. §282
By subtracting, /.BAD = /BA'D'. Ax. 2
Now DA : = EA E'A',
D'A' : §282
and AB :A'B' = EA :E'A'. §282
.'.DA :DA' = AB:A'B', Ax. 8
.*. A DAB and DA B' are similar, by
f

§ 288. Q.E.D.
 SIMILAR POLYGONS 173

Proposition XIX. Theorem

293. If tivo polygons are composed of thesame num-
ber of triangles, similar each to each, and similarly
placed, the polygons are similar.

A B A
Given two polygons ABCDE and A'B'C'D'E 1
composed of the

DEA, DAB, DBC, similar respectively

triangles to the triangles
D'E'A' D'A'B', D'B'C\ and similarly placed.
y

To prove that ABCDE is similar to A'B'C'D'E'.

Proof. ZE = ZE'. §282

Also Z DAE = Z D'A 'E',

and ZBAD = ZB'A'D'. §282

By adding, ZBAE = AB'A'E'. Ax. 1
Similarly Z CBA = Z C'B'A and Z EDC = Z E'D'C.
',

Again, Z.C = Z.C. §282

Hence the polygons are mutually equiangular.

BE EA DA AB DB BC CD
Also §282
D'E' EA 1
DA
DA' A'B' D'B' B'C CD'
Hence the polygons are not only mutually equiangular but
they have their corresponding sides proportional.
Therefore the polygons are similar, by § 282. q.e.d.

Thir, proposition is the converse of Prop. XVIII.

 :

174 BOOK III. PLANE GEOMETRY

Proposition XX. Theorem
294. If in a right triangle a perpendicular is drawn
from the vertex of the right angle to the hypotenuse

1. The triangles thus formed are similar to the given

triangle, and are similar to each other.
2. Tlie perpendicular is the mean proportional be-

tween the segments of the hypotenuse.

3. Each of the other sides is the mean proportional
between the hypotenuse and the segment of the hypote-
nuse adjacent to that side.

A F B
Given the right triangle ABC, with CF drawn from the vertex
of the right angle C, perpendicular to AB.
1. To prove that the A BCA, CFA, BFC are similar.

Proof. Since the Z a' is common to the rt. A CFA and BCA,
.'. A are similar.
these § 287
Since the Z.b is common to the A BFC and BCA,
rt.

.'.these A are similar. § 287

Since the A CFA and BFC are each similar to A BCA,
.'. A are mutually equiangular.
these § 282
Therefore the A CFA and BFC are similar, by § 285, q.e.d.

2. To prove that AF:CF=CF: FB.

Proof. In the similar A CFA and BFC,
AF:CF = CF: FB, by § 282. Q.E.D.
 NUMERICAL PROPERTIES OF FIGURES 175

3. To prove that AB AC = AC AF,

: :

and AB:BC = BC:BF.

Proof. In the similar ABC A and CFA,
AB:AC = AC:AF. §282
In the similar ABC A and BFC,
AB:BC = BC : BF, by §282. q.e.d.

295. Corollary 1. The squares on the two sides of a right

triangle are proportional to the segments of the hypotenuse
adjacent to those sides.

From the proportions in § 294, 3,

2
AC = AB x AF, znd'BC = AB 2
x BF. §261

^
Hence
AC 2 = AB x AF = AF A
Ax. A
4
BC AB x BF BF
2

296. Corollary 2. The square on the hypotenuse and the

square on either side of a right triangle are proportional to

the hypotenuse and the segment of the hypotenuse adjacent

to that side.

Since AB* = AB x AB, Iden.

and, as in § 295, AC 2 = AB x AF, §261
AB 2 AB x AB AB Ax. 4
'
AC ~ AB x AF~ AF
2

297. Corollary 3. The' perpendicular from any point on

a circle to a diameter is the mean proportional between the
segments of the diameter. g,

298.Corollary 4. If a perpendicular
is drawn from any point on a circle to a
diameter, the chord from that point to A
either extremity of the diameter is the mean proportional be-

tween the diameter and the segment adjacent to that chord.

176 BOOK III. PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 46
1. The perimeters of two similar polygons are 18 in. and
14 in. If a side of the first is 3 in., find the corresponding side
of the second.

2. In two similar triangles, ABC and A'B'C, AB = 6 in.,

BC == 7 in., CA = 8 in., and A'B' =9 in. Find B'C and C'A'.
3. The corresponding bases of two similar triangles are
11 in. and 13 in. The altitude of the first is 6 in. Find the
corresponding altitude of the second.
4. The perimeter of an equilateral triangle is 51 in. Find
the side of an equilateral triangle of half the altitude.
5. The sides of a polygon are 2 in., 2J- in., 3j in., 3 in., and
5 in. Find the perimeter of a similar polygon whose longest
side is 7 in.

6. The perimeter of an isosceles triangle is 13, and the ratio

of one of the equal sides to the base is 1§. Find the three sides.
7. The perimeter of a rectangle is 48 in., and the ratio of
two of the sides is f . Find the sides.

8. In drawing a map to the scale T q oV o o>

wn at length will
represent the sides of a county that is a rectangle 25 mi. long
and 10 mi. wide ? Answer to the nearest tenth of an inch.

9. Two circles touch at P. Through P three lines are

drawn, meeting one circle in A, B, C, and the other in
A', B',-C respectively. Prove the triangles ABC, A'B'C similar.
10. If two circles are tangent internally, all chords of the
greater circle drawn from the point of contact are divided pro-
portionally by the smaller circle.

11. In an inscribed quadrilateral the product of the diagonals

is equal to the sum of the products of the opposite
sides.

Draw BE, making ZEBC = Z ABB. The A ABB and A*

ECB are similar ; and theA BCB and AEB are similar.
 NUMERICAL PROPERTIES OF FIGURES 177

Proposition XXI. Theorem

299. Iftioo chords intersect ivithin a circle, the prod-
uct of the segments of the one is equal to the product
of the segments of the other.

Given the chords AB and CD, intersecting at P,

To prove that PAxPB=PCx PD.

Proof. Draw A C and BD.
Then since Aa = Z.a\ § 214
{Each is measured by | arc CB.)

and Z.c = Zc\ §214

(Each is measured by \ arc DA.)

.*. the A CPA BPD are similar.

and § 286
.*. PA-.PD^PC: PB. § 282
.'. PA xPB=PC XPD, by §261. q.e.d.

300. Corollary. If two chords intersect within a circle,

the segments of the one are reciprocally proportional to the

segments of the other.

This means, for example, that PA PB equals the reciprocal of PB
: : PC,
or equals PC : PB, as shown above.

301. Secant to a Circle. A secant from an external point to a

circle is understood to mean the segment of the secant that lies

between the given external point and the second point of inter-
section of the secant and circle.
178 BOOK III. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XXII. Theorem
302. If from a point outside a circle a secant and a
tangent are drawn, the tangent is the mean propor-
tional between the secant and its external segment.

Given a tangent AD and a secant AC drawn from the point A to

the circle BCD.

To prove that AC:AD = AD:AB.
Proof. Draw DC and DB.
Now Zc is measured by J arc DB, § 214
and Z c' is measured by J arc DB. § 220
.\Zc = Zc'.
Then in the A ADC and ABD,
Aa = Z.a, Iden.

and Ac — Z.c\
.'. A ADC and ABD are similar. § 286
.*. AC \AD = AD:AB, by §282. oe.d.

303. Corollary. If from a fixed point outside a circle a

secant is drawn, the product of the secant and its external
segment is constant in whatever direction the secant is drawn.
Since AC AD = AD AB,
: : §302
.-. AC x AB = AD 2 . §261
Since AD is constant (§ 192), therefore AC x AB is constant.
 NUMERICAL PROPERTIES OF FIGURES 179

Proposition XXIII. Theorem

304. The square on the bisector of an angle of a tri-
angle is equal to the product of the sides of this angle
diminished by the product of the segments made by the
bisector upon the third side of the triangle.

Given the line CP bisecting the angle ACB of the triangle ABC,
To prove that CP = CA x BC-AP x PB.
2

Proof. Circumscribe the OBCA about the A ABC. §240

Produce CP to meet the circle in D, and draw BD.
Then in the A BCD and PC A,
Z_m = A m\ Given
and Z.a' = Aa. §214
{Each is measured by | arc BC.)

.'. the A BCD and PC A are similar. § 286

.-. CD CA = BC
: : CP. § 282
.*. CA xBC=CDx CP § 261
= (CP+PD)CP Ax. 9
2
= CP -\-CPx PD.
But CPxPD = APxPB. §299
CA xBC= CP +APX PB. Ax. 9
.'.CP =CAxBC-APxPB,byAx.2. q.e.d.

This theorem enables us to compute the bisectors of the angles of a

by the opposite sides, if the sides are known. The
triangle terminated
theorem may be omitted without destroying the sequence.
180 BOOK III. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XXIV. Theorem
305. In any triangle the product of two sides is equal
to tlie product of the diameter of the circumscribed circle
by the altitude upon the third side.

Given the triangle ABC with CP the altitude, ADBC the circle
circumscribed about the triangle ABC, and CD a diameter.

To prove that CAxBC=CDxCP.

Proof. Draw BD.
Then in the A A PC and DEC,
Z CPA is a rt. Z, Given
Z CBD is a rt. Z ?
§ 215
Z a is measured by \ arc BC,
and Z a' is measured by J arc BC. § 214
.\Za = Za'.
.'. A APC and D£C are similar. § 287
(Two rt. A are similar if an acute Z of the one is equal to an acute Z
of the other.)

.'. CA CD=CP:BC.
: §282
.'. CA xBC=CDx CP, by § 261. q.e.d.

This theorem may be omitted without destroying the sequence. Props.

XXIII and XXIV are occasionally demanded in college entrance ex-
aminations, but they are not necessary for proving subsequent propo-
sitions or forany of the exercises. Teachers may therefore use their
judgment as to including them.
 NUMERICAL PROPERTIES OF FIGURES 181

EXERCISE 47

1. The tangents to two intersecting circles, drawn from any

point in their common chord produced, are equal.

2. The common chord of two intersecting circles, if produced,

bisects their common tangents.

3. If two circles are tangent externally, the common internal

tangent bisects the two common external tangents.

4. If a line drawn from a vertex of a triangle divides the

opposite side into segments proportional to the adjacent sides,
the line bisects the angle at the vertex.

5. If three circles intersect one another, the common chords

are concurrent.
Let two of the chords, AB and CD, meet at O. Join
the point of intersection E to 0, and suppose that EO
produced meets the same two circles at two different
pointsP and Q. Then prove that OP = OQ (§ 299),
and hence that the points P and Q coincide.

6. The square on the bisector of an exterior angle of a triangle

is equal to the product of the segments determined by this
bisector upon the opposite side, diminished by
the product of the other two sides.
H
Let CD bisect the exterior Z BCR of the A ABC. A^r D
A ADC and FBC are similar (§ 286). Apply § 303.

7. If the line of centers of two cifcies meets the circles at the

consecutive points A, B, C, D, and meets the common external
tangent at P, then PA x PD = PB x PC
8. The line of centers of two circles meets the common
external tangent at P, and a secant is drawn from P, cutting
the circles at the consecutive points E, F, G, H. Prove that
PE XPH = PFXPG.
Draw radii to the points of contact, and to E, F, G, H.' T5fet fall Js on
PR from the centers of the- ©. The various pairs of A are siniHmr.
182 BOOK III. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XXV. Problem
306.To divide a given line into parts proportional
to any number of given lines.
A
W
TZ
M*
^

\
N* B
*

\ \
V

w
\*V\\ :k S
N'
n
P
>^v
p
K
Given the lines AB, m, n, and p.
Required to divide AB into parts proportional to m, n, andp.
Construction. Draw AX, making any convenient Z. with AB,
On AX take AM equal to m,
MN equal to n, and NP equal to p.
Draw BP.
From N draw NN' II to PB,
and from M draw MM '
II to PB. § 233
Then M' and N' are the division points required. q.e.f.

Proof. Through A draw a line II to PB. § 233

AM' __ M'N' _ NB
AM ~" MN ~ NP'
(Three or more \\
lines cut off proportional intercepts on any two
transversals.)

Substituting m, n, and^? for their equals AM, MN, and NP,

AM' = M'N' = N'B . _
we have Ax. 9
m n p
This means that AB has been divided as required. Q.B.D.

In like manner, we may divide AB into parts proportional to any

number of given lines.
 PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION 183

Proposition XXVI. Problem

307. To find the fourth proportional to three given
lines.

P\ / y
/

\
Given the three lines 772, n, and p.

Required to find the fourth proportional to m, n, and p.

Construction. Draw two lines AX and AY containing any-
convenient angle.
On AX AB equal to m,
take

and take BC equal to n.

On A Y take AD equal to p.
Draw BD.
From C draw CE \\ to BD, meeting A Y at E. § 233
Then DE is the fourth proportional required. q.e.f.

Proof. AB : BC = AD : DE. § 273

{If a line is drawn through two sides of a AW to the third side, it divides
the two sides proportionally.)

Substituting m, n, andp for their equals AB, BC, and AD,

we have m n=p : : DE. Ax. 9

Therefore DE is the fourth proportional to m, n, and p,

by § 259. q.e.d.

308. Corollary. To find the third proportional to two

given lines.

In the above proof lake m, n, n as the given lines instead of m, n, p.

184 BOOK III. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XXVII. Problem
309. To find the mean proportional between two given
lines.
H

A m C n E
Given the two lines m and n.

Required to find the mean proportional between m and n.

Construction. Draw any line AE, and on AE take AC equal

to ra, and CB equal to n.

On AB as a diameter describe a semicircle.

At C erect the _L CH, meeting the circle at H. § 228

Then CH is the mean proportional between m and n. q. e. f.

Proof. AC CH=CH:: CB. § 297

(
The JL from any point on a circle to a diameter is the mean
proportional between the segments of the diameter.)

Substituting for AC and CB their equals m and n,

we have m CH= CH
: : n, by Ax. 9. q.e.d.

310. Extreme and Mean Ratio. If a line is divided into two

segments such that one segment is the mean proportional be-
tween the whole and the other segment, the
line line is said to
be divided in extreme and mean ratio.
E.g. the line a is divided in extreme and mean ratio, if a segment x
found such that
is n x
a „.
= x^ an — x. : :

The division of a line in extreme and mean ratio is often called the
Golden Section.
 PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION 185

Proposition XXYIII. Problem

311. To divide a given line in extreme and mean ratio.

S
/

.£-
> i
i
\
•

/
-A /
C, .^ & B
Given the line AB.

Required to divide AB in extreme and mean ratio.

Construction. At B erect a _L BE equal to half of AB. § 228

From £asa center, with a radius equal to EB, describe a GX
Draw AE, meeting the circle at F and G.

Un AB take AC equal to AF.

On BA produced take AC' equal to AG.
Then AB is divided internally at C and externally at C' in
extreme and mean ratio.

That is, AB AC = AC
: : CB, and AB:AC' = AC': C'B. q.b.f.

Proof. AG:AB = AB:AF. §302

From AG:AB = AB:AF .•.^5:^(9=^1^:^5. § 266 y

AG-AB:AB = .\y!5+ylG:.4G =
AB — AF AF. :

o\AG-FG:AB = .•.^5+^C':^C' =
AB-AC :AC. AF + FGiAB.
.\AC:AB = CB:AC.
AB:AC=AC CB,
.*. yl5:^C' = ^C' C'B
: .-. :
9

by inversion, § 266. q.e.d. by §§ 261, 264. O.B.D.

186 BOOK III. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XXIX. Problem
312. Upon a given line corresponding to a given side
of a given polygon, to construct a polygon similar to

the given polygon.

Y
i

,K
\
\/
art
\sWS* y

/
A?

Given the line A'B and'

the polygon ABODE.
Required to construct on A'B\ corresponding to AB, a
polygon similar to the polygon ABCDE.
Construction. From A draw the diagonals AD and AC.
From A' draw A 'X, A'Y, and A'Z, making Ax', y\ and z' equal
respectively to A x, y, and z. § 232

From B' draw a line, making A B' equal to A B,

and meeting A'X at C.

From C' draw a line, making AD'C'B' equal to A DCB,

and meeting A'Y at D'.

From D' draw a line, making AE'D'C equal to AEDC,

and meeting A'Z at E'.

Then A'B'C'D'E' is the required polygon. q.e.f.

Proof. The A ABC and ^'5'C, the A ACD and ^ 'CD', and
the A ADE and A'D'E', are similar. 286 §

Therefore the two polygons are similar, by § 293. Q. e. d

 EXERCISES 187

EXERCISE 48
1. If a and b are two given lines, construct a line equal to x,
where x = Consider the special case of a = 2, b = 3
'\foib.

2. If m a nd n a re two given lines, construct a line equal to ar,

where x = ~\2mn.
3. Determine both by geometric construction and arith-
metically the third proportional to the lines lj in. and 2 in.

4. Determine both by geometric construction and arith-

metically the third proportional to the lines 4 in. and 3 in.

5. Determine both by geometric construction and arith-

metically the fourth proportional to the lines 1± in., 2 in.,

and 2\ in.

6. Determine both by geometric construction and arith-

metically the mean proportional between the lines 1.2 in.
and 2.7 in.

7. Find geometrically the square root of 5. Pleasure the

line and thus determine the approximate arithmetical value.
8. A map is drawn to the scale of 1 in. to 50 mi. How far
apart are two places that are 2^V in. apart on the map ? •

9. Find by geometric construction and arithmetically the

third proportional to the two lines 1 T\ in. and 2| in.
10. Divide a line 1 in. long in extreme and mean ratio.

Measure the two segments and determine their lengths to

the nearest sixteenth of an inch.

11. Divide a line 5 in. long in extreme and mean ratio.

Measure the two segments and determine their lengths to

the nearest sixteenth of an inch.
12. Divide a line 6 in. long in extreme and mean ratio.

Measure the two segments and determine their lengths to

the nearest sixteenth of an inch.
The propositions on this page are taken froio recent college entrance
examination papers.
188 BOOK III. PLANE GEOMETRY
13. Through a given point P within a given circle to draw
a chord AB so that the ratio AP BP shall
: equal
-rC
a given ratio m : n.

Draw OPC so that OP PC = : mm.

Draw (M equal to the fourth proportional to n, m,
and the radius of the circle.

14. To draw two lines making an angle of 60°, and to con-

struct all the circles of J in. radius that are tangent to both lines,

15. To draw through a given point P in the

arc subtended by a chord AB a chord which shall
be bisected by AB.
On radius OP take CD equal to CP. Draw DE WtoBA.

16. To construct two circles of radii J-

in.and 1 in. respec=
tively, which shall be tangent externally, and to construct a
third circle of radius 3 in., which shall be tangent to each of
these two circles and inclose both of them.

17. To draw through a given external

point P a secant PAB to a given circle so
p<-^
that the ratio PA AB shall equal the given
:

ratio m : n.

Draw the tangent PC. Make PD DC = m: : n. PA -.PC = PC PB.

:

18. To draw through a given external point

P a secant PAB to a given circle so that
AB PA x PB.

19. An equilateral triangle ABC is 2 in.

on a side. To construct a circle which shall be

tangent to AB at the point A and shall pass through the point C,

20. To draw through one of the points

of intersection of two circles a secant so
that the two chords that are formed shall
be in the given ratio m : n.
 EXERCISES 189

21. In a circle of 3 in. radius chords are drawn through a

point 1 in. from the center. What is the product of the seg-
ments of these chords ?

22. The chord AB is 3 in. long, and it is produced through

B to the point P so that PB is equal to 12 in. Find the tangent
from P.
23. TwoAB and CD intersect at 0. How would you
lines
ascertain, by measuring OA, OB, OC. and OB, whether or not
the four points A, B, C, and D lie on the same circle ?

24. This figure represents an instrument for finding the

centers of circular plates or sections of shafts. OC is a ruler
that bisects the angle A OB, and A
and OB are equal. Show that, if .4
and B rest on the circle, OC passes
through the center, and that by
drawing two lines the center can be
found.

