BLENDED LEARNING

IN THE AGE OF SOCIAL CHANGE

AND INNOVATION

Proceedings of the
3rd World Conference on Blended Learning

Agnieszka Palalas
Helmi Norman
Przemyslaw Pawluk (Eds.)
 INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR BLENDED LEARNING http://www.iabl.org

ISBN: 978-618-82543-3-6
Main Title: Blended Learning in the Age of Social Change and Innovation
Subtitle: Proceedings of the 3rd World Conference of Blended Learning
Editors: Agnieszka Palalas, Helmi Norman & Przemyslaw Pawluk (Eds.)
Place of Publication: Greece
Publisher: International Association for Blended Learning
 Table of Contents
Papers
Mobile the Efficacy of Blended Learning Models of Teacher Professional Development .................. 1
Susan Ruckdeschel

Why OER for Blended Learning 2017 ....................................................................................................... 9

Rory McGreal

Unraveling the Multidimensional Structure of Information Literacy for Educators .......................... 13

Kamran Ahmadpour

Different Forms of Assessment in a Pronunciation MOOC – Reliability and Pedagogical

Implications .................................................................................................................................................. 34
Martyna Marciniak, Michal B. Paradowski and Meina Zhu

Blended Learning in Primary School - Looking for a New School Formula ....................................... 42
Dorota Janczak

How to Organize Blended Learning Support in Higher Education ..................................................... 46

Janina van Hees

The Use of Mobile Educational Application (MobiEko) as a Supplementary Tool

for Learning ................................................................................................................................................... 51
Mohamad Siri Muslimin, Norazah Mohd Nordin and Ahmad Zamri Mansor

Dronagogy: A Framework of Drone-based Learning for Higher Education in the

Fourth Industrial Revolution ..................................................................................................................... 55
Helmi Norman, Norazah Nordin, Mohamed Amin Embi, Hafiz Zaini and Mohamed Ally

Reconfiguring Blended K-12 Professional Learning Through the BOLT Initiative ........................... 63
Constance Blomgren

A Proposed Blended Educational Framework for Administration of Enterprises in


Nowadays’ Greek Financial Crisis ............................................................................................................. 68
Thalia Vasiliadou, Evgenia Papadopoulou and Avgoustos Tsinakos

Create a blended mobile learning space with Whatsapp ......................................................................... 76

Alice Gasparini

Mindfulness in Online and Blended Learning: Collective Autoethnography ...................................... 84

Agnieszka Palalas, Anastasia Mavraki, Kokkoni Drampala and Anna Krassa

Effective Use of Online Tools in Engineering Classes ........................................................................... 97

Yasemin Bayyurt and Feza Kerestecioglu

Investigating the Reasons for Low Level of Interaction in a Blended Course .................................. 102
Aysegül Salli and Ülker Vanci Osam
Assessing the Value of Virtual Worlds for Distance Education Students through
Collaborative Role-playing activities - An explanatory case study ....................................................... 109
Sofia Nteliopoulou, Vasileios Kratidis and Avgoustos Tsinakos

Integrating Blended Learning Tools into University Courses: A Survey of

Student Perceptions ................................................................................................................................... 117
Erkan Arkin

The Needs Analysis of Developing an Information Literacy Education Model

Based on School Culture Shaped by Hidden Curriculum .................................................................... 125
Lee Chua Lee, Nabeel Abdallah Abedalaziz, Saedah Siraj and Helmi Norman

Instructional Design for Blended Language Learning: Methodological Considerations

and Course Applications Guiding the Effective Design of Blended Language Courses .................. 132
Daria Mizza

Reflecting MOOC-Blend Experience in “Teaching Writing in an ESL Context” ............................ 145

Harwati Hashim, Melor Md. Yunus and Helmi Norman
Keynote Presentations
Mobile Technologies and Social Media for Assistance ........................................................................ 151
Agnes Kukulska-Hulme

Trends and Predictions in Blended Learning .......................................................................................... 152

Joe Ganci

Virtual Classes as a Tool for Enhancing Interpreting Competences .................................................. 153

Agnieszka Biernacka

Invited Speaker
Khan Academy in the Context of Blended Learning ............................................................................ 154
Lech Mankiewicz

Practitioner Presentations
Curriculum Development Using Project Management Skills .............................................................. 155
Philip Cowcill

How AR and VR Can Impact Blended Learning – Looking Past the Hype ...................................... 156
Philip Cowcill

The Business English Blend ..................................................................................................................... 157

Karen Eini and Tal Levy

Tell the Tale of TEL: How to Support a Language Team in the Blended Learning Arena ............. 158
Tal Levy and Karen Eini

A Blend of Pecha Kucha and Business English ..................................................................................... 159

Karen Eini and Tal Levy

The Pustulka Project: Developing Online Testing Software for English for Specific Purposes ..... 160
Aleksandra Łuczak

Going Hand in Hand: Blended Learning and University Students? ................................................... 161
Anna Ayliffe

Gamification in Education: How Story Can Change the Meaning ..................................................... 162
Daniel Pazura

Drawing on Social Networks Online and Offline: An Introduction to Surveying Techniques....... 163
Alisa Masiejczyk

Telecollaboration in Language Teacher Preservice Education – A Bottom-Up Perspective .......... 164

Elżbieta Gajek

The Effects of Blended Learning in India .............................................................................................. 165

Kawar Deep Bedi
Panel Discussions
Blended Language Learning ..................................................................................................................... 166
Agnieszka Palalas (Chair)

Using Technology in Blended Learning ................................................................................................. 167

Joe Ganci (Chair)

Pedagogy Shift in Blended Learning - Trends and Challenges ............................................................ 168

Avgoustos Tsinakos (Ch.ai.r.)

Posters

The Secret is in the Blend - Promoting Digital Literacy Through the Use of a Global Project ...... 169
Tal Levy and Karen Eini

Adult Literacy Mobile Learning Solution in a Blended Learning Context ......................................... 170
Prezmyslaw Pawluk, Agnieszka Palalas and Norine Wark
Preface
This collection contains all the papers presented at IABL2018: The 3rd World Conference on
Blended Learning held on April 18-21, 2018 in Warsaw, Poland, one of the key cultural and
educational centres of Europe. This year’s conference was organized by the International Asso-
ciation for Blended Learning (IABL; http://iabl.org/) and hosted by the Institute of Applied
Linguistics of the University of Warsaw. This volume reflects the diverse perspectives of all
conference participants: researchers, teachers, professors, administrators, trainers, instructional
designers and developers, technology experts, and students representing eleven countries and
a range of educational learning and training contexts, as well as socio-cultural backgrounds.
Contributions from across the globe representing all educational sectors and a wide variety
of industries are included in the proceedigns. Innovative blended learning research, solutions,
strategies, and practices discussed by leaders in the field are encapsulated in this document,
along with research findings resulting in new ideas, innovative practices, and experience that
were also shared during the conference.
The International Association for Blended Learning is an international non-profit organi-
zation whose goal it is to transform global education through its contributions to the field of
blended learning. The IABL aims to promote excellence in teaching, training, and research in
blended learning through the engagement of international scholars and practitioners to meet
the needs of today’s global learners. IABL is the custodian of the annual IABL conference
series organized as a key knowledge and research exchange forum where professionals and prac-
titioners share their expertise, experience, and research in blended learning. The annual IABL
conference is also a networking event for IABL members from all over the world who represent
a variety of contexts, cultures, and perspectives.
The IABL conference invites critical inquiry and debate on theories, approaches, princi-
ples, applications, and the implementation of blended learning across educational and training
settings. IABL2018 main themes included the following:

• Pedagogy of blended learning

• Blended learning in practice

• Design of blended learning

• Technology in blended learning

• Future of blended learning

• Blended approach to corporate training

• Blended learning for special needs learners

• Blended learning in language acquisition

• Blended learning in K-12

• Blended learning in higher education

• Blended learning for development / in developing countries

• Blended learning in teacher professional development

i
 The IABL 2018 Proceedings document the contributions of this year’s conference. Proposals
from across the globe and all educational sectors were submitted and carefully considered for
inclusion in the conference program. All submissions were reviewed by at least two referees
from the IABL 2018 international Program Committee based on the full text of the submitted
manuscript for short and long papers, and on abstracts for practitioner presentations, posters,
panels, and workshops. The submissions for short and long papers were subjected to a double-
blind peer review and evaluated on the basis of the originality of the work, the validity of
the results, chosen methodology, writing quality and the overall contribution to the field of
blended learning. Similarly, the abstracts were reviewed based on the originality of the work
and ideas, their applicability, and practicality in the blended learning field, writing quality and
the contribution to the field. The authors were encouraged to incorporate the reviews and
feedback in preparation of the final versions of their papers. All the approved submissions
which were presented at the conference are included in the proceedings.
The IABL 2018 proceedings hence comprise the following categories of papers and other
presentation types:
Full papers (printed in their entirety); they report on original and significant work in
research, development, and applications regarding one or more aspects of blended learning.
Short papers (full text included) describe new work or work that is still in progress, relevant
to one or more aspects of blended learning.
Keynotes (brief abstracts provided): three world-renowned experts presented their keynotes,
namely, Professor Dr. Agnes Kukulska-Hulme from The Open University, UK, Joe Ganci from
eLearningJoe, LLC, USA, and Dr. Agnieszka Biernacka from The University of Warsaw, Poland.
Panels (abstracts provided): 4-5 people presented their views and arguments on a specific
theme or issue related to blended learning, and subsequently discussed them with the audience.
Practitioner presentations (abstracts included) shared best practices in teaching and train-
ing in the blended learning context. IABL 2018, being a blended conference, invited both
face-to-face and virtual presenters. The virtual presentations were delivered by presenters who
could not attend the conference in person but whose papers had been accepted for IABL2018 (in
keeping with the Submission Guidelines). Each virtual presentation consisted of a pre-recorded
video (paper presentation) and/or virtual presentation, and a 10-minute synchronous presenter-
audience chat via Skype. Virtual presenters were asked to submit their proposal using the same
guidelines as face-to-face presenters, choosing from the following three categories: long paper,
short paper, and practitioners presentation. All blended sessions were moderated on site by
a Virtual Presentation Moderator to ensure optimal interaction between the virtual presenter
and the f2f audience.
These proceedings comprise the complete texts of all accepted full and short papers as well
as abstracts of the other presentation types shared during IABL 2018. In total, 19 submissions
were selected and delivered as full and short papers. Abstracts of 11 practitioner presentations,
3 panels, 2 posters, as well as 3 keynote talks and an invited presentation are also included.
The authors who have contributed to these proceedings are researchers, practitioners, in-
structional designers and developers from both educational and commercial organizations repre-
senting 11 countries: Poland, Canada, Greece, UK, Israel, Turkey, India, Malaysia, Netherlands,
Italy, and the USA. We would like to extend our thanks to all participants for their contribu-
tions to the conference program and to the IABL 2018 Proceedings. A special Thank you goes
to the members of the international Program Committee for their expert contributions and
dedicated assistance with the paper reviews and decisions.

• Mohammad Abu - OmarAl-Quds Open University, Palestine

ii

ii
 • Mashael Alhammad - Arab Open University, Kuwait
• Mohamed Ally - Athabasca University, Canada
• Yasemin Bayyurt - Boğaziçi University, Turkey
• Andrzej Bugajak - Zespól Szkól Ogólnoksztalcacych w Kluczborku, Poland
• Ridzwan Che Rus - Sultan Idris Education University, Malaysia
• Liliana Cuesta Medina - Universidad de La Sabana, Colombia
• Scott Dunham - Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College, Canada
• Elżbieta Gajek - University of Warsaw, Poland
• Marek Hyla - Accenture, Poland
• Irwan Mahazir Ismail - Universiti Tun Hussein Onn, Malaysia
• Lech Mankiewicz - Polish Academy of Science, Poland
• Hussein Mansour - Naif Arab University for Security Sciences, Saudi Arabia
• Hend Merza - Arab Open University, Saudi Arabia
• Shaju Nalkara - Arab Open University, Saudi Arabia
• Helmi Norman - Universiti Kebangsaan, Malaysia
• Agnieszka Palalas - Athabasca University, Canada
• Przemyslaw Pawluk - George Brown College, Canada
• Anthony Ralston - University of Alberta, Canada
• Sene Salimata Mbodji - Ministry of Education, Senegal
• Demetrios Sampson - Curtin University, Australia
• Daniyar Sapargaliyev - University of Wolverhampton, UK
• Khaled Suwais - Arab Open University, Saudi Arabia

We would like to express our gratitude to sponsors and supporters of the conference: ILS
UW, e-mentor.edu.pl, Personel & Zarzadzanie, Warsaw Convention Bureau, and Austrian Air-
line.
I hope that these proceedings, which capture the collective knowledge of a variety of ex-
perts, sectors, and programs from diverse cultural and educational contexts, will assist you in
implementing blended learning in your practice.
See you at IABL 2019.
Agnieszka Palalas, Ed.D.
IABL President

April 7, 2018 Agnieszka Palalas

Toronto Przemyslaw Pawluk
Helmi Norman

iii

iii
Papers
 1

The Efficacy of Blended Learning Models of Teacher

Professional Development
Susan Ruckdeschel
Literacy Solutions and more, Inc.
New York, USA
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
With the enactment in 2014 of the Every Student Succeeds Act, teacher evaluation mandates were loosened, and states
were no longer required to have systems of teacher evaluation in place based on student test scores. District-provided
professional learning could focus not just on teaching teachers how to move up assessment scores, but on what teachers
needed to effectively deliver aligned curriculum. The purpose of this qualitative case study was to examine the perceptions,
beliefs, attitudes, and real learning experiences of K-12 classroom teachers as they transferred blended learning experiences
to live classroom environments in support of a Common Core-aligned curriculum. The sample consisted of 14 K-12
classroom teachers in special education, English Language Arts, English as a Second Language, high school and middle
school core content areas in social studies, science, and mathematics. Teachers were selected based on their adoption of a
Common Core-aligned curriculum as required by their district or their state. Participation was voluntary. Four teachers
were from the state of Florida, and 10 were from New York State. Findings concluded that blended learning was capable
of delivering teacher professional development that impacts classroom teaching, particularly when teaching to the Common
Core State Standards as teachers adopt and adapt aligned curriculum materials. The findings may lead to better allocation
and alignment of resources, strategies taught, and training in teaching-mandated materials in online and blended learning
formats when using a standards-aligned curriculum.

Author Keywords
teacher professional development, professional learning, blended learning, literacy, best practices

INTRODUCTION
Blended learning, in earlier years known as “hybrid” models of instruction, combines contextualized learning in an online
environment with live (synchronous) and asynchronous (on-demand) elements (Caudle, 2013). This model of instruction
is a promising option for educators and educational leaders in meeting needed hours for re-licensure, new teacher evaluation
mandates, and bridging budget and curriculum shortfalls with strategy and resources designed to improve teacher
effectiveness (Beattie & Jordan, 2011; McFarlane, 2011). An effective instructional delivery platform used for teacher
professional development, when combined with real-time instruction via internet-based technologies, can have a direct
impact on student learning outcomes (Dash, De Kramer, O'Dwyer, Masters, & Russell, 2012). Online and blended learning
can deliver instruction to learners capable of facilitating the acquisition of newly acquired K-12 teaching skills (Herrington
et al., 2009).
Blended learning for adult learners continues to rate favorably as an on-going and sustainable learning tool against
traditional face-to-face, or site-based professional learning (Matzat, 2013; Mayer, 2014; McConnell, Parker, Koehler &
Lundeberg, 2013). Teachers were found to transfer learning at higher rates when time was short and the curriculum
expectations were rigorous and high (Blankstein, 2016; Venables, 2014). One such learning management system,
Moodle©, was designed to reflect a Sociocultural-Constructivist learning model through hands-on, contextualized and
collaborative activities. The highly contextualized nature of Moodle© aids in effective and efficient augmentation of
curriculum. Moodle© allows educators to leverage with highly engaging classrooms through collaborative and constructive
Moodle-based learning activities (Despotović-Zrakić, Marković, Bogdanović, Barać, & Krčo, 2012). As a result, adult
learners are found to be more likely to transfer new learning to their classroom instruction (Herrington et al., 2009).
Traditional face-to-face faculty support has been found to have limited effects in changing pedagogical practices and
attitudes among teachers overall (Sugar, van Tryon, & Slagter, 2014). The blended learning environment as a solution for
teacher profession development has taken on recent interest as state Departments of Education, and the school districts that
report to them prepare to implement new professional development mandates that require teacher evaluations be tied to
student assessment results. Since passage of the Common Core State Standards, many state Departments of Education
developed other mandates designed to retain a highly qualified teaching force (Sawchuk, 2011). A number of these
mandates took effect in the 2014/2015 school years in response tighter teacher accountability for student academic
outcomes. Florida, for example, now requires that teachers complete 20 hours of Exceptional and Special Education (ESE)
coursework for re-licensure (State of Florida Bureau of Educator Certification, 2014). New York State has similar

1
19
 2

requirements for English as a Second Language certifications, where teachers must complete hours as part of their on-
going professional credentialing (Certification Office of Teaching Initiatives NYS Education Department, 2016). While
teachers remain individually responsible for fulfilling licensure requirements, districts are still required to spend a portion
of federal and state money on teacher professional development (U.S. Department of Education, Office of State Support
for Formula Grants, 2015). With tightening budgets, blended learning models are among the cost effective measures
districts can take to meet these mandates without depleting, or jeopardizing, budgets.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
In general, there is a lack of information regarding what the best practices are in blended learning that leads to positive
change in teacher attitudes about teaching to the Common Core State Standards (Blanktein, 2016; McFarlane, 2011;
Yukawa, 2010; Yukawa & Harada, 2011). Without knowledge of best practices, teachers charged with teaching to a
Common Core-aligned curriculum are challenged (Blanktein, 2016). As districts move to blended learning for delivery of
professional development, this medium is additionally charged with effective delivery of the best practices that support
teaching to the Common Core State Standards, particularly as they use federal and state funding to pay for it. This study
looked specifically at attitudes and experiences of teachers in teaching with a Common Core-aligned curriculum. There is
a gap in research regarding the selection and design of quality of blended instruction in teacher professional development
as it influences a positive mindset toward teaching to the Common Core State Standards (Chia-Pin, Chin-Chung, & Meilun,
2014). Effective professional development must include research-based strategies designed to improve knowledge and
skills that transfer to K-12 instruction (Chia-Pin et al., 2014; Marzano, 2015). This gap is further widened in the lack of
studies on blended learning and the transfer of teaching strategies to live environments (McFarlane, 2011; Yukawa, 2010;
Yukawa & Harada, 2011).
Despite the delivery medium, teachers too often do not transfer new learning to live classroom environments (Herrington
et al., 2009). Online asynchronous and synchronous learning opportunities, or blended learning, continue to engage teachers
through the availability and use of resources when practical and available (Matzat, 2013). This type of learning is further
optimized through blended forms of contextualized instruction that provide more opportunities for trial-and-error learning.
Teachers are more likely to retain what they learn and thus transfer the learning to the classroom when learning is hands-
on (Littlefield, 2012; Matzat, 2013).
With the limited impact of face-to-face faculty development, along with a need to tighten budgets and new school district
accountability for teacher evaluation mandates, online learning is viewed as a cost effective way to meet the professional
development needs of teachers (Beach, 2012; Emerling, 2005). Online instruction as a stand-alone can typically invoke
strong teacher-student and student-to-peer interactions (Beach, 2012; Bradley, 2011). In addition to interacting with each
other, learners must also interact with content (Bradley, 2011). Conceptual frameworks suggest that integration of
empirical cognitive, constructivist, and behaviorist principles with online learning can increase the likelihood of student
transfer into the field, and that course effectiveness hinges on development, configuration, methodology, and presentation
(Bradley, 2011). Participant interaction is of equal weighting to online development, coupled with principles from
empirical learning theory (DiMichele, 2016; Hathaway & Norton, 2012). Multiple forms of online teacher professional
development have been studied for effectiveness in delivering quality teacher preparedness. Researchers have concluded
that teachers are likely to transfer new learning into their classrooms when new learning is taken from online and blended,
or hybrid, learning environments as compared to one time live workshops (Hathaway & Norton, 2012). Results in favor
of job-embedded, online professional development that combine asynchronous learning with synchronous coaching via
Skype remain favorably high (Brooks, 2010; Jones & West, 2010; Littlefield, 2012; McFarlane, 2011).
Studies advocate in favor of blended learning online courses that involve peer interaction by offering social, mentor, and
technical support for new teacher evaluation mandates (Brooks, 2010; Littlefield, 2012; Moisey et al., 2011). Studies of
teacher effectiveness related to professional development offerings in hybrid, or blended, learning environments for
knowledge transfer and pedagogical outcomes have yielded favorable results (Dash et al., 2012).
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this qualitative single case study was to determine the perceptions, attitudes and experiences of course
participants related to their capacity and confidence to transfer new learning to live teaching environments in adopting a
Common Core-aligned curriculum. Participants enrolled in blended learning courses on K-12 research-based language arts
teaching methods that work into a Common Core pedagogy. Participants were provided with access to new resources,
participated in learning forums, and planned for classroom implementation throughout a 10-week course of blended
learning. Bridging the lack of new knowledge transfer (or learning gaps) that typically results from traditional live teacher
professional development was a driving objective. Learning transfers to live classroom environments for full
implementation when research-based strategies are used (Chia-Pin et al., 2014; Marzano, 2015). A knowledge gap exists
regarding a lack of information of what best practices in blended learning lead to a change in teacher practices and attitudes
when teaching to the Common Core State Standards. A lack of information also exists about teacher attitudes when teaching
to a Common Core-aligned curriculum (McFarlane, 2011; Yukawa, 2010; Yukawa & Harada, 2011). This study looked
specifically at attitudes and experiences about teaching to a Common Core-aligned curriculum in blended learning.

