Questions

Question 1
For a given amount of water pressure, which will flow a greater rate of water: a small (restrictive) nozzle or
a large (unrestrictive) nozzle? Explain how this relates to the study of voltage, current, and resistance in a
simple electric circuit.

NozzleWater spray

Water 2
supply Hose

file 00083

Obviously, an unrestrictive nozzle will

pass a greater flow rate of water
through it, all other factors being
equal. In an electric circuit, less
resistance will pass a greater flow rate
of electrons (current) for a given
amount of "pressure" (voltage).
Question 2
Suppose you were to build this circuit and take measurements of current through the resistor and voltage
across the resistor:

+-
A
+
V
-

Recording these numerical values in a table, the results look something like this:
Current Voltage
0.22 A 0.66 V
0.47 A 1.42 V
0.85 A 2.54 V
1.05 A 3.16 V
1.50 A 4.51 V
1.80 A 5.41 V
2.00 A 5.99 V
2.51 A 7.49 V
Plot these figures on the following graph:
Voltage
8

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 Current
 What mathematical relationship do you see between voltage and current in this simple circuit? file
00057

This is an example of a linear function: where the plot describing

the data set traces a straight line on a graph. From this line, and
also from the numerical figures, you should be able to discern a
constant ratio between voltage and current.3
Question 3
Explain, step by step, how to calculate the amount of current (I) that will go through the resistor in this
circuit:

wire

-
+ 12 volts 470 Ω
Battery: Resistor:

wire

file 00081

Resistor current = 0.02553 amps, or 25.53 milliamps (mA).

Question 4
R
f(x) dx Calculus alert!

Plot the relationships between voltage and current for resistors of three different values (1 Ω, 2 Ω, and 3
Ω), all on the same graph:

Voltage (volts)
8
7

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 Current (amps)
 What pattern do you see represented by your three plots? What relationship is there between the amount
of resistance and the nature of the voltage/current function as it appears on the graph?

Advanced question: in calculus, the instantaneous rate-of-change of an (x, y) function is expressed

through the use of the derivative notation: dy
dx . How would the derivative for each of these three plots be
properly expressed using calculus notation? Explain how the derivatives of these functions relate to real
electrical quantities.
file 00086
The greater the resistance, the steeper the slope of the plotted line.

Advance answer:the proper way to express the derivative of each of

these plots is [dv/di]. The derivative of a linear function is a constant,
and in each of these three cases that constant equals the resistor
resistance in ohms. So, we could say that for simple resistor circuits, the
instantaneous rate-of-change for a voltage/current function is the
resistance of the circuit.

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Question 5
What is the value of this resistor, in ohms (Ω)?

Resistor (R) - A
+ +- 12 volt battery
V

Voltmeter indication = 12.3 volts

Ammeter indication = 4.556 milliamps

file 00064

Resistor value = 2700 W, or 2.7 kW.

Question 6
Shunt resistors are often used as current-measuring devices, in that they are designed to drop very
precise amounts of voltage as large electric currents pass through them. By measuring the amount of voltage
dropped by a shunt resistor, you will be able to determine the amount of current going through it:

Measured current Voltmeter Equivalent schematic diagram

Shunt Measured current Rshunt

+
V -

Suppose that a shunt resistance is labeled with the following rating: 150 A , 50 mV. What is the resistance
of this shunt, in ohms? Express your answer in metric notation, scientific notation, and plain decimal notation.
file 00371
Metric notation: 333.3 mW
Scientific notation: 3.333 ×10-4 W
Plain decimal notation: 0.0003333 W
Metric notation: 333.3 μΩ

Scientific notation: 3.333 ×10−4 Ω

Plain decimal notation: 0.0003333 Ω

Metric notation: 333.3 μΩ

Scientific notation: 3.333 ×10−4 Ω

Plain decimal nota5

Question 7
A common saying about electricity is that ”it always takes the path of least resistance.” Explain how this
proverb relates to the following circuit, where electric current from the battery encounters two alternate paths,
one being less resistive than the other:

250 Ω

800 Ω 6
10 volts

file 00085

The 250 W resistor will experience a

current of 40 mA, while the 800 W
resistor will experience a current of
12.5 mA.
Question 8
One style of light bulb, very different from the ”incandescent” design which works on the principle of a
super-heated wire filament emitting light, is called a gas discharge tube. In this design of light bulb, light is
produced by the direct ”excitation” of gas molecules as electric current passes between two electrodes:

"Incandescent" bulb "Gas discharge" bulb

filament electrodes

Both types of light bulbs have interesting voltage/current plots, neither one being identical to the
voltage/current plot of a resistor. First, the voltage/current plot for an incandescent light bulb:

Voltage/current function for

an "incandescent" light bulb

Voltage (volts)
 Current (amps)

Next, the voltage/current plot for a gas-discharge light bulb: 7

Voltage (volts)
Voltage/current function for
a "gas discharge" light bulb

"Breakdown"
 "Glow"
Current (amps)

Based on these two graphs, what can you say about the electrical resistance of each bulb type over its
operating range?
file 00091
Unlike a resistor, which offers a relatively fixed (unchanging) amount of
resistance to the motion of electrons over a wide range of operating
conditions, the electrical resistance of light bulbs typically change
dramatically over their respective operating ranges.
Question 9
Draw the schematic diagram for an experimental circuit to gather data necessary to plot the
voltage/current graph of a gas discharge lamp.
file 00102
Answer:

Question 10
What is negative resistance?
file 00092
"Negative resistance" is where an electrical component passes less
current as the voltage dropped across it increases.

Notes:
Question 11
What would happen if a wire having no resistance at all (0 Ω) were connected directly across the terminals
of a 6-volt battery? How much current would result, according to Ohm’s Law?

6 volts

Suppose we were to short-circuit a 6-volt battery in the manner just described and measure 8 amps of
current. Why don’t the calculated figures from the previous paragraph agree with the actual measurement? file
00106

Ohm's Law would suggest an infinite current (current = voltage divided by zero resistance). Yet, the
experiment described yields only a modest amount of current.

If you think that the wire used in the experiment is not resistance-less (i.e. it does have resistance), and
that this accounts for the disparity between the predicted and measured amounts of current, you are partially
correct. Realistically, a small piece of wire such as that used in the experiment will have a few tenths of an ohm
of resistance. However, if you re-calculate current with a wire resistance of 0.1 W, you will still find a large
disparity between your prediction and the actual measured current in this short-circuit.

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Question 12
One of the fundamental equations used in electricity and electronics is Ohm’s Law: the relationship
between voltage (E or V , measured in units of volts), current (I, measured in units of amperes), and resistance
(R, measured in units of ohms):

E E
E = IR I = RR = I
Where,
E = Voltage in units of volts (V)
I = Current in units of amps (A)
R = Resistance in units of ohms (Ω)

Solve for the unknown quantity (E, I, or R) given the other two, and express your answer in both scientific
and metric notations:

I = 20 mA, R = 5 kΩ; E =

I = 150 µA, R = 47 kΩ; E =

E = 24 V, R = 3.3 MΩ; I =

E = 7.2 kV, R = 900 Ω; I =

E = 1.02 mV, I = 40 µA; R =

E = 3.5 GV, I = 0.76 kA; R =

I = 0.00035 A, R = 5350 Ω; E =

I = 1,710,000 A, R = 0.002 Ω; E =

E = 477 V, R = 0.00500 Ω; I =

E = 0.02 V, R = 992,000 Ω; I =

E = 150,000 V, I = 233 A; R =

E = 0.0000084 V, I = 0.011 A; R =

file 01710

I = 20 mA, R = 5 kW; E = 100 V = 1 ×102 V

I = 150 mA, R = 47 kW; E = 7.1 V = 7.1 ×100 V

E = 24 V, R = 3.3 MW; I = 7.3 mA = 7.3 ×10-6 A

E = 7.2 kV, R = 900 W; I = 8.0 A = 8.0 ×100 A

E = 1.02 mV, I = 40 mA; R = 26 W = 2.6 ×101 W

E = 3.5 GV, I = 0.76 kA; R = 4.6 MW = 4.6 ×106 W

I = 0.00035 A, R = 5350 W; E = 1.9 V = 1.9 ×100 V

I = 1,710,000 A, R = 0.002 W; E = 3.42 kV = 3.42 ×103 V

E = 477 V, R = 0.00500 W; I = 95.4 kA = 9.54 ×104 A

E = 0.02 V, R = 992,000 W; I = 20 nA = 2 ×10-8 A

E = 150,000 V, I = 233 A; R = 640 W = 6.4 ×102 W

E = 0.0000084 V, I = 0.011 A; R = 760 mW = 7.6 ×10-4 W

9
Question 13
One of the fundamental equations used in electricity and electronics is Ohm’s Law: the relationship
between voltage (E or V , measured in units of volts), current (I, measured in units of amperes), and resistance
(R, measured in units of ohms):

E E
E = IR I = RR = I
Where,
E = Voltage in units of volts (V)
I = Current in units of amps (A)
R = Resistance in units of ohms (Ω)

Solve for the unknown quantity (E, I, or R) given the other two, and express your answer in both scientific
and metric notations:

I = 45 mA, R = 3.0 kΩ; E =

I = 10 kA, R = 0.5 mΩ; E =

E = 45 V, R = 4.7 kΩ; I =

E = 13.8 kV, R = 8.1 kΩ; I =

E = 500 µV, I = 36 nA; R =

E = 14 V, I = 110 A; R =

I = 0.001 A, R = 922 Ω; E =

I = 825 A, R = 15.0 mΩ; E =

E = 1.2 kV, R = 30 MΩ; I =

E = 750 mV, R = 86 Ω; I =

E = 30.0 V, I = 0.0025 A; R =

E = 0.00071 V, I = 3389 A; R =

file 03247

I = 45 mA, R = 3.0 kW; E = 140 V = 1.4 ×102 V

I = 10 kA, R = 0.5 mW; E = 5 V = 5 ×100 V

E = 45 V, R = 4.7 kW; I = 9.6 mA = 9.6 ×10-3 A

E = 13.8 kV, R = 8.1 kW; I = 1.7 A = 1.7 ×100 A

E = 500.0 mV, I = 36 nA; R = 14 kW = 1.4 ×104 W

E = 14 V, I = 110 A; R = 130 mW = 1.3 ×10-1 W

I = 0.001 A, R = 922 W; E = 900 mV = 9 ×10-1 V

I = 825 A, R = 15.0 mW; E = 12.4 V = 1.24 ×101 V

E = 1.2 kV, R = 30 MW; I = 40 mA = 4 ×10-5 A

 E = 750 mV, R = 86 W; I = 8.7 mA = 8.7 ×10-3 A

E = 30.0 V, I = 0.0025 A; R = 12 kW = 1.2 ×104 W

E = 0.00071 V, I = 3389 A; R = 210 nW = 2.1 ×10-7 W

Question 14
Suppose an electric current of 1.5 microamps (1.5 µA) were to go through a resistance of 2.3 mega-ohms
(2.3 MΩ). How much voltage would be ”dropped” across this resistance? Show your work in calculating the
answer.
file 00182
1.5 ×10-6 amps of current through a resistance of 2.3 ×106 W will produce
a voltage "drop" equal to 3.45 volts.

10
Question 15

A quantity often useful in electric circuit analysis is conductance, defined as the reciprocal of resistance: G

1
= R

The unit of conductance is the siemens, symbolized by the capital letter ”S”. Convert the following
resistance values into conductance values, expressing your answers in both scientific and metric notations:

R = 5 kΩ ; G =

R = 47 Ω ; G =

R = 500 MΩ ; G =

R = 18.2 µΩ ; G =

Now, algebraically manipulate the given equation to solve for R in terms of G, then use this new equation
to work ”backwards” through above calculations to see if you arrive at the original values of R starting with your
previously calculated values of G.
file 01712
R = 5 k W ; G = 200 mS = 2 ×10-4 S
R = 47 W ; G = 21 mS = 2.1 ×10-2 S
R = 500 M W ; G = 2 nS = 2 ×10-9 S
R = 18.2 mW ; G = 55 kS = 5.5 ×104 S

Solving for R in terms of G:

R =1
 G

Question 16
Don’t just sit there! Build something!!

Learning to mathematically analyze circuits requires much study and practice. Typically, students practice
by working through lots of sample problems and checking their answers against those provided by the textbook
or the instructor. While this is good, there is a much better way.
You will learn much more by actually building and analyzing real circuits, letting your test equipment
provide the ”answers” instead of a book or another person. For successful circuit-building exercises, follow
these steps:
1. Carefully measure and record all component values prior to circuit construction. 2.
Draw the schematic diagram for the circuit to be analyzed.
3. Carefully build this circuit on a breadboard or other convenient medium.
4. Check the accuracy of the circuit’s construction, following each wire to each connection point, and verifying
these elements one-by-one on the diagram.
5. Mathematically analyze the circuit, solving for all values of voltage, current, etc. 6.
Carefully measure those quantities, to verify the accuracy of your analysis.
7. If there are any substantial errors (greater than a few percent), carefully check your circuit’s construction
against the diagram, then carefully re-calculate the values and re-measure.
Avoid very high and very low resistor values, to avoid measurement errors caused by meter ”loading”. I
recommend resistors between 1 kΩ and 100 kΩ, unless, of course, the purpose of the circuit is to illustrate the
effects of meter loading!
One way you can save time and reduce the possibility of error is to begin with a very simple circuit and
incrementally add components to increase its complexity after each analysis, rather than building a whole new
circuit for each practice problem. Another time-saving technique is to re-use the same components in a variety
of different circuit configurations. This way, you won’t have to measure any component’s value more than once.
file 00405

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