Principles of Remote

UNIT 1 PRINCIPLES OF REMOTE SENSING Sensing

Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Remote Sensing
Definition
Remote Sensing System
Advantages and Limitations
1.3 History of Remote Sensing
1.4 Electromagnetic Radiation and its Properties
Electromagnetic Radiation Models
Properties of EMR
Electromagnetic Spectrum
1.5 Electromagnetic Radiation Laws
Planck’s Radiation Law
The Wien and Stefan-Boltzmann Laws
Kirchhoff’s Law
1.6 Summary
1.7 Unit End Questions
1.8 References
1.9 Further/Suggested Reading
1.10 Answers

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In MGY-001, you have been introduced to geoinformatics, concepts of
geospatial data including maps and mapping. You also got an overview of
applications of geoinformatics. Now you will study the three main
components of geoinformatics i.e. remote sensing, GIS and GPS. In this
course you will be introduced to remote sensing while the latter two would be
covered in MGY- 003. In this unit you would be introduced to the concept and
basic principles of remote sensing. Remote sensing works on the basis of
electromagnetic radiation (EMR), hence, the characteristics of EMR and the
governing radiation laws would also be discussed.

Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to:
• define remote sensing;
• list out major landmarks in the history of remote sensing;
• mention the components of remote sensing;
• describe electromagnetic energy and its properties;
• explain electromagnetic spectrum and its major divisions; and
• discuss important radiation laws governing remote sensing.
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Introduction to Remote
Sensing 1.2 REMOTE SENSING
Remote sensing can be broadly defined as the process of sensing (i.e.
Remote sensor or sensor acquiring information) from distance. It is formally defined as the science or
is a device which detects technique of obtaining information about objects on surface of the Earth
the electromagnetic
radiation reflected or
without physically coming into direct contact with them. The process of
emitted from an object. A remote sensing involves making observations and recording radiation coming
vehicle such as aircraft or from Earth features by sensors such as cameras, scanners, radiometers, etc.
satellite which carries the These sensors are mounted in platforms (such as helicopters, aeroplane, space
sensor is called platform. shuttle and satellites) located at a particular altitude above the Earth’s surface.

Refer to Unit 4, Sensors

We can relate our eyes functioning as a sensor which record information about
and Platforms, for details the objects without touching them. And, the brain is like a data storage as well
on types of sensors and as data processing device, which stores, processes and creates image of the
platforms. objects. However, remote sensing includes not only what is visual, but also
what can’t be seen with the eyes.

1.2.1 Definition
There are number of definitions of remote sensing and some of the most
referred are given below:

Sabins (1978) has defined remote sensing as “a method that employs

electromagnetic energy such as light, heat, and radio waves as the means of
detecting and measuring target characteristics”. Further, he excludes
electrical, magnetic, and gravity methods from remote sensing because they
measure force fields rather than electromagnetic radiation.

According to Lillesand and Kiefer (1979), remote sensing is “the science and
art of obtaining useful information about an object, area or phenomenon
through the analysis of data acquired by a device that is not in contact with
the object, area, or phenomenon under investigation”.

Campbell (2002) has defined remote sensing as “the practice of deriving

information about the Earth’s land and water surfaces using images acquired
from an overhead perspective, using electromagnetic radiation in one or more
regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, reflected or emitted from the Earth’s
surface”.

According to the American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

(ASPRS), remote sensing is “the measurement or acquisition of information of
some property of an object or phenomenon, by a recording device that is not
in physical or intimate contact with the object or phenomenon under study”
(Colwell, 1983). In 1988, ASPRS adopted a combined definition of
photogrammetry and remote sensing which states that “Photogrammetry and
remote sensing are the art, science and technology of obtaining reliable
information about physical objects and the environment, through the process
of recording, measuring and interpreting imagery and digital representations
of energy patterns derived from non-contact sensor systems” (Colwell, 1997).

As you have noticed, some of the definitions refer to remote sensing as both
an ‘art’ and ‘science’. Let us now understand why it is called both ‘art’ and
‘science’. Remote sensing is a ‘science’ when information is extracted from
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remote sensing data using mathematical and statistical methods based on some Principles of Remote
Sensing
scientific facts whereas it is an ‘art’ when the remote sensing data is analysed
using background or prior knowledge that cannot be measured and is obtained
through experience. However, remote sensing analysts usually draw inferences
from both the science and art of remote sensing analysis to derive information
from remote sensing data.