2
20
 3

RESEARCH METHOD AND DESIGN

This study focused on one cohort, consisting of 14 teacher participants who taught in school districts in Florida and New
York State (see Table 1 for experience distribution). Teacher participants’ districts had either adopted the Common Core
State Standards, or used their own state standards, aligned to the Common Core State Standards. Participants also used
Common Core-aligned curriculum in their districts. Sampling included a cross section of teachers with multiple levels of
teaching experience. Teachers received instruction on application of research and evidence-based strategies to real
classroom environments as the strategies and methods supported the Common Core State Standards. Coaching components
encouraged the transfer of teaching strategy to immediate classroom practice throughout schools in participating states.
Teachers implemented newly planned ideas in a highly contextualized blended learning environment, after which they
taught and reflected on new strategies learned throughout the 10 weeks allocated for course completion. Consultant coaches
provided implementation support a minimum of three times throughout the study.

Discipline No. Teachers State

Middle School English Language Arts 1 NY

Elementary School, all subjects 6 NY

Elementary School, all subjects 2 FL

Middle School core content: Math, Science, Social Studies 4 NY

High School core content: Math, Science, Social Studies 2 NY

Middle School Fine Arts 1 NY

High School Fine Arts 1 NY

Special Education 2 NY

Table 1. Teacher experience distribution

Courses were taught using research-based materials with strategies and grade-appropriate teaching methods, new
knowledge of Common Core pedagogy, access to electronic and printable resources, participation in learning forums,
planning and preparation for implementation of new strategies learned. A consultant coach provided asynchronous
coaching sessions to guide participants in new knowledge transfer and implementation. Instruction was designed to transfer
to teachers’ K-12 classrooms for full and immediate implementation of units and lessons designed (course artifacts).
FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATIONS
Theme 1: Practice teaching CCSS strategies. When asked to describe the best professional learning in live settings
previously taken and how they applied the learning, the majority of teacher participants (57.2%) had previously participated
in online learning. This number was evenly split between those that took online learning with a blended learning component
(x%), and those that took straight self-paced learning without blended learning (28.6%). Participants named resources,
teaching of specific Common Core-aligned strategy, and opportunities to observe live and virtual examples as having aided
in making adjustments to their own instruction and direct transfer of skills to the classroom. Recent professional learning
experiences were described as having involved some adoption of, and adaptation to, digital learning such as Smartboard
training, use of online materials that accompany a new curriculum, or setting up digital classrooms. These findings emerged
from the needs assessments and mid-course interviews. The researcher was led to It can be concluded that live training was
not sufficient and that the field experiences embedded in blended learning can make a difference in teacher perceptions of
their skills readiness, ability, willingness, and enthusiasm for teaching the Common Core. Blended learning offers teachers
opportunities to access resources, plan with strategy and embed resources. In addition, they have multiple opportunities to
implement and reflect on learning as a result of actionable instructor feedback (MacDonald & Poniatowska, 2011). All of
this worked into their perceptions of confidence, competence, and readiness to teach.
Theme 2: Access to resources. Based on the physical artifacts produced throughout 10-week study course, it was
observed that teachers realized ease of access. This was indicated by the resources they used to align planned curriculum,
and by designing comprehensive lessons with embedded resources and strategies. Each participant designed a
comprehensive lesson in each course, which contained from 5 to 10 resources. Resources included graphic organizers,
differentiation tools, state and Common Core-aligned electronic and digital resources, and strategy guides with specific

3
21
 4

methods outlined in the printable content books. Open source digital resources taken from the course to use alongside, or
as part of, the lesson were also included. By providing teachers with access to a variety of resource choices, they were
allowed to exercise full pedagogical control over design, and thus applied skill in aligning those resources with teaching
strategies or with existing curriculum to further align it to student needs and state standards. As participants discussed new
learning and new learning leveraged with current practices on specific strategy use as demonstrated in discussion forums
and artifacts, confidence was built upon. Teachers realized they could further refine former practices to more effectively
meet the needs of their students.
Theme 3: Differentiating instruction. The needs assessments and mid-course interviews indicated that teachers needed
more differentiation strategies to be able to effectively teach with a Common Core-aligned curriculum and meet the needs
of mixed ability classrooms. Grouping of students, and various ways in which to group them, was viewed as an aid in the
differentiation needed to teach all students in one setting. Differentiation with scaffolding was also indicated as an aid to
chunk, or break down, rigorous content for special education students and struggling learners. Teachers indicated a need
to differentiate and scaffold for low socio-economic students due to the increased rigor required of Common Core
instruction. Grouping to keep students motivated and engaged were also named as high priorities. Course artifacts indicated
that teachers indicated knowledge about their students and where the learning gaps were, particularly as they encountered
curriculum that did not either fill these gaps or provide resources to allow for differentiation.
Teachers were required to include in all lesson plans, or artifacts, from 3 to 10 digital differentiation resources. Examples
include polling tools, Buzzmath and Kahoot, online math games, and online picture dictionaries. Identified differentiation
practices included: questioning strategies, strategies for higher order thinking through Socratic seminars and discussions
(structured peer feedback); vocabulary strategies, formative assessments, common reading and writing practices across
content areas, explicit teacher modeling, visual support, peer evaluation with problem solving, and metacognitive strategies.
Other ideas such as adequate wait-time and teacher modeling were reinforced throughout lesson design, or artifacts, as
pertinent components to achieving the student outcomes as a result of differentiation. Flexibility in thinking with regard to
completion was also indicated in order to differentiate. This included the allowance of more completion time, and
differentiating the materials for certain students to provide different options to chunk ideas first before committing to final
products; working students through metacognition to aid in the process used to reach the end result in mathematics, setting
up collaboration opportunities, use of protocols to engage students in discussions, use of learning styles when planning
instruction, and identifying learning gaps prior to grouping and differentiating. Formative assessments used to evaluate
differentiated learning were embedded to include anecdotal records, think-pair-share observations, exit ticket, and diagram
labeling. As a result, t was concluded that when respondents have access to resources combined with opportunities to learn,
practice, use and observe examples of explicit differentiation and scaffolding practices in mixed-ability classrooms,
especially when teaching with a CCSS-aligned curriculum, they felt more competent about teaching with new approaches,
and about transferring new learning theory into the classroom.
fic strategies. All participants, in interviews and in discussion forums, felt that use of content area
Theme 4: Use of specifi
literacy practices was important, and that there were more to be gleaned from blended learning due to the massive nature
of online and open source resources. The forums response indicators concurred that common practices were equally
important across all content areas. Application of specific strategies with which to differentiate, and ability to prompt
students to think at higher levels, were relevant to moving theory to classroom practice, as such practice flowed from
feelings of competence. Such strategies included teaching students how to apply metacognition (analyze their own
thinking), use scaffolds and graphic organizers combined with repetition and constant review. Perspectives on live in-
service and the benefits of having a live person conduct professional learning workshops and seminars versus blended
learning were mixed. The results showed division among favoring live in-service due to the ability to see, and question,
live examples, and practicing with online resources gleaned through blended learning to field testing. This qualitative case
study did not include comparative data, however; these comparisons were articulated among study participants.
Throughout discussion forums and in post-course interviews, teachers indicated that blended learning was effective in
teaching new methods and strategies due to the volume of strategies teachable and resources available in one course. Named
repeatedly among participants were the following strategies: questioning, common assessments and strategies for all
content areas, graphic organizers, visual aids, grouping strategies, and vocabulary. The use of electronic tools included
learning style inventories, video, podcasts, polls, digital storytelling, digital field trips, surveys, and math games. These
were found to be useful in planning and for follow-up classroom instruction.
Theme 5: Change in pedagogical practices. Teachers using CCSS-aligned curriculum expressed frustration at having to
use material that did not meet, or consider the needs of, all their learners, for example special education students, or students
reading well below grade-level. Knowledge about how to modify those materials while remaining in keeping with CCSS
objectives gave them new hope, competence in, and confidence about using the curriculum. Teachers charged with teaching
to the CCSS without specifically-aligned curriculum were given strategies and tools in blended learning with which to
teach, along with viewing asynchronous examples of classroom application to clarify understanding. This enabled them to
embed practices in planning documents for immediate classroom application. For those with access to students, they could
reflect on implementation and discuss how it worked in their classroom, receive feedback from the instructor on how to
modify or differentiate in both the planning and implementation stages.

4
22
 5

Discussion forum topics included: The Value of Common Assessments, Using Student Artifacts, Assessment Design,
Questioning Approaches, Goals for This Course, Common Core Shifts, Scenario Response (some courses had hypothetical
scenarios to respond to), The Impact of Text on Reading, Common Assessments, Being Data-Driven, Reflection on Student
Data, Best Practices, Structuring Academic Discussions, Academic Vocabulary, High Quality Questioning, Video
Reflection (from 3 to 5 per course), and all courses contained a Final Course Reflections forum. Discussion forums
indicated that teachers were enthusiastic about, and felt competent and skilled in, teaching with a CCSS-aligned curriculum
as a result of the blended learning course in the resources provided, strategies taught, and on-going dialogue about student
learning (see Table
Table 2).
10).

Course Frequency of Indicators Mean

Formative Assessment for the Common Core 25 1.8

Implementing Tiered Intervention Strategies 26 1.9

Assessment that Drives Instructional Decision-Making 21 1.5

Data-Driven Instructional Strategies 18 1.3

Table 2. Frequencies of theme 5 mentioned in discussion forums

While blogs were not a used data source and hence, not a part of the triangulation process in this case study, courses had
at least one external blog designed into each of them to provide teachers with opportunities to continue pooling and sharing
resources in an open source environment beyond the life of the course. The blogs had a similar effect, drawing from the
same users repeatedly to share and comment on resources throughout the course duration, and upon course expiration. This
result aligns with other authors who have found consistent and widespread use of, and access to, resources coupled with
mentoring and on-going peer support over a designated period time allows educators success in online, web-based
professional development (Cochrane, 2011; Herrington et al., 2009; Hodes et al., 2011).
In the post-course survey, participants were asked again what pedagogical beliefs and practices they felt were most effective
in teaching to the Common Core State Standards in meeting the needs of all of their students, and what teaching strategies
from previous online and blended learning they learned were effective in teaching to the Common Core. The responses
were similar to the mid-course survey in naming visual support, higher-level thinking, enthusiasm/motivation, and
differentiation however in addition them theme of modifying materials, even if they are already aligned in a packaged
curriculum, to more tightly align with the Common Core and to differentiate for students. Problem solving and higher order
thinking were also named.
Feedback on assignments, course artifacts, proved to be important assets to participants. Participants often submitted
assignments with specific questions seeking specific feedback, other times they revised artifacts to reflect instructor
feedback. This feedback was scaffolded from one assignment to another, then incorporated into the final course assignment
providing evidence of a change in pedagogical practices as embedded in course artifacts.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Teacher professional development has a direct impact on student achievement (Marzano, 2003, 2015). Delivery of online
professional learning has a direct impact on student achievement (Dash et al., 2012; Macdonald & Poniatowska, 2011;
McConnell et al., 2013). Combined with research-based practices, professional development delivered in blended learning
can have positive outcomes when teaching to the Common Core State Standards as teachers adopt and adapt materials, and
as they learn new strategies to teach their students (Gaytan & McEwen, 2010; McFarlane, 2011).
Effective online instructional delivery also has a direct impact on student achievement (Dash et al., 2012; Macdonald &
Poniatowska, 2011; McConnell et al., 2013). A result of this qualitative single case study was that teacher participants
achieved renewed enthusiasm, and a willingness to teach with a CCSS-aligned curriculum as a result of the blended learning
provided. Participants’ perceptions, attitudes, and experiences throughout the course of blended learning professional
development helped build their confidence in transferring new learning to live teaching environments as a direct result of
access to resources, live and asynchronous coaching, and embedded planning.
Recommendations for Future Research
A review of the literature supporting varied learning settings provided insights about the online teaching practices that lead
to immediate classroom transfer, and the combination most likely to result in effective K-12 classroom implementation.
This study deepened and contributed to this body of knowledge about learning transfer as it applies to teaching to the
Common Core State Standards in blended learning. Further research could focus on continued study of K-12 educators, as

5
23
 6

they seek to learn new application of strategies that align with state standards or new state mandates when adopted by their
state. New technologies from synchronous and asynchronous online and blended learning continues to offer re-licensure,
training, and on-going professional learning solutions when combined with real classroom experiences in adaptation of the
aligned curriculum they are charged with using. Learner outcomes can inform which technologies have the highest potential
in meeting them. The New York State Department of Education for example, as of 2016 require teachers to receive
additional hours of English as a New Language, or ENL, training as part of their re-licensure. As of 2014, the State of
Florida mandated additional hours of Exceptional Learner Education, or ESE, training as part of re-licensure (State of
Florida Bureau of Educator Certification, 2014). Comparative studies could look at blended learning that takes exclusively
online asynchronously and synchronously as this study did, versus blended learning with the majority of it taking place on-
site using blended learning to house follow-up session materials. The use of open source blogs and wikis inside blended
learning can also be evaluated qualitatively for their utility in further great teaching skill, and immediate learning transfer.
Online blended learning, no matter what technologies are used, can provide Departments of Education, and the teachers
they serve, with assurances that training is current with opportunities to gain resources that aid in furtherance of state
outcomes and mandates. With a proper alignment combination of technologies and sufficient interactions among them,
learners will have the opportunity to directly transfer new learning to the classroom, and should continue to be offered as
a viable option in keeping with new technologies. Recommend some specific new studies here
Further research into other social networking opportunities as on-going support for teachers can aid in the provision of
new, on-going, and affordable resources to support professional learning. It is another way to offer continued support
teachers. A comparative study looking at open source versus district-created social networking resources could expand
this recommendation by looking at the utility of providing it in-house with district cohorts and district approved materials,
versus open source on the World Wide Web.
Finally, further exploration of the blended learning resources and the takeaways that teachers find the most useful in
implementing specific directives could become a solution to delivering these resources in a systemic and cost effective way
with teacher participation (Cochrane, 2011). All efforts should be made to direct teachers to those resources and align them
with the instructional directives they are charged with following through on. Further research into how to make this
alignment in the most efficient and cost effective way would be timely as new technologies continue to find their way to
the World Wide Web and the open source marketplace.

6
24
 7

REFERENCES
Beach, R. (2012). Can online learning communities foster professional development? Language Arts, 89(4), 256-262.
Retrieved from http://www.ncte.org/journals/la/
Blankstein, A. M. (2016). Excellence through equity: Five principles of courageous leadership to guide achievement for
every student. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum.
Bradley, W. E. (2011). A conceptual framework for the design and evaluation of online learning modules in professional
training and academic education in business. The Business Review, 18(1), 20-27. Retrieved from
http://asbbs.org/files/2011/ASBBS2011v1/PDF/B/BradleyW.pdf
Brooks, C. F. (2010). Toward 'hybridized' faculty development for the twenty-first century: Blending online communities
of practice and face-to-face meetings in instructional and professional support programmes. Innovations in
Education and Teaching International, 47(3), 261-270. doi:10.1080/14703297.2010.498177
Caudle, L. A. (2013). Using a sociocultural perspective to establish teaching and social presences within a hybrid
community of mentor teachers. Adult Learning, 24(3), 112-120. doi:10.1177/1045159513489112
Certification Office of Teaching Initiatives NYS Education Department. (2016).
Chia-Pin, K., Chin-Chung, T., & Meilun, S. (2014). Development of a survey to measure self-efficacy and attitudes toward
web-based professional development among elementary school teachers. Journal of Educational Technology &
Society, 17(4), 302-315.
Cochrane, T. D. (2011). Beyond the yellow brick road: Mobile Web 2.0 informing a new institutional e-learning strategy.
Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 15(4), 60-68. doi:10.1080/09687769.2010.529110
Dash, S., De Kramer, R., O'Dwyer, L. M., Masters, J., & Russell, M. (2012). Impact of online professional development
on teacher quality and student achievement in fifth grade mathematics. Journal of Research on Technology, 45(1),
1-26. Retrieved from http://iste.org
Despotović-Zrakić, M., Marković, A., Bogdanović, Z., Barać, D., & Krčo, S. (2012). Providing adaptivity in Moodle LMS
Courses. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 15(1), 326-338.
DiMichele, A. (2016). Ensuring high-quality curriculum: How to design, revise, or adopt curriculum aligned to student
success. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum:
Emerling, B. A. (2005). Transforming professional development for an American high school: A lesson study inspired,
technology powered system for teacher learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Gaytan, J. A., & McEwen, B. C. (2010). Instructional technology professional development evaluation: Developing a high
quality model. Delta Pi Epsilon Journal, 52(2), 77-94.
Hathaway, D., & Norton, P. (2012). An exploratory study comparing two modes of preparation for online teaching. Journal
of Digital Learning in Teacher Education, 28(4), 146-152. Retrieved from
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ972456.pdf
Herrington, A., Herrington, J., Hoban, G., & Reid, D. (2009). Transfer of online professional learning to teachers' classroom
practice. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 20(2), 189-213.
Hodes, C. L., Foster, J. C., Pritz, S. G., & Kelley, P. (2011). Structuring professional development with an online
community. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 39(3), 295-319. Retrieved from
https://www.baywood.com/journals/PreviewJournals.asp?Id=0047-2395
Jones, P., & West, E. A. (2010). Moving toward a hybrid teacher education course: Supporting the theory to practice
challenge in special education. Journal of Special Education Technology, 25(2), 45-56.
Littlefield, C. M. (2012). Hybrid course design and delivery: Faculty approaches, essential components, and the impact of
professional development in community colleges (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations
and Theses database. (UMI No. 3538955)
Macdonald, J., & Poniatowska, B. (2011). Designing the professional development of staff for teaching online: An OU
(UK) case study. Distance Education, 32(1), 119-134. doi:10.1080/01587919.2011.565481
Marzano, R. J. (2003). What works in schools: Translating research into action. Alexandria, VA: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Marzano, R. J. (2015a). Creating and using learning targets & performance scales: How teachers make better instructional
decisions. City, State: Marzano Laboratories.
Marzano, R. J. (2015b). Processing new information: Classroom techniques to help students engage with content.
Princeton, NJ: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

7
25
 8

Matzat, U. (2013). Do blended virtual learning communities enhance teachers’ professional development more than purely
virtual ones? A large scale empirical comparison. Computers and Education, 60(1), 40-51.
Mayer, R. E. (2014). Incorporating motivation into multimedia learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 171-173.
doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.04.003
McConnell, T., Parker, J., Eberhardt, J., Koehler, M., & Lundeberg, M. (2013). Virtual professional learning communities:
Teachers' perceptions of virtual versus face-to-face professional development. Journal of Science Education and
Technology, 22(3), 267-277. doi:10.1007/s10956-012-9391-y
McFarlane, D. A. (2011). Are there differences in the organizational structure and pedagogical approach of virtual and
brick-and-mortar schools? Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 3(2), 83-98.
Moisey, S., Ostashewski, N., & Reid, D. (2011). Applying constructionist principles to online teacher professional
development. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 12(6), 143-156. Retrieved from
http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/976/1958
Sawchuk, S. (2011). Teacher evaluations key to state chances for NCLB waivers. Education Week, 31(14), 21-22. Retrieved
from http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2011/12/14/14waive-bargain_ep.h31.html
(2014). State of Florida Bureau of Educator Certification, Florida Legislature Statute No. 1012.56. Tallahassee, FL.
Sugar, W., van Tryon, P. J., & Slagter. (2014). Development of a virtual technology coach to support technology integration
for K-12 educators. TechTrends, 58(3), 54-62. doi:10.1007/s11528-014-0752-7
U.S. Department of Education, Office of State Support for Formula Grants. (2015). Washington, DC.

Venables, D. (2014). How teachers can turn data into action. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Yukawa, J. (2010). Communities of practice for blended learning: Toward an integrated model for US education. Journal
of Education for Library and Information Science, 51(2), 54-75. Retrieved from http://www.alise.org/jelis
Yukawa, J., & Harada, V. H. (2011). Authentic learning is not just for students: It’s for librarians, too! School Library
Monthly, 27(4), 5-8.

8
26
 9

Why OER for Blended Learning 2017

Rory McGreal
Athabasca University
Alberta, Canada
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
OER are learning resources that have been released under an open license permitting their free use/modification. OER
render this knowledge accessible to all. Digital locks and restrictive licences seriously hinder the use of commercial content.
blended learning makes use of a wide varitey of digitale devices for use by students and faculty using several operating
systems that are not compatible with “locked” content.The free sharing of OER is an essential element in any blended-
friendly learning environment.
Author Keywords
Blended, Open Educational Resources, OER, DRM, copyright, licences
INTRODUCTION
The diffusion and growing widespread availability of OER, combined with the extended reach of intelligent phones and
tablets has opened up blended learning environments for educational institutions who are innovative enough to breakaway
from the traditional classroom mode of teaching. Education institutions worldwide continue to face significant challenges
related to providing increased access to high quality education, while containing or reducing costs.
Open Educational Resources (OER) constitute an important resource with the potential to facilitate the expansion of quality
education and learning opportunities worldwide. OER refers to full courses, course materials, modules, textbooks, streaming
videos, tests, software, curriculum and any other tools, materials or techniques used to support access to knowledge. OER
are important for blended learning because unlike closed commercial content, OER can be reused and repurposed for a wide
variety of different courses and digital devices.
The relevance of OER is augmented by the exponential growth in online accessibility afforded by the wide range of new
mobile devices that can be used effectively to support blended learning. Today, there are more than 6 billion blended
subscriptions accessible on cellular networks by more than 90% of the world’s population out of a world population of 7.5
billion. Significantly, more than 75% of these users are in developing countries where there are nearly three billion internet
connexions. Significantly, today, most Internet users only access the network through mobiledevices (ITU, 2017). The
world is now mobile.
This growing trend toward blended computing combining the power of personalised classes and computer networks has
opened the door for learners and teachers to access the world’s knowledge from almost anywhere, at anytime. The internet
houses the world’s treasure of knowledge. In this context the role of OER in providing learners and teachers with learning
content, applications, games etc. is becoming increasingly more relevant. The internet is the world’s intellectual commons
and OER renders this knowledge accessible to all.
DIGITAL RIGHTS MANAGEMENT
OER are not just “helpful” in blended learning. Rather, OER are essential for blended learning. This essential need for OER
is driven by the educational publishers who are applying DRM (Digital Resources Management) or technical protection
measures (TPM) otherwise known as digital locks.. The locks are accompanied and rendered effective with the use of
restrictive licensing.
Publishers can technically control how, when, where, and with what specific brands of technological assistance users are
able to access content and applications. For example some ebook publishers abridge the content and ensure that it is so
difficult if not impossible to read that it is “worthless” (Richard, 2011). Moreover, they also deliberately cripple their
devices to ensure that only their “approved” uses are possible. This is often problematic for disabled users. The visually
impaired, for example are denied use of a text to speech function and in many cases cannot even increase the text size
(Gonzalez, 2016). Moreover, many proprietary systems still disable highlighting, annotating, hyperlinking, and even
dictionary access -- these features are important for educational uses and essential for blended learning.

