2.5.

4 Limits of Trigonometric Functions

Consider a sector POQ of a circle of unit radius (r=1) with center at 0, the origin of co-ordinate.
−π π
Let OP makes an angle x radius ( < x < ) with OQ and R be the foot the perpendicular (⊥)
2 2
from P to OQ.

r=1

x
0 R Q

In triangle POR, sin x=PR , cos x=¿ , we know that lim

x →0
sin x =0∧lim cos x=1. To prove the
x →0

above assertion, we consider ∆ OPQ ,∧sector OPQ whose areas are:

1
Area of triangle ¿ × Base × Height
2
1 1
Area of ∆ OPQ= ×1 ×|sinx|= |sinx|.
2 2
θ
Area of a sector¿ π r2
360
x 1
Area of sector OPQ= 180(1)2 = |x|
360 2
Since 0 ≤ Area of ∆ OPQ ≤ Areaof sector OPQ, we have
1 1
0 ≤ |sinx|≤ |x|
2 2
0 ≤|sinx|≤|x|
lim (0 ≤|sinx |≤|x|)
x →0

Since lim |x|=0 , by Sandwich Theorem lim sin x =0.

x →0 x →0

For lim
x →0
cos x=1 , recall that

sin2 x+ cos2 x=1

cos x= √ 1−sin2 x
lim cos x=lim √ 1−sin2 x
x →0 x→ 0
lim cos x=1 .
x →0

We conclude the limit of trigonometric function with the following important results:
 sin x
a. lim =1
x →0 x
1−cos x
b. lim =0.
x →0 x
prof. to be proved later.

2.6 CONTINUOUS FUNCTION

Definition 2.3
A function f is said to be continuous at a point c if and only if f (x) exist and
lim f ( x )=f (c).
x →c

In the definition above, the following three conditions must be satisfied before we say that f is
continuous at c.
i. f must be defined at x=c (i.e. f(c) must exist)
ii. lim f ( x ) must exist; and
x →c

iii. lim f ( x )=f (c).

x →c

A function f fails to be continuous at x=c if any one of the conditions (i)-(ii) fails to hold. Note
lim ¿
that condition (ii) implies that for one sided limits the x→ c f (x)∧ lim ¿¿ must exist and be equal.
+¿
−¿
x →c f( x)¿

If a function fails to be continuous at x=c, then f is discontinuous at x=c.

Example 2.12
Determine whether or not each of the given function is continuous at the indicated point x=c.
x−9
a. f ( x )= , c=9
√ x−3
x +5 , x ≠ 1
b. g ( x )= {−7 , x=1
c=1

{
c. h ( x )= 2
( x −3 ) x ≤5
1 x >5
c=5

d. p ( x ) =3 x2−2 x +6, c=−1.

SOLUTION
x−9
a. f ( x )= , c=9
√ x−3
9−9 0
At x=9, f ( 9 )= = , is indeterminate form, so f ( x ) is not defined at x=9. Hence
√ 9−3 0
the functionf is not continuous at x=9.
 b. g ( x )= {x−7+5,,x=1
x≠1
c=1

At x=1 , implies that g ( c )=g ( 1 )=−7 from the function, so g( x ) is defined at

x=1.
Also lim g ( x )=lim x+ 5=6 , the limit exist at x=1. However
x →c x →1

lim g ( x )=6 ≠ g ( 1 )=−7 .

x →1

Thus, the function g is not continuous at x=1.

1
c. h ( x )= 2
{( x −3 ) x ≤5
1 x >5
c=5

1
At x=5,implies that h ( x )= ( x−3 ) ∧h (5 )=1 from the function, so h( x ) is defined at
2
x=5.
For x >5, h ( x )=1, that is right hand limit. Hence,
lim ¿
+¿
x→ 5 h( x)= lim +¿
¿¿
x→5 1=1 ¿

1
For x <5, h ( x )= ( x−3 ) , that is left hand limit. Hence,
2
lim ¿
−¿
x→ 5 h(x)= lim ¿¿
−¿ 1
x→5 (x−3)=1¿
2

lim ¿
Since x→ 5 +¿
h( x)= lim −¿
¿¿ , that is 1=1, then lim
x →5
h ( x ) =1 exist.
x→5 h( x)¿

lim h ( x ) =h ( 5 )=1, hence the function h is continuous at x=5.

x →5

d. p ( x ) =3 x2−2 x +6, c=−1.

At x=−1 , implies that p ( c )= p (−1 )=11 from the function, so p(x ) is defined at
x=−1.
2
Also lim p ( x )= lim 3 x −2 x +6 ¿ 11, the limit exist at x=−1.
x →c x→−1

lim p ( x )= p ( 1 )=11 .
x→−1

Thus, the function p is continuous at x=−1.