25. If three circles are tangent externally each to the other

two, the tangents at their points of contact pass through the
center of the circle inscribed in the triangle formed by joining
the centers of the three given circles.

26. In the isosceles triangle ABC, C is a right angle, and AC

is 4 in. TVith A as center and a radius 2 in. a circle is described.
Required to describe another circle tangent to the first and also
tangent to BC at the point B.

27. Find the center of a circle of | in. radius, so drawn in

a semicircle of radius 2 in. as to be tangent to the semi-
circle itself and to its diameter.

28. To inscribe in a given circle a triangle similar to a given

triangle.

29. To draw two straight line-segments, having given their

sum and their ratio.
190 BOOK III. PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 49
Review Questions
1. What is meant by ratio ? by proportion ?

2. If a:b — c:d, write four other proportions involving

these quantities.

3. If a : b =c : d, is it true in general that a +1 : b -f-

=c : d? Is it ever true ?

4. When is a line divided harmonically ? The bisectors of

what angles of a triangle divide the opposite side harmonically ?

5. What are the two conditions necessary for the similarity
of two polygons ?
6. Are two mutually equiangular triangles similar ? Are
two mutually equiangular polygons always similar?
7. Are two triangles similar if their corresponding sides
are proportional ? Are two polygons always similar if their
corresponding sides are proportional ?

8. If two triangles have their sides respectively parallel,

are they similar ? Is this true of polygons in general ?

9. If two triangles have their sides respectively perpendicu-

lar, are they similar ? Is this true of polygons in general ?

10. Complete in two ways : The perimeters of two similar

polygons have the same ratio as any two corresponding
11. If in a right triangle a perpendicular is drawn from
the vertex of the right angle to the hypotenuse, state three
geometric truths that follow.
12. If two secants intersect outside, on, or within a circle,
what geometric truth follows ?
13. How would you proceed to divide a straight line into
seven equal parts ?
14. How would you proceed to find the square root of 7 by

measuring the length of a line ?

 BOOK IV

AREAS OF POLYGONS
313. Unit of Surface. A square the side of which is a unit of
length is called a unit of surface.
Thus a square that is 1 inch long is 1 square inch, and a square that is

1 mile long is 1 square mile. If we are measuring the dimensions of a

room in feet, we measure the surface of the floor in square feet. In
the same way we may measure the page of this book in square inches
and the area of a state in square miles.

314. Area of a Surface. The measure of a surface, expressed

in units of surface, is called its area.
If a room is 20 feet long and 15 feet wide, the floor contains 300 square
feet. Therefore the area of the floor is 300 square feet. Usually the two

sides of a rectangle are not commensurable, although by means of frac-

tions we may measure them to any required degree of approximation.
The incommensurable cases in theorems like Prop. I of this Book may
be omitted without interfering with the sequence of the course.

315. Equivalent Figures. Plane figures that have equal areas

are said to be equivalent.
In propositions relating to areas the words rectangle, triangle, etc., are
often used for area of rectangle, area of triangle, etc.
Since congruent figures may be made to coincide, congruent figures
are manifestly equivalent.
Because their areas are equal, equivalent figures are frequently spoken
of as equal figures.The symbol = is used both for " equivalent " and for
" congruent," the sense determining which meaning is to be assigned to it.
Occasionally these symbols are used: =, =, or = for congruent, = for
equal, and =c= for equivalent.
Since the word congruent means " identically equal," the word equal is

Dften used to mean "equivalent."

191
192 BOOK IV. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition I. Theorem
316. Two rectangles having equal altitudes are to each
other as their bases.

x
Given the rectangles AC and AF, having equal altitudes AD.
To prove that AC AF = base AB base AE.
: :

Case 1. When AB and AE are commensurable.

Proof. Suppose AB and AE have a common measure, as AX.
Suppose AX is contained m times in AB and n times in AE.
Then AB:AE = m:n.
(For m and n are the numerical measures of AB and AE.)
Apply JIas a unit of measure to AB and AE, and at the
several points of division erect _1§.

These _k are all _L to the upper bases, § 97

and these _k are all equal. § 128

Since to each base equal to AX there is one rectangle,

.'. AC is divided into m rectangles,
and AF is divided into n rectangles. § 119

These rectangles are all congruent. § 133

.'. n\AC:C2AF = m:n.
.'. dAC :{3AF = AB:AE, by Ax. 8. Q.E.D.

In this proposition we again meet the incommensurable case, as on

pages 116 and 157. This case is considered on page 193 and may be
omitted without destroying the sequence of the propositions.
 AEEAS OF POLYGONS 193

Case 2. When AB and AE are incommensurable.

Proof. Divide AE into any number of equal parts, and apply

one of these parts to AB as many times as AB will contain it.

Since AB and AE are incommensurable, a certain number of

these parts will extend from A
some point P, leaving a
to re-

mainder PB less than one of them. Draw PQ _L to AB.

U2AQ AP
Then Case 1
UXAF~~ AE
By increasing the number of equal parts into which AE is

divided we can diminish the length of each, and therefore can

make PB less than any assigned positive value, however small.
Hence PB approaches zero as a limit, as the number of parts
of AE is indefinitely increased, and at the same time the cor-
responding PC approaches zero as a limit." § 204
Therefore AP approaches AB as a limit, and UJAQ ap-
proaches AC as a limit.

.'. the variable 1

AE
— as a
— approaches AE 1 limit,

and the variable

A
_ approaches
D A C as a limit
ttAF LAAF_
, , , ,

AP — AQ
But -
AE
— .

is always equal
*
to
{HAP
> as AP varies in value and
approaches AB as a limit. Case 1

AC AB . . __„
Q.E.D.

317. Corollary". Two rectangles having equal bases are to

each other as their altitudes.
194 BOOK IV. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition II. Theorem
318. Two rectangles are to each other as the products
of their bases by their altitudes.

R'

b b' b

Given the rectangles R and i? f

, having for the numerical measure
of their bases b and b\ and of their altitudes a and a! respectively.

To prove that -— = —- •

R a'v

Proof. Construct the rectangle S, with its base equal to that

of R, and its altitude equal to that of PJ.

Then
R_ a §317

and §316

Since we are considering areas, we may treat R, R\ and S as

numbers and take the products of the corresponding members
of these equations. § 272

We therefore have —
= -jp by Ax. 3. o. e. d.
f
>

319. Products of Lines. When we speak of the product of a

and b we mean the product of their numerical
values. It is possible, however, to think of a
line as the product of two lines, by changing
the definition of multiplication. Thus in this
figure in which two parallels are cut by two intersecting trans-
versals, we have 1 a = b x.: : Therefore x = ab. In the same
way we may find xc, or abc, the product of three lines.
 AREAS OF POLYGONS 195

Proposition III. Theorem

320. The area of a rectangle is equal to the product
of its base by its altitude.

H
Given the rectangle i?, having for the numerical measure of its

base and altitude b and a respectively.

To prove that the area of R — ab.

Proof. Let U be the unit of surface. § 313
R ab
Then = ab. §318
U lxl
R
But — = the number of units of surface in R, i.e. the area
of R. §314
.*. the area of R = ab, by Ax. 8. q.e.d.

321. Practical Measures. When the base and altitude both

contain the linear unit an integral number of times, this propo-
sition is rendered evident by dividing the rectangle into squares,
each equal to the unit of surface.
Thus, if the base contains seven linear
units and the altitude four, the rectangle
I I
I

may be divided into twenty-eight squares, !

each equal to the unit of surface. Practi-

cally this is the way in which we conceive
I I
I

the measure of all rectangles. Even if the

sides are incommensurable, we cannot determine this by any measuring
instrument. they seem to be incommensurable with a unit of a
If
thousandth of an inch, they might not seem to be incommensurable with
a unit of a millionth of an inch.
196 BOOK IV. PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 50
A square and a rectangle have equal perimeters, 144
1.

vd.,and the length of the rectangle is five times the breadth.

Compare the areas of the square and rectangle.
2. On a certain map the linear scale is 1 in. to 10 mi.
How many acres are represented by a square § in. on a side ?
3. Find the ratio of a lot 90 ft. long by 60 ft. wide to a
field 40 rd. long by 20 rd. wide.
4. Find the area of a gravel walk 3 ft. 6 in. wide, which
surrounds a rectangular plot of grass 40 ft. long and 25 ft
wide. Make a drawing to scale before beginning to compute.

5. Find the number of square inches in this

cross section of an L beam, the thickness being ^ in. :

6. What is the perimeter of a square field that

contains exactly an acre ? '*~2%--*i

7. A machine for planing iron plates planes a space % in,

wide and 18 ft. long in 1 min. How long will it take to plane
a plate 22 ft. 6 in. long and 4 ft. 6 in. wide, allowing 51 min.
for adjusting the machine ?

8. How many tiles, each 8 in. square, will it take to cover

a floor 24 ft. 8 in. long by 16 ft. wide ?
9. A rectangle having an area of 48 sq. in. is three times
as long as wide. What are the dimensions ?

10. The length of a rectangle is four times the width. If

the perimeter is 60 ft., what is the area?

11. From two adjacent sides of a rectangular field 60 rd*

long and 40 rd. wide a road is cut 4 rd. wide. How many
acres are cut off for the road ?

12. From one end of a rectangular sheet of iron 10 in. long

a square piece is cut off leaving 25 sq. in. in the rest of the
sheet. How wide is the sheet?
 AREAS OF POLYGONS 197

Proposition IV. Theorem

322. The area of a parallelogram is equal to the

product of its base by its altitude.

Y D

A b B A b

Given the parallelogram ABCD, with base b and altitude a.

To prove that the area of the CJABCD = ab.

Proof. From B draw BX _L to CD or to CD produced, and
from .4 draw A Y _L to CD produced.
Then ABXY is a rectangle, with base b and altitude a.

Since A Y = BX, and AD = BC, § 125

.'. the rt. A ADY and BCX are congruent § 89
From ABCY take the ABCX; the UJABXYis left.
From ABCY take the A ADY; the CJABCD is left.
UJABXY= CJABCD.
.'. Ax. 2
But the area of the U3ABXY= ab. § 320

.'. the area of the CJABCD = ab, by Ax. 8. q.e.d.

323. Corollary 1. Parallelograms having equal bases and

equal altitudes are equivalent.

324. Corollary 2. Parallelograms having equal bases are

to each other as their altitudes; parallelograms having equal
altitudes are to each other as their bases ; any two parallelo-
grams are to each other as the products of their bases by
their altitudes.

This was regarded as very interesting by the ancients, since an ignorant

person might think it impossible that the areas of two parallelograms
could remain the same although their perimeters differed without limit.
198 BOOK IV. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition V. Theorem
325. The area of a triangle is equal to half the
product of its base by its altitude.

1
1
1
1

^^ ^1 /
/

A b B
Given the triangle ABC }
with altitude a and base b.

To prove that the area of the A ABC = | ab.

Proof. With AB and BC &s adjacent sides construct the
parallelogram ABCD. § 238
Then A ABC = i OABCD. § 126
But the area of the OABCD = ab. § 322
.'. the area of the A ABC = J ab, by Ax. 4. q.e.d.

326. Corollary 1. Triangles having equal bases and equal

altitudes are equivalent.

327. Corollary 2. Triangles having equal bases are to each

other as their altitudes ; triangles having equal altitudes are to
each other as their bases ; any two triangles are to each other
as the products of their bases by their altitudes.
Has this been proved for rectangles ? What is the relation of a triangle
to a rectangle of equal base and equal altitude ?What must then be the
relations of triangles to one another ?

328. Corollary 3. The product of the sides of a right tri-

angle is equal to the product of the hypotenuse by the altitude

from the vertex of the right angle.
How is the area of a right triangle found in terms of the sides of the
right angle ? in terms of the hypotenuse and altitude? How do these

results compare ?
 AKEAS OF POLYGONS 199

Proposition VI. Theorem

329. The area of a trapezoid is equal to half the
product of the sum of its bases by its altitude.

D U C
/ s^\

1 S
-''
/ \
\
/

/ /
/ s' a \
y
A b B
Given the trapezoid ABCD, with bases b and b and altitude a.!

To prove that the area of ABCD = 1- a (b + 6').

Proof. Draw the diagonal A C.
Then the area of the A ABC = J ab,
and the area of the A A CD = J ab'. § 325
.'. the area of ABCD= \a(b + b'), by Ax. 1. q.e.d,

330. Corollary. The area of a trapezoid is equal to the

product of the line joining the mid-points of its nonparallel

sides by its altitude.
How is the line joining the mid-points of the nonparallel sides related
to the sum of the bases (§ 137) ?

331. Area of an Irregular Polygon. The area of an irregular

polygon may be found by dividing the polygon into triangles,
and then finding the area of each
of these triangles separately.
A common method used in land sur-
veying is as follows : Draw the longest
diagonal, and let fall perpendiculars
upon this diagonal from the other ver-
tices of the polygon. The sum of the
right triangles, rectangles, and trapezoids is equivalent to the polygon.
200 BOOK IV. PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 51

Find the areas of the parallelograms whose bases and

altitudes are respectively as follows

1. 2.25 in., 1J in. 3. 2.7 ft., 1.2 ft. 5. 2 ft. 3 in., 7 in.

2. 3.44 in., li in. 4. 5.6 ft., 2.3 ft. 6. 3 ft. 6 in., 2 ft.

Find the areas of the triangles whose bases and altitudes are
respectively as follows

7. 1.4 in., li in. 9^ 6J ft., 3 ft. 11. 1 ft. 6 in., 8 in.

8. 2.5 in., 0.8 in. 10. 5.4 ft., 1.2 ft. 12. 3 ft. 8 in., 3 ft.

Find the areas of the trapezoids whose bases are the first
two of the following numbers, and whose altitudes are the
third numbers:

13. 2 ft., 1 ft, 6 in. 15. 3 ft. 7 in., 2 ft., 14 in.

14. 2i ft., li ft., 9 in. 16. 5 ft. 6 in., 3 ft., 2 ft.

Find the altitudes of the parallelograms whose areas and

bases are respectively as follows

17. 10 sq. in., 5 in. 19. 28 sq. ft., 7 ft. 21. 30 sq. ft., 12 ft.

18. 6sq. in., 6 in. 20. 27 sq. ft., 6 ft. 22. 80 sq. in., 16 in.

Find the altitudes of the triangles whose areas and bases

are respectively as follows :

23- 49 sq. in., 14 in. 25. 50 sq. ft., 10 ft. 27. 110 sq. yd., 10 yd.
24. 48 sq. in., 12 in. 26 160 sq.ft., 20 ft. 28. 176 sq. yd., 32 yd.

Find the altitudes of the trapezoids whose areas and bases

are respectively as follows :

29. 33 sq. in., 5 in., 6 in. 31. 13 sq. ft., 9 ft., 5 ft.

30. 15 sq. in., 4 in., 6 in. 32. 70 sq. yd., 9 yd., 11 yd.
 AREAS OF POLYGONS 201

Proposition VII. Theorem

332. The areas of two triangles that have an angle
of the one equal to an angle of the other are to each
other as the products of the sides including the equal
angles.

Given the triangles ABC and ADE, with the common angle A.

m prove 4%
To that
'

A—ABC
— ABxAC
—— = — —
r AADE AD x AE
•

Proof. Draw BE.

A ABC AC
Then
AABE~ AE
A ABE AB „ oorT
and §327
XHTe^J-d-
{Triangles having equal altitudes are to each other as their bases.)

Since we are considering numerical measures of area and

length, we may treat all of the terms of these proportions as
numbers.
Taking the product of the first members and the product of

the second members of these equations, we have

A ABE x A ABC AB X AC
Ax. 3
AADE X A ABE AD x AE
That is, by canceling A ABE, we have the proportion
AABC = ABxAC Q.E.D.
AADE ADxAE
202 BOOK IV. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition VIII. Theorem
333. The areas of two similar triangles are to each
otJier as the squares on any two corresponding sides.

A B A'

Given the similar triangles ABC and AU?'C'.

^ prove ,,
To ,
that
AABC = AB 2

,, T ,,, J ,

Proof. Since the triangles are similar, Given

.\ZA=ZA'. §282
m,
Th6n
AABC = ABxAC QQO
-
§332
AAWC' A>B>XA'C<
(The areas of two triangles that have an angle of the one equal to

an angle of the other are to each other as the products

of the sides including the equal angles.)

AABC _ AB_ AC_

inat is, X
AA'B'C'- A'B' A'C'

(Similar polygons have their corresponding sides proportional.)

Substituting —— for its equal we have

AB AC
-7777.?

AABC AB AB
X
X '

AA'B'C'~ A'B' A'B'*

AABC
AX^'=m*'
AB 2
m
 AKEAS OF POLYGONS 203

Proposition IX. Theorem

The areas of two similar polygons are
334. to each
other as the squares on any tivo corresponding sides.

Given the similar polygons ABCDE and A'B'C'D'E', of area s

and s' respectively.

To prove that s:s' = AB :A'B''

;2

Proof. By drawing all the diagonals from any correspond-

ing vertices A and A', the two similar polygons are divided
into similar triangles. §292

AADE A3 2
AACD AC 2
A ABC AB
§333
AA'D'E' A'D A A' CD' JTq'
•
2 2
AA'B'C A'B'

That is,
AADE AACD A ABC Ax. 8
AA'D'E' AA'C'D' AA'B'C
A ADE + AACD + A ABC A ABC AB
§269
A A'D'E' A A'CD' + A A'B'C
-f- A A'B' A'B'

.'. s : AB : A'B 1r

, by Ax. 11. Q.E.D.

335. Corollary 1. The areas of two similar polygons are

to each other as the squares on any two corresponding lines.

336. Corollary 2. Corresponding sides of two similar poly-

gons have the same ratio as the square roots of the areas.
204 BOOK IV. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition X. Theorem
337. TJie square on the hypotenuse of a right triangle
is equivalent to the sum of the squares on the other two
sides.

X s

Given the right triangle ABC, with .AS the square on the hypote-
nuse, and BN, CQ the squares on the other two sides.

To prove that AS=BN+ CQ.

Proof. Draw CX through C to II BS. § 233
Draw CR and BQ.
Since A c and x are rt. A, the A PCB is a straight angle, § 34
and the line PCB is a straight line. §43
Similarly, the line A CN is a straight line.

In the A ARC and ABQ,

AR = AB,
AC = AQ, §65
and ARAC = ABAQ. Ax. 1

(Each is the sum of a rt. Z and the Z BA C.)

.*.A ARC is congruent to A ABQ. §68
Furthermore the AX is double the A ARC. §325
(They have the same base AR, and- the same altitude RX.)
 NUMERICAL PROPERTIES OF FIGURES 205

Again the square CQ is double the AABQ. § 325

(They have the same base AQ, and the same altitude AC.)

.'. the AX is equivalent to the square CQ. Ax. 3

In like manner, by drawing CS and AM, it may be proved

that the rectangle BX is equivalent to the square BN.
Since square A S = BX + AX, Ax. 11
.*. AS = BN+ CQ, by Ax. 9. q.e.d.

The first proof of this theorem is usually attributed to Pythagoras (about

525 B.C.), although the truth of the proposition was known earlier. It is
one of the most important propositions of geometry. Various proofs may
be given, but the one here used is the most common. This proof is attrib-
uted to Euclid (about 300 B.C.), a famous Greek geometer.

338. Corollary 1. The square on either side of a right

triangle is equivalent to the difference of the square on the

hypotenuse and the square on the other side.

339. Corollary 2. TJte diagonal and a side of a square

are incommensurable.

For AC 2 = AB 2 + BC 2 = 2AB 2
.

AC = ABV2.
.:

Since V2 may be carried to as many decimal places as

we please, but cannot be exactly expressed as a rational
fraction, it has no common measure with 1. That is, AC-.AB = V2, an
incommensurable number.

340. Projection. from the extremities of a line-segment

If
perpendiculars are let fall upon another line, the segment thus

cut off is called the projection of the first line upon the second.
Thus CD' is the projection of CD upon A B, or V is the projection
of I upon AB.