27
 10

Different formats are nearly always problematic when mixing and mashing materials. OER can be changed and altered for
use in a wide range of courses and in different formats without permission. Even simple printouts are not possible in many
cases through removing the printing capability (or by prohibitory licensing or both) (Elibra & Starpath, n. d.) Hyperlinking
is a normal learning activity that is often disabled. The devices are often purposely crippled, so that content and applications
cannot be ported to other devices. Permissions of all kinds also need to be re-sought for tampering with the material for re-
use, re-purposing or mixing, even if fair use allows for it. This can become an impractical burden putting a real damper on
blended learning, which relies on the existence of large collections of open and accessible resources.
Even if a format becomes obsolete, users have no recourse when they cannot technically move their content to other devices
and applications. Of particular concern for the disabled, proprietors also disable the ability of audio readers to access the
content. Audio readers are becoming popular especially for people with visual disabilities and even with commuters on long
trips (Elibra & Starpath, n. d.)
Blended learning becomes problematic when mixing and mashing is not permitted. Publishers wish to control and restrict
the use of their content in courses, the formats, devices, and other conditions of use of their content. They wish to lock in
and control their customers. For example the Amazon Kindle and Microsoft Reader use DRM (Digital Rights Management)
restricted formats (AZW and LIT respectively). On the other hand Adobe’s PDF format allows for free use, but many older
PDF document cannot be re-flowed to blended devices easily. The open EPUB format is used by many publishers for
production purposes, but then they convert it to their proprietary formats for public release.
DRM software enables the tracking of users and protects content. It is used by copyright owners to control, limit and restrict
what users can do with their content (Subramanya & Yi, 2006) . It is sometimes referred to as TPM (Technological
Protections Measures) and it is also used as a tool to turn different uses of the content or application into a separate business
deal, with restrictions and permissions. Because of this, some critics refer to DRM as Digital Restrictions Management
(Brown, n. d.) These restrictions extend to both the hardware and the software. DRM can limit the devices that you are able
to employ in accessing an application or content. It can technically restrict you to using the proprietor’s website,
determining how, when, where you can use the application or content and with what devices.
DRM is considered to be a necessary evil by the publishers to protect their content from pirates and viruses. DRM can (and
has) been used to prevent lawful licensees from accessing their own purchased content. The DRM used in ebooks and audio
books blocks legitimate users from porting their content to other devices; in many cases, DRM has been used to delete
legally purchased products from legitimate devices. Amazon at one point entered customers’ computers and deleted their
version of George Orwell’s book 1984 (Fried, 2009). The Sony RootKit scandal was one example of a company
deliberately using its DRM to surreptitiously insert a virus into licensees’ computers without their knowledge or permission,
causing significant disruption (Marson, 2005). Even so, DRM continues to prevent market competitors from participating,
and effectively stifles much innovation. Because of this DRM can be seen as the kiss of death to blended learning, which is
particularly affected by DRM.
Blended learning demands flexibility and cannot live with technical restrictions that limit the capabilities of digital media.
Blended learning is also based on trust among the participating students and instructors. As they share resources, the
participants must have confidence that their personal information is not used for purposes other than those of learning and
sharing with other students and the teacher. Companies using DRM have a history of open ended and indiscriminate
collection of private information for unauthorized purposes, using DRM to disclose personal information for inappropriate
purposes (Canadian Internet Policy and Public Interest Clinic, 2007; Pandey, 2016). In many, if not most jurisdictions,
companies have the right to invade your computers and networks without notice and without your permission, and to disable
content and software for any real or imagined reason.
DIGITAL LICENSES
The proprietary licenses (that users must accept in order to access the content or applications (“I agree”) are also a major
impediment to blended learning. Licensing restrictions can add needless complications to downloading the content
sometime making it so difficult that users simply give up. Fortunately this practice is not endemic. Content re-use and
format shifting, as has been noted is technically disabled, and this is reinforced with restrictive licensing that prohibits the
practice. Even if one wants to retain the same format, proprietary content is licensed to only one computer “for use solely on
this device” (eBooks.com, n. d.), so learners who switch computers even with the same operating system are often restricted
from doing so, or at a minimum they must contact the owners and request special permissions and/or register with a
company.
Licenses prohibit, not only copying and printing, but also modifying, removing, deleting, and augmenting (improving) or
“in any way exploiting any of the eBook’s content”. This stipulation along with the “sole device” stipulation effectively
 11

negates any attempts at blended learning using such software, even if institutions are prepared to pay, pay again and keep
paying for the same licences until they expire. And, if institutions don’t keep paying they may no longer be able to access
the data or records linked to that product. Licenses also prohibit the transfer of content to other students when teachers wish
to use blended devices with a different group of students in later semesters.
Restrictive licensing exempts software publishers from ALL liability under consumer protection law. There is no “product”
to purchase. Not only does the "purchaser" have no rights, no requirements are placed on the publisher, nor any requirement
that a product even work. And, the publisher has no liability when they turn off the content or application for whatever
reason, legitimate or otherwise. They can also change these and other clauses of the contract at any time. In fact, whenever
software is upgraded the contract can be changed and often is, but never for the benefit of the user (Brown, n. d.) For those
educators who wish to avail themselves of their fair dealing (or fair use) rights, these licences can effectively negate them
along with the right of first sale that normally allows buyers to resell their purchases (EBIA, 2010). The licence represents a
contract agreed to by the licensee to not avail themselves of their fair dealing rights or first sale rights. Publishers claim that
contract law trumps fair dealing.
The predicament of an IPad owner in Luxembourg puts the question of geographical restrictions in a clear light. Even
though he would like to legally purchase content, he cannot because it is not available in his country. He can find material
on pirate sites, but he wanted to buy legally and could not. Another commentator, talks about user “anger” noting that
geographical restrictions using DRM are “the most pressing issue” (Americaneditor, 2010). Google’s “Geographical
Constraint” error message along with YouTube’s “This video is not available in your country” are notorious examples of
this, when users get an error message when they attempt to download books or videos that are not licensed in their country.
For instructors, of course a legal purchase is mandatory, so in many countries they are effectively excluded from using vast
amounts of relevant content (Wolf, 2011). For borderless online courses from institutions that deliver lessons to many
different countries, the restrictions effectively prevent them from using this content. The copyright owners are encouraging
piracy through these geographical controls that prohibit legitimate uses. Fairfield (2017) even contends that these restrictive
licences are destroying the concept of property ownership and returning us to the feudalism of the middle ages. He counsels
us to “vigorously exercise our rights to use, repair and modify our smart property, and support efforts to strengthen those
rights.”.
CONCLUSION
Publishers have declared war on technology, using lawsuits, legislatures and clever public relations to restrict the ability to
sell and use new technologies. They are trying to entrench their copyright monopoly and outmoded business models. Lynch
(2001) warned that publishers want to control “in infinite detail all use and duplication of material, monitor that use, and
possibly charge for it on a transactional basis if they don't block it out of hand”. They have waged a continuous war aiming
to extend their rights at the expense of education and the general public. Barlow (1996, p. 15) presciently warned “The
greatest constraint on your future liberties may come not from government but from corporate legal departments laboring to
protect by force what can no longer be protected by practical efficiency or general social consent" (Barlow,1996).
Rather than fighting head-on these rich and powerful interests, educators can bypass them by using OER. Publicly financed
content creations should remain open to all and rendered accessible to the public over the Internet. Rather than remain
trapped behind the overly restrictive proprietary environments that publishers are creating, educators can make use of OER
to localize, mix and match the materials on whichever device, application or operating system they choose, wherever they
live. As blended learning evolves, the content needs to be open so that it can be freely used by all, without the restrictions
imposed on us by commercial educational content.

REFERENCES
Barlow, J. P. (1996). Selling Wine without Bottles: The Economy of Mind on the Global Net High noon on the electronic
frontier: Conceptual issues in cyberspace (pp. 9 - 34). Cambridge MA: MIT Press.
Brown, P. (n. d.). What is DRM? Digital Restrictions Management, Retrieved from
http://www.defectivebydesign.org/what_is_drm
Canadian Internet Policy and Public Interest Clinic. (2007, September). Digital Rights Management and consumer privacy:
An Assessment of DRM applications under Canadian privacy law Retrieved from
http://www.cippic.ca/uploads/CIPPIC_Report_DRM_and_Privacy.pdf
EBIA. (2010, September 29). eBook License agreement. Retrieved from http://www.ebia.com/Copyright/Licenses/eBook
eBooks.com. (n. d.). Customer license. Retrieved from http://www.ebooks.com/information/customerlicense.asp

28
 12

Elibra and Starpath. (n. d. ). All about ebooks. Retrieved from http://www.starpath.com/elibra/about_index.htm
Fairfield, J. A. T. (2017, September 5). The ‘internet of things’ is sending us back to the Middle Ages. The Conversation.
Retrieved from https://theconversation.com/the-internet-of-things-is-sending-us-back-to-the-middle-ages-81435
Fried, I. (2009, July 17). Amazon recalls (and embodies) Orwell's '1984'. CNet News. Retrieved from
http://news.cnet.com/8301-13860_3-10289983-56.html
Gonzales, F. (2016, December). Learning-disabled students face failure and isolation as they struggle to absorb content.
Prism, 29(4). Retrieved from http://www.asee.org/
ITU. (2017). ICT Facts and figures 2017 Retrieved from https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-
D/Statistics/Documents/facts/ICTFactsFigures2017.pdf
Lynch, C. (2001). The battle to determine the future of the book in the digital world. First Monday, 6(6), 66. Retrieved from
http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue6_6/lynch/index.html
Pandey, J. (2016, May 3). Privacy Issues with DRM. Retrieved from https://cis-india.org/internet-governance/blog/privacy-
issues-with-drm
Richard the Lionhearted. (2011, September 5). Comments on five alternatives to expensive textbooks by Ritika Puri. Globe
and Mail. Retrieved from
http://www.theglobeandmail.com/globe-investor/personal-finance/household-finances/five-alternatives-to-expensive-
textbooks/article2145784/comments/
Subramanya, S. R., & Yi, B. K. (2006). Digital Rights Management. Potentials IEEE, 25(2), 31 - 34. Retrieved from
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=1649008 doi:10.1109/MP.2006.1649008
Wolf, J. S. (2011, June 1). IPad owner in Luxembourg. Retrieved from
http://www.blendedread.com/forums/archive/index.php/t-114431.html

29
 13

Unraveling the Multidimensional Structure of

Information Literacy for Educators
Kamran Ahmadpour
PTP_Adult Learning and Employment Programs
Ontario, Canada
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
In today's world of rapidly proliferating information and the emerging trend in education to
integrate the digital world with in-class teaching, educators need to re-examine the complexity
of information literacy which provides the basis for learning in the Information Age. The
purpose of this study is to develop a framework for an understanding of information literacy in
the digital world. A comprehensive search was conducted among the peer-reviewed journal
articles to detect the major research themes in developing the notion of information literacy in
the 21st century. An analysis of 100 peer-reviewed articles revealed that information literacy
entails more dimensions than have been envisaged before. A framework, called the
“multidimensional framework”, was developed to present the key themes and elements that are
essential in gaining an understanding of information literacy in the digital age. This
multidimensional framework unravels the intricate structure of information literacy and
organizes its themes and elements into five dimensions: cognitive, technological, social,
affective, and metacognitive.

Keywords
information literacy, blended learning, digital learning, information literacy framework, digital
technology and education

INTRODUCTION
Blended learning in its simplest definition intends to integrate the classroom face-to-face learning
environment with the online learning environment. With the transition of instruction to an online
environment, we are not only trying to free our learners from time and space; we are also trying to
free them from control and acknowledge their freedom and independence in the actual world of
rapidly proliferating information. Along with this freedom and independence comes a complexity
of skills required to harness the wealth of information available. It is the responsibility of
educators to understand this complexity and provide supports. As educators, it is imperative for us
to be observant of the challenges or barriers our learners might face in identifying, retrieving,
organizing, and analyzing information they need in the digital world. Unraveling the complexity
of information literacy also helps us understand how the surfeit of information affects our learners'
experiences.

BACKGROUND
Information literacy skills are widely acknowledged as being essential to academic performance
and are particularly important in a digital context ( Jeffery et al., 2011). With a solid understanding
of information literacy, we, as educators, can function more effectively as we are heading towards
blended learning and decentralization in education. The concept of information literacy has

27
 14

evolved and grown since it was coined by Zurkowski in 1974, who viewed information literacy
more as a problem-solving approach. To him, information literates were those who had the "skills
for utilizing the wide range of information tools as well as primary resources in molding
information-solutions to their problems (Zurkowski, 1974, p. 6). Later, information literacy was
conceptualized by the library sector as learning about information sources that libraries offer
(Pinto et al., 2010). The American Library Association [ALA] (2000) first defined information
literacy as “a set of abilities requiring individuals to recognize when information is needed and
have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information” (p.1). Next, it was
associated with information technology, technical skills, digital literacy and databases (Pinto et al.,
2010). Information literacy further developed through the lenses of critical thinking and evaluation
skills (Spiranec & Zorica, 2010), affective competencies (Kuhlthau, 1991; Nahl, 2001; Julien &
Mckechnie, 2005; Bilal & Bachir, 2007; Lopatovska & Mokros, 2008), and social skills, when
Web 2.0 technology provided a plethora of online opportunities for collaboration, communication,
and sharing (Mokhtar et al. 2009; Spiranec and Zorica 2010). Finally, experts in education utilized
the notions of constructivism and social constructivism to integrate information literacy in the
context of a collaborative learning environment (Spiranec and Zorica, 2010; Farkas 2012).

METHOD
Several procedures were undertaken to ensure a high quality review of the literature on
information literacy. First, peer-reviewed journal articles for one decade of the 21st century,
between 2004 and 2013, were used to ensure the quality of information. Second, to form a
comprehensive and relevant collection of articles, a wide range of keywords related to information
literacy in the digital age was used. Third, a variety of well-established educational databases
were searched. Fourth, the reference section of the key articles was searched in order to find
additional relevant references. Finally, key online journals on information literacy were
investigated independently to identify articles that might not have been indexed in the databases.
The references were also closely examined to avoid duplications and irrelevant results. The search
process produced 100 peer-reviewed articles.

OVERVIEW
Based on a comprehensive review of the literature a new framework for understanding the concept
of information literacy is proposed. Figure 1 illustrates the five most frequent dimensions explored
in the current study.

Figure 1. The multiple dimensions of information literacy

28
 15

THE COGNITIVE DIMENSION OF INFORMATION LITERACY

The first dimension of information literacy is the cognitive dimension. In education and
information literacy, the cognitive dimension enters when there is a need to make a distinction
between various types of learning activities and objectives: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor
(Bloom et al., 1956); cognitive, affective, physical (Kuhlthau, 1991); cognitive, technological, and
ethical (Calvani et al., 2008); and individualistic or cognitive process versus social practice
viewpoint (Savolainen, 2009; Lloyd, 2007, 2012; O'Farrill, 2010).
According to Schroeder and Cahoy (2010), information literacy used to be viewed merely on its
cognitive dimension. Calvani et al. (2008) define the cognitive dimension as “being able to read,
select, interpret and evaluate data and information taking into account their pertinence and
reliability” (p. 187). The cognitive dimension, however, incorporates tacit and complex mental
processes that cannot be captured in a single definition. Secker (2008) views information literacy
not as skills, but as interconnected high-level abilities that reside within us.
From the literature review, eleven themes emerged for the cognitive dimensions (Figure 2). Each
of these will be discussed in turn.

Figure 2. The Cognitive Dimension of Information Literacy

Being Aware of Information

Before anything, individuals should become aware of their lack of information (Fainburg, 2009).
Information need occurs once one recognizes that his or her knowledge is not sufficient to satisfy a
need (Norbert & Lwoga, 2013). An awareness of information need is necessary but is not
sufficient to lead to information seeking behavior. Individuals should also be aware that the
information they need exists and is accessible. They should be aware of available sources of
information (Abdi, Partidge, & Bruce, 2013), collaborative information (Shah & Marchionini,
2010), the purpose of information providers (McKinney, Jones, & Turkington, 2011), and the
functions and processes of service providers (O’Farrill, 2010).

29
 16

Perceiving
Studies show that there is a relationship between individuals’ perceptions of the usefulness,
quality, and accessibility of information, and their engagement in the information seeking
activities (Marton & Choo, 2012). Individuals often examine the benefits of an informer’s
reputation, respect, and authority, and they continue their activity of receiving or sharing
knowledge based on their perceived cost and benefit exchange (Cyr & Choo, 2010). Individuals’
perceptions have also been examined in health information literacy. According to Marton and
Choo (2012), an individual’s threat perception of a health issue such as the susceptibility,
seriousness, and consequences of an illness plays an important role on his or her information
seeking behavior.
Exploring
The ability to explore effectively through the current flood of digital information is such a key
element that Hockly (2012) calls it “searchliteracy”. The actual search, however, occurs through a
phase of quick scanning (Lazonder & Rouet, 2008) or going through available sources in order to
gain a better understanding of the topic (Nichols, 2009). It is not enough to go through oceans of
information. Rather, one needs not only to understand the sources, to use search techniques such
as Boolean logic, truncation searching, and RSS feeds effectively, but also to come up with search
strategies that help explore the best needed information (Spring, 2010). Contrary to what is often
believed, the main focus for forming a research question or thesis statement does not occur at the
beginning of a project, but somewhere in the middle of the exploration process from the
information detected (Kuhlthau, 2013).
Understanding Information Forms
In today’s digital environment, information is presented in diverse ways. It is important for
learners to understand how information is organized and disseminated (Whitworth, 2011) and how
it is delivered in various forms, formats, media, and modes (Wen & Shih, 2008; Mackey &
Jacobson, 2011). Teaching information literacy also involves introducing learners to the various
forms of information, and helping them understand what type of information is needed in any
specific context (Badke, 2010). Accessing, analyzing, and evaluating messages in various forms
are the common elements between information literacy and media literacy (Mackey & Jacobson,
2011). Bawden (2001) notes that many authors prefer to see media literacy as a component of
information literacy.
Comprehending
Another cognitive element for information literacy is an individual's level of proficiency in reading
and comprehending (Lazonder & Rouet, 2008; Loertscher, 2008). Comprehension, according to
Wiley et al. (2009), is a process of constructing mental models out of important concepts and their
relationship within a text. The clearer the relationship presented in a text, the easier it is to read
and remember. Kessinger (2013), uses Bloom's revised taxonomy (Anderson et al., 2001) to list
verbs such as describing, explaining, identifying, matching, and summarizing as indicative of
comprehension in information seeking process (Kessinger, 2013).
Problem Solving
This concept is rooted in the origin of information literacy and reflected in Zurkowski’s (1974)
statement that information literate individuals use tools and resources “in molding information-
solutions to their problems” (p. 6). Although the focus of information literacy, later, shifted to
tools and generic skills, viewing information literacy as a problem solving process has become
appealing again with the new trends in education such as problem-based, project-based and
competence-based approaches to learning (Brand-Gruwel, Wopereis, & Vermetten, 2005).

30
 17

McKinney et al. (2011) suggest integrating information literacy into subject curriculum in order to
make use of the problem solving process in an inquiry-based information literacy.
Critical Thinking
Gibson (1995) considers evaluation, analysis, and synthesis as micro-skills of critical thinking. In
Bloom’s (1956) original taxonomy, one moves from knowledge, the lowest level of the learning
hierarchy, to evaluation, the highest level. Effective use of information will not happen without
the use of critical thinking (Weiler, 2005; Andreae & Anderson, 2011). Learners approach
information literacy with different levels of critical thinking skills. Weiler (2005), referring to
William Perry’s research (Perry, 1970), maintains that critical thinking is developmental and it
begins when we move beyond dualistic thinking. According to the studies of Perry (1970),
intellectual development has several developmental stages: dualism (believing in a world of right
or wrong), multiplicity (accepting diversity), and contextual relativism (seeing the world as
relativistic and relevant to specific contexts). While not all students may get to the same level of
critical thinking ability, it is necessary for instructors to help them make meaningful choices in
their research (Andreae & Anderson, 2011). Therefore, programs should shift focus from the
current limited approach, where there is only one right answer, to a new approach in which
students are encouraged to see the multiple and complex layers of the information universe
(Spiranec & Zorica, 2010).
Evaluating
In the context of new technology and information overload, it is increasingly important to be able
to evaluate information. Students should be able to assess the biases, hidden meanings, and
agendas of communicators (Stiller & LeBlanc, 2006; Eshet, 2012). They should also be able to
evaluate a wide range of factors, including the relevance of retrieved information to their own
needs (Lazonder & Rouet, 2008; Calvani et al., 2008; Secker, 2008; Keene et al., 2010), reliability,
such as author affiliation (Calvani et al., 2008; Kessinger, 2013), authority and authenticity (Eshet,
2012), timeliness or currency (Keene et al., 2010), credibility, through a track record of sources
(Farkas, 2012), and evaluating user feedback such as comments, star ratings, and user-generated
information such as Wikipedia (Mackey & Jacobson, 2011). According to Farkas (2012),
scholarly information is produced anywhere, through any media, and it is important to teach our
students the evaluation skills they need.
Analyzing
Major areas explored in this literature include analysis of problems to identify key components and
information needs (Keene et al., 2010), analysis of the structure and grounds of an argument
(Secker, 2008), identification and analysis of the contexts in which information is generated
(Spiranec & Zorica, 2010), and analysis of the messages in diverse forms (Mackey & Jacobson,
2011).
Creating
The shift in information literacy from information retrieval to information creation is expressed in
different terms: user-generated information (Jacobson & Mackey, 2013), knowledge creation
(Paterson & Gamtso, 2012), recreating in innovative methods (Hockly, 2012), reproducing content
in multiple media formats (Bawden, 2007; Mackey & Jacobson, 2011), reproducing existing texts,
visuals, and audio pieces using digital reproduction technologies (Eshet, 2012), and information
creation (Huvila, 2011). With today's technology, information seekers need to be able to
synthesize ideas coming from so many different sources (Mackey & Jacobson, 2011). Web 2.0
provides an instrumental environment for students to practice synthesizing and creating ideas
(Magnuson, 2013).