1.2.2 Remote Sensing System

You now know that remote sensing is a tool for gathering information about
objects at a distance. However, it is not just about a sensor or platform. There
are several steps in remote sensing system as shown in Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1: Basic components of remote sensing; A – Energy source, B – Energy

interactions with the atmosphere and sensors, C – Interaction of EMR with
Earth surface features, D – Detection of signals by the sensor, E – transmission
of remotely sensed data to ground stations, and F – processing and utilisation of
the data. Information derived from remote sensing data is generally presented
in the form of a map or table

• Source of Energy (A): The first and very important requirement for
remote sensing is an energy source which provides electromagnetic
energy to the Earth. It may be either from natural (e.g. solar radiation) or
artificial (e.g. RADAR) sources. For remote sensing, Sun’s radiations are
commonly used as a source of energy.
• Interaction of energy with the atmosphere (B): When energy travels
from its source to the Earth surface, it comes in contact with the Earth’s
atmosphere where it interacts with atmospheric constituents. The energy
reflected from Earth’s surface is received by remote sensors. In this
process the energy once again interacts with atmosphere.
• Interaction with Earth surface features (C): Energy reaching the Earth
surface through the atmosphere interacts with the Earth surface features.
The interaction and its outcome depend on the characteristics of the
features and the energy.
• Recording of energy by the sensor (D): After interacting with Earth
surface features the reflected and emitted energy travels to the sensor.
And, the sensor records the reflected and emitted energy. 7
Introduction to Remote • Transmission, reception, and processing of the recorded signals (E):
Sensing
The energy recorded by the sensor is transmitted in the form of signals to
receiving and processing station on the Earth. The signals are in
electronic form and are processed and converted into an image.

• Utilisation of the data (F): The processed image is interpreted and

analysed to extract information about the object of interest.

The above mentioned components comprise the remote sensing system and
underline the importance of energy and its interaction with atmosphere and
Earth features.

1.2.3 Advantages and Limitations

After understanding the concept of remote sensing let us now look at its
advantages and limitations.
Remote sensing has several advantages as listed below:
• it provides a synoptic view
• it is a cost effective means of data collection
• it can provide data in wavelengths beyond the sensing capability of
human eye
• it can acquire data of inaccessible areas
• it is an unobtrusive means of data collection which does not change
characteristics of the object or phenomenon being observed
• it provides historical data sets which is useful to know characteristics of
an object in a given point of time in past.
Advantages of remote sensing have been oversold and despite having several
advantages remote sensing has following limitations:
• it is sometimes found that appropriate data is not available or easily
acquired particularly in the tropical regions where cloud cover obstructs
acquisition of image because not all sensors can ‘see’ through cloud
Optics is the branch of
• remote sensing equipments can become uncalibrated with time resulting
physics which involves the
behaviour and properties into errors in data collected.
of light, including its
interactions with matter. 1.3 HISTORY OF REMOTE SENSING
Aeronautics is the science
that involves the study,
Let us now get an idea about historical developments of remote sensing. The
design, and manufacturing era of remote sensing is considered to have begun in 1858 when a balloonist,
of flight or the techniques G. Tournachon (alias Nadar) took photographs of Paris from his balloon. Later,
of operating aircraft. messenger pigeons, kites, aeroplanes, rockets and unmanned balloons were
also used for early imaging. However, history of remote sensing can be linked
Spectrometry is the
measurement of radiation
with the development and understanding of optics and aeronautics. Aristotle
intensity as a function of (300BC) is credited with the first experiments on optics. Galileo Galilei
wavelength and is often (1609) and Sir Issac Newton (1666) scientifically explained optics and
used to describe spectrometry. The systematic aerial photography began during the World War I
experimental for military surveillance and reconnaissance purposes. During World War I,
spectroscopic methods.
aeroplanes were used on a large scale for these purposes as the aeroplanes
were proved more reliable and stable platforms for Earth observation than
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balloons. However, the important developments of aerial photography and Principles of Remote
Sensing
photo interpretation took place during World War II. During this time span, the
development of other imaging systems such as near-infrared photography,
thermal sensing and radar also took place. RADARSAT is a
constellation of pair of
Canadian Remote Sensing
The development of artificial satellites in the later half of the 20th century satellites.
allowed remote sensing to progress to a global scale. As a consequence
UARS (Upper Atmosphere
various Earth resources (e.g. Landsat) and weather (e.g. Nimbus) satellites and
Research Satellite) was a
more recent missions such as RADARSAT and UARS provided global NASA operated orbital
measurements of various data for civil, research, and military purposes. observatory whose
Table 1.1 gives a brief historical overview of development in the remote mission was to study the
sensing technology. Space probes to other planets have also provided the Earth’s atmosphere,
particularly the protective
opportunity to conduct remote sensing studies in extra terrestrial
ozone layer.
environments; synthetic aperture radar aboard the Magellan spacecraft
provided detailed topographic maps of Venus, while instruments aboard
SOHO allowed studies to be performed on the Sun and the solar wind, just to SOHO (Solar and
Heliospheric Observatory)
name a few examples. is a spaceborne solar
observatory jointly
Table 1.1: Major milestones in the history of remote sensing developed by European
Space Agency (ESA) and
Year Milestones
National Aeronautics and
1800 Discovery of infrared by Sir W. Herschel Space Administration
(NASA) of USA to study
1801 Theory of the perception of the colour by Thomas Young
the Sun from its deep core
1839 Beginning of practice of photography to the outer corona and the
solar wind. Launched in
1859 Photography from balloons
1995 it began its normal
1873 Description of electromagnetic spectrum by J.C. Maxwell operations in May 1996.
Originally planned as a
1909 Photography from airplanes
two year mission, it still
1916 Aerial reconnaissance during the World War I continues to operate after
1935 Development of radar in Germany over fifteen years
in space. Till date it has
1940 Applications of non-visible part of electromagnetic spectrum during World War II discovered over
1959 First space photograph of the Earth by Explorer-6 2100 comets.