In general it is convenient to designate

by the small letter a the side of a triangle
opposite Z.A, and so for the other sides; to
designate the projection of a by a'; and to
designate the height (altitude) by h.
206 BOOK IV. PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 52
Given the sides of a right triangle as follows, find the
hypotenuse to two decimal places :

1. 30 ft., 40 ft. 3. 20 ft., 30 ft. 5. 2 ft. 6 in., 3 ft

2. 45 ft., 60 ft. 4. 1.5 in., 2.5 in. 6. 3 ft. 8 in., 2 ft.

Given the hypotenuse and one side of a right triangle as

follows, find the other side to two decimal places :

7. 50 ft., 40 ft. 9. 10 ft., 6 ft. 11. 3 ft. 4 in., 2 ft.

8. 35 ft., 21 ft. 10. 1.2 in., 0.8 in. 12. 6 ft. 2 in., 5 ft

13. A ladder 38 ft. 6 in. long is placed against a wall, with

its foot 23.1 ft. from the base of the wall. How high does it

reach on the wall ?

14. Find the altitude of an equilateral triangle with side s

15. Find the side of an equilateral triangle with altitude A,

2
16. The area of an equilateral triangle with side s is Js V3.
Find the length of the longest chord and of the shortest
17.

chord that can be drawn through a point 1 ft. from the center

of a circle whose radius is 20 in.

18. The radius of a circle is 5 in. Through a point 3 in.

from the center a diameter is drawn, and also a chord perpen-
dicular to the diameter. Find the length of this chord, and
the distance (to two decimal places) from one end of the chord
to the ends of the diameter.

19. In this figure the angle C is a

right angle. AC =
From the relations
ABXAF (§ 294) and CB = ABxBF,
2 2
2

2
show that AC + CB = AB .

20. If the diagonals of a quadrilateral intersect at right

angles, the sum of the squares on one pair of opposite sides
is equivalent to the sum of the squares on the other pair.
 NUMERICAL PROPERTIES OF FIGURES 207

Proposition XI. Theorem

341. In any triangle the square on the side opposite

an acute angle is equivalent to the sum of the squares

on the other two sides diminished by twice the product
of one of those sides by the projection of the other upon
that side.
c

Fig. 1

Given the triangle ABC, A being an acute angle, and a! and V

being the projections of a and b respectively upon c.

To prove that a2 =b + c?-2 b'c.

2

Proof. If D, the foot of the _L from C, falls upon c (Fig. 1),

a' = c-b'.
If D falls upon c produced (Fig. 2),

a' = b'-c.
In either case, by squaring, we have
a'
2
= b' + c2 2
-2b'c. Ax. 5
2
Adding h to each side of this equation, we have
h2 4- a'
2
= h + b' + c -2 b'c.
2 2 2
Ax. 1
But A2 + a' 2
=a and h + b' = b
2
,
2 2 2
. §337
2 2
Putting a and b for their equals in the above equation, we
have a2 = b + c -2b
2 2
'c, by Ax. 9. q. e. d.
208 BOOK IV. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XII. Theorem
342. In any obtuse triangle the square on the side
opposite the obtuse angle is equivalent to the sum of
the squares on the other two sides increased by twice
the product of one of those sides by the projection

of the other upon that side.

a
Given the obtuse triangle ABC, A being the obtuse angle, and a 1

and b' the projections of a and b respectively upon c.

To prove that a 2
= b +c +2 b'c.
2 2

Proof. a' = b' + c. Ax. 11

Squaring, a'
2
= b' + c 2 2
-f 2 b'c. Ax. 5
2
Adding h to each side of this equation, we have
7,2
+ a = h + V + c Jt2 fo
l2 2 2 2
Ax J

But h2 + a' = a% and h + = b\

2 2
b'
2
§ 337
Putting a 2 and 2
b for their equals in the above equation, we have
a 2
= b + c + 2 b'c,
2 2
by Ax. 9. Q. e. d.

Discussion. By the Principle of Continuity the last three theorems

may be included in one theorem by letting the Z A change from an
acute angle to a right angle and then to an obtuse angle. Let the
student explain.
The last three theorems enable us to compute the altitudes of a tri-
angle if the three sides are known for in Prop. XII we can rind 6', and
;

from 6 and b' we can find h.

 NUMERICAL PROPERTIES OF FIGURES 209

EXERCISE 53
Find the lengths, to two decimal places, of the diagonals of

the squares whose sides are

1. 7 in. 2. 10 in. 3. 9.2 in. 4. 1 ft. 6 in. 5. 2 ft. 3 in.

Find the lengths, to two decimal places, of the sides of

the squares whose diagonals are

6. 4 in. 7. 8 in. 8. 5 ft. 9. V5 in. 10. 2 ft. 6 in.

11. The minute hand and hour hand of a clock are 6 in. and
4J in. long respectively. How far apart are the ends of the
hands at 9 o'clock ?

12. A rectangle whose base is 9 and diagonal 15 has the

same area as a square whose side is x. Find the value of x.

13. A ring is screwed into a ceiling in a room 10 ft. high.

Two rings are screwed into the floor at points 5 and 12 ft.
ft.

from a point directly beneath the one in the ceiling. Wires

are stretched from the ceiling ring to each floor ring. How
long are the wires ? (Answer to two decimal places.)

14. The sum of the squares on the segments of two perpen-

dicular chords is equivalent to the square on the diameter of
the circle.

If AB, CD are the chords, draw the diameter BE, and draw AC,
ED, BD. Prove that AC = ED.
15. The difference of the squares on two sides of a triangle
is equivalent to the difference of the squares on the segments
of the third side, made by the perpendicular on the third
side from the opposite vertex.
In an isosceles triangle the square on one of the equal
16.

sides is equivalent to the square on any line drawn from the

vertex to the base, increased by the product of the segments
of the base.
210 BOOK IV. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XIII. Theorem
343. The sum of the squares on hvo sides of a tri-
angle is equivalent to tivice the square on half the third
side, increased by tioice the square on the median
upon that side.
The difference of the squares on two sides of a tri-
angle is equivalent to twice the product of the third
side by the projection of the median upon that side.

a
Given the triangle ABC, the median m, and m t
the projection of
m upon the side a. Also let c be greater than b.

To prove that 1. c
2
+ b = 2 BM + 2m
2 2 2
;
2. c
2
-b = 2am 2 f
.

Proof. The Z A MB is obtuse, and the Z CMA is acute. § 116

Since c>b, M lies between B and D. § 84

Then c
2
= RM + m + 2BM-m', 2 2
§342
and b
2
= MC + rn - 2 MC 2 2
• ra'. § 341

Adding these equals, and observing that BM= MC, we have

c
2
+ = 2 BM + 2 m
b
2 2 2
. Ax. 1

Subtracting the second from the first, we have

c
2
— b = 2 am',
2
by Ax. 2. •
Q.e.d.

Discussion. Consider the proposition when c = b.

This theorem may be omitted without interfering with the regular
sequence. It enables us to compute the medians when the three sides
are known.
 EXERCISES 211

EXERCISE 54

1. To compute the area of a triangle in terms of its sides

A C B D

At least one of the angles A or B is acute. Suppose A is acute

In the A ADC, h 2 = b 2
-AD 2
. Why ?
In the A ABC, a2 -2c
= 62 + c2 x AD. Why ?
2 _
^1D = —
^ +c a /,2 2
Therefore
2 <

Hence h> = 52 - <** +*~

4 c2
a *>*
= 4 ^' <**

4
+
c2
C* ' ^
_ (2 5c + fr
2
+ c2 -a 2
) (2 be - V- - c2 + a2 )
4 c2

_ {(b + c) 2 - a 2 } {a 2 - (?) - c)
2
}

4 c2

_ (a + & + c) (b +c- g) (a + 5 - c) (a - & + c) .

4c 2

Let a+6 + c = 2s, where s stands for semiperimeter.

Then b + c — a = a + b + c — 2 a = 2 s — 2 a = 2 (s — a).

Similarly a + b — c = 2 (s — c),
and a — & -f c = 2 (s — 6).

Hence A2 = 2* x 2 - a) x 2 - 5) x 2 - c)
( .s (.s (,s

4 c2

By simplifying, and extracting the square root,

h = - Vs (s — a) (s — 6) (s — c).

Hence the area = | ch = Vs (s — a) (s — 6) (s — c).

For example, if the sides are 3, 4, and 5,

area = Vb (6 - 3) (6 - 4) (6 - 5) = V6-3-2 = 6c
212 BOOK IV. PLANE GEOMETRY
If Ex. 1 has been studied, find the areas, to two decimal
places, of the triangles whose sides are :

2. 4, 5, 6. 4. 6, 8, 10. 6. 7, 8, 11. 8. 1.2, 3, 2.1.

3. 5, 6, 7. 5. 6, 8, 9. 7. 9, 10, 11. 9. 11, 12, 13.

10. To compute the radius of the circle circumscribed about

a triangle in terms of the sides of the triangle. (Solve only if

§ 305 and Ex. 1 have been taken.)

Let CD be a diameter.
By § 305, what do we know about the products CA xBC and CD x CP ?
What does this tell us of ab and 2 r CP, r be- •

ing the radius ? /"^

^-^C
From Ex. 1, what does CP equal in terms of / ^J^^ / om
the sides ? # A \^ c
— —P~?\
7*~B
\

Is it therefore possible to show that I / „""'

J
''
abc « \ /' /
4 Vs (s — a) (s — 6) (s — c) -^-^__^^^

7f ifos. _Z <mc? i# have been studied, compute the radii, to

two decimal places, of the circles circumscribed about the
triangles whose sides are :

11. 3, 4, 5. 12. 27, 36, 45. 13. 7, 9, 11. 14. 10, 11, 12.

15. To compute the medians of a triangle in terms of its sides.

Omit if § 343 has not been taken. What do we know c

about a 2 + b 2 as compared with 2 m2 + 2( - ) ?

From this relation show that

m = I V2 (a2 + 62 ) - c2 .

If Ex. 15 has been studied, compute the three medians, to

two decimal places, of the triangles whose sides are :

16. 3, 4, 5. 17. 6, 8, 10. 18. 6, 7, 8. 19. 7, 9, 11.

20. If the sides of a triangle are 7, 9, and 11, is the angle

opposite the side 11 right, acute, or obtuse ?
 EXERCISES 213

21. The square constructed upon the sum of two lines is

equivalent to the sum of the squares constructed upon these
two lines, increased by twice the rectangle of these lines.

Given the two AB and BC, and AC their sum.

lines Construct the
squares AKGC and ADEB upon AC and AB respec-
tively. Produce BE and BE to meet KG and CG in H A b c
and F respectively.Then we have the square EHGF,
with sides each equal to BC. Hence the square AKGC
is the sum of the squares ADEB and EHGF, and the
Dh
rectangles DKHE and BEFC.
This proves geometrically the algebraic formula u a
(a + 6)
2 = a2 + 2 ah + b2 .

22. The square constructed upon the difference of two lines

is equivalent to the sum of the squares constructed upon these
two lines, diminished by twice their rectangle.
Given the two lines AB and AC, and BC their dif- B K
ference. Construct the square AGFB upon AB, the \c
square A CKR upon A C, and the square CDEB upon \B

BC. Produce ED to meet AG in L. The dimensions

of the rectangles LGFE and HLDK are AB and AC,
r~ir E
and the square CDEB is the difference between the \

whole figure and the sum of these rectangles.

This proves geometrically the algebraic formula
(a - 6) = a - 2 ab + 6
2 2 2
.

23. The difference between the squares constructed upon

two lines is equivalent to the rectangle of the sum and differ-

ence of these lines. J k

Given the squares ABDE and CBFG, constructed H
upon AB and BC. The between these
difference
squares is the polygon ACGFDE, which is composed
of the rectangles ACHE and GFDH. Produce AE
and CH to I and K
respectively, making EI and HK
each equal to BC, and draw IK. The difference be-
tween the squares ABDE and CBFG is then equiva-
lent to the rectangle ACKI, with dimensions + BC, and AB AB — BC
This proves geometrically the algebraic formula
a?-b2 = (a + b){a-b).
214 BOOK IV. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XIV. Problem
344. To construct a square equivalent to the sum of
two given squares.
, - — »

i j

8
R
R'
b\
\«
•

A B
Given the two squares, R and R !
.

Required to construct a square equivalent to R + R'.

Construction. Construct the rt. A A. § 228
On the sides of Z.A, take AB, or c, equal to a side of R', and
AC. or b y equal to a side of R, and draw BC y
or a.

Construct the square S, having a side equal to BC

Then S is the square required. q.e.f.

Proof. a 2
=b + c2 2
. §337
(The square on the hypotenuse of a rt. A is equivalent to the sum of
the squares on the other two sides.)

.'. S=R + R', by Ax. 9. Q-e.d.

345. Corollary 1. To construct a square equivalent to the

difference of two given squares.

We may easily reverse the above construction by first drawing c,

then erecting a _L at A, and then with a radius a fixing the point C.

346. Corollary 2. To construct a square equivalent to the

sum of three given squares.

If a side of the third square is d, we may erect a perpendicular from

C to the line BC, take CD equal to d, and join and B. D
Discussion. It is evident that we can continue this process indefi-
nitely, and thus construct a square equivalent to the sum of any number
of given squares.
 PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION 215

Proposition XV. Problem

347. To construct a polygon similar to two given
similar polygons and equivalent to their sum.

\ / V /
X
Given the two similar polygons R and R'.

Required to construct a polygon similar to R and R\ and

equivalent to R+R '.

Construction. Construct the rt. Z. 0. 228

Let s and s' be corresponding sides of R and R'.

On the sides of Z.O, take OX equal to s', and OY equal to s.

Draw XT, and take s" equal to XT.

Upon s", corresponding to s, construct J?" similar to R. § 312
Then R" is the polygon required. q.e.f=

2 2
Proof. OT + ~OX = XY*. § 337
Putting for OY, OX, and AT their equals s, s', and s", we have
s* +s =s<-2 »-2.
Ax. 9
R s
2

But
R"~s"*'
2
R' s'
d '
§334
R"~s" 2
R+ R' s*+* ,a
By addition,
R" ~ s" = 1. 2
Ax. 1

.\R" = R + R' by Ax. 3. Q.B.D

216 BOOK IV. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XVI. Problem
348. To construct a triangle equivalent to a given
polygon.

Given the polygon ABCDEF.

Required to construct a triangle equivalent to ABCDEF.
Construction. Let B, C, and D be any three consecutive
vertices of the polygon. Draw the diagonal DB.
From C draw a line II to DB. § 233
Produce AB to meet this line at Q, and draw DQ.
Again, draw EQ, and from D draw a line II to EQ, meeting
AB produced at R, and draw ER.
In like manner continue to reduce the number of sides of
the polygon until we obtain the A EPR.
Then A EPR is the triangle required. Q. e. f

Proof. The polygon AQDEF has one side less than the
polygon ABCDEF.
Furthermore, in the two polygons, the part^4£Z>JE;Fis common,
and the A BQD = A BCD. § 326
(For the base DB is common, and their vertices C and Q are in
the line CQ II to the base.)

.*. AQDEF = ABCDEF. Ax. 1

In like manner it may be proved that
AREF=A QDEF, and EPR = AREF. Q. B.
 PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION 217

Proposition XVII. Problem

349. To construct a square equivalent to a given
parallelogram.
P
r
i

•
/
5 i
i
i \
I
i

L
N M
I

A b B
Given the parallelogram ABCD.
Required to construct a square equivalent to the OABCD.
Construction. Upon any convenient line take NO equal to a,

and OM equal to b, the altitude and base respectively of O

ABCD.
Upon NM as a diameter describe a semicircle.
At erect OP ± to NM, meeting the circle at P. § 228
Construct the square S, having a side equal to OP.
Then S is the square required. Q.E.F.

Proof. NO :OP = OP: OM. §297

OP =NOxOM.
:2
.*. §261
2
That is, OP = ah. Ax. 9
2
But S = OP ,

and OABCD = ab. § 322

.*. S=CJABCD, by Ax. 9. Q.e.d.

350. Corollary 1. To construct a square equivalent to a

given triangle.
Take for a side of the square the mean proportional between the base
and half the altitude of the triangle.

351. Corollary 2. To construct a square equivalent to a

given polygon.
First reduce the polygon to an equivalent triangle, and then construct
a square equivalent to the triangle.
218 BOOK IV. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XVIII. Problem
352. To construct a parallelogram equivalent to a
given square, and having the sum of its base and
altitude equal to a given line.

c P/'' ^x d

A Q B
Given the square S, and the line AB.

Required to construct a O equivalent to S, with the sum of

its base and altitude equal to AB.
Construction. Upon AB as a diameter describe a semicircle.
At A erect AC A. to AB and equal to a side of the given
square S. § 228
Draw CD II to AB, cutting the circle at P. § 233
Draw PQ _L to AB. § 227
Then any O, as P, having AQ for its altitude and QB for
its base is equiva lent to 5. Q.E.F.

Proof. AQ:PQ=PQ: QB. §297

2
.\PQ = AQX QB. §261
Furthermore PQ is to CM. II §95
PQ = CA.
.'. §127
2 2
.'.PQ = CA . Ax. 5
.'.AQX QB=CA 2
. Ax. 8
But P=AQx QB, §322
2
and S= CA . §320
.'. P=S, by Ax. 8. Q.E.D.

Thus is solved geometrically the algebraic problem, given x + y = a,

xy = 6, to find x and y.
 PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION 219

Proposition XIX. Problem

353. To construct a parallelogram equivalent to a
given square, and having the difference of its base and
altitude equal to a given line.

\B

'D
Given the square S, and the line AB.

Required to construct a E3 equivalent to S, with the differ-

ence of its base and altitude equal to AB.
Construction. Upon AB as a diameter describe a circle.
From A draw A C, tangent to the circle, § 246

and equal to a side of the given square S.

Through the center of the circle draw CD intersecting the

circle at E and D.
Then any O, as P, having CD for its base and CE for its
altitude, is equivalent to S. Q. e. f.

Proof. CD CA = CA CE.
: : § 302
2
.\CA = CDxCE, §261
and the difference between CD and CE is the diameter of the
circle, that is ? AB.
But P=CDx CE, § 322
and S=CA 2
. §320
.*. P= S, by Ax. 8. q.e.d.

Thus is solved geometrically the algebraic problem, given x — y = a,

zy = 6, to find x and y.
220 BOOK IV. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XX. Problem
354.To construct a polygon similar to a given poly-
gon and equivalent to another given polygon.

( p<
/
\

Given the polygons P and Q.

Required to construct a polygon similar to P and equiva-

lent to Q.

Construction. Construct squares equivalent to P and Q, § 351

and let m and n respectively denote their sides.
Let s be any side of P.
Find s', the fourth proportional to m, n, and s. § 307
Upon s', corresponding to s,

construct a polygon P' similar to the polygon P. § 312

Then P' is the polygon required. q.e.f.

Proof. Since m : n =s : s', Const.

m
.'.
2
: n2 =s 2
: s'
2
. §270
But P=m 2
, and Q =n 2
. Const.
.'. P:Q = s 2
:s'
2
. Ax. 9
But P:P' = s
2
: s'
2
- §334
(The areas of two similar polygons are to each other as the squares on
any two corresponding sides.)

.'. P:Q = P:P'. Ax. 8

.\P'=Q. §263
.'. P\ being similar to P, is the polygon required, q.e.d.
 PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION 221

Proposition XXI. Problem

355. To construct a square which shall have a given
ratio to a given square.

D
s I

j \

aL -a I - b

£\ /

Given the square S, and the ratio —

777

Required to construct a square which shall he to S as n is

to m.

Construction. Take AB equal to a side of S, and draw A Y y

making any convenient angle with. AB.

On AY take AE equal to m units and EF equal to n units.
Draw EB.
From Fdraw a line !! to EB, meeting AB produced at C. § 233
On A C as a diameter describe a semicircle.

At B erect BD A. to A C. meeting the semicircle at D. §228

Then BD is a side of the square required. Q.E.F.

Proof. Denote AB by a, BC by h, and BD by x.

