Code ET_M1L2 Theories, Rules & Other-Related Concepts

Framework in Ethics refer to the basic structure underlying a system or concept. It refers to a set
of assumptions, concepts, values, and practices that constitutes a way of viewing reality.
There are three (3) general subject areas:
Meta-Ethics
Normative Ethics
Applied Ethics

META-ETHICS :
Branch of Ethics that studies the nature of morality (meaning, reference and truth values of
moral judgments/what goodness and wickedness means
Sub-branches are:
A1. Cognitivism (Cognitivist) – moral judgments convey proposition
1.1 Moral Realism (morality is about objective facts; either true or false)
1.2 Ethical Subjectivism (truth or falsity are dependent on attitudes or standards of a person or
group of persons)
A2. Non-Cognitivism (Non-Cognitivist) – denies moral judgments are either true or false
2.1 Emotivism (submits that moral judgments are mere expressions of our emotions and
feelings)
B1. Universalism – moral universalism theorizes that moral facts and principles apply to
everybody in all places (also called moral objectivism and applies to all regardless of nationality,
citizenship, race, culture, gender, sexual preference, religion, etc.)
B2. Moral Relativism – submits that different moral facts and principles apply to different
persons or groups of individuals.
 All moral norms are equally rue and morals are mere preferences (compatible with
ethical subjectivism).
 Various cultures have distinct standards of right and wrong.
 Maintains that ethical standards also change over time even in the same culture.
C1. Empiricism (or Moral Empiricism states that moral facts are known through observation and
experience.
 Hold that moral truths are reducible to matters about people’s opinions
cultural conventions and thus, are recognizable by observation of the
conventions.
C2. Rationalism (or Moral Rationalism) contends that moral facts and principles
are knowable a priori, that is, by reason alone and without reference to experience.
 Theory relies on reason rather than intuition in justifying a belief or action
 Most forms purport that moral facts are known through rational inferential
process.
C3. Intuitionism (or Moral Intuitionism) submits that moral truths are knowable by
intuition that is, by immediate instinctive knowledge without reference to any
evidence. In general, it claims that some moral facts can be known without inference.

NORMATIVE ETHICS
Branch of Ethics that studies how man ought to act, morally speaking.
Examines ethical norms that is, those guidelines about what is right, worthwhile, virtuous or
just.
Prescriptive in nature.
 Three (3) kinds : deontological, teleological and virtue ethics.
A. Deontology comes from the Greek word, “deon” which means ‘duty’
 An ethical system that bases morality on independent moral rules or duties.
 System equates behaving morally with adherence to duties or moral rules,
and acting immorally with failure to obey them.
 Also called “non-consequentialism,” the system’s principles are submitted
as obligatory, regardless of the consequences that actions might produce.
B. Teleology comes from the Greek word “telos” which means ‘end’
 Takes into account the end result of the action as the exclusive
consideration of its morality.
 Morally right if its favorable consequences are greater than its adverse
outcomes.
 Most famous form is consequentialism
 Proposes that morality is determined solely by a cost-benefit evaluation
of the action’s consequences.
C. Virtue Ethics, as a moral system, places emphasis on developing good habits of
character, like kindness and generosity and avoiding bad character, traits,
vices such as greed or hatred.
 Virtue based theories give importance to moral education which molds
individuals to habitually act in a virtuous manner.
 Describes right actions as those chosen and performed by a suitably
virtuous person.

APPLIED ETHICS
Philosophically examines specific, controversial moral issues.
Attempts to determine the ethically correct course of action in specific realms of human action.
Considered applied ethical issue if it is a matter of moral judgment but also has to be
controversial.
There must be considerable groups of people both for and against the issue.
Subfields :
1. Bioethics – ethical issues pertaining to life such as surrogate mothering, fetuses’
manipulation, stem cell research, in-vitro fertilization, abortion, etc.
2. Environmental – concerning nature, ecosystem and its nonhuman contents i.e.
Endangered species presentation, pollution control, animal rights, etc.
3. Business Ethics – concerning business environment i.e. corporate practices, investigates
ethical controversies e.g. harassment, misleading advertisement, job discrimination, etc.
4. Sexual Ethics – studies moral issues about sexuality and human sexual behavior; examines
homosexuality, polygamy, premarital sex, marital fidelity, non-marital procreation, safe sex,
contraceptive use, extra marital sex, etc.
5. Social Ethics – deals with what is right for a society to do and how it should act as a whole.
Focused on what may be deemed as proper behavior for people as a whole. Some issues
are those about racial discrimination, death penalty, nuclear weapon production, gun
control, drug for fun and welfare rights.

RULES
Rules refer to explicit or understood regulations or principles governing conduct within a specific
activity or sphere. Rules tell us what it is or is not allowed in a particular context or situation. In many
ways, rules serve as a foundation for any healthy society.
 Rules benefit social beings in various manners:
1. Rules protect social beings by regulating behavior.
2. Rules help to guarantee each person certain rights and freedom.
3. Rules produce a sense of justice among social beings.
4. Rules are essential for a healthy economic system.

Other-related Concepts:
 Freedom as a Foundation of Morality
Basically, morality is a question of choice. Morality, practically, is choosing ethical codes, values, or
standards to guide us in our daily lives. Philosophically, choosing is impossible without freedom.
Morality requires and allows choice, which means the right to choose even differently from our fellows.
So, everyone who wishes to function morally and rationally in a society has to make choices virtually
every minute of the day.
 Minimum Requirement for Morality : Reason and Impartiality
Reason as a requirement for morality entails that human feelings may be important in ethical
decisions, but they ought to be guided by reason. Sound reasoning helps us to evaluate
whether our feelings and intuitions about moral cases are correct and defensible.
Impartiality, on the other hand, involves the idea that each individual’s interests and point of
view are equally important. Also called evenhandedness or fair-mindedness, impartiality is a
principle of justice holding that decisions ought to be based on objective criteria, rather than on
the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring the benefit to one person over another for improper
reasons.
(Source: Ethical Principles of Ethical Behavior in Modern Society by Jens Micah de Guzman, 2017)