1960 Launch of the first TIROS meteorological satellite

1970 Skylab remote sensing observations from the space
1972 Launch of the first Earth resource satellite (Landsat-1)
Refer to Unit 4 Sensors
1972 Rapid advances in digital image processing and Platforms, for details
1982 Launch of new generation of Landsat sensors (Landsat-4) on platforms, orbits and
types of sensors.
1986 Launch of French Earth observation satellite (SPOT-1)
1986 Development of hyperspectral sensors
1990 Development of high resolution space borne systems
1995 Launch of RADARSAT
1998 Advancements towards low cost one-goal satellite missions
1999 Launch of MODIS Terra EOS, Landsat-7 ETM+ and Earth observation
satellites by commercial space agencies (IKONOS)
2000 Launch of SRTM
2002 Launch of ENVISAT, SPOT-5 and Launch of MODIS Aqua
2006 Launch of RADARSAT-2
9
Introduction to Remote It would be appropriate here to also list major milestones in the history of
Sensing
Indian remote sensing as given in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2: Major milestones in the history of Indian remote sensing

(source: http://isro.org/satellites/allsatellites.aspx)
Year Milestones
1920 First use of aerial photography
1962 Establishment of a rocket launching station
1972 Establishment of the Department of Space
1975 Launch of the First Indian satellite ‘Aryabhatta’
1979 Launch of the Earth observation satellite ‘Bhaskara’
1982 Launch of INSAT-1A
1988 Launch of the First Indian Remote Sensing Satellite programme, IRS-1A
1991 Launch of IRS-1B
1994 Launch of IRS-P2
1995 Launch of INSAT-2C
1997 Launch of IRS-1D
1999 Launch of OCEANSAT-1 (IRS-P4)
2001 Launch of the GSAT-1 and Technology Evaluation Satellite (TES)
2002 Launch of KALPANA (METSAT)
2003 Launch of RESOURCESAT-1 (IRS-P6)
2005 Launch of CARTOSAT-1 (IRS-P6)
2007 Launch of CARTOSAT-2
2008 Launch of Chandrayaan-1
2009 Launch of ANUSAT, OCEANSAT-2 and RISAT-2
2010 Launch of CARTOSAT-2B
2011 Launch of YOUTHSAT, RESOURCESAT-2 and Megha-Tropiques

Recent developments include, beginning in the 1960s and 1970s, with the
development of computer processing of satellite images. Following the
successful demonstration flights of Bhaskara-1 and Bhaskara-2 satellites
launched in 1979 and 1981, respectively, India began to develop the
indigenous Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) series of satellites to
support the national economy in the areas of agriculture, water resources,
forestry and ecology, geology, marine fisheries and coastal management. Data
from the IRS series is received and disseminated by several countries all over
Refer to Unit 4 Sensors the world. With the advent of high-resolution satellites new applications in the
and Platforms, for details areas of urban sprawl, infrastructure planning and other large scale
on types of orbits. applications for mapping have been initiated. The IRS series of satellites is the
Refer to Unit 5 Image
largest constellation of remote sensing satellites for civilian use in operation
Resolutions, for more today in the world. These satellites are placed in polar sun-synchronous orbit
details on spectral and and provide data in a variety of spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions.
temporal resolution.
In the next section, you will be introduced to the various sources of the
electromagnetic energy and their characteristics.