31
 18

Presenting
Finally, in the most rudimentary form of the digital information literacy scenario, a student needs
to be able to present his/her writing in a digital environment (Nazari & Webber, 2012). According
to Lenning and Ebbers (1999), the results can be presented in various types of interaction:
physical, virtual (synchronous), and through correspondence (asynchronous). Web 2.0, as an
information delivery medium (Spiranec & Zorica, 2010), encourages students to explore various
channels of presenting information (Dunaway, 2011).

THE TECHNOLOGICAL DIMENSION OF INFORMATION LITERACY

The second dimension of information literacy is the technological dimension. According to
Tuominen et al., (2004), thinking about literacies without considering the technologies that shape
them does not make any sense. Calvani et al. (2008) define “technological dimension” as “being
able to explore and face problems and new technological contexts in a flexible way” (p. 187).
In this literature review, the technological dimension refers not only to digital tools, media,
systems, or machines that enable us to effectively pick, process, produce, and present information,
but also to the understanding of the affordances that technologies offer for our interaction with
information (Figure 3).

Figure 3. The Technological Dimension of Information Literacy

Digital Media and Technology

The information literacy we know today has been embodied by technology. Technology has
simplified not only accessing and presenting information, but also collaborating with others, and
creating information. According to Ng (2012), the technical dimension refers to the operational
skills we need to use information and communication technology, and the operational skills
developed through understanding the structure, features and capabilities of technology. Digital
media and technology includes a wide range of hardware and software tools from desktop, mobile,
and digital recording devices, to networking technology, communication technology, social media,
cloud computing and all other information resources on the Internet and digital environment.

32
 19

Technology Affordances
Technological proficiency is more than just knowing how to use digital media and technology.
Technological proficiency is the knowledge and ability to use technology flexibly and creatively
for particular purposes (Eisenberg, 2008). The new understanding of technological proficiency led
some researchers to explore the potentials or affordances of technology for specific purposes.

Shand, Winstead, and Kottler (2012) organize digital tools into five categories: communication,
collaboration, presentation, organization, and critical thinking. According to Shand et al. (2012),
to be successful learners in the 21st century, students need a new set of proficiencies, such as the
ability to collect, evaluate, organize, and use information from digital sources, and success in these
areas only happens through structured learning activities, facilitated by technology tools.

Eisenberg (2008) also tries to integrate the use of digital media and technology into information
literacy. He argues that looking at digital tools from the perspectives of the potentials they offer
allows us to move from isolated computer skills to integrated information and technology skills.

In reality, however, it is difficult to specify a tool for one specific purpose both because
technology is under constant change and because technology is context-dependent. The use of
presentation software such as PowerPoint, for example, used to be easily categorized under
presentation. With the emergence of cloud computing, such as Microsoft Cloud and Google Docs,
learners are able to use these tools for collaborative purposes. Heinrichs and Lim (2010) consider
presentation tools having potentials for generating thoughts and synthesizing ideas. Nevertheless,
the purpose, or purposes, technological tools serve are related to the potentials they provide, and
the potentials they provide sometimes reshape our understanding. Web 2.0, for example, is now
reshaping and redefining the way we understand information literacy.

Information literacy associated with Web 2.0 includes online tools such as blogs, wikis, media
sharing, and social networks, as opposed to search engines, websites, and e-learning platforms of
Web 1.0 (Spiranec & Zorica, 2010). Bawden and Robinson (2009) also include RSS feeds,
podcasts, sites for sharing photographs and videos, social bookmarking, and virtual worlds such as
Second Life in the Web 2.0 list. Before the emergence of Web 2.0, digital tools associated with
information literacy were search engines, online databases, and network browsers. Web 2.0 tools
have facilitated new potentials that the conventional and static Web 1.0 could not (Mills, 2010).
Web 2.0 has had such an impact on the information landscape that Spiranec and Zorica (2010)
propose “information literacy 2.0”, which involves employing Web 2.0 in information literacy
practices.

Web 2.0 provides opportunities for new practices in information literacy. For one thing, sharing
information has never been as easy as it is now. A number of Web 2.0 tools, such as Facebook,
Second Life, and LinkedIn, Flicker, YouTube, and social bookmarking have made it possible for
individuals to share information and collaborate online (Huvila, 2011; Jeffery et al., 2011).
Secondly, massive amounts of information are being created in the digital environment every day.
The opportunities provided by wikis and blogs for communication, information creation, and
authority are now more familiar to students than library databases (Farkas, 2012). Wikipedia is
another example of information creation and authority. Learners often use Wikipedia as a starting
point for finding information, but they can also use it to understand how information is created and
how to value information (Godwin 2009). In a comparison between the accuracy of content in the
Wikipedia and Encyclopedia Britannica, Giles (2005) concluded that Wikipedia had more up-to-

33
 20

date science and technology articles than Britannica. Giles (2005) also showed that the number of
factual errors in Wikipedia is almost the same number of Britannica. Thirdly, Web 2.0 has also
been considered as having the potential to encourage a reflective and critical thinking
environment. When peers provide comments for each other on a blog, it creates a community
involved in reflective practices (Farkas, 2012). Similarly, Wikipedia has the potential to provide
an opportunity for critical thinking with regard to how information is created and controlled
(Jacobs, 2010). In conclusion, Web 2.0 led to the emergence of new concepts, widening of the
information environment, and a reexamination of the practical applications of information literacy
(Spiranec & Zorica, 2010).

Web 2.0 technology, according to Hicks and Graber (2010), not only led to the emergence of new
concepts of information such as content creation, collaboration, and conversation, but also shifted
the role of users from being passive consumers to being active creators. Ultimately, Web 2.0 tools
have great potential for providing an engaging learning environment in which students become
active learners of information literacy (Dunaway, 2011; Farkas, 2012).

THE SOCIAL DIMENSION OF INFORMATION LITERACY

The third dimension of information literacy is the social dimension. Traditionally, information
literacy has been viewed as an isolated activity, but information literacy is not limited to an
interaction between an individual's conscious mind and the media he/she seeks to examine (Shah
& Marchionini, 2010). Information literacy is a social and situated practice (Lloyd, 2007, 2012).
When individuals are interacting with text, they are not working in isolation, because the authors
of information are part of the context and social nature of the information (Harris, 2008).
Information is not neutral—it is indicative of social values and political structure (Nahl, 2001).

Similarly, the process of information seeking, evaluating, and using happens within community
contexts associated with underlying meanings and values (Harris, 2008). An individual's cognitive
process, such as critical thinking, is not sufficient for using information to learn. One needs to also
get engaged in a process of dialogue and clarification with other involved members (O'Farrill,
2010). From a social perspective, information literacy is a negotiated practice (Lloyd, 2012),
where individuals navigate through various communities, considering multiple perspectives
(Spiranec & Zorica, 2010), cultural knowledge (Trace, 2007), and contexts (Harris, 2008).
In this review, the social dimension of information literacy includes social interaction
(collaboration, communication, sharing, and community), responsibilities (ethics and privacy), and
context (Figure 4).

Figure 4. The Social Dimension of Information Literacy

34
 21

Social Interaction
Collaboration
Collaboration is an essential skill in defining information literacy. It should be addressed as a
major element of educational and organizational learning, both in theory and practice of how to
seek, process and use information (Tuominen, et al., 2004; Heinrichs & Lim, 2010; O’Farrill
2010). Most information literacy models and standards miss the significance of the collaborative
element as they are based on an assumption that information literacy is an individual process
(Mokhtar, et al., 2009; Farkas 2012). Collaboration, as a necessary activity of a community,
happens regardless of what type of media we are using, digital, oral, or written (Harris, 2008), and
the potential of new technology provides opportunities that can be used to enhance one’s
collaborative skills, competencies, and knowledge (Calvani et al., 2008; Secker, 2008; Jeffery et
al., 2011; Whitworth, 2011). Mackey and Jacobson (2011), using the potentials of the new
participatory technology, propose a shift of emphasis from viewing information literacy as a
discrete set of skills to collaborative construction of information. Kauhanen-Simanainen (2005)
views collaborative literacy at various levels such as local, national, and global, due to the fact that
one cannot manage alone in the current digital environment.
Communication
Another central element of the social dimension of information literacy is communication. Since
Web 2.0 could easily allow students to create and share information, it has become especially
useful for highlighting the importance of communication in information literacy (Magnuson,
2013). Sundin (2008) identified four approaches to information literacy: the source approach, the
behavioural approach, the process approach, and the communication approach. The
communication approach emphasizes the social aspects of seeking, processing, and using
information, and places an increasing interest in communication and interaction between members
of a community (Sundin, 2008). Spiranec and Zorica (2010) claim that due to the new information
landscape, we are now entering the communication phase of information literacy.
Sharing
Sharing is another key element of the social dimension of information literacy. Video, social
networking posts or comments, Second Life, blogs, wikis, rating and review sites, Twitter, and
YouTube are among the possible forms and methods that information is shared with people
worldwide. The ease with which information can reach a global audience brings new
responsibilities such as understanding the most appropriate ways of sharing information,
democratic participation, and issues related to rights and authorship (Jacobson & Mackey, 2013).
Sharing information in the digital and virtual worlds has made a shift from traditional authority to
a new phenomenon of shared knowledge and expertise (Mills, 2010). Ease of sharing is changing
the way information literacy is perceived. Information literacy has begun to be viewed as
collaborative production and sharing of information (Mackey & Jacobson, 2011).
Community
Community plays a significant role in the social dimension of information literacy. As a social
practice, information literacy is viewed not only within an individual’s domain but also within the
domain of a community (Lloyd et al., 2013). The viewpoint that information literacy needs
community focuses on the interconnection between members and how they process information
(Harris, 2008). When individuals produce and process information in communities, there is
usually a consensus on how to interpret information as a community (Elmborg, 2006).

35
 22

Harris (2008) refers to two types of communities for information literacy: communities of practice
and learning communities. In a study on workplace information literacy, O’Farrill (2010)
identifies the importance of community practice from a socio-constructivist perspective. For
example, frontline staff members of the workplace used dialog, a social sense-making process, not
individual-based skills, to validate and determine whether the information they found was
applicable or not. By the same token, learning communities provide necessary contexts for
information literacy practice (Soules et al., 2013).

Web 2.0 technology facilitated the creation and proliferation of learning communities (Spiranec &
Zorica, 2010). The concept of community within information literacy helps learners look for the
best practice and helps them think like information literate professionals such as architects,
engineers, or journalists (Bruce et al., 2006). Despite the importance of community, there are
hardly any standards and models of information literacy that mention the concept of community
(Harris, 2008).
Social Responsibilities
Ethics
Using information ethically and legally is getting more complex in the digital landscape of today
due to the flow of micro-content such as blog posts and tweets (Farkas, 2012). Ethics are essential
to make sure that students understand the complexity of the information environment and are able
to practice ethical and responsible use of information (Mokhtar et al., 2009). It is quite easy for
students to copy, paste, and adapt some digital information without realizing copyright restrictions
and the notion of intellectual property that exist on the Net (Stiller & LeBlanc, 2006). An ethically
information literate individual should show respect on the Net (Calvani et al., 2008), observe
netiquette, and use appropriate language (Ng, 2012), deal with intellectual property issues
(Mackey & Jacobson 2011), and choose an appropriate medium and style (Whitworth, 2011).
Privacy
Privacy also plays an important role in the social dimension of information literacy. According to
Leung and Lee (2012), those who are more tool- and social-structure literate are less at risk of
privacy violation. In addition, in collaborative social setting, the notion of personal privacy
changes as individuals are willing to disclose so much personal information online (Jacobson &
Mackey 2013). The scope of what is understood as information competency should be expanded
to include issues related to privacy on the Net, information security, and online safety (Mackey &
Jacobson 2011; Jacobson & Mackey 2013).
Context
Part of the social dimension of information literacy is an understanding the context and situations
within which an information activity occurs (Harris, 2008). In other words, information literacy is
about engaging with information through discourse practices that are specific to a context (Lloyd,
2005). For example, Nazari and Webber (2012) identify three types of contexts in order to
conceptualize information literacy in the practices specific to online distance learning: the physical
context of the learning environment; disciplinary context of the problem-solving process within
the nature of a subject area; and educational context, which includes curriculum, design, pedagogy
and assessment. Spiranec and Zorica (2010) introduce a wider perspective which includes any
social, political, and economic ideology playing as the background behind information. Similarly,
Dunaway (2011) implies that information is always affected by social, political, and economic
contexts.

36
 23

THE AFFECTIVE DIMENSION OF INFORMATION LITERACY

The fourth dimension of information literacy is the affective dimension. Emotions such as
uncertainty, confusion, and anxiety are crucial in our information seeking behaviours (Kuhlthau,
1991). Without inclusion of the affective dimension into our perspective towards information
literacy, we are denying the natural presence of our feelings and the emotional challenges we face
while we are interacting with information. For example, negative emotions such as uncertainty
prior to the search (Bilal & Bachir, 2007) leads to frustration and difficulties in finding the answer.
On the other hand, by acknowledging the impacts of affective factors, we are paving the way for
learning how to develop our affective competence. Cahoy (2013) asserts that affective
competence; the ability to manage the emotions that we encounter while seeking and producing
information, is essential. As Nahl (2005) points out, individuals with low or high cognitive skills
benefit from higher affective coping skills, but those with high cognitive skills and low affective
skills may experience stress and difficulty in completing a search task.

Studies have also shown that affect has an impact on search strategies, drive to continue a search,
and attitude towards system and performance (Lopatovska & Arapakis, 2011). In a study of
affective motivation, Nahl (2005) found a positive correlation between self-efficacy, optimism,
and motivation for accomplishing an online information search task. Information literacy may be
more effective if learners' affective factors, behaviours, motivations, and preferences are taken into
consideration (Shenton & Fitzgibbons, 2010).

The affective domain is defined as "a person's attitude, emotions, interests, motivation, self-
efficacy, and values" (Schroeder & Cahoy, 2010, p. 129). Nahl (2004) identifies several affective
components used in the study of information science including self-efficacy, optimism,
uncertainty, time pressure, and motivation. The affective domain, according to (Nahl, 2001), is
closely related to the choices we make throughout our search activities. For example, the
motivation to find an article on a topic of our interest keeps us being persistent in our search
process. The major themes that emerged from the analysis of the literature associated with the
affective dimension include attitude, anxiety, interests, motivation, uncertainty, and self-efficacy
(Figure 5). Each will be discussed in turn.

Figure 5. The Affective Dimension of Information Literacy

37
 24

Attitude
Having positive attitudes towards information literacy, information learning, and information
technology are essential traits that one requires in order to interact with information effectively
(Wen & Shin, 2008; Mokhtar et al., 2009). In a study on assessing students' attitudes towards
information literacy, Scales and Lindsay (2005) conclude that those who displayed a broader view
of information, such as connecting information literacy to human development and lifelong
learning, do better in the long run than those who saw it as a particular school project and
developed expertise in more mechanical aspects of information literacy. Therefore, it is important
to develop learning activities that help information seekers form desirable attitudes that make them
critical and effective information seekers (Farkas, 2012). The newer versions of information
literacy standards began to include the notion of attitude as an important element of information
literacy. For example, the American Association of School Librarians (AASL) broadens its scope
to stress the building of attitude, or dispositions, in the 2008 version of its information literacy
model (Leortscher, 2008).

Bruce et al. (2006) noted a connection between participants' perspectives of teaching and learning
and their attitude towards information literacy, and this is illustrated by the way in which
information literacy is taught in educational environments.
Anxiety
Rosenthal (2008) found anxiety and/or stress as a major obstacle in developing digital information
literacy. Information anxiety may be caused by information overload, insufficient information,
poorly organized information, or inability to work with an information environment or system
(Bawden & Robisnson, 2009). Anxiety suppresses and reduces the learning capacity by directing
cognitive resources towards fears (Tobias, 1985, as cited in Jeffery et al., 2011). Since students
often carry some level of anxiety around their research activity, strategies should be developed to
reduce their level of anxiety (Cahoy, 2013).
Interests
The idea that students should develop skills for exploring their own interests, whether personal or
academic, is becoming pivotal in education (Shenton & Fitzgibbons, 2010). Mayer and Bowles-
Terry (2013) found a connection between student engagement with information and student
interests. Zanin-Yost (2012) also found that students do significantly better when their area of
research is relevant to their areas of interests, such as future careers. A study about the connection
between researchers’ feelings and Web contents revealed that researchers’ feelings are provoked
by personal interest. Similarly, by introducing a personal relevance frame, Bruce et al.’s (2006)
framework for information literacy emphasizes the significance of making information relevant to
an individual's interests and contexts.
Motivation
Knowing what motivates information seekers is definitely a crucial element. Therefore,
information literacy will be more effective if it takes learners' motivations into account (Bruce et
al., 2006; Mokhtar et al., 2009; Shenton & Fitzgibbons, 2010; Schroeder & Cahoy, 2010; Korobili,
Malliari & Zapounidou, 2011). Studies show that low motivation narrows the scope of the search
in certain contexts (Ford et al., 2001). According to Heinstrom (2006), who explored the
relationship between intrinsic-extrinsic orientation and information literacy, intrinsically motivated
information seekers display a true intention for learning, whereas extrinsically motivated students
search for information just to meet the requirements. Motivation is an important factor for a
researcher; the searching ends as soon as the motivation ends (Nahl, 2004).

38
 25

Uncertainty
Kuhlthau's (1991) findings brought attention to the notion of uncertainty and its association with
feelings of confusion and anxiety in information search processes (Arapakis et al., 2008).
According to Kuhlthau (2013), uncertainty is a starting point of learning, without which curiosity
and exploration are extinguished. Tolerance of uncertainty leads to persistence, interest in topics,
and a sense of discovery (Kuhlthau, 2013). Uncertainty gets negative when it is intense (Nahl,
2004). Studies show that complex tasks raise the level of uncertainty and consequently the levels
of stress, self-doubt, and negative feelings (Kim, 2008). To minimize the negative feelings caused
by uncertainty, instructors can provide affective support (Bilal & Bachir, 2007) and cognitive
support by helping students generate ideas via brainstorming (Fainburg, 2009).
Self-efficacy
Finally, Self-efficacy, according to Bandura (1997), is a belief in one's ability to organize and
execute the actions required to achieve a goal. Self-efficacy reflects individuals' perceptions about
their abilities based on their previous experiences, which affect their future actions (Jeffery et al.,
2011). There have been many discussions about the relationship between self-efficacy and
information literacy (Nahl, 2005, 2004; Lopatovska & Arapakis, 2011; Mokhtar et al., 2009;
Schroeder & Cahoy, 2010; Jeffery et al., 2010; Cahoy & Schroeder, 2013); however, there has
been limited research to articulate the nature of the connection. Nahl and Meer (1997) found a
positive relationship between students' self-efficacy and their search performance. Self-efficacy
and optimism also provide advantages to those who are faced with the negative impacts of
uncertainty (Nahl, 2005). Kurbanoglu, Akkoyunlu, and Umay (2006) developed a 28-item scale
to measure self-efficacy for information literacy. Identifying students' level of self-efficacy is
important because a high level of self-efficacy might help counteract the more negative emotions
of information search behaviour (Nahl, 2004).

THE METACOGNITIVE DIMENSION OF INFORMATION LITERACY

The fifth dimension of information literacy is the metacognitive dimension. The term
metacognition was coined by John Flavell in 1971, who described it as thinking about one's own
thinking (Lazonder & Rouet, 2008). Flavell developed the concept further in 1979 when he
divided metacognitive knowledge into three categories: knowledge of person (oneself or others),
knowledge of task (success criteria), and knowledge of strategy for achieving a goal (Gorrell et al.,
2008). Eisenberg (2008) acknowledges the importance of metacognition by viewing the Big Six
model as a representation of metacognition for presenting students with awareness about their own
mental processes. Lazonder and Rouet (2008) define metacognition as the ability to plan, monitor,
and evaluate one's own behaviour.

According to Bowler (2010) there is a consensus in the literature on at least two aspects of
metacognition: control process and metacognitive knowledge. Control process is an action of self-
monitoring or self-regulating. It also refers to the use of strategies to control metacognitive
knowledge. Metacognitive knowledge refers to knowledge, not use—knowing that certain
strategies or tasks work better.

39
 26

The major themes that emerged from the analysis of the literature associated with the
metacognitive dimension include self-knowledge, strategic knowledge, and self-regulation (Figure
6).