Then a : =x
;/; : h. §297
.'.a :h = a :x 2 2
. §271
But a :l>= m n. : §273
Ax. 8
By inversion, xr : a~ =n : m. §266
Hence the square on BD will have the same ratio to 5 as
n has to m. o. e.d.
222 BOOK IV. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XXII. Problem
356. To construct a polygon similar to a given poly-
gon and having a given ratio to it.

Given the polygon P and the ratio — •

m
Required to construct a polygon similar to P, which shall be
to P as n is to m.
Construction. Let s be any side of P.
Draw a line s', such that the square on s' shall be to the
square on s as n is to m. § 355
Upon s' as a side corresponding to s construct the polygon
P' similar to P. § 312
(Upon a given line corresponding to a given side of a given polygon,
to construct a polygon similar to the given polygon.).

Then P' is the polygon required. q.e.f.

Proof. P':P = s' 2 : s

2
. § 334
( The areas of two similar polygons are to each other as the squares
on any two corresponding sides.)

But s'
2
: s
2
=n : m. Const.

Therefore P' : P=n : m, by Ax. 8. Q. e. d.

This problem enables us to construct a square that is twice a given

square or half a given square, to construct an equilateral triangle that
shall be any number of times a given equilateral triangle, and in general
to enlarge or to reduce any figure in a given ratio. An architect's draw-
ing, for example, might need to be enlarged so as to be double the area
of the original, and the scale could be found by this method.
 EXEKCISES 223

EXERCISE 55

Problems of Computation

1. The sides of a triangle are 0.7 in., 0.6 in., and 0.7 in.
respectively. Is the largest angle acute, right, or obtuse ?

2. The sides of a triangle are 5.1 in., 6.8 in., and 8.5 in.
respectively. Is the largest angle acute, right, or obtuse ?

3. Find the area of an isosceles triangle whose perimeter

is 14 in. and base 4 in. (One decimal place.)
4. Find the area of an equilateral triangle whose perimeter
is 18 in. (One decimal place.)
5. Find the area of a right triangle, the hypotenuse being
1.7 in. and one of the other sides being 0.8 in.
6. Find the ratio of the altitudes of two triangles of equal
area, the base of one being 1.5 in. and that of the other 4.5 in.
7. The bases of a trapezoid are 34 in. and 30 in., and the
altitude is 2 in. Find the side of a square having the same area.
8. What is the area of the isosceles right triangle in which
the hypotenuse is V2 ?
9. What is the area of the isosceles right triangle in which
the hypotenuse is 7 V2 ?

10. If the side of an equilateral triangle is 2 V3, what is the

altitude of the triangle ? the area of the triangle ?

11. If the side of an equilateral triangle is 1 ft., what is the

area of the triangle ?

12. If the area of an equilateral triangle is 43.3 sq. in., what

is the base of the triangle ? (Take Vs = 1.732.)
13. The sides of a triangle are 2.8 in., 3.5 in., and 2.1 in.
respectively. Draw the figure carefully and see what kind of
a triangle it is. Verify this conclusion by applying a geometric
test, and find the area of the triangle.
224 BOOK IV. PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 56
Theorems
1. The area of a rhombus is equal to half the product of
its diagonals.

2. Two triangles are equivalent if the base of the first

is equal to half the altitude of the second, and the altitude
of the first is equal to twice the base of the second.

3. The area of a circumscribed polygon is equal to half the

product of its perimeter by the radius of the inscribed circle.

4. Two parallelograms are equivalent if their altitudes are

reciprocally proportional to their bases.

5. If equilateral triangles are constructed on the sides of a

right triangle, the triangle on the hypotenuse is equivalent to
the sum of the triangles on the other two sides.

6. If similar polygons are constructed on the sides of a

right triangle, as corresponding sides, the polygon
on the
hypotenuse is equivalent to the sum of the polygons on the
other two sides.
Ex. 6 is one of the general forms of the Pythagorean Theorem.

7. If lines are drawn from any point within a parallelogram

to the four vertices, the sum of either pair of triangles with
parallel bases is equivalent to the sum of the other pair.

8. Every line drawn through the intersection of the diag-

onals of a parallelogram bisects the parallelogram.

9. The line that bisects the bases of a trapezoid divides the

trapezoid into two equivalent parts.

10. If a quadrilateral with two sides parallel is bisected by

either diagonal, the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
11. The triangle formed by two lines drawn from the mid-
point of either of the nonparallel sides of a trapezoid to the
opposite vertices is equivalent to half the trapezoid.
 EXERCISES 225

EXERCISE 57

Problems of Construction
1. Given a square, to construct a square of half its area.

2. To construct a right triangle equivalent to a given

oblique triangle.

3. To construct a triangle equivalent to the sum of two

given triangles.
4. To construct a triangle equivalent to a given triangle,
and having one side equal to a given line.

5. To construct a rectangle equivalent to a given parallelo-

gram, and having its altitude equal to a given line.

6. To construct a right triangle equivalent to a given tri-

angle, and having one of the sides of the right angle equal to
a given line.

7. To construct a right triangle equivalent to a given tri-

angle, and having its hypotenuse equal to a given line.

8. To divide a given triangle into two equivalent parts by

a line through a given point P in the base.

9. To draw from a given point P in the base AB of a tri-

angle ABC a line to AC produced, so that it may be bisected

by BC.
10. To find a point within a given triangle such that the
lines from this point to the vertices shall divide the triangle
into three equivalent triangles.

11. To divide a given triangle into two equivalent parts by

a line parallel to one of the sides.

12. Through a given point to draw a line so that the seg-

ments intercepted between the point and perpendiculars drawn
to the line from two other given points may have a given ratio.

13. To find a point such that the perpendiculars from it to

the sides of a given triangle shall be in the ratio p, g>, r.
226 BOOK IV. PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 58
Review Questions
1. What is meant by the area of a surface ? Illustrate.

2. What is the difference between equivalent figures and

congruent figures ?
3. State two propositions relating to the ratio of one
rectangle to another.

4. Given the base and altitude of a rectangle, how is the area

found ? Given the area and base, how is the altitude found ?

5. do you justify the expression, w the product of

How two
lines " ? K the quotient of an area by a line " ?
6. Can a triangle with a perimeter of 10 in. have the same
area as one with a perimeter of 1 in. ? Is the same answer
true for two squares ?

7. Can a parallelogram with a perimeter of 10 in. have the

same area as a rectangle with a perimeter of 1 in. ? Is the
same answer true for two rectangles ?
8. Explain how the area of an irregular field with straight
sides may be found by the use of the theorems of Book IV.
9. A triangle has two sides 5 and 6, including an angle of
70°, and another triangle has two sides 2 and 7J, including an
angle of 70°. What is the ratio of the areas of the triangles ?
10. Two similar triangles have two corresponding sides 5 in.

and 15 in. respectively. The larger triangle has how many

times the area of the smaller?
11. Given the hypotenuse of an isosceles right triangle, how
do you proceed to find the area ?
12. Given three sides of a triangle, what test can you apply
to determine whether or not it is a right triangle ?
13. Suppose you wish to construct a square equivalent to a
given polygon, how do you proceed ?
 BOOK V
REGULAR POLYGONS AND CIRCLES
357. Regular Polygon. A polygon that is both equiangular
and equilateral is called a regular polygon.

Familiar examples of regular polygons are the equilateral triangle and

the square.
It is proved in Prop. I (§ 362) that a circle may be circumscribed about,
and a circlemay be inscribed in, any regular polygon, and that these
circles are concentric (§ 188).

358. Radius. The radius of the circle cir-

cumscribed about a regular polygon is called

the radius of the polygon.
In this figure r is the radius of che polygon.

359. Apothem. The radius of the circle inscribed in a regular

polygon is called the apothem of the polygon.
In the figure a is the apothem of the polygon. The apothem is evi-

dently perpendicular to the side of the regular polygon (§ 185).

360. Center. The common center of the circles circumscribed

about and inscribed in a regular polygon is called the center of
the polygon.
In the figure is the center of the polygon.

361. Angle at the Center. The angle between the radii drawn
to the extremities of any side of a regular polygon is called the
angle at the center of the polygon.

In the figure m is the angle at the center of the polygon. It is evidently

subtended by the chord which is the side of the inscribed polygon.
227
 ;

228 BOOK V. PLANE GEOMETRY

Proposition I. Theorem
362. A circle may be circumscribed about, and a circle
may be inscribed in, any regular polygon.

A^^ ^''B

Given the regular polygon ABCDE.

To prove that 1. a may be circumscribed about ABCDE
circle

2. a circle may be inscribed in ABCDE.

Proof. 1. Let be the center of the circle which may be

passed through the three vertices A, B, and C. §190
Draw OA, OB, OC, OD.
Then OB = OC, §162
and AB = CD. §357
Furthermore Z CBA = Z DCB, §357
and ZCBO = ZOCB. §74
.'. ZOBA=ZDCO. Ax. 2
.-. A OAB is congruent to AOCD. §68
.-. oa=od. §67
Therefore the circle that passes through A, B, C, passes also
through D.
In like manner it may be proved that the circle that passes
through B, C, and D and so on.
passes also through E -,

Therefore the circle described with and OA as a

as a center
radius will be circumscribed about the polygon, by § 205. Q. e. d c
 REGULAR POLYGONS AND CIRCLES 229

Proof. 2. Let O be the center of the circumscribed circle.

Since the sides of the regular polygon are equal chords of

the circumscribed circle, they are equally distant from the
center. § 178
Therefore the circle described with as a center, with the
perpendicular from to a side of the polygon as a radius, will
be inscribed in the polygon, by § 205. q.e.d,

363. Corollary 1. The radius drawn to any vertex of a

regular polygon bisects the angle at the vertex.

364. Corollary 2. The angles any regular

at the center of

polygon are equal, and each is supplementary to an interior

angle of the polygon.
For the angles at the center are corresponding angles of congruent
triangles. If M is the mid-point of AB, then since the A MOB and OBM
are complementary what can we say of their doubles, A OB and CBA ?

365. Corollary 3. An equilateral polygon inscribed in a

circle is a regular polygon.
Why are the angles also equal ?

366. Corollary 4. An equiangular polygon circumscribed

about a circle is a regular polygon.
By joining consecutive points of contact of the sides of the polygon
can you show that certain isosceles triangles are congruent, and thus
prove the polygon equilateral ?
230 BOOK V. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition II. Theorem
367. If a circle is divided into any number of equal
arcs, the chords joining the successive points of division
form a regular inscribed polygon; and the tangents
drawn at the points of division form a regular circum-
scribed polygon.

Given a circle divided into equal arcs by A, B, C, 2), and E, AB.

BC y
CD, DE, and EA being chords, and P@, QR, RS, ST, and TP
being tangents at B, C, D, E, and A respectively.

To prove that 1. AB CD E is a regular polygon ;

2. PQR ST is a regular polygon.

Proof. 1. Since the arcs are equal by construction,

.-. AB = BC = CD = BE = EA. § 170

.*. ABCDE is a regular polygon. § 365
(An equilateral polygon inscribed in a circle is a regular polygon.)

Proof. 2. AP = ZQ = Z.R = Z.S = Z.T. §221

(An Z formed by two tangents is measured by half the difference of
the intercepted arcs.)

.'. PQR ST is a regular polygon. § 366

(An equiangular polygon circumscribed about a circle is a
regular polygon.) Q. E. D»
 REGULAR POLYGONS AND CIRCLES 231

368. Corollary 1. Tangents to a circle at the vertices of

a regular inscribed polygon form a regular circumscribed poly-
gon of the same number of sides,

369. Corollary 2. Tangents to a circle at the mid-points

of the arcs subtended by the sides of a regular inscribed

polygon form a regular circumscribed
polygon, whose sides are parallel to the

sides of the inscribed polygon and whose

vertices lie on the radii produced ) of L
(

the inscribed polygon.

For two corresponding AB

and A'B',
sides,
are perpendicular to OM and are
(§§ 176. 185;.
parallel (f 95) and the tangents
; and XB\MR
intersecting at a point equidistant from 03/ and OX (i 102), intersect upon
the bisector of the Z MON{% 152; that is, upon the radius OB (§ 308),
;

370. Corollary 3. Lines drawn from each

vertex of a regular polygon to the mid-points

of the adjacent arcs subtended by the sides of

the polygon form a regular inscribed, polygon
of double the number of sides.

371. Corollary 4. Tangents at the mid- D K

points of the arcs between adjacent points of /
contact of the sides of a regular circumscribed
3/,
polygon form a regular circumscribed polygon v

of double the number of sides. Jte

372. Corollary 5. The perimeter of a regular inscribed
polygon is less than that of a regular inscribed polygon of
double the number of sides ; and the perimeter of a regular
circumscribed polygon is greater than that of a regular cir-

cumscribed polygon of double the number of sides.

232 BOOK V. PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 59

1. Find the radius of the square whose side is 5 in.

2. Find the side of the square whose radius is 7 in.

3. Find the radius of the equilateral triangle whose side

is 2 in.

4. Find the side of the equilateral triangle whose radius

is 3 in.

5. Find the apothem of the equilateral triangle whose side

is V3 in.

6. Find the side of the equilateral triangle whose apothem

is 2 V3 in.
7. How many degrees are there in the angle at the center
of an equiangular triangle ? of a regular hexagon ?

8. Given an equilateral triangle inscribed in a circle, to

circumscribe an equilateral triangle about the circle.

Given an equilateral triangle inscribed in a circle, to in-

9.

scribe a regular hexagon in the circle, and to circumscribe a

regular hexagon about the circle.

10. Given a square inscribed in a circle, to inscribe a regular

octagon in the circle, and to circumscribe a regular octagon

about the circle.

11. How many degrees are there in the angle at the center
of a regular octagon ? in each angle of a regular octagon ? in
the sum of these two angles ?

12. What is the area of the square inscribed in a circle of

radius 2 in.?

13. The apothem of an equilateral triangle is equal to half

the radius.
14. Prove that the apothem of an equilateral triangle is equal
to one fourth the diameter of the circumscribed circle. From
this show how an equilateral triangle may be inscribed in a circle
 REGULAR POLYGONS AND CIRCLES 233

Proposition III. Theorem

373. Two regular polygons of the same number of
sides are similar.
D'

Given the regular polygons P and P\ each having n sides.

To prove that P and P' are similar.

Proof. Each angle of either polygon = 2(7i-2) rt. A. § 145

TV

(Each A of a regular polygon of n sides is equal to —

2 n
( 2)
rt. A.)

Hence the polygons P and P' are mutually equiangular.

Furthermore, \ " AB = EC = CD = BE = EA,

and = B'C = CD' = B'E' = E'A',
A'B' § 357

•
AB _BC _ CD _ DE _ EA
Ax. 4
' '
A'B'~ B'C'~ C'D'~ B'E'~~ E'A''

Hence the polygons have their corresponding sides propor-

and their corresponding angles equal.
tional

Therefore the two polygons are similar, by § 282. q.e.d.

374. Corollary.The areas of two regular polygons of the

same number of sides are to each other as the squares on any
two corresponding sides.

For the areas of two similar polygons are to each other as the squares
on any two corresponding sides (§ 334), and two regular polygons of the
same number of sides are similar.
234 BOOK V. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition IV. Theorem
375. The perimeters of two regular polygons of the
same number of sides are to each other as their radii,
and also as their apothems.
D'

A M B A' M' B'

Given the regular polygons with perimeters p and p\ radii r

and r\ apothems a and a\ and centers O and 0' respectively.

To prove that p : p' =r : r' =a : a f

.

Proof. Since the polygons are similar, §373

.\p = AB-.A'B'.
:p' §291
Furthermore in the isosceles &OAB and O'A'B',

zo = zo', §364
and OA:OB= O'A'iO'B'. Ax. 8
(For each of these ratios equals 1.)

.'. the A OAB and O'A'B' are similar. §288

.'.AB:A'B' = r:r'. §282
Also &AMO and A'M'O' are similar. §286
.*. r : r' =a : a'. §282
.'.p :p' =r : r' = a : a', by Ax. 8. Q. E. D.

376. Corollary. The areas of two regular polygons of the

same number of sides are to each other as the squares on the

radii of the circumscribed circles, and also as the squares on
the radii of the inscribed circles.
 REGULAR POLYGONS AND CIRCLES 235

EXERCISE 60

1. Find the ratio of the perimeters and the ratio of the

areas of two regular hexagons, their sides being 2 in. and
4 in. respectively.

2. Find the ratio of the perimeters and the ratio of the

areas of two regular octagons, their sides having the ratio 2 6. :

3. Find the ratio of the perimeters of two squares whose

areas are 121 sq. in. and 30i sq. in. respectively.

Find the ratio of the perimeters and the ratio of the

4.

areas of two equilateral triangles whose altitudes are 3 in.

and 12 in. respectively.
5. The area of one equiangular triangle is nine times that
of another. Required the ratio of their altitudes.
6. The area of the cross section of a steel beam 1 in. thick
is 12 sq. in. What is the area of the cross section of a beam of
the same proportions and l£ in. thick ?

7. Squares are inscribed in two circles of radii 2 in. and

6 in. respectively. Find the ratio of the areas of the squares,
and also the ratio of the perimeters.

8. Squares are inscribed in two circles of radii 2 in. and

8 in. respectively, and on the sides of these squares equi-
lateral triangles are constructed. What is the ratio of the
areas of these triangles ?

9. A round log a foot in diameter is sawed so as to have

the cross section the largest square possible. What is the area
of this square ? What would be the area of the cross section
of the square beam cut from a log of half this diameter ?

10. Every equiangular polygon inscribed in a circle is regular

if it has an odd number of sides.

11. Every equilateral polygon circumscribed about a circle

is regular if it has an odd number of sides.
236 BOOK V. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition V. Theorem
377. If the number of sides of a regular inscribed
polygon is indefinitely increased, the apothem of the
polygon approaches the radius of the circle as its limit.

Given a regular polygon of n sides inscribed in the circle of

radius OA, s being one side and a the apothem.

To prove that a approaches r as a limit, if n is increased

indefinitely.

Proof. We know that a < r. § 86

Then since r - a < AM, § 112
and AM<s, §174
.'.r —a< s. Ax. 1C

If n is taken sufficiently great, s, and consequently r — a, can

be made less than any assigned positive value, however small.
Since r —a can become and remain less than any assigned
positive value by increasing n, it follows that

r is the limit of a, by § 204. q.e.d.

378. Corollary. If the number of sides of a regular in-

scribed polygon is indefinitely increased, the square on the

apothem approaches the square on the radius of the circle

as its limit.

For r2 -a = 217 2
2
. §338
Therefore by taking n sufficiently great, s, and consequently AM, and
consequently f1 — a'2 approaches zero as its limit.
,
 j&EGULAB, POLYGONS AND CIKCLES 237

Proposition VI. Theorem

379. An arc of a circle is less than a line of any kind
that envelops it on the convex side and has the same
extremities.

Given BCA an arc of a circle, AB being its chord.

To prove that the arc BCA is less than a line of any kind
that envelops this arc and terminates at A and B.
Proof. Of all the lines that can be drawn, each to include
the area ABC between itself and the chord AB, there must be
at least one shortest line ; for all the lines are not equal.
LetBDA be any kind of line enveloping BCA as stated.
The enveloping line BDA cannot be the shortest for draw- ;

ing ECF tangent to the arc BCA at any point C, the line
BFCEA < BFDEA, since FCE< FDE. Post. 3
In like manner it can be shown that no other enveloping
line can be the shortest.

.". BCA is shorter than any enveloping line. q.e.d.

380. Corollary. A circle is less than the perimeter of any

polygon circumscribed about it.

381. Circle as a Limit. From Prop. VI we may now assume :

1. The circle is the limit which the perimeters of regular in-

scribed polygons and of similar circumscribed polygons approach,
if the number of sides of the polygons is indefinitely increased.
2. The area of the circle is the limit which the areas of the
inscribed and circumscribed polygons approach.
238 BOOK V. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition VII. Theorem
382. Two circumferences have the same ratio as their
radii.

Given the circles with circumferences c and c', and radii r and
r' respectively.

To prove that c: c' —r : r'.

Proof. Inscribe in the circles two similar regular polygons,

and denote their perimeters by^> and^>'.