10
Check Your Progress I Spend Principles of Remote
5 mins Sensing
1) List out the steps of remote sensing system.
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1.4 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION AND ITS The unit of EMR is

Wm-2ster-1μm-1 i.e. the rate
PROPERTIES of transfer of energy (watt,
W) recorded at a sensor
The most familiar form of electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is visible light. per square metre on the
We see the world around us with the help of information reaching to our eyes. ground, for one steradian
The sense associated with eyes is known as sight or vision and is stimulated (i.e. solid angle) from a
point on Earth’s surface to
by light. Eyes convert the incoming light into electrical signals and convey
the sensor, per unit
them to brain, which creates picture/image in our mind after processing. wavelength being
Similarly, as discussed in the last section, sensors record energy which has measured.
interacted with Earth surface features. This energy serves as the main
communication link between the sensor and the object. In this section, we will
discuss about the electromagnetic energy and its properties.

As you know, energy is the ability to do work. When a work is carried out,
energy is transferred from one body to another or from one place to another.
These energy transfers take place in three ways, i.e. conduction, convection
and which occurs when one body transfers its kinetic energy to another by
colliding with it. Heating and boiling of water in a bowl is the example of
convection in which the kinetic energy of water molecules is transferred from
one place to another by physical movement of the molecules. Heating of an
iron rod at one end and transfer of heat to the other end of the rod is an
example of conduction wherein energy transfer takes place by direct contact.
Another way of energy transfer takes place in the form of electromagnetic
radiation. When you feel heat despite standing away from a fire is an example
of radiation. Unlike conduction and convection, radiation does not require a
medium to transfer energy through. Radiant energy is defined as the energy
carried by electromagnetic radiation. And, you should remember that
everything that has a temperature above absolute zero radiates energy.

For remote sensing, Sun is the source of electromagnetic radiation (EMR). You will learn about solid
angle in section 1.5 of this
The Sun may be assumed to be a blackbody with surface temperature around unit.
6000°K. When Sun is used as an energy source for remote sensing it is known
as passive remote sensing but when artificial source of electromagnetic energy Refer to section 1.5 for the
is used it is known as active remote sensing. Examples of active remote concept of blackbody.
sensing are radar and lidar.

It would be useful here to understand the basic properties of EMR because

electromagnetic energy forms the basic source for remote sensing.
11
Introduction to Remote
Sensing
1.4.1 Electromagnetic Radiation Models
To explain the nature of EMR and its propagation through space and its
interaction with matter two different models, i.e. Wave model and Particle
model have been given.

a) Particle Model of Electromagnetic Energy

The particle model of electromagnetic energy was given by Sir Isaac
Newton in 1704. According to this theory light behaves as a stream of
Sir Isaac Newton, an En- particles or corpuscles and travels in straight line. He also knew that light
glish physicist, mathemati- had wave like characteristics based on his experiments. Following are the
cian, astronomer and a phi- properties of the particle model of electromagnetic energy:
losopher, described univer-
sal gravitation and the three • light travels in straight lines
laws of motion. He built the
first practical reflecting tele- • light can be reflected
scope. • light can travel through a vacuum

b) Wave Model of Electromagnetic Energy

The wave model was formulated by Maxwell in 1862. According to this
theory, light travels like a wave which has electric and magnetic fields.
This model is able to explain phenomenon such as propagation,
dispersion, reflection, refraction and interference of electromagnetic
Max Planck was a German waves. Eventually, work of some scientists seemed to point out that there
physicist who is regarded as were aspects of light that could be explained more clearly using a wave
the founder of the quantum model.
theory, for which he
received the Nobel Prize in
c) Wave Particle Duality
Physics in 1918.
Scientists like Huygens (1690) and Young (1804) had given definite proof
Dispersion is the separation
of light into its different that light behaves like a wave. Planck and Einstein showed that light must
coloured rays. Rainbow is be a particle. It seems as though one must be right, and the other wrong.
the most familiar example Both aspects (wave and particle) make up light at the same time. This
of dispersion, which causes leads us to the current way of describing light, the model known as Wave
the spatial separation of a
Particle Duality. Wave particle duality postulates that all matter exhibits
white light into components
of different wavelengths both wave and particle properties. Albert Einstein was able to come up
(i.e. colours). with a solution as long as he assumed that energy came in little pieces,
Reflection is the throwing called Quanta. This led Einstein to come up with a theory that joined the
back of light, heat, or idea of Quanta to an explanation of light. This meant the light came in
sound without absorbing it little pieces that were named photons. This also helped to explain the
by a body or surface.
phenomenon called Blackbody Radiation.
Refraction is the bending
of electromagnetic rays as
they pass from one
1.4.2 Properties of EMR
medium into another. Electromagnetic fields have many interesting properties. These properties
A blackbody is a matter make them very unique and enrich the science of remote sensing. Let us now
which absorbs all discuss about these properties in brief. Three characteristics of EMR, which
electromagnetic energy are particularly important for understanding the concept of the remote sensing,
incident upon it and does
not reflect nor transmit
are wavelength, amplitude and frequency.
any energy.
• wavelength is the distance over which the wave’s shape repeats (Fig. 1.2).
Blackbody radiation is
It is usually determined by considering the distance between consecutive
defined as thermal
radiation of a blackbody. corresponding points of the same phase, such as crests or troughs. It is
measured in μm and denoted by Greek letter ë.
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• frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time Principles of Remote
Sensing
(Fig. 1.2). It is measured in Hertz (Hz) and denoted by Greek letter í .