Figure 6. The Metacognitive Dimension of Information Literacy

Self-Knowledge
One of the central components of metacognition is self-knowledge, which refers to the awareness
of one's own thought processes, strengths, weaknesses, and drives (Bowler, 2010). According to
Catts (2012), metacognition is the highest level of competency in which individuals are able to
explain why and how they have reached their conclusions in terms of locating, evaluating, storing,
and applying information. Shenton (2013) proposes introducing metacognitive skills to youngsters
so that they will be able to reflect on their own information seeking behaviour, and assess the
quality of alternative approaches. According to Gorrell et al., (2008), incorporating reflection and
self-assessment suggests a metacognitive act. The idea of metacognitive acts, self-knowledge, and
self-awareness are evident in the work of others who may not have mentioned the term
metacognition. Cahoy and Schroeder (2013) refer to studies that fostered self-awareness by asking
students to reflect on their search skills and research process. In Stiller and LeBlanc's (2006)
introduction of cyber-literacy, students developed self-awareness by keeping an online journal to
record their activities, goals, tools, and changes in the courses of their creative process.
Metacognition is also about learning how to learn. Being aware of one's own learning is as
important as what one is learning. Kuhlthau (2013) implies the notion of metacognition while
stating that learning how to learn in an information-rich environment is pivotal for information
literacy.
Strategic Knowledge
Another important aspect of metacognition is the strategic knowledge. Strategic knowledge is the
procedural knowledge that we use at the time we are unsuccessful (Bowler, 2010). Wiley et al.,
(2009), while stressing the role of metacognition in comprehension, report that successful readers
are able to employ a range of strategies in response to their lack of success in comprehending
information. Stadtler and Bromme (2007) studied the role of metacognitive strategies in
successfully dealing with multiple documents on the Web. They assigned four experimental
groups with four different types of metacognitive strategies: evaluation prompts, monitoring
prompts, both kinds of prompts, or no prompts at all. Their results indicated that those receiving

40
 27

prompts outperformed the no-prompts group in successfully dealing with multiple documents and
source on the Web. Similarly, Shenton and Hay-Gibbson (2012) demonstrated that forms or
prompts enable learners to reflect on their behaviours while seeking information.
Self-Regulation
Self-regulation refers to individuals' ability to take control of their metacognition via monitoring,
evaluation, and planning (Gorrell et al., 2008). An example within information literacy could be
Branch's (2001) study on Web searching when individuals plan a search, monitor their progress,
and evaluate their results in terms of relevance, reliability, and authority (Lazonder & Rouet,
2008). Self-regulation is a broad concept and might overlap with other concepts of metacognition
(Gorrell et al., 2008), but it signifies monitoring of not only self-knowledge but also the use of
strategies in the process of taking control of one's own learning, behaviour, or actions.
Monitoring can take the form of self-assessment of progress (Madden et al., 2012). For example,
self-assessment help individuals become conscious of their progress in finding reliable and
relevant information. Similarly, it helps them in learning transfer, while individuals monitor the
transferring of what they have learned in one task into new tasks (Gorrell et al., 2008).

SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS

The framework can facilitate a more targeted and precise conversation among educators.
Information literacy is a complex phenomenon. Recognizing the lenses through which we are
viewing or analyzing information literacy can enhance understanding and communication among
the members of learning and research communities.

The multidimensional framework can also play the role of a pedagogical tool by helping educators
in a digital or blended learning environment explore the possible reasons why some students do
not demonstrate acceptable educational performance while accessing online digital media and
information sources. Instructors can raise questions that may help determine if the root of a
particular pedagogical problem is cognitive, technological, social, affective, or metacognitive.

Similarly, blended-learning designers can use this framework as a blueprint to determine what
aspects of information literacy should be incorporated for creating an effective e-learning
environment for a specific purpose.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Dr. Robin Kay at University of Ontario Institute of Technology for his
invaluable feedback and insightful remarks.

41
 28

REFERENCES
Abdi, E. S., Partridge, H., & Bruce, C. (2013). Website designers: How do they experience
information literacy? The Australian Library Journal, 62 (1), 40-52.
American Library Association. (2000). Information literacy competency standards for higher
education.
Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R., & Bloom, B. S. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching,
and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. Allyn & Bacon.
Andreae, J., & Anderson, E. L. (2011). Re-conceptualizing access. Communications in
Information Literacy, 5(2), 74-81.
Badke, W. (2010). Why information literacy is invisible. Communications in Information Literacy,
4(2), 129-141.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W.H. Freeman and Company,
New York, NY.
Bawden, D. (2001). Information and digital literacies: A review of concepts. Journal of
Documentation, 57(2), 218-259. doi:10.1108/EUM0000000007083
Bawden, D. (2007). Towards Curriculum 2.0: library/information education for a Web 2.0
world. Library and information Research, 31(99), 14-25.
Bawden, D., & Robinson, L. (2009). The dark side of information: Overload, anxiety and other
paradoxes and pathologies. Journal of Information Science, 35(2), 180-191.
doi:10.1177/0165551508095781
Bilal, D., & Bachir, I. (2007). Children's interaction with cross-cultural and multilingual digital
libraries. II. information seeking, success, and affective experience. Information Processing
and Management, 43(1), 65-80. doi:10.1016/j.ipm.2006.05.008
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. Vol. 1: Cognitive domain. New York:
McKay.
Bowler, L. (2010). A taxonomy of adolescent metacognitive knowledge during the information
search process. Library and Information Science Research, 32(1), 27-42.
doi:10.1016/j.lisr.2009.09.005
Branch, J. L. (2001). Junior high students and Think Alouds: Generating information-seeking
process data using concurrent verbal protocols. Library & Information Science
Research, 23(2), 107-122.
Brand-Gruwel, S., Wopereis, I., & Vermetten, Y. (2005). Information problem solving by experts
and novices: Analysis of a complex cognitive skill. Computers in Human Behavior, 21(3),
487-508. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2004.10.005
Bruce, C., Edwards, S., & Lupton, M. (2006). Six Frames for Information literacy Education: a
conceptual framework for interpreting the relationships between theory and
practice. Innovation in Teaching and Learning in Information and Computer Sciences, 5(1),
1-18. Doi:10.11120/ital..2006.05010002
Cahoy, E. (2013). Affective Learning and Personal Information Management: Essential
Components of Information Literacy. Communications in Information Literacy, 7(2).
Retrieved from
http://www.comminfolit.org/index.php?journal=cil&page=article&op=view&path%5B%5D
=v7i2p146&path%5B%5D=172
Calvani, A., Cartelli, A., Fini, A., & Ranieri, M. (2009). Models and instruments for assessing
digital competence at school. Journal of e-Learning and Knowledge Society-English
Version, 4(3). Retrieved from http://services.economia.unitn.it/ojs/index.php/Je-
LKS_EN/article/viewFile/288/270

42
 29

Catts, R. (2012). Indicators of adult information literacy. Journal of Information Literacy, 6(2).
doi:10.11645/6.2.1746
Cyr, S., & Choo, C. W. (2010). The individual and social dynamics of knowledge sharing: an
exploratory study. Journal of Documentation, 66(6), 824-846.
doi:10.1108/00220411011087832
Dunaway, M. (2011). Web 2.0 and critical information literacy. Public Services Quarterly, 7(3-4),
149-157. doi:10.1080/15228959.2011.622628
Eisenberg, M. (2008). Information literacy: Essential skills for the information age. DESIDOC
Journal of Library & Information Technology, 28(2), 39-47.
Elmborg, J. (2006). Critical information literacy: Implications for instructional practice. The
Journal of Academic Librarianship, 32(2), 192-199. doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2005.12.004
Eshet, Y. (2012). Thinking in the digital era: A revised model for digital literacy. Issues in
Informing Science & Information Technology, 9, 267-273.
Fainburg, L. I. (2009). Information seeking and learning: A comparison of kuhlthau's information
seeking model and John Dewey's problem solving model. New Library World, 110(9/10),
457-466. doi:10.1108/03074800910997472
Farkas, M. (2012). Participatory technologies, pedagogy 2.0 and information literacy. Library Hi
Tech, 30(1), 82-94. doi:10.1108/07378831211213229
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–
developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906-911. doi:10.1037/0003-
066X.34.10.906
Ford, N., Miller, D., & Moss, N. (2001). The role of individual differences in Internet searching:
An empirical study. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and
Technology, 52(12), 1049-1066.
Gibson, C. (1995). Critical thinking: Implications for instruction. RQ, 35(1). Retrieved from
http://kb.osu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/1811/53705/GibsonC_RQ_1995_v35_i1_p27-
35.pdf?sequence=4
Giles, J. (2005). Internet encyclopaedias go head to head. Nature, 438(7070), 900-1.
Gilster, P. (1997). Digital Literacy. New York: Wiley Computer Publishing
Godwin, P. (2009). Information literacy and web 2.0: Is it just hype? Program: Electronic Library
and Information Systems, 43(3), 264-274. doi:10.1108/00330330910978563
Gorrell, G., Eaglestone, B., Ford, N., Holdridge, P., & Madden, A. (2009). Towards
"metacognitively aware" IR systems: An initial user study. Journal of Documentation,
65(3), 446-469. doi:10.1108/00220410910952429
Harris, B. R. (2008). Communities as necessity in information literacy development: Challenging
the standards. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 34(3), 248-255.
doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2008.03.008
Heinrichs, J. H., & Lim, J. (2010). Information literacy and office tool competencies: A
benchmark study. Journal of Education for Business, 85(3), 153-164.
Heinström, J. (2006). Fast surfing for availability or deep diving into quality: Motivation and
information seeking among middle and high school students. Information Research, 11(4),
11-4.
Hicks, A., & Graber, A. (2010). Shifting paradigms: Teaching, learning and Web 2.0. Reference
Services Review, 38(4), 621-633. doi:10.1108/00907321011090764
Hockly, N. (2012). Digital literacies. ELT Journal, 66(1), 108-112. doi:10.1093/elt/ccr077

43
 30

Huvila, I. (2011). The complete information literacy? Unforgetting creation and organization of
information. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 43(4), 237-245. doi:
10.1177/0961000611418812
Jacobs, H. L. (2010). Posing the Wikipedia “problem”: Information literacy and the praxis of
problem-posing in library instruction. Critical library instruction: Theories and methods,
179-195.
Jacobson, T., & Mackey, T. (2013). Proposing a Metaliteracy Model to Redefine Information
Literacy.Communications In Information Literacy, 7(2), 84-91. Retrieved March 7, 2014,
fromhttp://www.comminfolit.org/index.php?journal=cil&page=article&op=view&path%5B
%5D=v7i2p84
Jeffrey, L., Hegarty, B., Kelly, O., Penman, M., Coburn, D., & McDonald, J. (2011). Developing
digital information literacy in higher education: obstacles and supports. Journal of
Information Technology Education: Research, 10(1), 383-413.
Julien, H., McKechnie, L. E. F., & Hart, S. (2005). Affective issues in library and information
science systems work: A content analysis. Library and Information Science Research,
27(4), 453-466. doi:10.1016/j.lisr.2005.08.004
Kauhanen-Simanainen, A. (2005). Collaborative information literacy by government. The IFLA
Journal, 31(2), 183-187. doi:10.1177/0340035205054883
Keene, J., Colvin, J., & Sissons, J. (2010). Mapping student information literacy activity against
Bloom’s Taxonomy of cognitive skills. Journal of information literacy, 4(1), 6-21.
Kessinger, P. (2013). Integrated instruction framework for information literacy. Journal of
Information Literacy, 7(2), 33-59. doi:10.11645/7.2.1807
Kim, K. S. (2008). Effects of emotion control and task on web searching behavior. Information
Processing and Management, 44(1), 373-385. doi:10.1016/j.ipm.2006.11.008
Korobili, S., Malliari, A., & Zapounidou, S. (2011). Factors that influence information-seeking
behavior: The case of Greek graduate students. The Journal of Academic Librarianship,
37(2), 155-165. doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2011.02.008
Kuhlthau, C. C. (1991). Inside the search process: Information seeking from the user's perspective.
Journal of the American Society for Information Science (1986-1998), 42(5), 361.
Kuhlthau, C. C. (2013). Rethinking the 2000 ACRL standards. Communications in Information
Literacy, 7(2), 92-97.
Kurbanoglu, S. S., Akkoyunlu, B., & Umay, A. (2006). Developing the information literacy self-
efficacy scale. Journal of Documentation, 62(6), 730-743.
doi:10.1108/00220410610714949
Lazonder, A. W., & Rouet, J. F. (2008). Information problem solving instruction: Some cognitive
and metacognitive issues. Computers in Human Behavior, 24(3), 753-765.
doi:10.1016/j.chb.2007.01.025
Lenning, O. T., & Ebbers, L. H. (1999). The Powerful Potential of Learning Communities:
Improving Education for the Future. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report, Vol. 26, No. 6.
ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher Education, One Dupont Circle, NW, Suite 630,
Washington, DC 20036-1183.
Leung, L., & Lee, P. (2012). The influences of information literacy, internet addiction and
parenting styles on internet risks. New Media & Society, 14(1), 117-136.
doi:10.1177/1461444811410406
Lloyd, A. (2005). Information literacy. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 37(2),
82-88. doi:10.1177/0961000605055355

44
 31

Lloyd, A. (2007). Learning to put out the red stuff: Becoming information literate through
discursive practice. The Library Quarterly, 77(2), 181-198.
Lloyd, A. (2012). Information literacy as a socially enacted practice: Sensitising themes for an
emerging perspective of people-in-practice. Journal of Documentation, 68(6), 772-783.
doi:10.1108/00220411211277037
Lloyd, A., Kennan, M. A., Thompson, K. M., & Qayyum, A. (2013). Connecting with new
information landscapes: Information literacy practices of refugees. Journal of
Documentation, 69(1), 121-144. doi:10.1108/00220411311295351
Loertscher, D. (2008). Information literacy: 20 years later. Teacher Librarian, 35(5), 42-43.
Lopatovska, I., & Arapakis, I. (2011). Theories, methods and current research on emotions in
library and information science, information retrieval and human–computer interaction
Elsevier. doi:10.1016/j.ipm.2010.09.001
Lopatovska, I., & Mokros, H. B. (2008). Willingness to pay and experienced utility as measures of
affective value of information objects: Users’ accounts.Information processing &
management, 44(1), 92-104. Doi:10.1016/j.imp/2007.01.020
Mackey, T. R., & Jacobson, T. E. (2011). Reframing information literacy as a metaliteracy.
College & Research Libraries, 72(1), 62-78.
Madden, A. D., Ford, N., Gorrell, G., Eaglestone, B., & Holdridge, P. (2012). Metacognition and
web credibility. The Electronic Library, 30(5), 671-689. doi:10.1108/02640471211275710
Magnuson, M. L. (2013). Web 2.0 and information literacy instruction: Aligning technology with
ACRL standards. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 39(3), 244-251.
doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2013.01.008
Marton, C., & Chun Wei Choo. (2012). A review of theoretical models of health information
seeking on the web. Journal of Documentation, 68(3), 330-352.
doi:10.1108/00220411211225575
Mayer, J., & Bowles-Terry, M. (2013). Engagement and assessment in a credit-bearing
information literacy course. Reference Services Review, 41(1), 62-79.
doi:10.1108/00907321311300884
McKinney, P., Jones, M., & Turkington, S. (2011). Information literacy through inquiry. Aslib
Proceedings, 63(2/3), 221-240. doi:10.1108/00012531111135673
Mills, K. (2010). A review of the “Digital turn” in the new literacy studies. Review of Educational
Research, 80(2), 246-271. doi:10.3102/0034654310364401
Mokhtar, I. A., Foo, S., Majid, S., Yin, L. T., Luyt, B., & Yun-Ke Chang. (2009). Proposing a 6+3
model for developing information literacy standards for schools: A case for Singapore.
Education for Information, 27(2), 81-101. doi:10.3233/EFI-2009-0877
Nahl, D., & Meer, M. P. (1997). User-Centered Assessment of Two Web Browsers: Errors,
perceived self-efficacy, and success. In Proceedings of the ASIS annual meeting, 34, 89-97.
Nahl, D. (2001). A conceptual framework for explaining information behavior. Simile, 1(2),
N.PAG.
Nahl, D. (2004). Measuring the affective information environment of web searchers. Proceedings
of the American society for information science and technology, 41(1), 191-197.
doi:10.1002/meet.1450410122
Nahl, D. (2005). Affective and cognitive information behavior: Interaction effects in internet use.
Proceedings of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 42(1), NA-
NA. doi:10.1002/meet.1450420196

45
 32

Nazari, M., & Webber, S. (2012). Loss of faith in the origins of information literacy in e-
environments: Proposal of a holistic approach. Journal of Librarianship and Information
Science, 44(2), 97-107. doi: 10.1177/0961000611436095
Ng, W. (2012). Can we teach digital natives digital literacy? Computers & Education, 59(3) 1065-
1078. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2012.04.016
Nichols, J. T. (2009). The 3 directions: Situated information literacy. College & Research
Libraries, 70(6), 515-530.
Norbert, G. L., & Lwoga, E. T. (2013). Information seeking behaviour of physicians in Tanzania.
Information Development, 29(2), 172-182. doi: 10.1177/0266666912450449
O'Farrill, R. T. (2010). Information literacy and knowledge management at work: Conceptions of
effective information use at NHS24. Journal of Documentation, 66(5), 706-733.
doi:10.1108/00220411011066808
Perry, W. G. (1970). Forms of intellectual and ethical development. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston.
Pinto, M., Cordón, J., & Gómez Díaz, R. (2010). Thirty years of information literacy (1977—
2007). Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 42(1), 3-19.
doi:10.1177/0961000609345091
Rosenthal, R. L. (2008). Older computer-literate women: Their motivations, obstacles, and paths
to success. Educational Gerontology, 34(7), 610-626. doi:10.1080/03601270801949427
Savolainen, R. (2009). Information use and information processing. Journal of Documentation,
65(2), 187-207. doi:10.1108/00220410910937570
Scales, B. J., & Lindsay, E. B. (2005). Qualitative assessment of student attitudes toward
information literacy. portal: Libraries and the Academy, 5(4), 513-526.
Schroeder, R. & Cahoy, E. S.(2010). Valuing Information Literacy: Affective Learning and the
ACRL Standards. portal: Libraries and the Academy 10(2), 127-146.
Secker, J. (2008). Social software and libraries: A literature review from the LASSIE project.
Program, 42(3), 215-231. doi:10.1108/00330330810892640
Shah, C., & Marchionini, G. (2010). Awareness in collaborative information seeking. Journal of
the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 61(10), 1970-1986.
doi:10.1002/asi.21379
Shand, K., Winstead, L., & Kottler, E. (2012). Journey to Medieval China: Using Technology-
Enhanced Instruction to Develop Content Knowledge and Digital Literacy Skills. The
Social Studies, 103(1), 20-30. DOI:10.1080/00377996.2011.559434
Shenton, A. K., & Fitzgibbons, M. (2010). Making information literacy relevant. Library Review,
59(3), 165-174. doi:10.1108/00242531011031151
Shenton, A. K., & Hay-Gibson, N. V. (2012). Evolving tools for information literacy from models
of information behavior. New Review of Children's Literature and Librarianship, 18(1), 27-
46. doi:10.1080/13614541.2012.650961
Shenton, A. K. (2013). Information-seeking, information literacy and cognitive psychology.
School Librarian, 61(2), 77+.
Soules, A., Nielsen, S., Lee, H. Y., & Rifae, K. A. (2013). Embedding information literacy in an
MA TESOL program. New Library World, 114(1), 32-43.
doi:10.1108/03074801311291947
Špiranec, S., & Zorica, M. B. (2010). Information literacy 2.0: Hype or discourse refinement?
Journal of Documentation, 66(1), 140-153. doi:10.1108/00220411011016407
Spring, H. (2010). Learning and teaching in action. Health Information and Libraries Journal, 27,
327-331, doi: 10.1111/j.1471-1842.2010.00911.x

46
 33

Stadtler, M., & Bromme, R. (2007). Dealing with multiple documents on the WWW: The role of
metacognition in the formation of documents models. International Journal of Computer-
Supported Collaborative Learning, 2(2-3), 191-210. doi:10.1007/s11412-007-9015-3
Stiller, E., & LeBlanc, C. (2006). From computer literacy to cyber-literacy. Journal of Computing
Sciences in Colleges, 21(6), 4-13. doi:10.1145/1130000/1127445
Sundin, O. (2008). Negotiations on information-seeking expertise. Journal of Documentation,
64(1), 24-44. doi:10.1108/00220410810844141
Trace, C. B. (2007). Information creation and the notion of membership. Journal of
Documentation, 63(1), 142-164. doi: 10.1108/00220410710723920
Tuominen, K., Savolainen, R., & Talja, S. (2005). Information Literacy as a Sociotechnical
Practice1. The Library, 75(3), 329-345.
Weiler, A. (2005). Information-seeking behavior in Generation Y students: Motivation, critical
thinking, and learning theory. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 31(1), 46-53. doi:
10.1016/j.acalib.2004.09.009
Wen, J. R., & Shih, W. L. (2008). Exploring the information literacy competence standards for
elementary and high school teachers. Computers & Education, 50(3), 787-806. doi:
10.1016/j.compedu.2006.08.011
Whitworth, A. (2011). Empowerment or instrumental progressivism?: Analyzing information
literacy policies. Library Trends, 60(2), 312-337. Retrieved from
http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/v060/60.2.whitworth.html
Wiley, J., Goldman, S., Graesser, A., Sanchez, C., Ash, I., & Hemmerich, J. (2009). Source
evaluation, comprehension, and learning in internet science inquiry tasks. American
Educational Research Journal, 46(4), 1060-1106. doi:10.3102/0002831209333183
Zanin-Yost, A. (2012). Designing information literacy: Teaching, collaborating and growing. New
Library World, 113(9/10), 448-461. doi:10.1108/03074801211273920
Zurkowski, P. (1974). The Information Service Environment: Relationships and Priorities.
Washington DC: National Commission on Libraries and Information Science, ERIC
Clearinghouse on Information Resources. ED 100391.