Then p:p' = r:r'. §375

Conceive the number of sides of these regular polygons to
be indefinitely increased, the polygons continuing similar.
Thenp andj?' will have c and c' as limits. § 381
But the ratio p :p' will always be equal to the ratio r : r'. §375
.' . pr' = p'r. §261
.", cr' — c'r. §207
,\ c:c' = r: r\ by § 264. Q.E.D.

383. Corollary 1. The ratio of any circle to its diameter

is constant.

Why doesc : c'= 2r : 2r/ ? Then why does c : 2r = c': 2r/ ?

384. The Symbol it. The constant ratio of a circle to its

diameter is represented by the Greek letter ir (pi).

385. Corollary 2. In any circle c = 2 irr.

For, by definition, it =
2r
 REGULAR POLYGONS AND CIRCLES 239

Proposition VIII. Theorem

386. The area of a regular polygon is equal to half
the product of its apothem by its perimeter.

A M B
Given the regular polygon ABCDEF, with apothem a, perimeter £,
and area 5.

To prove that s=1 \ aP-

Proof. Draw the radii OA, OB, OC, etc., to the successive
vertices of the polygon.
The polygon is then divided into as many triangles as it

has sides.
The apothem is the common altitude of these A, and the
area of each A
equal to J a multiplied by the base.
is § 325

Hence the area of all the triangles is equal to J a multiplied

by the sum of all the bases. Ax. 1
But the sum of the areas of all the triangles is equal to the
area of the polygon. Ax. 11
And the sum of all the bases of the triangles is equal to the
perimeter of the polygon. Ax. 11
.'. s= J ap. Q.E.D.

387. Similar Parts. In different circles similar arcs, similar

sectors, and similar segments are such arcs, sectors, and seg-
ments as correspond to equal angles at the center.
For example, two arcs of 30° in different circles are similar arcs, and
the corresponding sectors are similar sectors.
240 BOOK V. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition IX. Theorem
388. The area of a circle is equal to half the product
of its radius by its circumference.

Given a circle with radius r, circumference c, and area 5.

To prove that s = J re.

Proof. Circumscribe any regular polygon of n sides, and
denote the perimeter of this polygon by p and its area by s'.
Then since r is its apothem, s' = \ rp. § 386
Conceive n to be indefinitely increased.
Then since p approaches c as its limit, § 381
and r is constant,
.".
\ rp approaches \ re as its limit.
Also s' approaches s as its limit. § 381
But s' = J rp always. § 386
.-. s = \rc, by § 207. q.e.d,

389. Corollary 1. TJie area of a circle is equal to it times

the square on its radius.
For the area of the O = \ re = \ r x 2 irr = irr 2 .

390. Corollary 2. The areas of two circles are to each other

as the squares on their radii.

391. Corollary 3. The area of a sector is equal to half the

product of its radius by its arc.

area of sector arc of sector

For
area of circle circle
 REGULAR POLYGONS AND CIRCLES 241

EXERCISE 61

1. Two circles are constructed with radii 1^ in. and 4| in.,

respectively. The circumference of the second is how many

times that of the first ?

2. The circumference of one circle is three times that of

another. The square on the radius of the first is how many
times the square on the radius of the second ?

3. The circumference of one circle is 2} times that of

another. The equilateral triangle constructed on the diameter
of the first has how many times the area of the equilateral
triangle constructed on the diameter of the second ?

4. A circle with a diameter of 5 in. has a circumference of

15.708 in. What is the circumference of a pipe that has a
diameter of 2 in. '?

5. A wheel with a circumference of 4 ft. has a diameter

of 1.27 ft., expressed to two decimal places. What is the cir-

cumference of a wheel with a diameter of 1.5S| ft. ?

6. A regular hexagon is 2 in. on a side. Eind its apothem

and its area to two decimal places.

7. An equilateral triangle is 2 in. on a side. Eind its apothem

and its area to two decimal places.
8. The radius of one circle is 2j times that of another.
The area of the smaller is 15.2 sq. in. What is the area of
the larger ?
9. The radius of one circle is 3i times that of another.
The area of the smaller is 17.75 sq. in. What is the area of
the larger ?

10. The circumferences of two cylindrical steel shafts are

respectively 3 in. and lj in. The area of a cross section of the
first is how many times that of a cross section of the second ?
11. The arc of a sector of a circle 2i in. in diameter is If in.

What is the area of the sector ?

 .

242 BOOK V. PLANE GEOMETRY

Proposition X. Problem
392. To inscribe a square in a given circle.

Given a circle with center 0.

Required to inscribe a square in the given circle.

Construction. Draw two diameters A C and BD perpendicular

to each other. § 228
Draw AB, BC, CD, and DA.
Then ABCD is the square required. q.e.f.

Proof. The A CBA, DCB, ADC, BAD are rt. A. § 215

(An Z inscribed in a semicircle is a rt. Z.)

The A at the center being rt. A, Const.

the arcs AB, BC, CD, and DA are equal, § 212

and the sides AB, BC, CD, and DA are equal. § 170

Hence the quadrilateral ABCD is a square, by § 65. q.e.d.

393. Corollary. To inscribe regular polygons of %, 16, 32,

64, etc., sides in a given circle.

By AB, BC, etc., a regular polygon of how many

bisecting the arcs
sides be inscribed in the circle ? By continuing the process regular
may
polygons of how many sides may be inscribed ?
In general we may say that this corollary allows us to inscribe a reg-
ular polygon of 2 n sides, where n is any positive integer. As a special
case it is interesting to note that n may equal 1
 PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION 243

Proposition XL Problem
394. To inscribe a regular hexagon in a given circle.

\\ //
2^ -n$
Given a circle with center 0.

Required to inscribe a regular hexagon in the given circle.

Construction. From the center draw any radius, as OC.

With C as a center, and a radius equal to OC, describe an
arc intersecting the circle at D.

Draw OD and CD.

Then CD is a side of the regular hexagon required, and
therefore the hexagon may be inscribed by applying CD six
times as a chord. q.e.f.

Proof. The A OCD is equiangular. §75

{An equilateral triangle is equiangular.)

Hence the Z COD is J of 2 rt. A, or } of 4 rt. A § 107

.*. the arc CD is
J of the circle.
.'. the chord CD is a side of a regular inscribed hexagon, q. e.d.

395. Corollary 1. To inscribe an equilateral triangle in

a given circle.

By joining the alternate vertices of a regular inscribed hexagon, an

equilateral triangle may be inscribed.

396. Corollary 2. To inscribe regular polygons of 12, 24,

48, etc., sides in a given circle.
244 BOOK V. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XII. Problem
397. To inscribe a regular decagon in a given circle.

Given a circle with center 0.

Required to inscribe a regular decagon in the given circle.

Construction. Draw any radius OA,

and divide it in extreme and mean ratio, § 311
so that OA:OP=OP: AP.
From A as a center, with a radius equal to OP,

describe an arc intersecting the circle at B.

Draw AB.
Then AB is a side of the regular decagon required, and there-
fore the regular decagon may be inscribed by applying AB ten
times as a chord Q. E. F.

Proof. Draw PB and OB.

Then OA:OP=OP: AP, Const.

and AB = OP. Const.

'.OA:AB = AB:AP. Ax. 9
Moreover, ZBAO = ZBAP. Iden.

Hence the A OAB and BAP are similar. §288

But the A OAB is isosceles. §162
.*. A BAP, which is similar to A OAB, is isosceles, § 282
and AB = BP = OP. §62
 PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION 245

The A PBO being isosceles, the Z = Z OBP. § 74

But the Z.4P B = ZO-f-ZoeP = 2ZO.
J § 111
Hence ABAP = 2AO }

and Z 0iL! = 2 Z 0. Ax. 9

.-. the sum of the A of the AOAB = 5AO = 2 it A, § 107
and Z =| of 2 rt. Z, or ^ of 4 rt A. Ax. 4
Therefore the arc .45 is
TV of the circle. § 212
.*. the chord AB is a side of a regular inscribed decagon. q.e.d.

398. Corollary 1. Zfe inscribe a regular pentagon in a

given circle.

399. Corollary 2. To inscribe regular polygons of 20, 40,

80, etc.. sides in a given circle.

By bisecting the arcs subtended by the sides of a regular inscribed

decagon a regular polygon of how many sides may be inscribed ? By con-
tinuing the process regular polygons of how many sides may be inscribed ?

EXERCISE 62

If r denotes the radius of a regular inscribed polygon, a

the apothem, s one side, A an angle, and the angle at the

center, show that :

1. In a regular inscribed triangle s = r Vo. a = J r, -4 = 60°,

C=120°.
2. In a regular inscribed quadrilateral s = r V5, a = \r V2,
A= 90°, C = 90°.
3. In a regular inscribed hexagon s = r, a = J r V3, A = 120°,
C = 60°.
4. In a regular inscribed decagon

=r d-l)
s ( ; fl = 1
r VlO + 2V6, ^4 = i44° r= 36°
?
:
246 BOOK V. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XIII. Problem
400. To inscribe in a given circle a regular pentadec-
agon, or polygon of fifteen sides.

Given a circle.

Required to inscribe a regular pentadecagon in the given

circle.

Construction. Draw a chord PB equal to the radius of the

circle, a chord PA equal to a side of the regular inscribed
decagon, and draw AB.
Then AB is a side of the regular pentadecagon required, and
therefore the regular pentadecagon may be inscribed by apply-
ing AB fifteen times as a chord. q.e.f.

Proof. PB is £ of the circle,

The arc § 394

and the arc PA is y ^ of the circle.1

§ 397

Hence the arc AB is J — y ^, or y ^, of the circle. Ax. 2

1 1

Therefore the chord AB is a side of the regular inscribed

pentadecagon required. q.e.d.

401. Corollary. To inscribe regular polygons of 30, 60,

120, etc., sides in a given circle.

By bisecting the arcs AB, BC, etc., a regular polygon of how many
sides may be inscribed ? By continuing the process regular polygons of
how many sides may be inscribed ? In general we may say that a regu-
lar polygon of 15 2 n sides may be inscribed in this manner.
•
 PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION 247

EXERCISE 63

1. A five-cent piece is placed on the table. How many five-

cent pieces can be placed around it, each tangent to it and
tangent to two of the others ? Prove it.

2. What is the perimeter of an equilateral triangle inscribed

in a circle with radius 1 in. ?

3. What is the perimeter of an equilateral triangle circum-

scribed about a circle with radius 1 in. ?

4. What is the perimeter of a regular hexagon circumscribed

about a circle with radius 1 in. ?

Required to circumscribe about a given circle the following

regular polygons :

5. Triangle. 7. Hexagon. 9. Pentagon.

6. Quadrilateral. 8. Octagon. 10. Decagon.
11. Required to describe a whose circumference equals
circle
the sum of the circumferences of two circles of given radii.
12. Required to describe a circle whose area equals the sum
of the areas of two circles of given radii.

13. Required to describe a circle having three times the area

of a given circle.

Required to construct an angle of:

14. 18°. 15. 36°. 16. 9°. 17. 12°. 18. 24°.

Required to construct with a side of given length :

19. An equilateral triangle. 23. A regular pentagon.

20. A square. 24. A regular decagon.
21. A regular hexagon. 25. A regular dodecagon.
22. A regular octagon. 26. A regular pentadecagon.
27. Froma circular log 16 in. in diameter a builder wishes
to cut a column with its cross section as large a regular octagon
as possible. Find the length of each side.
248 BOOK V. PLANE GEOMETRY
Proposition XIV. Problem
402. Given the side and the radius of a regidar in-
scribed polygon, to find the side of the regidar inscribed
polygon of double the number of sides.

Given AB, the side of a regular inscribed polygon of radius OA.

Required to find AP, a side of the regular inscribed poly-

gon of double the number of sides.

Solution. Denote the radius by r, and the side AB by s.

Draw the diameter PQ A. to AB, and draw OA.

Then AM=\s. §174
2
In the A A OM, OM = r - J s
rt.
2 2
. §338
Therefore OM — vV — J s 2 2
. Ax. 5
Since PM+OM = r, Ax. 11
therefore PM =r— OM Ax. 2
— r — Vr — \ s 2 2
. Ax. 9
~ap — pq x PM.
2
Furthermore §298
But PQ = 2 and PM = r- Vr - J s
r,
2 2
.

.'.AP*=2r(r — Vr -£ 4 2
Ax. 9
.-. AP=y/2r(r- Vr2 -i*2 ) Ax. 5

= Vr(2r- V4r2 -* 2
)- Q.E.F.

If r = 1, AP = V2 - V4 - s
2
403, Corollary. .
 PROBLEMS OF COMPUTATION 249

Proposition XV. Problem

404. To find the numerical value of the ratio of the
circumference of a circle to its diameter.

Given a circle of circumference c and diameter d.

Required to find the numerical value of - or it.

a
Solution. By § 385, 2irr = c. .' . it —\c when r =1.

Let 5 6 (read " s sub six ") be the length of a side of a regular
polygon of 6 sides, s
u of 12 sides, and so on.
If r = 1, by § 394, s =1, and by § 403 we have
Length
Form of Computation Length of Side of Perimeter

V2-V4-1 2
0.51763809 6.21165708

s^ = V2 - V4 - (0.51763809) 2
0.26105238 6.26525722

s
48
= V2 - VF- (0.26105238^ 0.13080626 6.27870041

w = V2 - V4~- (0.13080626)
1
s 0.06543817 6.28206396

s
M = V2 - V4^~(0.06543817) 2
0.03272346 6.28290510
=2
s
3&1
= V2 - V4^(0.03272346) 0.01636228 6.28311544

s
768
= V2 - V4^~(0.01636228) 2
0.00818121 6.28316941

c = 6.28317 nearly
.*. that is ;
= 3.14159 neai rly. q.e.f.

7r is an incommensurable number. We generally take

it = 3.1416, or 3J, and i = 0.31831.

 : :

250 BOOK V. PLANE GEOMETRY

EXERCISE 64
Problems of Computation"
Using the value 3.1416 for w, find the circumferences of
circles with radii as follows :

1. 3 in. 3. 2.7 in. 5. 1\ in. 7. 2 ft. 8 in.

2. 5 in. 4. 3.4 in. 6. 6| in. 8. 3 ft. 7 in.

Find the circumferences of circles with diameters as follows :

9. 9 in. 11. 5.9 in. 13. 2J ft. 15. 29 centimeters.

10. 12 in. 12. 7.3 in. 14. 3J in. 16. 47 millimeters.

Find the radii of circles with circumferences as follows :

17. 7?r. 19. 15.708 in. 21. 18.8496 in. 23. 345.576 ft.

18. 3i w. 20. 21.9912 in. 22. 125.664 in. 24. 3487.176 in.

Find the diameters of circles with circumferences as follows :

25. 15 7T. 27. 2-rrr. 29. 188.496 in. 31. 3361.512 in.
2
26. 7T . 28. lira1 . 30. 219.912 in. 32. 3173.016 in.

Find the areas of circles with radii as follows

33. 5 x. 35. 27 ft. 37. 3J in. 39. 2 ft. 6 in.

34. 2 7T. 36. 4.8 ft. 38. 4| in. 40. 7 ft. 9 in.

Find the areas of circles with diameters as follows :

41. 16a&. 43.2.5 ft. 45. 3f yd. 47. 3 ft. 2 in.

2
42. 24 7T . 44. 7.3 in. 46. 4| yd. 48. 4 ft. 1 in.

Find the areas of circles with circumferences as follows

49. 2tt. 51. 7to. 53. 18.8496 in. 55. 333.0096 in.

50. 4tt. 52. Utto 2 . 54. 329.868 in. 56. 364.4256 in.

Find the radii of circles with areas as follows :

57. ira%\ 59. ir. 61. 12.5664. 63. 78.54.

58. 47rmV. 60. 2tt. 62. 28.2744. 64. 113.0976.

 EXERCISES 251

EXERCISE 65

Problems of Construction
1. To inscribe in a given circle a regular polygon similar to
a given regular polygon.
2. To divide by a concentric circle the area of a given circle
into two equivalent parts.

3. To divide by concentric circles the area of a given circle

into n equivalent parts.

4. To whose circumference
describe a circle is equal to the
difference of two circumferences of given radii.
5. To describe a circle the ratio of whose area to that of
a given circle shall be equal to the given ratio m : n.

6. To construct a regular pentagon, given one of the

diagonals.

7. To draw a tangent to a given circle such that the seg-

ment intercepted between the point of contact and a given
line shall have a given length.
8. In a given equilateral triangle to inscribe three equal
circles tangent each to the other two, each circle being tangent
to two sides of the triangle.

9. In a given square to inscribe four equal circles, so that

each circle shall be tangent to two of the others and also

tangent to two sides of the square.
10. In a given square to inscribe four equal circles, so that
each circle shall be tangent to two of the others and also
tangent to one side and only one side of the square.
11. To draw a common secant to two given circles exterior
to each other, such that the intercepted chords shall have the
given lengths a and b.

12. To draw through a point of intersection of two given

intersecting circles a common secant of a given length.
252 BOOK V. PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 66
Problems of Loci
1. Find the locus of the center of the circle inscribed in a
triangle that has a given base and a given angle at the vertex.

2. Find the locus of the intersection of the perpendiculars

from the three vertices to the opposite sides of a triangle that

has a given base and a given angle at the vertex.
3. Find the locus of the extremity of a tangent to a given
circle, if the length of the tangent is equal to a given line.

4. Find the locus of a point from which tangents drawn

to a given circle form a given angle.
5. Find the locus of the mid-point of a line drawn from
a given point to a given line.

6. Find the locus of the vertex of a triangle that has a

given base and a given altitude.
7. Find the locus of a point the sum of whose distances

from two given parallel lines is constant.

8.Find the locus of a point the difference of whose dis-
tances from two given parallel lines is constant.
9. Find the locus of a point the sum of whose distances

from two given intersecting lines is constant.

10. Find the locus of a point the difference of whose dis-

tances from two given intersecting lines is constant.

11. Find the locus of a point whose distances from two

given points are in the ratio m : n.

12. Find the locus of a point whose distances from two

given parallel lines are in the ratio m : n.

13. Find the locus of a point whose distances from two

given intersecting lines are in the ratio m : n.

14. Find the locus of a point the sum of the squares of

whose distances from two given points is constant.

 EXERCISES 253

EXERCISE 67
Examination Questions
1. Each side of a triangle is 2 n centimeters, and about each
vertex as a center, with a radius of n centimeters, a circle is

described. Find the area bounded by the three arcs that lie
outside the triangle, and the area bounded by the three arcs
that lie within the triangle.
2. Upon a line AB a segment of a circle containing 240° is

constructed, segment any chord CD subtending an

and in the
arc of 60° is drawn. Find the locus of the intersection of AC
and BD, and also of the intersection of AD and BC.
3. Three successive vertices of a regular octagon are A, B,
and C.If the length AB is a, compute the length AC.

4. The areas of similar segments of circles are proportional

to the squares on their radii.

5. An arc of a certain circle is 100 ft. long and subtends

an angle of 25° at the center. Compute the radius of the circle

correct to one decimal place.

6. Given a circle whose radius is 16, find the perimeter and

the area of the regular inscribed octagon.

7. If two circles intersect at the points A and B, and through

A a variable secant is drawn, cutting the circles in C and D, the
angle CBD is constant for all positions of the secant.
8. If A and B are two fixed points on a given circle,
and P
and Q are the extremities of a variable diameter of the same
circle, find the locus of the point of intersection of the lines
AP and BQ.
9. radius of a circle is 10 ft. Two parallel chords are
The
drawn, each equal to the radius. Find that part of the area of
the circle lying between the parallel chords.
The propositions in Exercise 67 are taken from recent college entrance
examination papers.
254 BOOK V. PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 68

Formulas

If r denotes the radius of a circle, and s one side of a reg-

ular inscribed polygon, prove the following, and find the value
of s to two decimal places when r =1
1. In an equilateral triangle s = r V3.