• amplitude is the maximum extent of a vibration or oscillation (Fig. 1.2).

(a) Albert Einstein was a

German-born theoretical
physicist. He is often
regarded as the father of
modern physics for his
achievement in developing
the theory of general
relativity. He received
Nobel Prize in Physics in
1921for his contribution to
theoretical physics, and
(b) especially for his
Fig. 1.2: Sinusoidal wave of (a) short wave length (high frequency) and (b) long wavelength discovery of the law of the
(low frequency) photoelectric effect.

Some of the other properties of EMR are listed below:

• the electric (E) and magnetic (F) fields are always perpendicular to the
direction of travel of the wave (as shown in Fig. 1.3). Thus, the wave is a
transverse wave Transverse waves: These
waves move perpendicular
• the electric field is always perpendicular to the magnetic field (Fig. 1.3) to the direction of energy
transfer.

Sinusoidal: A smooth
repetitive succession of
waves or curves. This
wave pattern occurs often
in nature, including ocean
waves, sound waves, and
light waves.

Fig. 1.3: Propagating electromagnetic (EM) wave with speed C in x direction and
electric and magnetic field corresponding to EM wave (source:
www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/glossary/index_e.php?id=3104)

13
Introduction to Remote • the cross product of electric and magnetic fields always gives the
Sensing
direction of travel of the wave
Light emitted by the Sun, • the variations of fields are sinusoidal, so also are the transverse waves.
a flame or a lamp is
created by electric charges Moreover, the fields vary with the same frequency and in phase with each
that vibrate in different other (Fig. 1.3)
directions and create an
electro-magnetic wave that • the speed (c) at which electromagnetic waves move in vacuum is
vibrates in a variety of 299,792,458 m/s (~ 3×108 m/s). If you send a beam of light along an axis
directions. We can assume and ask your friends to measure its speed while they move at different
the light waves as speeds along that axis, either in the direction of the light or opposite it,
vibrating in a vertical and
horizontal plane as shown
they will all measure the same speed for the light. This result is amazing
in the figure below. and very different from what would have been found if your friends had
measured the speed of any other type of wave. For other waves, the speed
of the observers relative to the wave would have affected their
measurements
• if you measure the travel time of a pulse of EMR from one point to
another, you are not really measuring the speed of the EMR but rather the
When a light wave distance between those two points
vibrates in more than one
plane it is known as
• the plane containing the E vectors is called the plane of oscillation of the
unpolarised light. In wave, hence, the wave is said to be plane polarised in the y direction in Fig.
polarised light the 1.3 which shows an electromagnetic wave with vertical (linear) polarisation.
vibrations occur in a single
plane. The unpolarised 1.4.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum
light can be transformed
into polarised light using As you have studied, EMR is a form of energy exhibiting wave like behaviour as it
some filters and this travels through space. EMR ranges from very high energy radiation such as gamma
process of transformation rays and X rays through ultraviolet light, visible light, infrared radiation and
is known as polarisation.
microwaves to radio waves. The range of frequencies of EMR is known as
There are numerous electromagnetic spectrum (Fig. 1.4). You should note that the division of the
applications of polarised electromagnetic spectrum is for practical use. The gamma rays and X rays are
light. Use of a pairs of potentially dangerous and also the ultraviolet light is powerful enough to cause
sunglasses to eliminate the sunburn. Human eyes use visible light to see objects. We can feel infrared radiation
glare resulting from
sunlight reflecting off the
as heat. We employ microwaves in microwave ovens and radio waves are used for
water of a pond is a good communications. All the types of EMR are wave forms which travel at the speed of
example. The glare from light. The radiation can be defined in terms of either their wavelength or frequency.
the water is result of Shorter wavelength radiations (infrared or shorter) are generally described in terms
concentration of light of its wavelength, whereas longer wavelength radiations (microwave, etc.) are
aligned parallel to the
water surface. To block
generally described in terms of its frequency.
such plane polarised light,
a filter must be used which In remote sensing, mostly visible, infrared and microwave bands are used. Fig. 1.4
has a vertically aligned shows the electromagnetic spectrum, which covers the wavelength (frequency) from
polarisation axis. 10-12 to 104 m (1020 to 104 Hz). Table 1.3 gives details of nomenclature of
microwave and radio wave frequencies used in remote sensing and Table 1.4 gives
the information on microwave bands used in the microwave sensors.