47
 34

Different Forms of Assessment in a Pronunciation

MOOC – Reliability and Pedagogical Implications
Martyna Marciniak Michał B. Paradowski Meina Zhu
Institute of Applied Institute of Applied Department of Instructional
Linguistics, University of Linguistics, University of Systems Technology, Indiana
Warsaw, Poland Warsaw, Poland University-Bloomington, USA
martyna.marciniak@student. [email protected] [email protected]
uw.edu.pl

ABSTRACT
Peer assessment has long been used as an alternative to instructor assessment of students’ learning. Yet, its receivers are
often skeptical about the effectiveness and validity of the evaluation (e.g. Strijbos, Narciss & Dünnebier, 2010; Kolowich,
2013; Formanek et al., 2017; Meek, Blakemore & Marks, 2017). Still, other studies (e.g. Cho & Schunn, 2007; Gielen et
al., 2010; Ashton & Davies, 2015) have found peer grading to be reliable and valid when accompanied by proper guidance,
and that when used appropriately, it may benefit both the learners who receive the feedback and those who provide it
(Dochy, Segers & Sluijsmans, 1999; Barak & Rafaeli, 2004).
Nowadays peer assessment remains an element vital to the existence of massive open online courses (MOOCs), and is
widely recognized by the research community as a topic which needs to be investigated in detail and improved in the future.
Massive open online courses whose primary focus is second language learning (LMOOCs) are organized by various
institutions around the world. Nevertheless, publications addressing issues related to this type of course are fairly scarce
(cf. Bárcena & Martín-Monje, 2015).
Pronunciation routinely accounts for a major share of communication breakdowns in non-native speaker interactions as
well as communication between native and non-native speakers (cf, e,g, Paradowski, 2013; Pawlas & Paradowski, under
review). Yet, in many language classrooms its teaching is brushed off in favor of imparting other skills. Luckily this
shortage is increasingly being addressed with the ready availability of CALL. We present a small case study of peer
assessment reliability in the context of a Japanese pronunciation MOOC offered by one of the popular online providers.
A phonetic analysis of the first author’s speech recordings has been carried out using Praat software (Boersma & Weenink,
2017) in order to assess the accuracy of feedback obtained from course participants. On its basis, an evaluation of the
pronunciation has been made and then compared with assessment provided by peers, a TA involved in the course, and an
independent Japanese native speaker teacher.
Although the peers’ comments conveyed a general idea about progress, their feedback was not sufficiently detailed. More
reliable was the assessment by the TA. Still, an evaluation completed by an independent Japanese native speaker showed
that a person not involved in any way in the MOOC was easily able to make even more observations. Thus, assessment
appeared objective and reliable only after triangulating all the sources of feedback.
The study revealed that peer assessment may not produce reliable results if the process of evaluation is not sufficiently
facilitated; namely, when there are no explicit guidelines and preparatory training exercises provided for the participants.
The peer evaluation was difficult to perform in a helpful manner since the assignments lacked clearly constructed rubrics.
Thus, future language courses, particularly those that concentrate on productive skills such as speaking, ought to implement
clear rubrics together with a grading tutorial.
Author Keywords
peer assessment, validity, reliability, language MOOCs (LMOOCs), pronunciation
PEER ASSESSMENT IN MOOCS
Peer assessment can be defined as “the process of a learner marking an assessment of another learner, for the purposes of
feedback and/or as a contribution to the final grade” (Mason & Rennie, 2006:91). Its main advantage is that it stimulates
learners to adopt the role of a person who grades work, thereby making them take time to reflect on the topic (ibid.).
Nevertheless, the scholars state that it is crucial to inform everyone taking part in the process about its established goals as
well as provide instructions on how and what to assess, because only on condition that these issues are understood can peer
assessment be a valuable experience.
Peer assessment has long been used as an alternative to instructor assessment of students’ learning. However, its receivers
are often sceptical about the effectiveness and validity of the evaluation (Strijbos, Narciss & Dünnebier, 2010; Kolowich,
2013; Formanek, Wenger, Buxner, Impey & Sonam, 2017; Meek, Blakemore & Marks, 2017). Still other studies (e.g. Cho
& Schunn, 2007; Gielen, Peeters, Dochy, Onghena & Struyven, 2010; Ashton & Davies, 2015) have found peer grading to
be reliable and valid when accompanied by proper guidance. It has also been argued that when used appropriately, it may
benefit both the recipients and the providers of the feedback (Dochy, Segers & Sluijsmans, 1999; Barak & Rafaeli, 2004).

1
48
 35

Peer assessment has been particularly vital to the existence of massive open online courses (MOOCs). The notion was first
introduced in 2008, when Stephen Downes from the National Research Council of Canada and George Siemens of the
Technology Enhanced Knowledge Research Institute at Athabasca University launched their Connectivism and Connective
Knowledge course, presently known as CCK08 (Harber, 2014a:37). The person to use the label for the first time was David
Cromier from the University of Prince Edward Island, who called the courses “MOOCs” in a talk with the course designers
(op. cit.:39). Since that moment the number of courses offered as well as participants enrolling in them started growing
rapidly; as indicated in a report compiled by the HarvardX Research Committee at Harvard University and the Office of
Digital Learning at MIT, in the first year when the two institutions commenced the edX platform together (from autumn
2012 to summer 2013), the number of registrations equalled 841,687 with 597,692 individual users, 43,196 of whom
successfully completed courses (Ho et al., 2014:2). George Siemens himself commented on these high figures stating that
even though the courses eventually opened by his team attracted around 20,000 registrants in total, “it’s hardly a blip on
the Coursera scale (where student numbers in excess of 100,000 seems to be the norm)” (Siemens, 2012). As a consequence,
in an article published in The New York Times, 2012 was proclaimed “The Year of the MOOC” (Pappano, 2012). Bearing
in mind that the increasing worldwide interest in MOOCs is believed to continue in the future (Bárcena & Martín-Monje,
2015:2; “The return of the MOOC”, 2017), it appears reasonable to consider such courses as a promising field of study.
Massive open online courses offer learning materials which can be accessed through the Internet. Pappano (2012) states
that although MOOCs are usually free of charge and readily available to anyone who wishes to access them without
prerequisites, participants cannot expect the course creators to guide them through the learning process at all times. Thus,
the overall experience that students are going to get is based to a great extent on the design of the course and its mechanics.
At the core of MOOCs are instructional videos usually not longer than a dozen minutes (op. cit.). The courses also include
tests that check participants’ comprehension, homework assignments, final quizzes, and forums which enable the learners
to communicate with one another as well as with the staff. As Elena Bárcena and Elena Martín-Monje point out in their
(2015) publication Language MOOCs: Providing Learning, Transcending Boundaries, any subject seems possible to be
rendered into a MOOC, which only proves the form’s universality and versatility.
The reasons for introducing the peer assessment system into MOOCs are of a practical nature. According to Kulkarni et al.
(2013:3), open-ended assignments are difficult to be checked by a machine, thus normally require a person who would
assess them. This view is supported by other researchers, for instance Bachelet et al. (2015). What is more, engaging people
other than course staff in grading participants’ work is simply inevitable taking into consideration the incredibly high
numbers of learners (Harber 2014b:69). As far as the methods of providing feedback are concerned, Harber gives examples
of MOOCs during which self- or peer-grading was employed with use of rubrics that included criteria of evaluation, but
he also warns that this method has its drawbacks; for instance, it requires a certain level of language proficiency and scoring
abilities from those performing the assessment (op. cit.:72). Stressing the importance of peer assessment as a potentially
efficient tool in massive online courses, Lackner et al. (2014) include this element in their checklist which has been
designed as a valuable tool for MOOC creators. However, at the same time they underline that rules of peer review should
be simple and made known to all the parties involved in the process (op. cit.:4).
Language MOOCs
Educational technology has also made many inroads in foreign language education (Paradowski, 2015:38). Yet, while other
fields have been better represented and analysed, publications addressing foreign language courses (LMOOCs) are still
fairly scarce (Bárcena & Martín-Monje, 2015). This paper is an attempt towards filling the gap by analysing the
effectiveness of peer feedback in a pronunciation LMOOC.
Massive open online courses whose primary focus is a foreign language (LMOOCs for short) are organised by various
institutions, and as one could expect the majority concern languages with the highest numbers of speakers worldwide,
namely English and Spanish (Bárcena & Martín-Monje, 2015:6). In the opinion of Maggie Sokolik, the type of assessment
chosen for an LMOOC should match the unique goals agreed on by the course designers, but at the same time the author
admits that grading open-ended assignments such as essays or spoken responses is difficult for numerous reasons. She pays
attention to peer assessment as well and claims that grading in this case requires “a rubric developed by the instructor” on
the basis of which learners “assess [each other’s work] on a number of points” (Sokolik, 2015:24). However, this method
also has disadvantages of its own: the participants may not be competent enough so as to use peer assessment effectively,
some biases might be displayed (for instance with regard to the place of origin of those being evaluated), and language
proficiency can play a significant role in one’s capability of providing meaningful feedback. Nevertheless, the author
concludes that the best solution could be a mixture of different types of assessment, such as “auto-scored multiple-choice
or text-input items, in tandem with self-evaluation, and an effective discussion mechanism” (op. cit.:25).
PRONUNCIATION
An area of language that routinely accounts for a substantial share of communication breakdowns in non-native speaker
interactions as well as communication between native and non-native speakers is pronunciation (Paradowski, 2013; Pawlas
& Paradowski, under review). Yet, in many language classrooms its teaching is brushed off in favour of imparting other
skills. One solution here is computer-assisted language learning (CALL), including LMOOCs.

2
49
 36

THE MOOC
This case study is based on the first author’s experience with a Japanese pronunciation MOOC offered by one of the popular
online providers. During the course, the participants needed to complete one pronunciation assignment each week. They
were supposed to record their own version of a short dialogue in Japanese and upload it to the platform. The recordings
were subsequently assessed by peers, although the last and the longest of the recordings was graded and commented on by
a teacher assistant instead of other participants.
Data triangulation
For the purpose of data triangulation, the analysis relied on four sources: i) a phonetic analysis of the first author’s speech
recordings with Praat (Boersma & Weenink, 2017), ii) assessment of the same stimuli, provided by peers, iii) feedback
from a TA involved in the course; iv) commentary by an independent Japanese native speaker teacher not involved in the
course. The primary foci of the analyses were three aspects of Japanese phonology: i) word accent, ii) intonation, and iii)
length of long vowels.
Summary of errors
Table 1 presents all the types of the first author’s mistakes which were revealed in the phonetic analysis along with the
number of occurrences and examples. The highlighted morae indicate the problem area. In total, 28 discrepancies were
detected between the original recordings and the author’s renditions. 19 mistakes concerned word accent and 9 intonation.
Within the two categories, the errors have been arranged by their gravity – the greater the probability that the mistake could
result in a misunderstanding in communication, the higher it appears in the table.

Type of error No. of occurrences Examples

1. Word accent – rise and fall of pitch switched 7 kasa, demo, muzukashii
2. Word accent – rise of pitch on the wrong mora 2 suggoku, ame
3. Word accent – fall of pitch on the wrong mora 1 tanoshimi-ni
4. Word accent – unnecessary rise of pitch 5 nen-niwa, kyō-wa
5. Word accent – unnecessary fall of pitch 3 tōkyō-de, shadōingu
6. Word accent – rise of pitch missing 1 natta
7. Intonation – excessive rise of pitch 1 gozaimasu
8. Intonation – fall of pitch instead of a rise 4 desu-ne
9. Intonation – rise of pitch instead of a fall 2 shiterun desu, shimashita
10. Intonation – excessive fall of pitch 1 desu-ne
11. Intonation – fall of pitch missing 1 tsukurimashita

Table 1. Summary of pronunciation errors

Provided below are two illustrative examples of the mistake. Fig. 1 reveals a rise of pitch on su in the second unit of the
model recording, which is missing from the researcher’s rendition, where an increase in pitch takes place on the subsequent
mora go. In Fig. 2, while in the model version the utterance ends with a noticeable increase of pitch on mora ne, in the
researcher’s rendition the intonation is falling.

Figure 1. Word accent example: Tōkyō orinpikku (1) suggoku (2) tanoshimi-ni (3)

3
50
 37

Figure 2. Intonation example: Desu-ne

Length of long vowels
In total, the recordings contain 38 long vowel sounds, 19 each in the original and the researcher’s versions. In the vast
majority of cases (34), these are long ō sounds. There are also 2 ū and 2 ā sounds. The average length of long vowels in
the original recordings equals 0.164 s. The duration of the longest sound is 0.261 s and the shortest 0.104 s. The average
duration of long vowels in the researcher’s versions equals 0.173 s. The duration of the longest sound is 0.279 s and the
shortest 0.046 s.
For each sound the difference has also been calculated between the duration of both versions (original and researcher’s).
The average difference equals 0.044 s. The biggest difference in measurements of the same sound is 0.125 s and the smallest
0.006 s. The median difference equals 0.029 s. There are 6 instances in which the original extended vowel sound is longer
than its equivalent in the researcher’s rendition, with the differences between 0.027 s and 0.088 s. The researcher’s
realisation is longer than the model in 13 cases, with the differences between 0.006 s and 0.125 s. A summary of all the
long vowel durations measured in seconds is provided in Table 2.

Word Target Actual production Difference

omedetō 0.104 0.145 0.041
arigatō 0.151 0.122 0.029
nijū 0.138 0.101 0.037
tōkyō 0.168 0.174 0.006
tōkyō 0.117 0.195 0.078
sō 0.147 0.176 0.029
tōkyō 0.177 0.090 0.087
tōkyō 0.170 0.193 0.023
ohayō 0.133 0.159 0.026
ohayō 0.151 0.276 0.125
kyō 0.209 0.226 0.017
sō 0.167 0.210 0.043
kinō 0.261 0.279 0.018
benkyō 0.134 0.046 0.088
dō 0.201 0.216 0.015
benkyō 0.158 0.088 0.070
hontō 0.152 0.202 0.050
nōto 0.199 0.172 0.027
kādo 0.186 0.218 0.032
Table 2. Length of long vowels

4
51
 38

Peer assessment
Table 3 presents the content of the comments by peers who evaluated the recordings of the researcher’s pronunciation.

Very good pronunciation, you sounded almost identical to the example. Keep up the good work :)
Dobrze.
i think it is good but needs more security for talk! gambatte ne!
[Keep up the good work!]
It was easy to understand.
Sounds great!
悪くないと思います [I think it is not bad]
Everything sounds great except the second "Tokyo".
Instead of とうきょう [tōkyō], it sounded like とっきょう [tokkyō].
Good morning, you have a good pronunciation, just a little intonation.
sounds clear and accent is good.
Accent on 雨 [ame] is not correct.
Good fluency and intonation.
excellent rhyme and pitch. after listening to yours I see where I made my errors.
あれ [are] sounds as if it is only one mora. Otherwise amazing.
Well done.
Very good, great accent, great intonation.
good
頑張ろう [Keep up the good work]
発音が適切で、意味がわかる
[Pronunciation is appropriate and meaning understandable]
Good.
I think your pronunciation was good.
内容がよく伝わりました。とてもきれいな発音でした。[You have conveyed the message well. Very clear
pronunciation.]
Great!
good
GOOD
Table 3. Peer assessment
Compared with the results of the phonetic analyses, the peers did not notice (or chose not to write about) many mistakes in
the assignments, relating to both pitch accent and intonation. Very few peers stated the precise nature of the pronunciation
errors. The remaining feedback was formulated rather vaguely. It seems that the co-participants did not listen carefully
enough to pay attention to all the errors, but were satisfied if a speech sample was comprehensible on the whole.
Instead, a trait shared by quite a few comments was the need to cheer the participant to study hard and try her best. Such
willingness to support one another and build a community spirit among the participants was the strongest at the beginning
of the course.
TA’s feedback
The opinion cited below was offered by a teacher assistant as assessment of the last, sixth assignment, and constituted the
instructor feedback offered in the course:
“It was very good pronunciation that communicated your intention. The accent for "ええ" [ee] and "でも" [demo] was
not correct. It sounded like “LH”. The correct accent is “HL”.
The accent for "だから" was not correct. It sounded like “LHH”. The correct accent is “HLL”. Be careful of pitch. "ノー

5
52
 39

ト" [nōto] sounded like "ノト" [noto]. Be careful of the long vowel sound. Keep trying your best to practice your
pronunciation!”
In comparison with the results of the phonetic analysis, the TA pointed out 3 out of the 7 word accent mistakes committed
by the researcher. As far as intonation is concerned, even though no remarks have been made by the teacher, there were 6
inaccuracies found between the original and the researcher’s versions in the phonetic analyses. As far as the long vowels
are concerned, the TA mentioned one sound whose duration was too short. In this case, the difference in length between
both versions was 0.038 s. However, in the same assignment there were 5 instances in which the difference was even higher
– in 3 of them it was actually the researcher’s vowel that was longer, and these cases were not referred to by the TA. For
this reason, pitch graphs were investigated once again. It transpires that although the difference in vowel length was
relatively not the most significant one and the pitch pattern in the researcher’s version was generally correct, it might have
been that her rise of pitch on mora no was too sharp, thus creating the impression of the vowel being too short. In the
original version, pitch increases more smoothly. As observed subsequently by the native speaker, this too might have
contributed to the impression that the researcher switched to stress accent instead of pitch accent.
Assessment by a native Japanese speaker
Below is a complete commentary by a native Japanese speaker, a lecturer of Japanese literature and language teaching:
“In the Japanese language word accent is carried out by lowering voice pitch. However, in the researcher’s case there is no
pitch accent. Using the so-called stress accent, she incorrectly accentuates mora ma, which results in an unnatural
pronunciation.
“There is a mistake in the pronunciation of mora wa. The researcher pronounces it as if it were a diphthong.
“The pitch should fall after mora so. In the researcher’s version it rises after this mora.
“Benkyō should be pronounced with a long vowel at the end. In the researcher’s version the last mora seems to be missing
and the word sounds like benkyo.
“Here we can observe a common problem with intonation. The researcher uses a rising pitch instead of a falling one, which
is why the interjection ee sounds as if it were a question.
“The pronunciation of both utterances is correct.
“There is an accent error in this utterance as well. According to the accentuation rules of the conjunction dakara, it should
be pronounced with the pitch falling after mora da. The researcher’s pitch is low on mora da and it rises after this mora.
“The voiceless alveolo-palatal sibilant /ɕ/ and vowel /i/, which are represented in kana by the symbol し, are wrongly
realised by the researcher as /si/.
“The pronunciation of the utterance is correct.”
The feedback in the native speaker’s opinion is on pronunciation as a whole, and thus goes into some aspects that were not
taken into consideration in the phonetic analyses. Consequently, his remarks shed new light on the issues discussed.
To begin with, the native speaker pointed to a total of 5 pitch accent errors, 3 of which had also been noticed by the
researcher. The remaining 2 mistakes consisted in switching from pitch accent to stress accent within a phrase, an
inaccuracy the researcher was not aware that she was guilty of. Surprisingly, the academic pointed to only 1 intonation
mistake throughout all the recordings. Apart from that he discovered 2 flaws in the length of long vowels, namely in his
opinion it was too short. In these cases, the difference between the duration of the original and researcher’s vowels equalled
0.087 s and 0.088 s. Still, there were 2 other instances of the vowel length being similarly longer in the original recordings
which were not spotted by the native speaker. What is more, the academic disregarded opposite cases of the researcher
pronouncing the vowels longer than the original. It might have been that these were less noticeable; however, in one case
the difference equalled 0.125 s, which is considerably more than the ones pointed out.
Among the additional elements identified by the native speaker, the most important issue was inappropriate articulation of
particular morae, namely wa, re and shi. This is an issue even some Japanese people struggle with. Furthermore, he paid
attention to 2 errors which were fairly obvious although not detected by the researcher, that is mistakenly replacing one
mora with another and deleting one mora at the end of a verb. The academic also stated that the researcher’s pronunciation
was good in 5 utterances, despite the phonetic analysis revealing deviations.
The numbers in Table 4 indicate how many of the specific errors were found in the particular analyses.