2. In a square s = r V2.
3. In a regular pentagon = irVlO — 2 V5.s

4. In a regular hexagon s = r.

5. In a regular octagon s = r V 2 — V2.

6. In a regular decagon s = J r ( Vo — 1).

7. In a regular dodecagon s = r V 2 — V3.
8. A regular pentagon is inscribed in a circle whose radius
is r. If the side is s, find the apothem.

9. A regular polygon is inscribed in a circle whose radius

is r. If the side is s, show that the apothem is \ "\/4 r
2
—s 2
.

10. If the radius of a circle is r, and the side of an inscribed

regular polygon is s, show that the side of the similar cir-

cumscribed regular polygon is

V4 r — 2
s
2

11. Three equal circles are described, each tangent to the

other two. If the common radius is r, find the area contained
between the circles.

Given p, P, the perimeters of regular polygons of n sides

12.

inscribed inand circumscribed about a given ^jrcle. Find p\

P\ the perimeters of regular polygons of 2 n sides inscribed in
and circumscribed about the given circle.
13. A circular plot of land "d ft. in diameter is surrounded
by a walk w ft. wide. Find the area of the circular plot and
the area of the walk.
 EXEKCISES 255

EXERCISE 69
Applied Problems

1. The diameter of a bicycle wheel is 28 in. How many

revolutions does the wheel make in going 10 mi. ?

2. Find the diameter of a carriage wheel that makes 264

revolutions in going half a mile.

3. A circular pond 100 yd. in diameter is surrounded by a

walk 10 ft. wide. Find the area of the walk.
4. The span (chord) of a bridge in the form of a circular
arc is 120ft., and the highest point of the arch is 15 ft. above

the piers. Find the radius of the arc.

5. Two branch water pipes lead into a main pipe. It is

necessary that the cross-section area of the main pipe shall
equal the sum of the cross sections of the two branch pipes.
The diameters of the branch pipes are respectively 3 in. and
4 in. Required the diameter of the main pipe.
6. A kite is made as here shown, the semicircle
having a radius of 9 and the triangle a height
in.,

of 25 in. Find the area of the kite.

7. In making a drawing for an arch it is required
to mark off on a circle drawn with a radius of 5 in.

an arc that shall be 8 in. long. This is best done by

finding the angle at the center. How many degrees are there in
this angle ?

8. In an iron washer here shown, the diameter

of the hole is If in. and the width of the washer

is
I in. Find the area of one face of the washer.
9. Find the area of a fan that opens out into a sector of
120°, the radius being 9| in.

10. The area of a fan that opens out into a sector of 111° is

96.866 sq. in. What is the radius ? (Take it = 3.1416.)

256 BOOK V. PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 70

Review Questions
1. What is meant by a regular polygon ? by its radius ?
by its center ? by its apothem ?

2. What other names are there for a regular triangle and

a regular quadrilateral ?

3. If one angle of a regular polygon is known, how can

the number of sides be determined ?

4. The sides of two regular polygons of n sides are respec-

tively s and s'. What is the ratio of their radii ? of their
apothems ? of their perimeters ? of their areas ?

5. The diameters of two circles are d and d' respectively.

What is the ratio of their radii ? of their circumferences ? of
their areas ?

6. If the number of sides of a regular inscribed polygon

is indefinitely increased, what is the limit of the apothem ?
of each side ? of the perimeter ? of the area ? of the angle
at the center ? of each angle of the polygon ?

7. How do you find the area of a regular polygon ? of an

irregular polygon ? of a square ? of a triangle ? of a parallelo-
gram ? of a circle ? of a trapezoid ? of a sector ?

8. What regular polygons have you learned to inscribe in

a circle ? Name three regular polygons that you have not
learned to inscribe.
9. Given the circumference of a circle, how can the area of
the circle be found ?
Given the area of a
10. circle, how can the circumference of
the circle be found ?

11. What is the radius of the circle of which the number of

linear units of circumference is equal to the number of square

units of area ?
 EXEECISES 257

EXERCISE 71

General Review of Plane Geometry

Write a classification of the different kinds of:

1. Lines. 3. Triangles. 5. Polygons.

2. Angles. 4. Quadrilaterals. 6. Parallelograms.

State the conditions wider which :

7. Two triangles are congruent.

8. Two parallelograms are congruent.

9. Two triangles are similar.

10. Two straight lines are parallel.

11. Two parallelograms are equivalent.

12. Two polygons are similar.

Complete the following statements in the most general manner:

13. In any triangle the square on the side opposite

14. If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal.
15. If four quantities are in proportion, they are in pro-
portion by • • •

16. If two secants of a circle intersect, the angle formed is

measured by • • •

17. The perimeters of two similar polygons are to each

other as • • •

18. The areas of two similar polygons are to each other as • • •.

19. The area of a circle is equal to---.

20. In the same circle or in equal circles equal chords

21. In the same circle or in equal circles the central angles

subtended by two arcs are
22. If two secants of a circle intersect within, on, or outside
the circle, the product of • • •
258 BOOK V. PLANE GEOMETRY
23. If four lines meet in a point so that the opposite angles
are equal, these lines form two intersecting straight lines.

24. If squares are constructed outwardly on the six sides

of a regular hexagon, the exterior vertices of these squares are
the vertices of a regular dodecagon.

25. In a right triangle the line joining the vertex of the

right angle to the mid-point of the hypotenuse is equal to half
the hypotenuse.

26. No two lines drawn from the vertices of the base angles
of a triangle to the opposite sides can bisect each other.

27. The rhombus is the only parallelogram that can be cir-

cumscribed about a circle.

28. The square is the only rectangle that can be circum-

scribed about a circle.

29. No oblique parallelogram can be inscribed in a circle.

30. If two triangles have equal bases and equal vertical

angles, the two circumscribing circles have equal diameters.
31. If the inscribed and circumscribed circles of a triangle

are concentric, the triangle is equilateral.

32. If the three points of contact of a circle inscribed in a tri-

angle are joined, the angles of the resulting triangle are all acute.
33. The diagonals of a regular pentagon intersect at the
vertices of another regular pentagon.

34. If two perpendicular radii of a circle are produced to

intersect a tangent to the circle, the other tangents from the
two points of intersection are parallel.

35. The line that joins the feet of the perpendiculars drawn
from the extremities of the base of an isosceles triangle to the
equal sides is parallel to the base.

36. The sum of the perpendiculars drawn to the sides of a

regular polygon from any point within the polygon is equal
to the apothem multiplied by the number of sides.
 EXERCISES 259

37. If two consecutive angles of a quadrilateral are right

angles, the bisectors of the other two angles are perpendicular.
38. If two opposite angles of a quadrilateral are right angles,
the bisectors of the other two angles are parallel.

39. The two lines that join the mid-points of opposite sides
of a quadrilateral bisect each other.

40. The sum of the angles at the vertices of a five-pointed

star is equal to two right angles.

41. The segments of any line intercepted between two con-

centric circles are equal.

42. The diagonals of a trapezoid divide each other into

segments which are proportional.
43. Given the mid-points of the sides of a triangle, to con-
struct the triangle.

44. To divide a given triangle into two equivalent parts by

a line perpendicular to the base.

45. To draw a tangent to a given circle that shall also be

perpendicular to a given line.

46. To divide a given line into two segments such that the
square on one shall be double the square on the other.

47. If any two consecutive sides of an inscribed hexagon

are respectively parallel to their opposite sides, the remaining
two sides are parallel.

48. If through any given point in the common chord of two

intersecting circles two other chords are drawn, one in each
circle, their four extremities will all lie on a third circle.

49. If two chords intersect at right angles within a circle,

the sum of the squares on their segments equals the square
on the diameter. Investigate the case in which the chords
intersect outside the circle also the case in which they inter-
;

sect on the circle.

260 BOOK V. PLANE GEOMETRY
50. The lines bisecting any angle of an inscribed quadrilateral
and the opposite exterior angle intersect on the circle.
51. The sum of the perpendiculars from any point in an
equilateral triangle to the three sides is constant.

52. The perpendiculars from the vertices of a triangle upon

the opposite sides cut one another into segments that are
reciprocally proportional to each other.

53. The area of a triangle is equal to half the product of its

perimeter by the radius of the inscribed circle.

54. The perimeter of a triangle is to one side as the perpen-

dicular from the opposite vertex is to the radius of the inscribed
circle.

55. The area of a square inscribed in a semicircle is equal to

two fifths of the area of the square inscribed in the circle.

56. The diagonals of any inscribed quadrilateral divide it

into two pairs of similar triangles.

57. To draw a line whose length is v7J in.

58. If two equivalent triangles are on the same base and the
same side of the base, any line cutting the triangles, and par-
allel to the base, cuts off equal areas from the triangles.

59. To divide a given arc of a circle into two parts such that
their chords shall be in a given ratio.

60. The area between two concentric circles may be found

by multiplying half the sum of the two circumferences by the
difference between the radii.
61. Find the length of the belt connecting two wheels of
the same size, if the radius of each wheel is 18 in., the distance
between the centers 6 ft., and 4 in. is allowed for sagging.
62. To construct a regular inscribed heptagon draftsmen
sometimes use for a side half the side of an inscribed equi-
lateral triangle. Construct such a figure with the compasses,
and state whether the rule seems exact or only approximate.
 APPENDIX
405. Subjects Treated. Of the many additional subjects that
may occupy the attention of the student of plane geometry if

time permits, two are of special interest. These are Symmetry,

and Maxima and Minima.

406. Symmetric Points. Two points are said to be symmetric

with respect a point, called the center of symmetry, if this
to

third point bisects the straight line which joins the two points.
Two points are said to be symmetric with respect to an axis,
if a straight line, called the axis of symmetry, is the perpen-

dicular bisector of the line joining them.

407. Symmetric Figure. A figure is said

to be symmetric with respect to a point, if

the point bisects every straight line drawn

through it and terminated by the boundary
of the figure.
A figure is said to be symmetric with
respect to an axis, if the axis bisects every _/_

perpendicular through it and terminated

by the boundary of the figure.

Evidently this will be the case if one part coin-

cides with another part when folded over the axis.

408. Two Symmetric Figures. Two figures

are said to be symmetric with respect to a
A
X-
4^ B

point or symmetric with respect to an axis,

if every point of each has a correspond-
ing symmetric point in the other.
261
262 APPENDIX TO PLANE GEOMETRY

Proposition I. Theorem
409. A quadrilateral that has two adjacent sides
equal, and the other two sides equal, is symmetric
diagonal joining the vertices of the
ivith respect to the

angles formed by the equal sides; and the diagonals

are perpendicular to each other.

Given the quadrilateral ABCD, having AB equal to AD, and CB

equal to CD, and having the diagonals AC and BD.
To prove that the diagonal AC is an axis of symmetry, and
that AC is ± to BD.
Proof. In the A ABC and ADC,
AB = AD, and CB = CD, Given
and AC = AC. Iden.
A ABC is congruent to A ADC.
.'. § 80
.'.ZBAC = ZCAD, and ZACB = ZDCA. § 67

Hence, if A ABC is turned on AC as an axis until it falls

on A ADC, AB will fall on AD, CB on CD, and OB on OD.

.-.the A ABC will coincide with the A ADC.

.'.AC will bisect every perpendicular drawn through it and

terminated by the boundary of the figure.
.*. AC is an axis of symmetry. § 407
\ AC is _L to BD, by § 406. Q.e.d.
 SYMMETRY 263

Proposition II. Theorem

410. If a figure is symmetric with respect to two
axes perpendicular to each other, it is symmetric with
respect to their intersection as a center.

Y'

Given the figure ABCDEFGH, symmetric with respect to the two

perpendicular axes XX, YY\ which intersect at 0.
To prove that is the center of symmetry of the figure.

Proof. Let P be any point in the perimeter.

Draw PMQ _L to YY', and QNR JL to XX'. § 227
Then PQ is II to XX', and QR is II to YY'. § 95
Draw PO, OR, and MN.
Then QN=NR. §407
{The figure is given as symmetric with respect to XX'.)

But QN=MO. §127

.\NR = MO. Ax. 8
.'. RO is equal and parallel to NM. § 130
In like manner, OP is equal and parallel to NM.
.'. R OP is a straight line. § 94
.'.0 bisects PR, any straight line, and hence bisects every
straight line drawn through and terminated by the perimeter.
.*. is the center of symmetry of the figure, by § 407. q.e.d.
264 APPENDIX TO PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 72

1. Draw a figure showing the number of axes of symme try-

possessed by a square.
2. Draw a figure showing the number of axes of symmetry
possessed by a regular hexagon.
3. Draw a figure showing six of the unlimited number of axes
of symmetry of a circle, and showing the center of symmetry.
4. Show by drawings that two congruent triangles may
be placed in a position of symmetry with respect to an axis.
In one of the drawings let a common side be the axis.

5. Show by a drawing that two congruent triangles may be

placed in a position of symmetry with respect to a center.
6. Two figures symmetric with respect to an axis are con-
gruent.
7. Two figures symmetric with respect to a center are con-
gruent.
8. Make a list of quadrilaterals that are symmetric with
respect to an axis.
9. Make a list of quadrilaterals that are symmetric with
respect to a center.

10. What kinds of regular polygons are symmetric with re-

spect both to a center and to an axis ? Prove this for the hexagon.

11. A circle is symmetric with respect to its center as a

center of symmetry, and is also symmetric with respect to

any diameter as an axis.

12. An isosceles triangle is symmetric with respect to an axis,

and therefore the angles opposite the equal sides are equal.

13. Two tangents drawn to a circle from the same point are
symmetric with respect to an axis.

14. The four common tangents to two given circles form,

together with the circles, a figure symmetric with respect to
the line of centers as an axis.
 MAXIMA AND MINIMA 265

411. Maxima and Minima. Among geometric magnitudes that

is called the maximum, and
satisfy given conditions, the greatest
the smallest is called the minimum.
The plural of maximum is maxima, and the plural of minimum is
minima.
Among geometric magnitudes that satisfy given conditions, there may
be several equal magnitudes that are greater than any others. In this
case all are called maxima.
Similarly there may be several minima magnitudes of a given kind.

412. Isoperimetric Polygons. Polygons which have equal

perimeters are called isoperimetric polygons.
If the circumference of a circle equals the perimeter of a polygon, the
circle and the polygon are said to be isoperimetric, and similarly for all

other closed figures in a plane.

Proposition III. Theorem

413. Of all triangles having two given sides, that in

which these sides include a right angle is the maximum.

Given the triangles

PAP ABC and ABB, with
B
AB and CA equal to
AB and DA respectively, and with angle BAC a right angle.

To prove that A ABO A ABB.

Proof. From D draw the altitude DP. §227
Then DA > DP. §86
But DA = CA. Given
CA > DP.
.'. Ax. 9
/. A ABC > AABD, by § 327. Q.E.D.
 APPENDIX TO PLANE GEOMETRY

Proposition IV. Theorem

414. Of all isoperimetric triangles having the same
base the isosceles ty^iangle is the maximum.

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

Given the triangles ABC and ABC having equal perimeters, and
having AC equal to BC, and AC not equal to BC.
To prove that A ABC > A ABC.
Proof. Produce AC to B', making CB = A C. '

Draw BB' and C'B', and draw CQ II to AB.

Thensince AC = CB', .'. BQ = QB'. §135
And since CA = CB = CB', .'. Z B'BA is a rt. Z. § 215
.'. CQ is _L to BB'. §97
C" cannot lie on AB\ for if it could, then CC'+ C'B would
equal CB, which is impossible. Post. 1

Thensince AC + CB' <AC + C'B', §112

.'.AC +CB<AC'+C'B'. Ax. 9
.•.AC'+C'B<AC'+C'B'. Ax. 9
.'.C'BKC'B'. Ax. 6
.\ C ' cannot lie on CQ, for then C 'B would equal C 'B'. § 150
C" cannot lie above CQ (Fig. 1), for C'B', which < C'P + P£',
would be less than C'B, which equals C'P + PB'.
.'. C must lie below CQ, as in Fig. 2.

.'.A ABC> A ABC, by §327. Q.e.d.

 MAXIMA AND MINIMA 267

Proposition V. Theorem
415. Of all polygons loith sides all given hut one, the

maximum can be inscribed in the semicircle which has

the undetermined side for its diameter.

E A N
Given ABCDE, the maximum of polygons with sides AB, BC,
CD, DE, having the vertices A and E on the line MN.
To prove that ABCDE can be inscribed in the semicircle
having EA for its diameter.

Proof. From any vertex, as C, draw CA and CE.

The A A CE must be the maximum of all A having the sides
CA and CE, and the third side on MN ; otherwise, by increas-
ing or diminishing the Z. EC A, keeping the lengths of the sides
CA and CE unchanged, but sliding the extremities A and E
along the line MN, we could increase the A ACE, while the
rest of the polygon would remain unchanged ; and therefore
we could increase the polygon. But this is contrary to the
hypothesis that the polygon is the maximum polygon.

Hence the A ACE is the maximum of triangles that have

the sides CA and CE.
Therefore the Z ACE is a right angle. § 413
Therefore C lies on the semicircle having EA for its

diameter. § 215
Hence every vertex lies on this semicircle.

That is, the maximum polygon can be inscribed in the semi-

circle having the undetermined side for its diameter. q.e.d.
268 APPENDIX TO PLANE GEOMETRY

Proposition VI. Theorem

416. Of all polygons with given sides, one that can
be inscribed in a circle is the maximum.

Given the polygon ABCDE inscribed in a circle, and the polygon

A'B'C'D'E' which has its sides equal respectively to the sides of
ABCDE, but which cannot be inscribed in a circle.
To prove that ABCDE > A'B'C'D'E'.
Proof. Draw the diameter AP, and draw CP and PD.
Upon CD' as a base, construct the AC'P'D' congruent to the
ACPD, and draw A'P'.
Since, by hypothesis, a O cannot pass through all the vertices
of A'B'C'P'D'E', one or both of the parts A'P'D'E', A'B'C'P 9

cannot be inscribed in a semicircle.

Neither A'P'D'E' or A'B'C'P' can be greater than its corre-

sponding part. § 415

(Of all polygons with sides all given but one, the maximum can be inscribed
in the semicircle which has the undetermined side for its diameter.)

Therefore one of the parts A'P'D'E', A'B'C'P' must be less

than, and the other cannot be greater than, the corresponding
part of ABCPDE.
.'. ABCPDE > A'B'C'P'D'E'.
Take from the two figures the congruent A CPD and C'P'D'.
Then ABCDE > A'B'C'D'E', by Ax. 6. Q.e.d.
 MAXIMA AND MLNT IMA 269

Proposition VII. Theorem

417. Of isoperimetric polygons of a given number of
sides, the maximum is equilateral.

cr—

Given the polygon ABCDEF, the maximum of isoperimetric

polygons of n sides.

To prove that the polygon ABCDEF is equilateral.

Proof. Drawee.
The A ABC must be the maximum of all the A which are
formed upon AC with a perimeter equal to that of A ABC.
Otherwise a greater AAPC could be substituted for A ABC,
without changing the perimeter of the polygon.
But this is inconsistent with the fact that the polygon
ABCDEF is given as the maximum polygon.

.'. A ABC is isosceles.

the § 414
AB = BC.
.'.

Similarly BC = CD, CD = DE, and so on.

.'. the polygon ABCDEF is equilateral. q.e.d.

418. Corollary. The maximum of isoperimetric polygons

of a given number of sides is a regular polygon.
For the maximum polygon is equilateral (§ 417), and can be inscribed
in a circle (§ 416). Therefore the maximum polygon is regular (§ 365).
270 APPENDIX TO PLANE GEOMETRY

Proposition VIII. Theorem

419. Of isoperimetric regular polygons, that which
has the greatest number of sides is the maximum.

a X B
Given the regular polygon Pof three sides, and the isoperimetric
regular polygon P' of four sides.

To prove that P' > P.

Proof. Draw CX from C to any point X in AB.
Invert the A AXC
and place it in the position XCY, letting
X fall at C, and A at Y.
C at X,
The polygon XBCY is an irregular polygon of four sides,
which by construction has the same perimeter as P' and the
same area as P.
Then the regular polygon P' of four sides is greater than
the isoperimetric irregular polygon XBCY of four sides. § 418
That is, a regular polygon of four sides is greater than the
isoperimetric regular polygon of three sides.
In like manner, it may be shown that P '
is less than the iso-

perimetric regular polygon of five sides, and so on. q.e.d.