14
 Principles of Remote
Sensing

Fig. 1.4: Electromagnetic spectrum with wavelength and frequency information of

different spectrum bands (source: www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/resource/tutor/
fundam/index_e.php)

Table 1.3: Nomenclature of microwave and radio wave frequency

Abbre- Full Form Frequency Wavelength

viation

EHF Extremely High Frequency (Microwaves) 30-300 GHz 1mm-1cm

SHF Super High Frequency (Microwaves) 30-3 GHz 1cm-10cm

UHF Ultra-High Frequency (Microwaves) 3GHz-300 MHz 10cm-1m

VHF Very High Frequency 300-30 MHz 1m-10m

HF High Frequency 30-3 MHz 10m-100m

MF Medium Frequency 3MHz-300 kHz 100m-1km

LF Low Frequency 300-30 kHz 1-10km

VLF Very Low Frequency 30-3 kHz 10-100km

VF Voice Frequency 3kHz-300 Hz 100-1000km

ELF Extremely Low Frequency 300-30 Hz 1000-10000km

Table 1.4: Nomenclature of the microwave bands as used in the

microwave sensors

Band Wavelength Frequency

mm-Band 1-7.5mm 40-300 GHz

Ku-K-Ka-Band 0.75-2.5 cm 12-40 GHz

X-Band 2.5-4 cm 8-12 GHz

C-Band 4-8 cm 4-8 GHz

S-Band 8-15 cm 2-4 GHz

L-Band 15-30 cm 1-2 GHz

15
Introduction to Remote Check Your Progress II Spend
Sensing 5 mins
1) List out the basic properties of EMR.
A blackbody is an ideal ......................................................................................................................
surface which absorbs the
entire radiations incident ......................................................................................................................
upon it. It is a perfect
......................................................................................................................
absorber and a perfect
radiator observing all the
incident radiation 1.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION LAWS
reflecting none and
emitting radiation at all Remote sensing is based on properties of electromagnetic energy. The
wavelengths. Because no
light is reflected or
properties of EMR interacting with matter are systematised in a simple set of
transmitted, the object rules called radiation laws, which define quantitative aspects of the properties
appears black when it is of electromagnetic energy. These laws apply when the radiating body is what
cold. physicists call a blackbody radiator. So, before studying radiation laws, let us
understand what a blackbody is. Generally, blackbody conditions apply when
Solid angle (Ù) is a two- the radiator has very weak interaction with the surrounding environment and can
dimensional angle in be considered to be in a state of equilibrium. Although stars do not satisfy
three-dimensional space perfectly the conditions to be blackbody radiators, they do to a sufficiently good
that an object subtends at
approximation that it is useful to view stars as approximate blackbody radiators.
a point. Hence, it is a three
dimensional cone and is a Let us now understand the concept of blackbody. All materials above absolute
measure of how large that zero (-273.14°) temperature emit radiation. If you look at two different kinds
object appears to an
of material, each at the same temperature, you will find that the radiation
observer looking from that
point. In other words, it is being emitted by them is different. This led physicists to invent the perfect
the angle that, seen from emitter, known as a blackbody, which emits the maximum amount of radiation
the center of a sphere, at each wavelength. Although some materials come very close to being perfect
includes a given area on emitters in some wavelength ranges, no real materials are a perfect blackbody.
the surface of that sphere.
Fortunately, the radiation inside a cavity whose walls are thick enough to
The value of the solid
angle is equal to the size prevent any radiation from passing directly through them can be shown to be
of that area divided by the the radiation that would be emitted by a blackbody (Fig. 1.5). By observing
square of the radius of the the radiation inside the cavities, physicists knew the empirical relationship
sphere (Ù = A/r2). A small between blackbody radiation and the two variables on which it depends, i.e.
object nearby may subtend
temperature and wavelength.
the same solid angle as a
larger object farther away
(for example, the small/
near Moon can totally
eclipse the large/remote
Sun because as observed
from a point on the Earth,
both objects fill almost
exactly the same amount
of sky).