Type of mistake Phonetic analysis Native Japanese speaker Peer assessment TA

Rise and fall of pitch switched 7 2 X 3
Rise of pitch on the wrong mora 2 X 1 X
Fall of pitch on the wrong mora 1 X X X

6
53
 40

Unnecessary rise of pitch 5 1 X X

Unnecessary fall of pitch 3 1 X X
Rise of pitch missing 1 X X X
Excessive rise of pitch 1 X X X
Fall of pitch instead of a rise 4 X X X
Rise of pitch instead of a fall 2 X X X
Excessive fall of pitch 1 X X X
Fall of pitch missing 1 X X X

Table 4. Summary of mistakes

Type of mistake Native Japanese speaker Peer assessment TA

Gemination instead of a long vowel 1 (東京 tōkyō) 1 (東京 tōkyō) X
Wrong articulation of morae 6 (れ re, し shi, は wa, ん n) X X
Wrong mora pronounced 1 (kattokunakya) X X
Mora missing 1 (chau-yo) X X
Stress accent instead of pitch accent 2 (gozaimasu) X X
Long vowel too short 1 (benkyō) X 1 (nōto)

Table 5. Additional errors found in the assessment but not in the phonetic analysis
SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS
In sum, while peers’ comments conveyed a general idea about progress, the feedback was not sufficiently detailed. Much
more reliable was the assessment by the TA (in line with common observations that people can learn much more from
those who are more experienced and better educated than from similarly ignorant peers; Paradowski, 2015:46). However,
the commentary by the independent Japanese native speaker indicates that a person not involved in the MOOC is easily
able to make even more observations. The take-home message is thus that assessment objective and reliable only after
triangulating all the available sources of feedback.
PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS
The findings have important pedagogical implications. They demonstrate that peer assessment may not produce reliable
and helpful results when there are no explicit guidelines and preparatory training exercises provided for the participants.
Consequently, future language courses, particularly those that concentrate on productive skills such as speaking, ought to
implement clearly constructed rubrics together with a grading tutorial.
REFERENCES
Ashton, S. & Davies, R. S. (2015). Using scaffolded rubrics to improve peer assessment in a MOOC writing course.
Distance Education, 36(3), 312-334. doi: 10.1080/01587919.2015.1081733
Bachelet, R., Zongo, D., & Bourelle, A. (2015, May). Does peer grading work? How to implement and improve it?
Comparing instructor and peer assessment in MOOC GdP. In European MOOCs Stakeholders Summit 2015 Proceedings
Papers, pp. 224-233.
Barak, M. & Rafaeli, S. (2004). On-line question-posing and peer-assessment as means for web-based knowledge sharing
in learning. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 61(1), 84-103. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhcs.2003.12.005
Bárcena, E. & Martín-Monje, E. (2015). Introduction. Language MOOCs: an emerging field. In E. Martín-Monje & E.
Bárcena (Eds.), Language MOOCs: Providing Learning, Transcending Boundaries (pp. 1-15). Berlin: De Gruyter.
https://www.degruyter.com/view/books/9783110422504/9783110422504.1/9783110422504.1.xml
Boersma, P. & Weenink, D. (2017). Praat: doing phonetics by computer [computer software]. Version 6.0.
http://www.fon.hum.uva.nl/praat/
Cho, K. & MacArthur, C. (2010). Student revision with peer and expert reviewing. Learning and Instruction, 20(4), 328-
338. doi: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.08.006
Cho, K. & Schunn, C. D. (2007). Scaffolded writing and rewriting in the discipline: A web- based reciprocal peer review
system. Computers and Education, 48(3), 409-426. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2005.02.004
Dochy, F., Segers, M. & Sluijsmans, D. (1999). The use of self, peer and co-assessment in higher education: A review.
Studies in Higher Education, 24(3), 331-350. doi: 10.1080/03075079912331379935

7
54
 41

Formanek, M., Wenger, M. C., Buxner, S. R., Impey, C. D. & Sonam, T. (2017). Insights about large-scale online peer
assessment from an analysis of an astronomy MOOC. Computers & Education, 113, 243-262. doi:
10.1016/j.compedu.2017.05.019
Gielen, S., Peeters, E., Dochy, F., Onghena, P. & Struyven, K. (2010). Improving the effectiveness of peer feedback for
learning. Learning and Instruction, 20(4), 304-315. doi: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.08.007
Harber, J. (2014a). Where did MOOCs come from? In same, MOOCs. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 19-46.
Harber, J. (2014b). What makes a MOOC? In same, MOOCs. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 47-88.
Ho, A. D., Nesterko, S., Seaton, D. T., Mullaney, T., Waldo, J., & Chuang, I. (2014). HarvardX and MITx: The first year
of open online courses. (HarvardX and MITx Working Paper No. 1). Retrieved from
https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2381263
Huszcza, R., Ikushima, M. & Majewski, J. (2003). Fonetyka i prozodia. In M. Melanowicz & J. Linde-Usiekniewicz (Eds.),
Gramatyka japońska (pp. 17-114). Kraków: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego.
Kolowich, S. (2013, Mar 18). The professors behind the MOOC hype. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 18.
http://www.chronicle.com/article/The-Professors-Behind-the-MOOC/137905
Kulkarni, C., Pang Wei, K., Le, H., Chia, D., Papadopoulos, K., Cheng, J., Koller, D., & Klemmer, S.R. (2013). Peer and
self-assessment in massive online classes. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, 20(6). doi:
10.1145/2505057
Lackner, E., Kopp, M., & Ebner, M. (2014). How to MOOC? – A pedagogical guideline for practitioners. In Roceanu, I.
(Ed.). Proceedings of the 10th International Scientific Conference “eLearning and Software for Education” Bucharest,
April 24-25, 2014. Bucharest: Editura Universitatii Nationale de Aparare “Carol I”, pp. 215-222. doi: 10.12753/2066-
026X-14-030
Mason, R., & Rennie, F. (2006). Peer assessment. In same, Elearning: The Key Concepts. New York: Routledge, 90-91.
Meek, S. E. M., Blakemore, L. & Marks, L. (2017). Is peer review an appropriate form of assessment in a MOOC? Student
participation and performance in formative peer review. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 42(6), 1000-
1013. doi: 10.1080/02602938.2016.1221052
Omuro, K., Baba, R., Miyazono, H., Usagawa, T. & Egawa, Y. (1996). The perception of morae in long vowels:
Comparison among Japanese, Korean, and English speakers. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 100(4),
2726. doi: 10.1121/1.416186
Pappano, L. (2012, Nov 2). The year of the MOOC. The New York Times.
http://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/04/education/edlife/massive-open-online-courses-are-multiplying-at-a-rapid-
pace.html
Paradowski, M. B. (2013). [Review of the book Nature and Practical Implications of English used as a Lingua Franca.
Barbara Seidlhofer]. The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 7(2) [Special Issue: English as a Lingua Franca.
Implications for Translator and Interpreter Education], 312-20. doi: 10.1080/13556509.2013.10798856
Paradowski, M. B. (2015). Holes in SOLEs: Re-examining the role of EdTech and ‘minimally invasive education’ in
foreign language learning and teaching. English Lingua Journal 1(1), 37–60.
Pawlas, E. & Paradowski, M. B. (under review). Communication breakdowns in ELF conversations: Causes, coping
strategies, and implications for the classroom.
Siemens, G. (2012, Jun 3). What is the theory that underpins our moocs? [Web log comment]. Retrieved from
http://www.elearnspace.org/blog/2012/06/03/what-is-the-theory-that-underpins-our-moocs/
Sokolik, M. (2015). What constitutes an effective language MOOC? In E. Martín-Monje & E. Bárcena (Eds.), Language
MOOCs: Providing Learning, Transcending Boundaries (pp. 16-32). Berlin: De Gruyter.
https://www.degruyter.com/view/books/9783110422504/9783110422504.2/9783110422504.2.xml
Strijbos, J. W., Narciss, S. & Dünnebier, K. (2010). Peer feedback content and sender's competence level in academic
writing revision tasks: Are they critical for feedback perceptions and efficiency? Learning and Instruction, 20(4), 291-
303. doi: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.08.008
The return of the MOCC. Established education providers v new contenders (2017, Jan 12). The Economist.
http://www.economist.com/news/special-report/21714173-alternative-providers-education-must-solve-problems-cost-
and
Venditti, J. J. (2005). The J_ToBI model of Japanese intonation. In J. Sun-Ah (Ed.) Prosodic Typology: The Phonology of
Intonation and Phrasing (pp. 172-200). Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:
10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199249633.003.0007

8
55
 42

BlendedLearning
Blended learning in Primary
primary school
School -- looking
Lookingfor
foraanew
New
schoolFormula
School formula
Dorota Janczak
University of Warsaw
xxx
[email protected]
xxx

ABSTRACT
Blended learning is still in its preliminary stage, especially in primary education. It is important to analyse its
implementations and the teaching theories behind it and to ask proper questions which can lead to the key answers: Can
blended learning be a new formula for primary school education and under what conditions? It is not easy to find the
answers since there are different ways of understanding blended learning, various models used in its execution along with
a limited amount of research. However, we can try to assess some beliefs put into blending learning by at least examining
the main clams of its supporters.

Author Keywords
blended learning, primary education, new technologies, primary school, ICT, hybrid education
INTRODUCTION
Times are constantly changing along with the way we live our lives, the same should happen with today’s schools.
Increasingly new technologies have sprung up recently, bringing school’s new possibilities but also new concerns. New
technologies surround us in our everyday life and using them is inevitable; therefore, we should not deny our schools the
opportunity of using them, but we should do something quite the opposite – we should take full advantage of them to make
learning better. Throughout history, educators around the world have tried to find the best possible school formula and one
of the more recent ideas is blended learning.
Therefore, two questions come to mind which we could explore: Is blended learning the answer for a new educational
approach in primary schools? Under what conditions will it bring positive results and make primary education better?
WHAT IS BLENDED LEARNING?
Blended learning has been with us for more than two decades, but it is still in its initial phase and constantly evolving. It,
like any other kind of learning formula, comes in many shapes and sizes. Generally, there is no one-and-only method for
learning and the same happens with blended learning. There is more than one definition of it and has been titled with
different names. We have seen a dramatic growth of its use in elementary and secondary education around the world in
recent years, and particularly in the US it has become predominant – in 2013 more than 75% of school districts offered
online or blended learning options (Murin, Vashaw, & Gemin 2014). Therefore, it should come as no surprise that in 2012
the definition of blended learning in reference to K-12 education was developed in the US. Horn and Staker define it as
“…a formal education program in which a student learns at least in part through online learning with some element of
student control over time, place, path, and/or pace and at least in part at a supervised brick-and-mortar location away from
home. The modalities along each student’s learning path within a course or subject are connected to provide an integrated
learning experience” (Horn, Staker, 2012).
The authors of the definition also depicted four models of blended learning that categorise the majority of blended-learning
programs emerging across the K–12 sector today.
However, only the first of them, the Rotation model is used in primary schools. The three others: Flex model, A La Carte
model and Enriched-Virtual model are used only with older students, and this criteria and reason are why only the first
model will be described in this paper.
The Rotation model is “a program in which within a given course or subject (e.g., math), students rotate on a fixed schedule
or at the teacher’s discretion between learning modalities, at least one of which is online learning. Other modalities might
include activities such as small-group or full-class instruction, group projects, individual tutoring, and pencil-and-paper
assignments” (Horn, Staker, 2012). Its sub-models are Station Rotation, Lab Rotation, Flipped Classroom and Individual
Rotation.
Beginning the assessment
It is not easy to assess if blended learning is the right answer in our calls for a new primary school formula. The main
reason is the rather limited amount of empirical research for blended learning in K-12 education and the fact that the
available literature is produced largely by policy and advocacy organisations which are often seen as the main promoters

1
56
 43

of the blended learning ideas introduced in the available research papers (Barbour, Clark, DeBruler, Bruno 2014). The
assessment and comparison can be even more complicated because of different ways in the understanding of blended
learning around the world. Yet we can try to take a closer look and reflect upon its worth by using the available information
and asking the right key questions.
A well-known promoter of the idea for blended learning among American schools, Michael B. Horn noticed, “Whether
blended learning works or not is a frustrating question because the answer is always going to be 'it depends’. (…) Depends
on how it's implemented, how well teachers are trained. ... It's unlikely to be that blended learning magically causes better
learning, and more likely, that it offers better opportunity to provide each student with what he needs when he needs it"
(Sparks 2015).
Thus, he and the second co-author of the definition introduced the key points of blended learning to help and instruct
teachers of its “high quality” implementation. Firstly, according to them, blended learning should be personalised – it
should reflect the needs of every student, not only the needs of a class as a group. Secondly, it should aim for proficiency
and every student should attain a fluency in the knowledge and skills they need to achieve before going on to the next level.
Thirdly, it is important to have high expectations of our students. Every one of them should plan their goals and aim at
achieving high and clear standards. Fourthly, in blended learning the leading role is in student’s hands, thus every one of
them is responsible for their learning, in choosing the methods, information and tools. Every one of them is much more
self-dependent and owns their learning process.
WHY IS THE APPROACH CONSIDERED AS PROMISING?
The papers which describe the idea of blended learning and attempts its implementation show it in a very good light and
as a promising solution, on the other hand, critics of the approach call it just a great hype. Therefore, what is the truth?
The co-author of the definition and a key supporter of blended learning claims that it is the “new model that is student-
centric, highly personalised for each learner, and more productive, as it delivers dramatically better results at the same or
lower cost” (Horn and Staker 2011, 13). There are more hopes and beliefs put into blended learning but let us try to assess
it by only focusing closer on these claims.
Student-centric
Well-practiced blended learning provides students with autonomy (a student sets appropriate learning goals and takes
charge of their own learning), promotes student ownership over learning, enables students to learn at their own pace but
also enables more individual contacts with teachers (because of the different organisation of students and teachers work).
Blended learning involves much more than just introducing technology, it also demands good teaching and changes the
teacher’s role from “sage on the stage to guide on the side”. It goes even further and offers an opportunity to rethink the
organisation of teachers teaching (no more one-teacher-must-do-all model but working in teams where teachers specialise
in theirs target roles for example as a developer or guide) and students learning (individual sessions with adaptive learning
systems, group work, individual work guided by teachers etc.). To use the blended learning model, teachers should help
their students become self‐directed, self‐disciplined and motivated for learning but also having self‐efficacy related to
technology and both face-to-face and online communication. Should “use technology daily to analyse and utilise real-time
data to differentiate instruction, customize learning and to engage students in deeper learning” (Patrick, Kennedy and
Powell, 2013).
Laura Kassner noticed in her blended learning literature review that “numerous studies highlighted the importance of
shifting pedagogy in moving from traditional f2f to blended and online learning scenarios, not simply changing the medium.
Skilful online teaching is ultimately focusing on the facilitation of good communication in ways that promote quality
interactions, student engagement, and connections” (Kassner 2013).
Unfortunately, different schools and different teachers choose a different kind of pedagogy approach and not all of them
have changed their way of teaching enough. Teachers need to be trained on “how to motivate individual learners, enhance
student interaction and understanding without visual cues, tailor instruction to particular learning styles, and develop or
modify interactive lessons to meet student needs” (Watson, 2007, p. 13). The ideal educational process, also in a blended
learning environment, should draw upon investigating problems and issues rather than memorise or seeking final answers.
High personalisation for each learner
The main way of personalising education in the blended learning model is the use of self-paced programs, adaptive online
instructional content, and the facilitation of small-group instruction for students. The idea is that students learn online using
adaptive learning systems which let them gain new knowledge and develop new skills in a special way, going through the
tailored paths. Teachers analyse data gathered by the programmes to understand their students’ needs and organise their
face-to-face part of the learning process being focused on the quality of human interactions with their students. Teachers
meet their students in small groups or individually because using online programmes let them earn some time to use it in
teaching through a constructivist approach.
However, “adaptive learning systems (the new teaching machines) do not build more resilient, creative, entrepreneurial or
desire for greater choice, in all its manifest forms, with the equity needed for a society to flourish. Computer adaptive
learning systems are reductionist and primarily attend to those things that can be easily digitised and tested (mathematics,

2
57
 44

science and reading). They fail to recognise that high-quality learning environments are deeply relational, humanistic,
creative, socially constructed, active and inquiry-oriented” (McRae 2013).
Thus, teachers need to bear in mind that adaptive learning systems can divert their and their student’s attention to only the
‘basics’ of the taught subjects. The machine will not build confidence, social, cooperation and creativity skills that children
need in our times. As Dewey (1938) said, “Education is not preparation for life; education is life itself.” That is why there
is a need for thoughtful planning of the learning process which can help students achieve those skills too. The majority of
learning should take place with the instructor who “must have the ability to create a blended classroom environment, to
engage the student. The core of Blended Learning should take place during designated classroom instructional time and
student control (when, where and how) should serve as an academic supplemental opportunity” (McRae, 2015). Successful
learning should be socially constructed and occurs in an active and inquiry-oriented process that engages people in social,
emotional, cultural and deeply intrapersonal experiences.
More productive
Blended learning was understood by Horn and Staker as being more productive because it “delivers dramatically better
results at the same or lower cost”. Even if we stay within this understanding of productivity in education we still will have
problems to find strong evidence for that statement.
As we can read in the Blended Learning Report May 2014, “a majority of teachers at most sites reported that their blended
models were more effective at helping students recall basic facts than at helping them develop higher order thinking skills”.
As we continue reading we will find that, “Strong classroom/learning lab management practices are critical into ensuring
student productivity in online environments. Teachers and lab monitors alike stressed the importance of establishing the
proper academic culture, norms, and behaviour management practices for a blended learning model to be successful.
Allows students to be more productive and have better results” (Snow, Mislevy, Gallagher, Wei 2014). That is why it is
unsafe to claim, that we can reduce costs using blended learning and still be able to talk about better results. Sometimes
reducing the cost in blended learning schools was achieved by replacing qualified teachers by less paid “individual learning
specialist” (Danner, 2010), using cheaper online courses lead by people without any certifications (Dwinal, 2015) or letting
student learn with the help of adaptive learning systems or other online materials even as much as 50% of time spent at
school (Strauss, 2013).
Blended Learning, in order to be as effective as it can be, should ensure that the teacher remains the content expert and
instructional leader of the classroom. The devices and digital tools, which should be of course of the highest quality as
well, still are nothing more than just tools for the teacher. That is why no cutting of costs in this sphere should be made.
THE CONCLUSIONS
There is a big risk of misunderstanding the idea of blended learning and make it blended in name only. The most important
condition for high quality blended learning is a clear understanding of underpinned educational theories. In this model,
technology is important, but as long as it is constructed by pedagogy and sound educational reasoning. But actually, which
theory from these following two is the real basis of this model? The behaviouristic approach used with adaptive learning
systems, which treat a student as a passive and reactive person, or constructivism from students’ personal interactions with
both peers and teachers? Can we use both of them simultaneously? Is it possible to mix them and really help our students?
The key part of the blended learning definition - “element of student control” - underlines the necessity of changing the
roles of teachers to facilitators of learning, monitors of progress and coaches but also the need for greater student’s
responsibility for their own learning.
It is true that adaptive learning systems used in schools allow students to learn at their own pace, using their own paths and
strategies giving them immediate feedback and the possibility of tracking their progress, nevertheless, personalised learning
cannot be achieved by the use of “teaching machines” and their special algorithms alone. Because learning prepares
students for life and is an integral part of it as well, it should allow them to develop their critical thinking, creativity,
problem-solving skills and give them the possibility for the fulfilment of their own ideas, the possibility for serendipity and
diversity in their activities, just to name a few. Learning is a dialogue with another person, which involves a richness of
interactions with peers and teachers which are essential in a student’s development. We can be certain that students cannot
learn using “teaching machines” alone without the support of a qualified teacher-constructivist who is interested in their
knowledge and skills, who tries to know them better and is able to guide them wisely, engage, offer activities suitable for
each and every one of them, support them on their path of discovering the world, but also help them to build their autonomy
and self-awareness. Is using programmed learning to earn time for more individual interactions with teachers worth its
price? Are we ready (equipped with enough knowledge, skills, money, etc.) to develop these kinds of tools and resources
to really help students, without the risk of harming them (we could think here for example about the problem of the time
children spend with screens in the blended learning model)?
Blended learning student-centred instructions should mean active and interactive learning both during online and face-to-
face contact sessions, as well as a challenging and rigorous learning environment and optimalisation of student’s learning
by assessing progress and providing student supports.

3
58
 45

Blended learning can be effective through fundamental redesign of the instructional model, through the change of the
dynamic between the teacher and the student. It is not about looking for cost reduction but more about empowering teachers
for better-supporting students and making their learning experiences engaging and meaningful. All by providing educators
with a toolkit of strategies, methods and resources.
Are the conditions shown earlier the only ones which should be taken into consideration? Of course not. We could ask
many more questions and a lot of research has to be done in this area. Blended learning in primary schools is still rather at
its preliminary stage, both when we think about the pedagogical theory which supported it and the implementation practice.
Thus, it is time for asking questions rather than gathering answers; the trick is we need to be careful in order to find and
ask the right ones.
REFERENCES
Barbour, M. K., Clark, T., DeBruler, K., Bruno, J., (2014). Evaluation and Approval Constructs for Online and Blended
Courses and Providers http://digitalcommons.sacredheart.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1231&context=ced_fac
[accessed Jan 10, 2018].
Danner, J. (2010). Rocketship Hybrid School Model – Half The Teachers and Twice the Pay.
https://web.archive.org/web/20151225122624/ http://dkfoundation.org/news/rocketship- hybrid-school-model-half-
teachers-and-twice-pay [accessed Jan 10, 2018].
Dwinal, M. 2015. “Solving the Nation’s Teacher Shortage: How online learning can fix the broken teacher labor market.”
Clayton Christensen Institute website. https://www.christenseninstitute.org/publications/solving-the-nations-teacher-
shortage [accessed Jan 10 2018].
Horn, M.B., Staker, H. (2011). The Rise of K–12 Blended Learning. Report. Innosight Institute.
http://www.christenseninstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/The-rise-of-K-12-blen- ded-learning.pdf [accessed Jan
01, 2018].
Horn, M. B., Staker, H. (2012). Classifying K–12 Blended Learning. Innosight Institute,
https://www.christenseninstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Classifying-K-12-blended-learning.pdf [accessed Jan
10, 2018].
Kassner, L., (2013). Mix it Up with Blended Learning in K-12 Schools: A Review of Literature,
https://scholarscompass.vcu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.pl/&httpsredir=1&article=1009&con
text=merc_pubs [accessed Jan 01, 2018].
McRae, P. (2013). Rebirth of the Teaching Machine through the Seduction of Data Analytics: This Time It's Personal.
http://philmcrae.com/2/post/2013/04/rebirth-of-the-teaching-maching-through-the-seduction-of-data-analytics-this-
time-its-personal1.html [accessed Jan 10, 2018].
McRae, P. (2015). Blended learning: The great new thing or the great new hype? The Washington Post.
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/answer-sheet/wp/2015/06/21/blended-learning-the- great-new-thing-or-the-
great-new-hype/?utm_term=.ac6902c968ef [accessed Jan 10, 2018].
Patrick, S., Kennedy, K., Powell, A., (2013) Mean What You Say: Defining and Integrating Personalized, Blended and
Competency Education. https://www.inacol.org/resource/mean-what-you-say-defining-and-integrating-personalized-
blended-and-competency-education/ [accessed Jan 10, 2018].
Snow, E., Mislevy, J., Gallagher, L., Wei, X., (2014) Blended Learning Report May 2014. Michael & Susan Dell
Foundation. https://secure.edweek.org/media/msdf-blended-learning-report-may-2014.pdf [accessed Jan 10, 2018].
Sparks, D., S., (2015). Blended Learning Research Yields Limited Results,
https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2015/04/15/blended-learning-research-yields-limited-results.html [accessed Jan
10, 2018].
Strauss, V. (2013). Rocketship charter schools revamping signature ‘Learning Lab’. The Washington
http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/answer-sheet/wp/2013/01/25/rocketship- charter-schools-revamping-signature-
learning-lab [accessed Jan 10, 2018].
Watson, J. (2007). A national primer on K-12 online learning. Washington, DC: National Council on Online Learning.
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED509633.pdf [accessed Jan 10, 2018].
Watson, J., Pape, L., Murin, A., Vashaw, L., & Gemin, B. (2014). Keeping pace with K–12 digital & blended learning: An
annual review of policy and practice. Durango, CO: Evergreen Education Group. Retrieved from
http://kpk12.com/reports,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305800460_Online_blended_and_distance_education_in_schools_Introducti
on [accessed Jan 10, 2018].