Discussion. We may illustrate this by the case of an equilateral tri-

angle and a square, each with the perimeter p. In the triangle the base
is ip, the altitude I p V3, and the area ^
p 2 V§, or about 0.048 p 2 In the .

square the base and altitude are each \p, and the area is T^ p 2 or 0.0625_p 2 , .

The area of the polygon is therefore increasing as we increase the number

of sides.
Since the limit approached by the perimeters is a circle, we may infer
that of all isoperimetric plane figures the circle has the greatest area.
 MAXIMA AND MINIMA 271

Proposition IX. Theorem

420. Of regular polygons having a given area, that
which has the greatest number of sides has the minimum
perimeter.

p'

Given the regular polygons P and P 1

having the same area, P*
having the greater number of sides.

To prove that the perimeter of P> the perimeter of P '.

Proof. Construct the regular polygon P" having the same

perimeter as P', and the same number of sides as P.
Denote a side of P by s, and a side of P" by s".

Then P'>P". §419

But P = P'. Given
P>P".
.'. Ax. 9
But P:P" = s :s" 2 2
. §374
2
.'.s
2
>s" .

.\s>s". Ax. 6
.*. the perimeter of P>the perimeter of P' Ax. 6
But the perimeter of P' = the perimeter of P". Const
.'. the perimeter of P > the perimeter of P f

, by Ax. 9. q.e.d.

Discussion. We may on page 270, by the case of

illustrate this, as
an equilateral triangle and a square, each with area a 2 The side of .

the square is a, and the perimeter 4 a. The area of the equilateral tri-
angle is | s2 V3. Therefore \s
2 Vs = a 2 ^3 = a. Now ^3 = Vv?;
, or \ s

hence we have V3 = 1.73 + ,and VV3= Vl. 73 = 1.3 +. Hence \sx 1.3 = a,
and s = 1.5 a, and the perimeter of the triangle is 4.5 a. Therefore the
perimeter of the square is less than that of the triangle.
272 APPENDIX TO PLANE GEOMETRY
EXERCISE 73

Maxima and Minima

1. Of all equivalent parallelograms that have equal bases,
the rectangle has the minimum perimeter.

2. Of all equivalent rectangles, the square has the minimum

perimeter.

3. Of all triangles that have the same base and the same
altitude, the isosceles has the minimum perimeter.

4. Of all triangles that can be inscribed in a given circle, the

equilateral is the maximum and has the maximum perimeter.

5. To inscribe in a semicircle the maximum rectangle.

6. Find the area of the maximum triangle inscribed in a

semicircle whose radius is 3 in.
7. Of all polygons of a given number of sides that can
be inscribed in a given circle, that which is regular has the
maximum area and the maximum perimeter.

8. Of all polygons of a given number of sides that can be

circumscribed about a given circle, that which is regular has
the minimum area and the minimum perimeter.

9. In a given line required to find a point such that the

sum of its distances from two given points on the same

side of the line shall be the minimum. A

How does A P + PB compare with A'B ? and
this with A'X+XB ? and this with AX+XB?
This is the problem of a ray of light from A to
the mirror CD, and reflected to B.

10. To divide a given line into two a'

segments such that the sum of the squares on these segments
shall be the minimum.
11. To divide a given line into two segments such that their
product shall be the maximum.
 RECREATIONS 273

421. Recreations of Geometry. The following simple puzzles

and recreations of geometry may serve the double purpose of
adding interest to the study of the subject and of leading the
student to exercise greater care in his demonstrations. They
have long been used for this purpose and are among the best
known puzzles of geometry.

EXERCISE 74

1. To prove that every triangle is isosceles.

Let ABC be a. A that is not isosceles.

Take CP the bisector of ZACB, and ZP the _L bisector of AB.
These lines must meet, as at P, for otherwise
they would be which would require CP to be JL
II,

to AB, and this could only happen if A ABC were

isosceles, which is not the case by hypothesis.
From P draw PX
± to BC and PY ± to CA, and
draw PA and PB.
Then ZP is the JL bisector of AB, PA = PB.
since .-.

And CP is the bisector of ZACB, PX = PY.

since .-.

the rt. A PBX and PAY are congruent, and BX = AY.

.-.

But the rt. A PXC and PYC are also congruent, and XC = YC. .-.

Adding, we have BX + XC = AY + YC, or BC -AC.

.-. A ABC is isosceles even though constructed as not isosceles.

2. To prove that part of an angle equals the whole angle.

Take a square ABCD, and draw MM'P, the JL bisector of CD. Then
MM'P is also the _L bisector of AB.
From B draw any line BX equal to AB.
~7 X
Draw BX and bisect it by the J_ NP. ,

Since DX intersects CD, Js to these lines can-

not be parallel, and must meet as at P.
Draw PA, PD, PC, PX, and PB.
Since MP is
the _L bisector of CD, PD = PC.
PA = PB, and PD = PX.
Similarly
X \\!^''''
PX = PD = PC.
.-.
p
But BX = BC by construction, and PB is common to A PBX and PBC.
A PBX is congruent to A PBC, and Z XEP = Z OBP.
.-.

.-. the whoie Z X5P equals the part, Z C5P.

274 APPENDIX TO PLANE GEOMETRY
3. To prove that part of an angle equals the whole angle.
Take a right triangle ABC, and con-
struct upon the hypotenuse EC an equi-
lateral triangle BCD, as shown.
On CD lay offCA.CP equal to
Through X, the mid-point of AB,
draw PX to meet CB produced at Q.
Draw QA.
Draw the JL bisectors of QA and
QP, as YO and ZO. These must meet
at some point because they are _L to
two intersecting lines.
Draw OQ, OA, OP, and OC.
Since O is on the OQ = OA.
_L bisector of QA, .-.

Similarly OQ =
OA = OP. OP, and .-.

But CA = CP, by construction, and CO = CO.

.-. A A OC is congruent to A POC, and Z A CO = Z PCO.
4. To prove that part of a line equals the whole line.
Take a triangle ABC, and draw CP _L to A B.
From C draw CX, making ZACX = ZB.
Then A ABC and ACX are similar.
AABC:AACX=BC :CX
.-.
2 2
.

Furthermore A ABC: A ACX = AB: AX.

.: BC 2 :CX 2 = AB:AX,
or
But AC 2 + AB -2AB-AP, BC 2

and CX = AC 2 + AX 2 -2 AX- AP. 2

AC + AB 2 -2AB- AP AC 2 + AX 2 -2AX-AP
2

AB AX
or
AC AB 2AP =
AB
+
i

AX +
AX 2AP. —
AX
AC'
AX = AC' -AB,
AB
or
AC - AB-AX AC -AB-AX
2 2

AB AX
AB = AX. •.
 KECREATIONS 275

5. To show geometrically that 1=0.

Take a square that is 8 units on a side, and cut it into three parts,
A, 7>, C, as shown in the right-hand figure. Fit
-i
these parts together as in the left-hand figure. — 4- 4— 1 1

1
.-
"f-
Now the square is 8 units on a side, and therefore h J__i-L --[54-
contains 8 x or 64, small squares, while the rec-
1
1 1 J< 1

8, -L- '

tangle is 13 units long and 5 units high, and there- "-> # •f

-4-+- —t-
i

-4—
— i

r—pi 1 1
1 1
fore contains -4- -+- -4« -4—

:H:-4 -4—
i

-444-4- —>*£--!— +--+ --i— i— 5 x 13, or 65, --4 -4- -t-

—{-—f—A 1— +^ f-X — — —|—4— —

i
l

i
i i

h h
+ .
small squares. —4- -4--4- -4---4-- .+- -4 —
1

._U_{_c_:44_. But the two

1

i
i

— ——— — ——
-J
i i t i- ! |
figures are each made up of A + __?+ G
(Ax. 11), and therefore are equal ( Ax.8).
.-. 65 64, and by subtracting 64 we have 1 = (Ax. 2).

6. To prove that any point on a line bisects it.

Take any point P on A B.

On AB construct an isosceles A ABC, having
AC = BC; and draw PC.
Then in A APC and PBC, we have
ZA=ZB, § 74
AC=BC, Const.
A *~ P
and PC = PC. Idem
Three independent parts (that is, not merely the three angles) of one
triangle are respectively equal to three parts of the other, and the tri-

angles are congruent ; therefore AP = BP (§ 67).

7. To prove that it is possible to let fall two perpendiculars

to a line from an external point.

Take two intersecting (D with centers O and 0'

Let one point of intersection be P, and draw the diameters PA and PD.
Draw AD
cutting the circumferences at B
and C. Then draw PB and PC.
Since A PC A is inscribed in a semicircle,
it is a right angle. In the same way, since
ZD_5P is inscribed in a semicircle, it also is
a right angle.
.-. PB and PC are both X to AD.
276 APPENDIX TO PLANE GEOMETRY
8. To prove that if two opposite sides of a quadrilateral are

equal the figure is an isosceles trapezoid.

Given the quadrilateral A BCD, with BC = DA.

To prove that AB is || to DC.

Draw MO and NO, the ± bisectors of AB and

CD, meet at 0.
to
If AB and DC are parallel, the proposition is already proved.
If AB and DC are not parallel, then MO and iVOwill meet at 0, either
inside or outside the figure. Let be supposed to be inside the figure.

Draw OA, OB, OC, OD.

Then since OM is the _L bisector of AB, .: OA = OB.
Similarly OD = OC.
DA is given equal to BC.
But
.-.AAODls congruent to A BOC,
and ZD0A = ZB0C.
Also, rt. A OCN and ODN are congruent,

and ZN0D = ZC0N.

Similarly rt. A A MO and BMO are congruent,

and ZAOM = ZM0B.

.-. Z NOD + Z DOA + ZA0M = Z CON + Z BOC + Z MOB,
or ZNOM = ZM0N = a Z. st.

Therefore the line MON is a straight line, and hence AB is II to DC.

If the point is outside the quadrilateral, as

in the second figure, the proof is substantially the
same.
For it can be easily shown that

Z DON- ZDOA - ZAOM / \

M
1

= Z NOC - Z BOC - Z MOB, *

which is possible only if

ZD0N=ZD0M,
or if ON lies along OM.
But that the proposition is not true is evident from the
third figure, in which BC = DA, but AB is not to DC. II
 SUGGESTIONS AS TO BEGINNING
DEMONSTRATIVE GEOMETRY
General Suggestions. When the student begins the demon-
strating of propositions, whether in plane geometry or in solid
geometry, it is advisable that the teacher should take a little

time in which to make clear the significance of a proof and the

method of attacking a new theorem.
Before assigning the proposition to be considered, the teacher
will find it helpful to draw the figure on the blackboard, to
state precisely what is given in certain special cases in connec-
tion with the figure, and then to ask the class to look carefully
at the drawing and to state what conclusions seem to follow
from what is given. There may be a number of such infer-
ences, some of them being incorrect; but in any case the teacher
should write them all on the blackboard, and the class should
then examine each one to see if it seems reasonable. This is
the way in which propositions are usually discovered by mathe-
maticians, and it is the best way in which a student can be led
to discover new propositions for himself and to feel that he is
to a certain extent independent of the textbook.
After the inference is thought by the class to be correct, the
students should be led to state the reasons for the various steps.
The most desirable method at first may be that of direct ques-
tioning, — Is this statement true, and if so, for what reason ?
Soon, however, the students will begin to volunteer suggestions
as to the argument, and they should be encouraged in this kind
of independent work. A few illustrations of this method of
approach will now be given.
277
 :

278 METHODS
Inferences as to Congruent Triangles. Suppose, for example,
that the class is about to begin the study of congruent triangles.

The students should first consider the following questions re-

lating to the two triangles here shown, and should draw the
necessary figures to explain each answer
1. If Z.A = Z.A ' and you are not sure about any of the other
parts, are the triangles necessarily congruent ?

If the triangles are congruent, draw two triangles having Z A = ZA'

and yet evidently not congruent. Do the same in considering the other
questions given below.

2. If AA = /LA l
and b = b\ are the triangles necessarily
congruent ?

3. If Z.A=Z.A\ b == b'} and c = c\ are the triangles neces-

sarily congruent ?
4. If /-A—Z.A\ Z.B = Z.B\ and c = e' }
are the triangles
necessarily congruent ?
5. If AA=Z.A\ AB=Z.B\ and AC = ZC, are the tri-

angles necessarily congruent ?

6. If a = a\ b = b', and c = c', are the triangles necessarily

congruent ?

Not one of the answers to the above questions may be cor-

rect. When we look at these lines we may think that they are
not equal, but they are. To Ay sB z v
be certain of any inference x Y
we must find some way of proving it. Proving correct infer-

ences or disproving incorrect ones is one of the main purposes

of demonstrative geometry.
 CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES 279

Examination of an Inference. Let us consider the third of

the inferences drawn on page 278, that if Z.A = /-A\ b = h\
and c = c\ the two triangles are necessarily congruent.

It aids the eye if we mark the equal corresponding parts in

some such way as in the above figures. When we place the
work on a blackboard we may use colored crayons, c and c'
being in red, for example, and b and b' in blue, with Z.A and A A'
designated by green arcs.

Teachers will see the objections to the use of colored crayons except
few propositions at the most. The student should early
in the case of a
become familiar with the tools that he will actually use, the black lead
pencil and the white crayon.

In order to prove that the two triangles are congruent, let

us see if either triangle can be placed on the other so as to

coincide with it. To help us see this clearly we may, if we
wish, cut two triangles out of paper.
Suppose that A ABC is placed upon AA'B'C' so that the
point A lies on the point A', and the side c lies along the side
c' ; then where does the point and why ? B lie,

On what line does the side b then lie, and why ?

Then where must the point C lie, and why ?
Having found where B and C lie, where does a lie ?
What have we now shown with respect to A ABC coinciding
with AA'B'C' ? Are the triangles congruent ?
Complete the following statement : Two triangles are con-
gruent if two sides and the included angle of one are equal
respectively to • . •

The statement and proof should now be given as in the text.

 :

280 METHODS
Inference as to Isosceles Triangles. Suppose that the class is
about to study the isosceles triangle. The students should
consider this figure, in which b = c, the teacher asking ques-
tions of this kind
1. If a is also equal to b and c, the
triangle is not only isosceles, but what
other name may be given to it ?
2. If Z. A is a right angle, the triangle
is not only isosceles, but what other
name may be given to it ?

3. If b = c, as stated, it looks as if

Z.B and Z.C must each be smaller than

what kind of angle ?
4. It looks as if there were a certain relation with respect
to size between ZJ3 and What does ZC this relation between
the angles appear to be ?
5. It looks as if the vertex A
were directly above a certain
point on BC. What point does seem to be ? this
6. It looks as if a perpendicular from A to BC would divide

BC into what kind of segments with respect to size ?

7. The perpendicular from A to BC divides the triangle ABC

into two triangles. What relation apparently exists between

these two triangles ? „
Similar questions may be asked re-

lating, for example, to the raising or

lowering of the vertex A.
No one of inferences 3-7 may be cor-
rect. When we look at this figure the
S
line PQ seems to be about equal to the
lineRS, but when we measure their lengths we find that they
are not equal. As already stated on page 278, we must find
some way of proving or disproving our inferences before we
can be certain of their truth, and this constitutes the important
part of demonstrative geometry.
 ISOSCELES TRIANGLES 281

Further Inferences. There are other inferences that we may

easily draw from a study of the isosceles triangle. Consider, for
example, this figure, AM being drawn so as to bisect Z.A, thus
making Z. x equal to Z. y.
1. Since Ax = Zy, what seems to
be the relation of x' to y' ?

State to the class, if this has not already

been done, that it is often convenient to use
a prime (') to designate a quantity which has
some definite relation to another quantity.
Also state again that it is convenient to use a
dotted line to represent a line, like AM, that
is an auxiliary line, — one that is drawn merely
to aid us in a discussion.

2. What seems to be the relation between the two angles

at M, made by the lines p and BC ? Then what name can be
given to each of the angles ?

3. What kind of line does AM, orp, seem to be with respect

to BC, ora?
4. If we draw the line p so as to bisect a instead of bisect-
ing Z.A, that is, so as to make x' equal to y', what seems to be
the relation as to size between Z x and Zy?
5. If we draw the line p so as to make x' equal to y', what
kind of line does it seem to be with respect to being oblique
or perpendicular to a ?
6. If a perpendicular is drawn to a at its mid-point M, do
you think it will pass through A or not ? What else can you
infer, say with respect to Z.A ?
As already stated, no one of these inferences may be correct
and if we wish to be certain as to any one of them, we must
prove the truth of that inference, using only definitions, axioms,
postulates, or preceding propositions to assist us.
We shall now examine one of the most important of the
inferences respecting the isosceles triangle.
 :

282 METHODS
An Inference Examined. In the fourth of the questions on
page 280 the student will probably draw the inference that
AB = AC. The members of the class
should then examine this inference and
see how to prove that it is correct j that
is, how we can prove that
if b =c f

it follows that AB=AC.

The proposition already proved about
congruent triangles stated that certain
angles are equal. Tell the class that
we may be able to prove that
possibly
AB = AC if we can divide A ABC into two congruent triangles.
In order to use that proposition we must have two sides and
the included angle of one triangle equal respectively to two
sides and the included angle of another triangle therefore, in ;

order to get two equal angles, let us suppose, as on page 281,

that AM is the bisector of A A.
Then, in A ABM and A CM, ask for the relation of b to c
with respect to size. How is this known ?
Ask for the relation of A x to A y with respect to size. How
isthis known ?
Ask what line is the same in A ABM and ACM; that is,
what line is common to the two triangles.
Then ask what parts of one triangle have been shown to be
equal to what parts of the other triangle.
What can be said as to congruence of the triangles ? How
is this known ?
If the triangles are congruent, what can be said as to the
relation of A B to AC?
Let the class complete the following statement
In an isosceles triangle the angles opposite the equal
The statement and proof should now be given as in the text.

i
 ANOTHER CASE OF CONGRUENCE 283

Another Case of Congruence. Suppose that these two triangles

have two angles and the included side of one equal respec-
tively to two angles and the included side of the other;
that is, suppose that c c*

and c = c'.

Ask the student to consider the general appearance of the

triangles and to state his inference as to their congruence.
Draw two or three other pairs of triangles, subject to similar
conditions, and ask the same question.

Examination of the Inference. The students should then see

whether one of the triangles can be placed on the other so as to
coincide with it in other words, each student should be certain
;

that all the parts of one triangle fit perfectly the respective
parts of the other. The teacher may proceed as follows
Suppose that A ABC is placed upon AA'B'C' so that A lies
on A' and c lies along c\ C and C lying on the same side of c\
Then where does B lie ? How do you know that it lies there ?
On what line does the line b then lie ? How do you know
that it lies there ?
On what line does the line a then lie ? How do you know
that it lies there ?
Because the point C
on both the lines a and b y at what
is

point does it lie a' and b' ?

on the lines
What have you now shown with respect to the triangles ?
Have you fully proved the inference about the congruence
of the triangles or do you merely think from the appearance
of the figures that it is probably true ?
Let the class complete the following statement
Two triangles are congruent if two angles and the included
The statement and proof should now be given as in the text.
 : :

284 METHODS
Attacking an Original Exercise. Suggestions for attacking
original exercises have been given in the text, but a single
illustration will probablybe of service to the teacher.
Suppose that the following original is given to be proved
Two drawn from the mid-point of the base of an isosceles
lines
triangle making equal angles with the base meet the equal sides
at points equidistant from the vertex.

1. Draw the figure.

It is desirable to take as general an isosceles

triangle as we can, and in particular to avoid
an equilateral triangle, lest our eye should be
deceived by such a special figure.
It is convenient to use M for mid-point, be-
cause an initial-; but any other letter, say
it is

the letter P, will serve the purpose. It is well

to use Xand Y for the special points, or some
letters not likely to be confused with A, 2?, and C, although this is not
absolutely necessary.
The need not be constructed with the ruler and compasses,
figure
since thiswould take too much time, but it should be drawn neatly and
should be accurate enough for the purpose.