Fig. 1.5: Illustration showing concept of a blackbody. Radiation passing through the
small cavity is completely absorbed in a blackbody

We will now discuss the fundamental laws of radiation which are important
for understanding EMR and more relevant to remote sensing.
16
Planck made the revolutionary assumption that an oscillating atom in the wall of a Principles of Remote
cavity can exchange energy with the radiation field inside a cavity only in discrete Sensing
bundles called quanta or photon. He defined a constant (h) to relate frequency (í )
to radiant energy (Q) as given below:
Q = hí ........................................... (1)
where,
Q = Radiant energy,
í = frequency, and
h is known as Planck’s constant.
With this assumption, he showed that the radiation being emitted by a blackbody is
given by Planck’s Radiation Law, which governs the intensity of radiation emitted
by unit surface area into a fixed direction (i.e. solid angle) from the blackbody as a
function of wavelength for a fixed temperature. The Planck’s Law can be expressed
through the following equation:
2c2 h
Bl (T) = hc ..................................... (2)
l5
e l kT
-1
where,
Bë(T) is known as spectral radiant exitance (in Wm2sr–1μm–1) at wavelength
ë (in μm) and temperature T (in K),
h is Planck’s constant (6.626 × 10–34 J.s)
c is the velocity of light (2.998 × 108 ms–1), and
k is the Boltzmann constant (1.380 × 10–23 JK–1). Emission is the process by
which a body emits EMR
Radiant exitance is the power of electromagnetic radiation per unit area usually as a consequence
radiated by a surface. When it is considered for a specific frequency in the of its temperature only.
spectrum it is called spectral radiant exitance.
Transmission is the
As shown in Fig. 1.6, the Planck’s Law gives a distribution that peaks at a certain passing of radiation
wavelength. The peak shifts to shorter wavelengths for higher temperatures, and through a substance
the area under the curve grows rapidly with increasing temperature. without significant
attenuation.

Absorption is a process
by which radiation is
converted to other types of
energy (especially heat) by
a material. It causes
reduction in strength of an
electromagnetic wave
propagating through a
medium.

Fig. 1.6: Blackbody radiation curve for objects at different temperature. Note the shift in
maximum emission peak
17
Introduction to Remote
Sensing
1.5.2 The Wien and Stefan-Boltzmann Laws
The behaviour of blackbody radiation is described by the Planck’s law. From the
Planck’s law, one can derive two other radiation laws i.e. the Stefan-Boltzmann
law and the Wien’s displacement law. These two laws illustrated below are very
important in remote sensing to understand characteristics of EMR:

Stefan-Boltzmann law defines relationship between total emitted radiation (E) and
temperature and is expressed as:

E = σT 4 ........................................................ (3)

where,
E = radiant energy per surface unit measured in Watts m-2 leaving a blackbody
ó = 5.6697 × 10–5 (Watts m–2 k–4 is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, and
T = absolute temperature of the blackbody in Kelvin (K).
The Wien’s displacement law defines the relationship between the wavelength of
the radiation emitted and the temperature of the object and is expressed as:

ë max = ...................................................... (4)

where,
ëmax is the wavelength at which radiance is maximum (unit of the ë is in
Angstroms), and
T is the absolute temperature in Kelvin (K).

The Wien’s Displacement law gives the wavelength of the peak of the
radiation distribution, while the Stefan-Boltzmann law gives the total energy
being emitted at all wavelengths by the blackbody (which is the area under the
Planck’s law curve). Thus, the Wien’s law explains the shift of the peak to
shorter wavelengths as the temperature increases, while the Stefan-Boltzmann
law explains the growth in the height of the curve as the temperature
increases. Notice that this growth is very large, since it varies as the fourth
power of the temperature.

1.5.3 Kirchhoff’s Law

Kirchhoff, a physicist, demonstrated in 1860 that a body acts as a perfect
blackbody if
• the sides of the body are maintained at a constant absolute temperature
(temperature of blackbody)
• a very small hole in comparison to the dimensions of the body is made in
the body itself.
We know from the principle of conservation of energy that when a surface
intercepts incident (incoming) radiation it interacts with it and some amount of
radiation is reflected, absorbed and transmitted. This can be expressed as
Ei = Er + Ea + Et ............................................... (5)
18
 where, Principles of Remote
Sensing
Ei is incident radiation
Er is reflected radiation
Ea is absorbed radiation, and
Et is transmitted radiation
Equation (5) can be written as

E i E r E a E t .......................................... (6)
= + +
Ei Ei Ei Ei

Or 1 = ñ + á + ô .......................................... (7)
where,

is a coefficient of reflection (reflectivity),

is a coefficient of absorption (absorpitivity), and

is a coefficient of transmission (transmissivity).

Values of ñ, á and ô ranges between 0 and 1 and from Equation (7) we

understand that transparent bodies
öö energy
æEmitted only transmit (ô = 1), or opaque bodies do
EE by the real body at T 0
reta = çç ÷ t
ar ÷ not transmit (ñ + á = 1). You 0should note that there is no existence of any body
EEii ÷
èEmitted
÷
øø energy
which by the black
shows body
constant at T
behaviour in all the wavelengths. Hence, reference to a
definite wavelength or spectral range (band width) is always used.

