Chapter 6:
Mechanical Properties
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
• Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent
deformation occur? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
• Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?
Chapter 6 - 1
Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
d
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
d
Chapter 6 - 2
Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared
delastic + plastic dplastic
F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
d
dplastic
Chapter 6 - 3
Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, s: • Shear stress, t:
Ft Ft F
Area, Ao Fs
Area, Ao
Fs
Ft
F
t= s F Ft
Ft lb N
s= = 2f or 2
Ao
Ao in m
original area
before loading
Stress has units:
N/m2 or lbf /in2
Chapter 6 - 4
Common States of Stress
• Simple tension: cable
F F
Ao = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
s= s s
Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy
• Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft P.M. Anderson)
M Fs Ao
Ac
Fs
t=
Ao
M
2R Note: t = M/AcR here.
Chapter 6 - 5
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (i)
• Simple compression:
Ao
Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
F Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches s= structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao (s < 0 here).
Chapter 6 - 6
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (ii)
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:
Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
sq > 0
sz > 0 sh< 0
Chapter 6 - 7
Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
d/2
-dL
e= d eL =
Lo Lo wo
wo
dL /2
• Shear strain:
q
x g = Dx/y = tan q
y 90º - q
Strain is always
90º dimensionless.
Adapted from Fig. 6.1(a) and (c), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Chapter 6 - 8
Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test • Typical tensile
machine specimen
Adapted from
extensometer specimen Fig. 6.2,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
gauge
length
Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials,
Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)
Chapter 6 - 9
Linear Elastic Properties
• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)
• Hooke's Law:
s=Ee s F
E
e
Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test
Chapter 6 - 10
Poisson's ratio, n
• Poisson's ratio, n:
eL
eL
n= -
e e
metals: n ~ 0.33 -n
ceramics: n ~ 0.25
polymers: n ~ 0.40
Units: > 0.50 density increases
E: [GPa] or [psi] < 0.50 density decreases
n: dimensionless (voids form)
Chapter 6 - 11
Mechanical Properties
• Slope of stress strain plot (which is
proportional to the elastic modulus) depends
on bond strength of metal
Adapted from Fig. 6.7,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 6 - 12
Other Elastic Properties
t M
• Elastic Shear
modulus, G: G simple
g torsion
t=Gg test
M
• Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
DV DV P P
P = -K Vo
Vo K pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
• Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
= DV
E E
G= K=
2(1 + n) 3(1 - 2n)
Chapter 6 - 13
Young’s Moduli: Comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda AFRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B.2,
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
40
Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Concrete Composite data based on
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 CFRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester glass (GFRE)
4 PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4
0.2 LDPE Chapter 6 - 14
Useful Linear Elastic Relationships
• Simple tension: • Simple torsion:
d = FL o d = - n Fw o 2ML o
L
a=
EA o EA o r o4 G
F M = moment
d/2 a = angle of twist
Ao
Lo Lo
wo
2ro
dL /2
• Material, geometric, and loading parameters all
contribute to deflection.
• Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
Chapter 6 - 15
Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)
• Simple tension test:
Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress, s at larger stress
Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed
ep engineering strain, e
plastic strain Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 6 - 16
Yield Strength, sy
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s
y = yield strength
sy
Note: for 2 inch sample
= 0.002 = z/z
z = 0.004 in
engineering strain, e
ep = 0.002 Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 6 - 17
Yield Strength : Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140) qt
1000
Yield strength, sy (MPa)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since
700 W (pure)
since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.
600
in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.
Cu (71500) cw
500 Mo (pure)
Steel (4140) a
400
Steel (1020) cd Room temperature
300
values
Hard to measure ,
Al (6061) ag
Hard to measure,
200 Steel (1020) hr ¨
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr Based on data in Table B.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
100
a = annealed
dry
70 PC
hr = hot rolled
60 Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 Al (6061) a PET
cd = cold drawn
40 PVC humid
cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered
20
LDPE
Tin (pure) Chapter 6 - 18
10
Tensile Strength, TS
• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
TS Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
F = fracture or
y
ultimate
engineering
strength
stress
Neck – acts
Typical response of a metal
as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
Chapter 6 - 19
Tensile Strength: Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)
2000 Steel (4140) qt
AFRE(|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140) a
Cu (71500) cw Si nitride
Cu (71500) hr Al oxide
300
Steel (1020)
Al (6061) ag
Ti (pure) a
Room temperature
200 Ta (pure)
values
Al (6061) a
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber) Based on data in Table B.4,
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
40 Concrete PVC GFRE( fiber) a = annealed
PP CFRE( fiber)
30 hr = hot rolled
AFRE( fiber)
HDPE ag = aged
20 Graphite
LDPE cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
10 qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
wood ( fiber)
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
1 Chapter 6 - 20
Ductility
Lf - Lo
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL = x 100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress, s larger %EL Ao
Lo Af Lf
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Engineering tensile strain, e
• Another ductility measure: Ao - Af
%RA = x 100
Ao
Chapter 6 - 21
Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.
Engineering small toughness (ceramics)
tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, s
Adapted from Fig. 6.13, very small toughness
Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (unreinforced polymers)
Engineering tensile strain, e
Brittle fracture: elastic energy
Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
Chapter 6 - 22
Resilience, Ur
• Ability of a material to store energy
– Energy stored best in elastic region
y
U r d
0
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to
1
Ur @ sy e y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 6 - 23
Elastic Strain Recovery
sy i D
sy o
2. Unload
Stress
1. Load 3. Reapply
load
Strain
Adapted from Fig. 6.17, Elastic strain
Callister & Rethwisch 8e. recovery
Chapter 6 - 24
Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
-- resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
-- better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load
Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.
most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided
plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond
increasing hardness
Chapter 6 - 25
Hardness: Measurement
• Rockwell
– No major sample damage
– Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range
20-100.
– Minor load 10 kg
– Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
• A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond
• HB = Brinell Hardness
– TS (psia) = 500 x HB
– TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
Chapter 6 - 26
Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5
Chapter 6 - 27
True Stress & Strain
Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched
• True stress T F Ai T 1
• True strain T ln i o T ln1
Adapted from Fig. 6.16,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 6 - 28
Hardening
• An increase in sy due to plastic deformation.
s
large hardening
sy
1
sy small hardening
0
e
• Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
hardening exponent:
n n = 0.15 (some steels)
sT = K eT ( ) to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(L/Lo)
Chapter 6 - 29
Variability in Material Properties
• Elastic modulus is material property
• Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
• Statistics
n
– Mean xn
x
n
1
n 2
2
– Standard Deviation s
xi x
n 1
where n is the number of data points
Chapter 6 - 30
Design or Safety Factors
• Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
• Factor of safety, N Often N is
y between
working 1.2 and 4
N
• Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.
d
y 1045 plain
working
N carbon steel:
sy = 310 MPa Lo
220,000N TS = 565 MPa
5
2
d /4 F = 220,000N
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
Chapter 6 - 31
Summary
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
Chapter 6 - 32
ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:
Core Problems:
Self-help Problems:
Chapter 6 - 33