2. Write down precisely what is given, and then write down

precisely what is to be proved.
That is

Given AB = AC, BM = CM, and ZXMB = ZYMG.

To prove that A X = A Y.
3. Then analyze the proposition.
For example : lean prove that AX = AYii I can prove that.RX= CY,
because I already know that AB = AC.
I can prove that BX
— CY if I can prove A MBX&nd CY congruent. M
Ican prove this if I can bring it under the case of two sides and the
included angle or the case of two angles and the included side.
But I can do this, for ZB = ZC, because A ABC is isosceles, and I
also know that ZXMB = Z YMC, and BM = CM.
I can now reverse my reasoning and prove the theorem.

J
 APPLICATIONS OF GEOMETRY
Purpose of Geometry. When we consider the possible appli-
cations of geometry we what
find that they generally belong to
is known as intuitive geometry. The student usually knows the

facts stated in the Pythagorean Theorem before he begins to

study demonstrative geometry, and he can apply the propo-
sition to the measurement of heights, distances, and the like.
It is not necessary that he should demonstrate the theorem in
order to do this ; neither is it necessary that he should prove
the propositions about similar triangles in order to measure the
height of a tree by means of certain shadows, although the
question of similar triangles is involved.
The purpose of demonstrative geometry is not to furnish
means for measurement so much as to prove the truth of the
means that are already known. The essence of demonstrative
geometry is the proof, and whatever takes the mind away
from the proof is to be condemned unless a good reason for
its existence can be shown.

Reason for Applications. In education there are many features

that properly find place because they interest a student in the
important thing under discussion. This is the reason why we
seek for simple illustrations in connection with certain theo-
rems in geometry. Many students are led to take a greater
interest in a proposition if they feel that it relates in some
way to a practical question in mechanics or in mensuration.
The applications could usually be given in intuitive geometry
quite as well, but a moderate use of such aids in demonstrative
geometry is to be commended.
285
 :

286 APPLICATIONS
Applications of Demonstrations. Since the essential thing in
this kind of geometry is the demonstration, it follows that the
most valuable type of application is that which carries the
demonstrations of geometry over into the problems that arise
in life. Such an application makes use of the essential feature
of demonstrative geometry, and the more a teacher encourages
the student to use his geometric reasoning in daily life, the
more valuable will be the teaching of geometry.
The teacher can give better applications of this nature than
the textbook, because he can make them seem more real by
referring them to real situations that arise in the school or in
the life of the locality.
The following are a few types of the applications of demon-
strations, but they may advantageously be worded with rela-

tion to local conditions

1. John decides that he will buy a gun if his father gives

him the money. His father does give him the money. What
conclusion do you draw as to John's buying the gun ?

2. Kate decides to buy a dress if either her father or her

mother gives her the money. Kate buys the dress. What
conclusion do you draw as to the money ?

3. C promises to go into business with C' if A goes into

business with A' and if B goes into business with B'. If A
does go into business with A', and if B goes into business with
B', what follows ?

4. Suppose that it is known that a machine will run satis-

factorily if three wheels properly gear into three other wheels.
Suppose also that it is given that wheel a gears into wheel a',

that it can be shown that wheel b gears into wheel b\ and that
it can then be shown that wheel c gears into wheel c'. What
follows as to the running of the machine ?

The reasoning is practically identical with that which the student uses
in proving the first congruence theorem.
 TYPES OF APPLICATIONS 287

Applications of General Theorems. As already stated, appli-

cations of general theorems are introduced chiefly for the pur-
pose of increasing the student's interest in geometry. These
applications make no use which is the
of the demonstration,
essential part of the work, but they establish some connection
between geometry and practical life. A few types of such
applications are here suggested, in addition to the large number
of similar problems already given in the exercises in this book.

1. In this section of a support for a heavy tank,

are both cross braces necessary for rigidity ? State
the reason. If they are not necessary for rigidity,
is there any other reason why both should be used ?

2. Wishing to measure the distance AX in this figure, a boy

placed a pair of compasses QCP at the top of a post AQ so that
the arm CP pointed to X. He then u
turned the compasses around, keeping c

the angle fixed, and sighted along the Q

arm to Y. He then measured
AX. Explain
A Y and \
thus found the distance
the principle involved.

3. The following method is sometimes used for bisecting an

angle by the aid of a carpenters square : Place the square as
here shown so {hat the edges shall pass
through A and B, two points equidistant
from on the arms of the given angle
AOB, and so that AP = BP. Draw OP
and show that it bisects Z A OB. It should
be stated to the class that this method
could be used by anyone who had never
studied geometry, but that one who has studied the third con-
gruence theorem is positive that the method gives not merely
an approximate result, for he has proved that the method
is absolutely exact.
288 APPLICATIONS
4. The ancient kind of leveling instrument here shown
consists of an isosceles right triangle. When .

the plumb line cuts the mid-point M of the

base BC, the line BC is level. State the
x> ~~
geometric principle involved. m~
5. A draftsman draws a series of parallel lines by means
of a T-square, as here shown. What is

the geometric authority for stating that

the lines are parallel ? How would you
draw a line perpendicular to these lines ?
6. The accuracy of the right angle of a triangle may be
tested by drawing a perpendicular
first BC to the line AA\
the triangle being on the left, at ABC,
and then drawing a perpendicular with
the triangle on the right, at A 'BC. State
the geometric principle involved.
7. A bricklayer often uses the instrument here shown for
determining whether a wall is vertical. When the
plumb line lies along a line that is parallel to the edge
AB, he knows that AB is vertical. State the geometric
principle involved. State any other uses for the plumb
line with which you are familiar. Are all plumb lines
parallel ? Consider, for example, one in London and
one in Chicago.
8. In order to put in a brace joining two converging beams

and making equal angles with them, a carpenter places two

steel squares as here shown, so that OP = OQ.
Show that the line PQ makes equal angles
with the two beams.
9. In Ex. 8, show how a line could be

drawn through the point that would, if pro-

duced, bisect the angle that would be formed by
the two beams if they were extended to the left so as to meet.
 HISTORY OF GEOMETRY
Ancient Geometry. The geometry of very ancient peoples was
largely the mensuration of simple areas and volumes such as
is taught to children in elementary arithmetic to-day. They
learned how to find the area of a rectangle, and in the oldest
mathematical records that we have there is some discussion of
triangles and of the volumes of solids.
Our earliest documents relating to geometry have come to us
from Babylon and Egypt. Those from Babylon were written,
about 2000 b.c, on small clay tablets (some of them about
the size of the hand) that were afterwards baked in the sun.
They show that the Babylonians of that period knew some-
thing of land measures and perhaps had advanced far enough
to compute the area of a trapezoid. For the mensuration
of the circle they later used, as did the early Hebrews, the
value 7r = 3.
The first definite knowledge that we have of Egyptian mathe-
matics comes to us from a manuscript copied on papyrus, a
kind of paper used about the Mediterranean in early times.
This copy was made by one Aah-mesu (the Moon-born), com-
monly called Ahmes, who probably flourished about 1700 b.c.
The original from which he copied, written about 2300 b.c,
has been lost, but the papyrus of Ahmes, written nearly four
thousand years ago, is still preserved and is now in the British
Museum. In this manuscript, which is devoted chiefly to frac-
tions and to a crude algebra, is found some work on mensu-
ration. Among the curious rules are the incorrect ones that
the area of an isosceles triangle is equal to half the product
of the base and one of the equal sides, and that the area of a
289
290 HISTORY OF GEOMETRY
trapezoid having bases b, b\ and nonparallel sides each equal
to a, is J a (b -f- b'). One noteworthy advance appears, however.
Ahmes gives a rule for finding the area of a circle, substan-
tially as follows Multiply the square on the radius by (V-) 2
:
,

which is equivalent to taking for ir the value 3.1605. Long

before the time of Ahmes, however, Egypt had some knowledge
of geometry, as witness the building of the Pyramids, the
laying out of temples, and the digging of irrigation canals.

Early Greek Geometry. From Egypt and possibly from Baby-

lon geometry passed to the shores of Asia Minor and Greece.
The scientific study of the subject begins with Thales, one of
the Seven Wise Men of the early Greek civilization. Born at
Miletus about 640 B.C., he died there in 548 b.c. He founded
a school of mathematics and philosophy at Miletus, known as
the Ionic School. How elementary the
knowledge of geometry
was at that time may be understood from the fact that tradition
attributes only about four propositions to Thales.
The greatest pupil of Thales, and one of the most remark-
able men of antiquity, was Pythagoras. Born probably on the
island of Samos, just off the coast of Asia Minor, about the
year 580 b.c, Pythagoras set forth as a young man to travel.
He went to Miletus and studied under Thales, probably spent
several years in Egypt, and very likely went to Babylon. He
then founded a school at Crotona, in Italy. In geometry he is
said to have been the first to demonstrate the proposition that
the square on the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equivalent
to the sum of the squares on the other two sides.

The first great textbook on geometry, and the most

Euclid.
famous one that has ever appeared, was written by Euclid, who
taught mathematics in the great university at Alexandria,
Egypt, about 300 b.c. Alexandria was then practically a Greek

city, having been named in honor of Alexander the Great and

being ruled by the Greeks.
 ASIA AND EUROPE 291

Euclid's work is known as the Elements, and, as was the

case with all ancient works, the leading divisions were called
w books," as is seen in the Bible and in such Latin writers
as
Caesar and Vergil. This is why we speak of the various books
of geometry to-day. In this work Euclid placed all the leading
propositions of plane geometry as then known, and arranged
them in a logical order. Most geometries of any importance
since his time have been based upon this great work of Euclid,
and improvements in the sequence, symbols, and wording have
been made as occasion demanded.

Geometry in the East. The East did little for geometry,

although contributing considerably to algebra. The first great
Hindu writer was Aryabhatta, who was born 476 a.d. He
gave the very close approximation for ir expressed in modern
notation as 3.1416. The Arabs, about the time of the Arabian
Nights tales (800 a.d.), did much for mathematics, translating
the Greek authors into their own language and also bringing
learning from India. Indeed, Arab mathematicians
it is to the
of the ninth and tenth centuries that modern Europe owes its
first knowledge of the Elements of Euclid. The Arabs, how-

ever, contributed nothing of importance to geometry.

Geometry Introduced into Europe. Euclid was translated from

the Arabic into Latin in the twelfth century, Greek manu-
scripts not being then at hand, or being neglected because of
ignorance of the language. The leading translators were Athel-
hard of Bath (1120), an English monk who had learned Arabic
in Spain or in Egypt ; Gherardo of Cremona, an Italian monk
of the twelfth century ; and Johannes Campanus (about 1250),
chaplain to Pope Urban IV.
In the Middle Ages in Europe nothing worthy of note was
added to the geometry of the Greeks. The first Latin edition
of Euclid's Elements was printed in 1482, and the first English
edition in 1570.
 : , :

FORMULAS
Notation. The following notation is used

a = area, apothem. = length.

I

a,b,c = sides of A ABC. m = median.

a' = projection of a. p = perimeter.
b, b' = bases. r = radius.
c = circumference. s = semiperimeter of A

d = diameter, diagonal. J (a + b c). -j-

A = height, altitude. tt = 3.1416, or about 3}.

Formulas for Line Values. The following are important

Right triangle, a 2
+ b = c (§ 337).
2 2

Any triangle, a2 + b ± 2 ab' = c (§ § 341, 342).

2 2

Circle, c = 2 7rr = 7rd (§ 385).

Radius of circle, r =c 2 -s- 7r.

Equilateral triangle, h = \b V3.

Diagonal of square, d = 6 V2 (§ 339).
Side of square, b = Va.

Areas of Plane Figures. The following are important :

Rectangle, bh (§ 320).
2
Square, b (§ 320).
Parallelogram, bh (§ 322).
Triangle, \bh (§ 325), Vs(s- a) (s -b)(s- c).
2
Equilateral triangle, \b V3.
Trapezoid, £ h (b -f b') (§ 329).
Regular polygon, J op (§ 386).
Circle, J re = ttt 2
(§ § 388, 389).
292
 INDEX
Page Page
Acute angle 16 Angles, exterior-interior . . 47
triangle 26 generation of 17
Adjacent angles 7 interior 47, 51
Alternation, proportion by . 152 made by a transversal . . 47
Altitude 59 of a polygon 68
Analytic proof . . 80, 140, 141 of a triangle 7
Angle 6 supplementary 18
acute 16 vertical 18
at center of regular polygon 227 Antecedents 151
central 93 Applications of Geometry . . 285
complement of 18 Apothem 227
conjugate of 18 Arc 7, 93
exterior 51 major 93
inscribed 115 minor 93
measure of 18 Area of circle 115
oblique 16 of irregular polygon . . . 199
obtuse 16 of surface 191
reentrant 68 Attack, methods of 140, 145, 284
reflex 16 Axiom 21
right 7, 16 Axioms, list of 22
sides of 6 Axis of symmetry 261
size of 6, 17
straight 16 Base 7, 32, 59
supplement of 18 Bisector 6, 74
vertex of 6 Broken line 5
Angles, adjacent 7
alternate-interior .... 47 Center of circle 7
complementary 18 of regular polygon . . .227
conjugate 18 of symmetry 261
corresponding 26 Central angle 93
equal 6 Chord 95
exterior 47, 51 Circle 7, 93
293
294 INDEX
Page Page
Circle, arc of 7, 93 Corollary 21
area of 115 Corresponding angles ... 26
as a limit 114, 237 lines 165
as a locus 93 sides 26, 165
center of 7 Curve 5
central angle of .... 93 Curvilinear figure 5
chord of 95
circumference of ... . 7 Decagon 68
circumscribed . . . . . 114 Degree ......... 18
diameter of 7, 93 Determinate cases ..... 140
inscribed 114 Diagonal 59, 68
radius of 7, 93 Diameter 7, 93
secant to 102, 177 Difference of magnitudes . . 17
sector of 115 Dimensions ....... 2
segment of 115 Discussion of a problem 126, 140
tangent to 102 Distance 42
Circles, concentric 104 Division, harmonic .... 161
escribed 137 proportion by 154
tangent • . 107 Dodecagon 68
Circumcenter 78, 136 Drawing figures .... 8, 29, 84
Circumference 7
Circumscribed circle .... 114 Equal angles . 6
polygon 114 lines 5
Commensurable magnitudes . 112 Equiangular polygon .... 68
Common measure . . . . . 112 triangle 26
tangents 109 Equilateral polygon .... 68
Complement 18 triangle . 26
Composition, proportion by . 153 Equivalent figures 191
Concave polygon 68 Escribed circles 137
Concentric circles 104 Excenter 137
Concurrent lines 77 Exterior angles 47, 51
Congruent 26, 68 Extreme and mean ratio . . 184
Conjugate 18 Extremes 151
Consequents 151
Constant 114 Figure 4
Continued proportion . . . 151 curvilinear 5
Continuity, principle of . . 125 geometric 4
Converse propositions . . 35, 95 plane ,.'.'*' 4
theorems, law of ... . 95 rectilinear 5
Convex polygon 68 symmetric 261
 INDEX 295

Page Page
Figures, equivalent .... 191 Limits, principle of .... 115
isoperimetric 265 Line 3, 5
symmetric 261 broken 5
Foot of perpendicular ... 7 curve 5
Formulas 292 of centers 107
Fourth proportional . . . . 151 segments of 5, 161
straight 5
Generation of angles .... 17 Lines, concurrent 77
of magnitudes .... 4, 17 corresponding 165
Geometric figure 4 equal 5
Geometry 4 oblique 16
parallel 46
Harmonic division 161 perpendicular 7
Heptagon 68 product of 194
Hexagon 68 transversal of 47
History of Geometry .... 289 Loci, solutions by 143
Homologous angles .... 26 Locus 73
lines 165 proof of 74
sides 26
Hypotenuse 42 Magnitudes 3
Hypothesis 30 bisectors of 6
commensurable .... 112
Impossible cases 140 constant 114
Incenter 78, 137 differences of 17
Incommensurable magnitudes 112 generation of .... 4, 17
ratio 113 incommensurable .... 112
Indeterminate cases .... 140 sums of 17
Indirect proof 83 variable 114
Inferences 278 Maximum 265
Inscribed angle 115 Mean proportional .... 151
circle 114 Means 151
polygon 114 Measure 112
Instruments 8 angle 18
Interior angles 47, 51 common 112
Inversion, proportion by . . 153 numerical 112, 117
Isoperimetric polygons . . . 265 Median 77
Isosceles trapezoid .... 59 Methods of attack . 140, 145, 277
triangle 26 of proof . 35, 77, 80, 83, 84
Minimum 265
Limit 114, 237 Multiple 112
296 INDEX
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Nature of proof 25 Polygon, incenter of ... . 137
of solution 126 inscribed 114
Negative quantities .... 125 perimeter of 68
Nonagon 68 radius of regular .... 227
Numerical measure . . 112, 117 regular 68, 227
sides of 68
Oblique angle 16 vertices of 68
lines 16 Polygons, classified . . . 68, 114
Obtuse angle 16 congruent 68
triangle 26 isoperimetric 265
Octagon 68 mutually equiangular . . 68
Optical illusions 15 mutually equilateral . . 68
similar 165
Parallel lines 46 Positive quantities 125
Parallelogram 59 Postulate 21
Pentadecagon 246 of parallels 46
Pentagon 68 Postulates, list of 23
Perigon 18 Principle of continuity . . . 125
Perimeter 7, 68 of limits 115
Perpendicular 7 Problem 21, 126
bisector 74 how to attack a . . 140, 145
Pi (tt) 238 Product of lines 194
value of 249 Projection 205
Plane 3 Proof, methods of, 35, 77, 80, 83, 84
angle 6 nature of 25
geometry 4 necessity for 15
Point 3 Proportion 151
of contact 102, 107 continued 151
Polygon 68 nature of quantities in a . 155
angles of 68 Proportional, fourth .... 151
apothem of regular . . . 227 mean 151
area of ..... . 191, 199 reciprocally 177
center of regular .... 227 third .... # .... 151
circumcenter of .... 136 Proposition 21
circumscribed 114 Pythagorean theorem . . . 204
concave 68
Quadrilateral 59, 68
convex 68
Quadrilaterals classified . . 59
diagonal of 59, 68
equiangular 68 Radius 7, 93
equilateral 68 of regular polygon . . . 227
 INDEX 297

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Ratio 112 Surface 3, 191
extreme and mean . . . 184 Symmetric figures 261
incommensurable .... 113 Symmetry 261
of similitude 165 Synthetic proof ... 35, 77, 140
Recreations of geometry . . 273
Rectangle 59 Tangent 102, 107, 109
Rectilinear figure 5 circles 107
Reductio ad absurdum ... 83 Terms of a proportion . . . 151
Reentrant angle 68 Theorem 21
Reflex angle 16 Third proportional 151
Regular polygon ... 68, 227 Transversal 47
Rhomboid 59 Trapezium 59
Rhombus 59 Trapezoid 59
Right angle 7, 16 Triangle 7, 68
triangle 26 acute 26
altitude of 59
Scalene triangle 26 angles of 7
Secant 102, 177 base of 7, 59
Sector 115 circumcenter of . . . 78, 136
Segment of a circle .... 115 equiangular 26
of a line 5, 161 equilateral 26
Semicircle 93, 115 excenter of 137
Sides, corresponding .... 26 incenter of 78, 137
of angle 6 isosceles 26
of polygon 68 obtuse 26
of triangle 7 right 26
Similar parts of circles . . . 239 scalene 26
polygons 165 sides of 7
Similitude, ratio of .... 165 vertices of 7
Size of angle 6, 17 Triangles classified .... 26
Solid 2
Solution, nature of .... 126 Unit of measure 112
Square 26 of surface 191
Straight angle 16
line 6 Variable 114
Subtend , , . 93, 95 Vertex of angle 6
Suggestions as to methods . . 277 of isosceles triangle ... 59
Sum of magnitudes .... 17 Vertical angles 18
Superposition 35 Vertices of a polygon ... 68
Supplement 18 of a triangle 7