Before discussing the Kirchhoff’s law it is necessary to introduce the term

emissivity (å). Emissivity expresses the efficiency with which the body
irradiates. It is defined as

................ (8)

Or, å = M/Mb .................................................................. (9)

where,
å is emissivity,
M is emittance of a given object,
Mb is emittance of a blackbody at the same temperature, and
T0 is absolute zero temperature.
Emissivity is dimensionless and its value lies between 0 and 1. The value of 0
refers to a non-radiating source and 1 refers to a blackbody. Since the
blackbody absorbs all the energy and at the same time emits radiation with
higher efficiency, its value of emissivity is equal to 1.

Kirchhoff demonstrated that in the infrared portion of the electromagnetic

19
Introduction to Remote spectrum, the emissivity of an object generally equals its absorptance, i.e.
Sensing
á =å ................................................................. (10)

From the above equation it can be said that good absorbers are good emitters and
good reflectors are poor emitters. Hence, from Equations (7) and (10) we can
express that

ñ + å + ô = 1 .......................................................... (11)

Since, most real world materials are usually opaque to thermal infrared radiation,
we can assume transmittance ô = 0, hence

ñ+å=1 ............................................................ (12)

You should remember that this equation is important as it describes why objects
appear as they do on thermal infrared images. Since, the terrain theoretically does
not lose any incident energy to transmittance, all energy leaving the object accounts
for by the relationship between reflectivity (ñ) and emissivity (å).

1.6 SUMMARY
In the present unit you have studied that:
• Remote sensing is an art and science of obtaining information about objects
from a distance.
• Remote sensing, which started with the understanding of optics, has now led to
the development of multispectral, hyperspectral and microwave remote sensing
satellites.
• Remote sensing processes include energy source or illumination, radiation and
its interaction with the atmosphere, interaction with the target, recording of
energy by the sensor, transmission, reception and processing, interpretation,
analysis and application.
• EMR is of primary interest in remote sensing. Sun is the most important source
of EMR and the full moon is the next strong source of EMR.
• Models of light were divided into two groups, i.e. particle model and wave
model.
• In EMR the electric and magnetic fields are always perpendicular to the
direction of travel of the wave.
• The range of frequencies of EMR is known as electromagnetic spectrum
and covers the wavelength from 10-12 to 104 m (1020 to 104 Hz).
• Kirchhoff’s radiation law regulates the relationship among the coefficients
of reflection, transmission, absorption and emission.
• Planck’s radiation law defines the behaviour of the energy emitted by a
surface as a function of wavelength and temperature.
• Stefan-Boltzmann’s radiation law furnishes the total quantity of energy emitted
by a surface calculated on the whole electromagnetic spectrum, for any
20
 temperature. Principles of Remote
Sensing
• Wien’s displacement law points out the wavelength value in correspondence
with the maximum electromagnetic emission at a defined temperature.

1.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) What is remote sensing?
2) What are the basic properties of electromagnetic radiation?
3) Discuss in brief about electromagnetic radiation laws.

1.8 REFERENCES
• http://isro.org/satellites/allsatellites.aspx
• www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/glossary/index_e.php?id=3104
• www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/resource/tutor/fundam/index_e.php
All the above websites were retrieved between May 14 and October 30, 2011.

1.9 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READING

• Halliday, D., Resnick, R. and Walker, J. (2001), Fundamentals of Physics,
John Wiley and Sons, 592p.
• http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Front/tofc.html
• Joseph, G. (2005), Fundamental of Remote Sensing, University Press,
486p.
• www.jars1974.net/pdf/02_Chapter01.pdf.

1.10 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress I
1) The processes of remote sensing are illumination by an energy source,
interaction of energy with the atmosphere while travelling to the Earth,
interaction of EMR with the Earth surface features, interaction of energy
with the atmosphere while travelling to the sensor, recording of energy by
the sensor in form of signals, transmission of the signals to ground
station, reception and processing by ground station, and utilisation by
users.

Check Your Progress II

1) The basic properties of EMR are frequency, wavelength and amplitude.

Unit End Questions: (Hints)

1) Refer to section 1.2.

21
Introduction to Remote 2) Refer to section 1.4.
Sensing
3) Refer to section 1.5.

Appendix 1: Some common prefixes for standard units of measurement

Prefix Symbol Multiplier Common name

giga G 109 billion(US)
mega M 106 million
kilo k 103 thousand
centi c 102 hundredth
milli m 103 thousandth
micro μ 106 millionth
nano n 109 thousand millionth

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