2.6.1 Types of Discontinuity
In the last couple of examples we worried about the possibility that lim
x →c
f ( x )=f (c)actually

might not exist. This can actually happen, and in such situation the function is said to be
discontinuous at x=c. In this section we'll see a few examples of different types of discontinuity
of a function.
a. Removable discontinuity: A discontinuity of a functionf which can be removed by
extending the domain of the definition or by factorizing the function is called a
 x 2−16
removable discontinuity of f (x). For example, given a function f ( x )= it is known
x−4
0
that the function f ( 4 ) = is not defined at x=4.
0
2
x −16 (x−4)(x+ 4) ( ⋆
But = = x +4 )=f (x ) and the new function f ⋆ ( 4 )=8 is defined at
x−4 x−4
x=4.
b. Essential discontinuity: if the lim
x →c
f ( x ) fails to exist, the function f is discontinuous at x=c

and the discontinuity cannot be removed. For example

1
lim does not exist.
x →0 x

lim ¿
c. Jump discontinuity: if the x→ c f (x)∧ lim ¿¿ both exist but are not equal, the discontinuity
+¿
−¿
x →c f( x)¿

of f at x=c is called jump discontinuity. For example, given a function

x +5 x ≤ 3
f ( x )= {
x 2−16 x >3
c=3

At x=3,implies that f ( x )=x +5∧f ( 3 )=8 from the function, so f( x) is defined at x=3.
For x >3, f ( x )=x 2−16 , that is right hand limit. Hence,
lim ¿
+¿
x→ 3 f (x)= lim ¿¿
+¿ 2
x →3 x −16=−7 ¿

For x <3, f ( x )=x +5that is left hand limit. Hence,

lim ¿
−¿
x→ 3 f (x)= lim
−¿
¿¿
x →3 x+5 =8 ¿

lim ¿
Since x→ 3 +¿
f (x)≠ lim
−¿
¿¿ , that is −7 ≠ 8, then the limit does not exist and
x→3 f ( x)¿

lim f ( x ) ≠ f (3) , hence the function f has a jump discontinuity at x=3.

x →3

REMARK 2.2
 Every jump discontinuity is an essential discontinuity.
 The graph of a function is unbroken wherever the function is continuous.

2.6.2 Properties of a Continuous Function

1. Every polynomial function is continuous everywhere.
2. If the functionf and g are both continuous at x=a, then:
 Sum f ( x ) + g(x )
 Difference f ( x )−g (x)
 Product f ( x ) × g(x ), and
f (x )
 Quotient , g( x )≠ 0 are also continuous at x=a .
g ( x)
 3. If the function f ∧g are continuous at x=a their composition f (g ( x ) ) is also continuous
at x=a .
4. A function f is continuous on a closed interval a ≤ x ≤ b , if f is continuous at each point of
lim ¿
the open interval a< x <b, and also x→ a f (x )=f (a )∧ lim ¿¿ .
+¿
−¿
x→ b f ( x)=f( b)¿

Example 2.13
x 2−9
Determine for which x the function f ( x )= √ is continuous.
x +6
SOLUTION
You are just looking for the domain of the function
The function√ x 2−9 is defined for x 2−9 ≥ 0
x ≥ ± √9
x ≥ ± 3 , which implies that x ≤−3∧x ≥ 3. However if x=−6, then x +6=0 and the function f is not
defined. Hence the domain of the function is (−∞ ,−6 ) ∪ (−6 ,−3 ] ∪ ¿. Thus f is continuous on
(−∞ ,−6 ) ∪ (−6 ,−3 ] ∪ ¿.
Theorem 2.2 (Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT))
Suppose that:
i. f is continuous on [a , b]
ii. f (a)≠ f (b),
Then for any number y 1 between f ( a )∧f ( b), there exist at one x 1 in ( a , b ) such that
f ( x 1 ) = y 1 (i.e., f takes on every intermediate value between f ( a )∧f (b))
REMARK 2.3
 Intermediate value theorem can be used to locate intervals containing a root of an
equation f (x)=0, if f is continuous.
 If ¿] is an interval such that f (a)∧f (b) have opposite signs ( f (a)f ( b)< 0), then IVT
guarantees that there must be some x 1 say between a and b, such that
f (x 1)=0.
Example 2.14
1 2
Determine without solving whether the equation x −3 x+3=0, has a root between
2
x=1∧x =2.
SOLUTION
1 2 1
Let f ( x )= x −3 x +3, we have f (1)= and f ( 2 ) =−1 ,
2 2
1 −1
Since f ( 1 ) f ( 2 )= ×−1= <0. Then there exist a point x 0 ∈1< x 0 <2 such that f (x 0)=0.
2 2