4
59
 46

How to Organize Blended Learning Support in Higher

Education
Janina van Hees
SURFnet
The Netherlands
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
Redesigning your educational concept by making use of technology helps to improve the quality of university education
and to offer programmes in a more tailor-made way. However, developing a well-designed teaching concept costs time and
requires expertise. Not only expertise about the subject content, but also expertise about multimedia, animation,
instructional design etc. The design of educational innovation in an institution of higher education becomes teamwork in
which different specialisms cooperate. How do you organize this cooperation of disciplines within a university?
SURF is publishing a whitepaper, based on 5 case-studies of different higher education institutions and the way they support
their lecturers in revising their educational programmes: the TU Delft, Utrecht University, Erasmus University Rotterdam,
Utrecht University of Applied Sciences and Saxion University of Applied Sciences.
Four elements of choice emerge:
- Should innovation be institutionalized in a specific ‘innovation programme’ within the university?
- Should a university equip its own professional video studio and hire experts for video, 3D, animations etc?
- Should the process of innovation be a bottom-up process, leaving the initiative mainly with the lecturers, or is
some top-down pressure advisable?
- Should different support service for lecturers be combined into a one-stop-shop? (such as IT services, didactic
advice etc).
In this paper, we will summarize the choices these 5 universities have made and deduct recommendations to higher
education institutions in general. This can provide inspiration to institutions which still have to find their own answers to
these questions.

Author Keywords
HEI, support structures, educational innovation, organisational aspects

INTRODUCTION
“If there were eight days in a week, the redesign of education with ICT would already have taken place a long time ago”,
a teachers who was interviewed for the SURF whitepaper told us. As matters stand today, however, an overload of work
among teachers is the rule rather than the exception in higher education in the Netherlands. Higher education institutions
that focus on improving education with the help of technology should therefore send the clear message to teachers: we
support you wherever we can. This means investing in excellent guidance, good facilities, making efforts to familiarize
teachers with the available facilities, showing appreciation for the end result and organizing knowledge sharing. In short:
providing an excellent support structure.

So what does an excellent support structure look like? SURF is currently concluding a research project in which we
collected information from 5 Dutch institutes of higher education about the way they support their teachers in revising their
educational programmes through ICT. The TU Delft, Utrecht University, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Utrecht
University of Applied Sciences and Saxion University of Applied Sciences served as case studies. On the basis of the
choices they made, we identified basic decisions each higher education institute needs to make when designing a support
structure for teachers which will enable them to innovate their lectures with the help of ICT elements.

1
60
 47

DESCRIPTION OF CHOICES

Educational Vision
The educational vision of the institution is an important basis for the redesign of education. For example, an educational
vision could describe why the institution expects blended learning as an educational concept to increase the quality of
education, as in the vision of Saxion University of Applied Sciences. This educational vision already shows that Saxion
explicitly sees the use of ICT as a means to achieve better education. Often an educational vision is an elaboration of the
strategic plan of the institution, in relation to education. For example, Erasmus University (EUR) uses online learning to
support a number of core objectives of the institutional strategy, such as improving the quality of education,
internationalization and reaching new target groups. A redesign of education is more successful if everyone knows clearly
why the institution is committed to it. It also serves as an anchor point during the redesign process: does what I am doing
match with my instition’s educational vision? It is therefore essential that everyone within the institution is familiar with
the educational vision and that it is widely supported.

Innovation program or regular process?

All 5 higher education institutions who were interviewed within this research project, choose to accelerate educational
innovation with ICT by establishing a central program. A dedicated budget, central management and the support of the
Executive Board make it easier to get matters moving across the entire organization. There is better overview, forces may
be joined. There is also more capacity available for further development and upscaling. The organization of knowledge
sharing on educational innovation is faster under a central administration. However, a program is always finite. A way will
have to be found to include educational innovation in the regular organization over time.
A good example is the small-scale innovations, called grassroots projects, of Delft University of Technology (TU Delft).
Initially, they received a project budget. Nowadays grassroots are seen as 'regular educational improvement' and are
therefore not financed separately. Employees of Educate-it, the innovation program of Utrecht University (UU), are
currently working on a blueprint for the support organization for the Education and IT domain in 2020. It must continue
the work of the innovation program by that time and make it more sustainable.
For an institution that is just starting out with educational innovation, a project-based approach is indispensable, according
to all interviewed institutions. A well-executed project or program offers more possibilities to experiment, to find out what
teachers need, to respond flexibly to developments and to scale up quickly where necessary.
Innovation budget
How much money should you invest in teacher facilitation as a higher education institution? And how do you spend that
money wisely? Such considerations are based, among other things, on the size of the institution, the number of students,
the equity capital and the strategic goals the institution pursues. It also makes a difference whether the budget is divided
centrally, for example through tenders, or that faculties have their own dedicated budgets for educational innovation. That
makes it difficult to compare innovation budgets.
When asked about a rough estimate of the distribution of the budget, it proves difficult for the institutions to make a clear
distinction between the innovation budget and money for current affairs. An example from TU Delft: the investment in a
studio has already been done in the past, but starting up an innovation program helps to obtain a budget for the studio. One
conclusion can be drawn from the estimates: the institutions mainly invest in people, in manpower. Approximately half of
the innovation budget (40 to 70 percent) goes to support staff of all types. The investment in facilities, licenses and tools is
lower, depending on the institution, between 15 and 40 percent. For professionalization, the institutions spend between 15
and 25 percent of the budget. It should be noted that some support staff, such as the e-learning developers at TU Delft, are
responsible for teacher professionalization and that it is therefore not always possible to distinguish between these items.
Another element that is difficult to compare is the extra time teachers are allocated through a reduction of their teaching
responsibilities. This is often up to the faculties. Estimates about which part of the budget is used for this vary greatly.
Central or decentralized support?
A large number of higher education institutions that are more experienced in teacher facilitation, are currently working on
centralization of the support structure. In one central location, various disciplines in the field of support and
professionalisation are brought together. This concerns, for example, professionalization trajectories, educational research,
audiovisual support, spaces for experiments and initiatives in the area of knowledge sharing, which have previously been
housed at various locations, centrally and decentrally, within the institution. For instance, Utrecht University has a new
Center for Academic Teaching, the TU Delft a Teaching Lab, the Erasmus University Rotterdam is working on a
Community for Learning & Innovation and Utrecht University of Applied Sciences has a Learning Innovation Network
Center by Teachers.

2
61
 48

Centralized support organization

An advantage of centralization is that it makes things easy for the teacher. He can turn to one address, or at least to fewer
addresses than before, for all questions and actions. A central organization accommodates both educational and technical
experts. The central support organization is therefore, if it is well-organized, optimally able to unburden the teacher and
facilitate the best possible redesign of the education. By organizing professionalisation and knowledge sharing centrally, it
is possible to bring the quality of education to a higher level in a sustainable way. That is, at least, if the central organization
succeeds to maintain a direct connection with teachers. The disadvantage of a central organization is that the distance to
the teacher can literally and figuratively be great. Higher education institutions often consist of several branches, spread
over a city or even over several cities. Centralization of support can raise the threshold to educational innovation, especially
when a teacher is expected to go somewhere where he does not know anyone and where he normally never comes. In
addition, lethargy and bureaucracy may be lurking.
Decentralized support organization
Opposite central support is decentralized support: educational and technical supporters form a flying team around the
teacher, in the vicinity of his own educational location. This requires a lot of flexibility from the supporting organizations
and a larger amount of facilities. It is an intensive and relatively expensive form of support.
In practice, many institutions work with an intermediate form, which partly derives from the historical autonomy of
faculties. They often have their own forms of teacher facilitation, apart from central and decentralized facilities. The
advantage of support at faculty level is that teachers often find their way to support staff well. The disadvantage is
fragmentation: every faculty draws up its own plan. In addition, the faculty facilities may impede upscaling and
sustainability. For example, some faculties of the EUR had already invested themselves in teacher facilitation in such a
way that they saw little gain in setting up a one-stop shop.
Ensuring the connection
Lecturers react differently to the question of whether a central or a more decentralized organization is preferred. The
interpretation of centralization makes a lot of difference. It is especially important that people feel involved and helped.
Also in centralized support structures, it is possible to ensure that there is a direct connection with the teachers. Utrecht
University for example resolves this by appointing faculty contact persons. They can answer questions about educational
innovation themselves, but are also in close contact with the central program Educate-it and, if necessary, call in the help
of Educate-it specialists. It works much the same way at Utrecht University of Applied Sciences and TU Delft. They also
work with a faculty contact person. Support staff from the central program also spend part of their time in the faculty
location, where there is a lot of demand for their expertise. Because often the same central support staff are deployed at the
same faculties, they gain more knowledge of the faculty and become familiar faces.
Specialist support staff or generalists close to the teachers?
For educational innovation with ICT you need a multidisciplinary team. In addition to teachers and student assistants, the
team may include e-learning developers, instructional designers, an animator, an editor or a marketing professional.
Institutions have to ask themselves whether they have all the necessary expertise on board or whether an addition is needed
to reach the desired level. Do you educate people, attract them from outside, or hire them? Which expertise do you need
on a regular basis, which do you need incidentally?
The interviewed institutions opt for both, depending on the needs of the teacher. With the use of specialists, it is possible
to produce educational material of which the (digital) design is of high quality. An additional advantage is that the material
can be used as a ‘billboard’ for the institution. If the end result looks good, teachers and students will be more enthusiastic
about educational innovation with ICT. But too much professionalism can also increase the threshold to get started in the
first place. Many teachers prefer to try things out themselves, instead of being directly in the spotlights of a real studio. The
deployment of student assistants is also a lot cheaper. They are close to the target group and look at the educational material
through the eyes of students.
In practice, the institutions ensure that they have the specialists (temporarily or otherwise) in house, but that they can also
facilitate more easily accessible forms of support. For example, early adopters learn new skills from the VR specialist who
is employed full-time at Utrecht University of Applied Sciences, but teachers who are redesigning a course for the first
time can turn to an innovation manager from their own organization with their questions. At TU Delft, numerous students
support lecturers in their educational innovations, but they also receive help from specialized e-learning developers and
instructional designers.
Communication and knowledge sharing
A good support organization in itself is not sufficient. Teachers need to know that the institution encourages educational
innovation or even makes it obligatory. They need information about where they can go, what the benefits are, how much
time is spent, what kind of support is available and what forms of appreciation they receive for it. Communication and
knowledge sharing thus form an important part of teacher facilitation. One of the choices an institution must make is how
it shapes that communication and knowledge sharing.
Many teachers prefer to be inspired by innovative colleagues, rather than by external trainers for instance. Colleagues
generate more trust, because they discuss within the educational context and subject matter what a tool can contribute to

3
62
 49

education. The institutions therefore make extensive use of ambassadors. These educational innovators speak at lunch
sessions, workshops and teaching days, to inspire their colleagues.
Institutions come up with all sorts of creative ways to bring teachers in contact with innovators from inside and outside
their field. This often takes place in an informal setting, such as a lunch or a café, but also at symposiums and during
professionalization courses the educational innovators are frequently used. Online the institutions share information,
experiences, tools and tips in blogs and videos.
Communication, knowledge sharing and stimulation are connected to each other in practice. Teachers who are proud of
their educational innovation will like to talk about it with colleagues. They consider it an important form of appreciation
to be asked by the institution to give presentations. And as we will see below, it is true that valuation is crucial to stimulate
educational innovation.
Bottom-up or top-down initiative?
Teachers must remain the owner of the educational program they offer. There is little difference of opinion about this with
the interviewed institutions. However, in order to initiate an improvement in education with the help of ICT, it is important
that every department within the organization is aware of the added value of educational innovation in organizing effective
educational porgrams. This means that teachers must feel owner of educational changes; that faculties encourage teachers
to develop blended education; that education directors and managers feel the need for innovation.
Although the lead for a redesign of a course lies with the lecturer, not everyone is ready to take major steps. Not all faculties
feel the same drive and passion. Deans, administrators and directors must stand up to stimulate and value innovation
throughout the institution. How big their involvement must be is a consideration that every institution will have to make.
TU Delft stimulates a bottom-up approach as much as possible, but focuses on the outlines, for example by selecting topics
that take precedence and approaching active teachers because their subject or ambition fits the ambitions of the institution.
Utrecht University involves all departments in the mission of the innovation program, but does not make anything
mandatory: the central support organization only facilitates when a specific question comes from a teacher, a lecturer team
or a faculty. The Utrecht University of Applied Sciences tackles it very differently. Their Executive Board have decreed
that by 2020 all programs have to related to the fourteen design dimensions that the university has formulated in its
educational vision. Ninety percent of the programs are working on a redesign of education. This means that almost all
employees are involved in educational innovation; as an assignment from the Executive Board, but at its own discretion.
Professionalization
All institutions consider teacher professionalization an important activity to achieve quality improvement in education. In
part, this professionalization takes place during the innovation process (learning by doing). Presentations from educational
innovators or blogs in the context of knowledge sharing all contribute to informal teacher professionalization. In addition,
each higher education institution offers teachers opportunities to increase their own educational qualities. Institutions
decide for themselves which skills fall under the Basic qualification for Didactical Competence (BDB) or the Basic
Qualification for Education (BKO). There is no general quality requirement for teachers in the field of ICT skills.
At Utrecht University of Applied Sciences, an institution-wide blended learning course is part of the BKO, SKO and EKO
(basic, senior and expert qualification for higher professional education teachers). Saxion has set up a compulsory course
of study in relation to the BDB that relates to redesign of education. In addition, each institution described offers all kinds
of workshops and varied forms of knowledge sharing, with which teachers can improve their knowledge and expertise in
the field of ICT and innovation.
Teacher professionalization is a broad topic that requires more elaboration. SURF has made a start with the publication of
the report 'From teacher professionalisation to educational development. Inventory of the status quo of ICT teacher
professionalisation' written by Ineke Lam en Riekje de Jong (2015).
Extra appreciation for educational innovation or not?
A first step towards innovation in education can be taken simply by paying attention to educational innovation and the use
of ICT in professional development trajectories. But this does not guarantee that teachers will really get started to innovate
their own education. Far too often teachers feel that the appreciation for education only exists on paper. Adrie Verhoeven,
assistant professor of biochemistry at the Erasmus MC, expressed this feeling as follows: "Many teachers want to innovate,
but they also have to deal with patient care and research. There are only a few fools who are totally into education. This is
not a thing to do; they don’t get anywhere in their career. Being busy with educational innovation is not rewarded. As long
as this does not change, teachers will not innovate. But I am one of those fools. "
Virtually all institutions focus initially on the pioneers of educational innovation, in the hope that an oil spill will start. But
as long as this sentiment is shared so broadly, the oil slick does not reach the range that is hoped for. Appreciation is
essential to get the large group of more conservative teachers to join. This could be in the form of more salary, or in the
time that a teacher receives to redesign his education, but also in the form of attention for the performance delivered, the
interest of peers, the appreciation of students and because initiatives in the field of education have a positive influence on
the career of the teacher in question. Appreciation starts with the allocation of budgets to project proposals to promote
educational innovation. Appreciation also means that failed experiments will not be punished. The choice to give no

4
63
 50

appreciation for education still occurs frequently in practice. This of course has negative consequences for the enthusiasm
of teachers to innovate and the speed with which innovations are embraced.
CONCLUSIONS
By analysing 5 case studies of Dutch universities, we have been able to draw a number of conclusions about the choices
which institutions have to make when arranging support structures:
The interviewed institutions believe that creating an innovation programme is indispensable to accelerate innovation. With
the aid of a central budget and central management, an overview and concentration of forces becomes available. There is
also more room for further development and upscaling. A central program will create opportunities to operate outside
existing frameworks.
For education innovation with ICT you need a multidisciplinary team. The interviewed institutions opt for multidisciplinary
teams of educational experts, technical experts and student assistants, where necessary supplemented with specialists, such
as animators or 3D designers. In this way, they can facilitate both small educational experiments and large online
educational projects. More and more institutions are also starting a Teaching Lab, where teachers have the freedom to try
out new educational technology.
A third item of choice is whether educational innovation should be initiated bottom-up from individual teachers, or that
you exert some top-down pressure in order to bring about educational renewal. The universities which were interviewed
support initiatives that come from the lecturers or faculties themselves, among other things by creating freedom to
experiment. The disadvantage of this is that institutional developments such as open learning materials or learning analytics
do not come to fruition as easily. Bottom-up or not, for all institutions it is essential that the teacher retains ownership over
education.
Another striking development is that those institutions who have been involved in educational innovation for some time
now choose to merge support for teachers in a central location, a “one-stop-shop”. Traditionally, these services function
separately, for example the ICT department, educational advice and building management. Educational innovation with
the help of ICT, however, requires cooperation in new structures.
This SURF publication, which is due for publishing in February/March 2018, is intended to inspire educational institutions
that want to encourage educational innovation. It doesn’t provide a “one-and-only definite recipe” for organizing support
structures of educational innovation, but it does give many examples of well-reasoned choices made by five forerunners in
Dutch higher education.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This submission is based on the concept text for a SURF whitepaper titled ‘Keuzehulp voor het faciliteren van
Onderwijsinnovatie met ICT’, due to be published in Feb/March 2018.

REFERENCES
Lam, I., De Jong, R. (2015). Rapport Inventarisatie van de status quo van ICT-docentprofessionalisering. SURF.

5
64
 51

The Use of Mobile Educational Application

(MobiEko) as a Supplementary Tool for Learning
Mohamad Siri Muslimin Norazah Mohd Nordin Ahmad Zamri Mansor
National University of National University of National University of
Malaysia (UKM) Malaysia (UKM) Malaysia (UKM)
Selangor, Malaysia Selangor, Malaysia Selangor, Malaysia
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

ABSTRACT
This study aims to develop a mobile application (App) for teaching Microeconomics courses at Polytechnics institutions.
By combining this APP with blended learning and ubiquitous learning, this research proposes to construct effective
education environment and strategies that can help the learning and teaching of students and instructors of economics
profession with this auxiliary tool. It describes recent progress in this area, and explains the potential of mobile blended
learning for educational institutions. Furthermore, it presents an innovative solution which is a blended learning platform
that combines mobile learning with the concepts of classroom teaching, mobile learning and learning from books into a
native Android course app. The concepts comprise blended learning, which combines mobile educational application with
classroom face to face learning, and mobile learning, which represents learning “on the go” on smartphones anytime,
anywhere.
Author Keywords
Mobile learning, blended learning, educational apps, MobiEko App

INTRODUCTION
The innovations of information technology and digital communication in recent years have made a profound impact on
education and learning; as a result, the forms and tools of learning are changing dramatically. In recent decades, mobile
device provides quick access to obtain information, promoting education from traditional classroom teaching and learning
methods to technological based teaching and learning environment and encourage teachers and students to participate
actively so that educational process more attractive and interactive (Nordin, Amin, & Yunus, 2010). Therefore, the scenario
and pedagogy in teaching and learning process should be redesigned in order to meet the needs of the 21st century
education. Mobile learning products and services with new learning content and apps creating a lot of anticipation in the
learning community these days. Mobile devices such as smartphones, iPad, tablet and netbook are generally used in this
technological savvy environment. Certainly, the mobile devices have established its significant status in this technology
era because mobile capability to fulfil and meet the needs of the society. Students bring these technologies anywhere, at
any time for their daily affairs. Educators should look upon this phenomenon as a challenge. The concept of 'anytime' and
'anyplace' of mobile learning should be utilized in enhancing the pedagogical activities in delivering lessons (Bidin &
Ziden, 2013). Sharples (2000) states that we are living in an era of knowledge explosion and need to constantly improve
our knowledge and skills, so we can solve problems and develop other capabilities. Learning is no longer confined to
classrooms; rather, learning should be lifelong, pluralistic, as well as comprehensive, and can be assisted by various media
and technology to enhance its effectiveness. Technology-enhanced learning is expanding rapidly because of research
showing the benefits for learners in terms of engagement, convenience, attainment and enjoyment (Sharples, Taylor, &
Vavoula, 2005).
Considering the evolution of teaching and learning which drive by the advancement of information technology world, this
study aims to design and develop a novel mobile learning application called “MobiEko” to be used in learning
Microeconomics module in Malaysian Polytechnics. The MobiEko application is planned to be applied in blended learning
scenario to support instructors and students for teaching and learning, leveraging on the affordance and ownership of mobile
devices.
GENERALIZE BLENDED LEARNING
Not only students but also educators should be fortified to vary their educational approaches and to avoid limiting their
practice to only traditional methods of instruction. In the context of Economics teaching and learning process, most teachers
are stuck on traditional methods that have been in practice for many years. A specific example would be the chalk-and-talk
method, which is defined as a traditional method of education in which the teacher addresses the students and uses the
blackboard to provide examples or illustrations (Ding & Li, 2011; Joshi & Marri, 2006). In Addition, most of Economics
concepts exhibits a high level of abstraction which often imposes great difficulties for students to learn it. In many
situations, the concepts are isolated, without comprehensive understanding the correlations of each piece of knowledge
point on the whole picture (Moos van Wyk, 2015). Many students who take economics classes get bored and uninterested
in the material taught because of these outdated teaching methods. If teachers could use more effective methods in the

1
65
 52

economics courses they teach, their students would be able to better comprehend the information. The issue is that
academics cannot teach the same way they have trained a decade ago but need to shift to accommodate the diverse of
mobile-generation student population in their teaching styles.
To address this issue, we believe a generalized blended learning (mobile blended learning and face-to-face learning
methodology) may contribute to this. It is well-known that virtual environments offer great educational value in the process
of information transmission and interactive participation, either in synchronous (live chat, video conference) or
asynchronous mode (forums and chats). In such process, the face-to-face teaching and evaluation can be used to develop
analytical expressions and problem-solving capabilities related to mathematical matters. Lecturers at this stage can get
physical feedback about the effectiveness of their knowledge transmission to students. Then the understanding of some
specific conceptual issues is further assessed and reinforced via asynchronous learning through mobile educational
application developed. Basically, the blended environments offer students and lecturers an opportunity to interact via on-
line communication through threaded discussion. In other words, blended or hybrid learning involves both face-to-face and
online teaching and learning environments for students and instructors. In blended teaching and learning environments,
both instructors and students can benefit from the best features of these two-different media of instruction by providing the
opportunity to advance in their own pace. In general, after completing the face-to-face session of the blended course, the
students can complete the online requirements of the course (recorded lectures, activities, forum discussions, assignments
and so on) anytime anywhere via using their personal computers and mobile devices (smart phones, tablets and so on).
Moreover, blended learning allows face-to-face learning model with conventional methods with the use of various
approaches, strategies and learning methods whereas with online methods can provide online materials without limitation
of space and time, and also learners able to gain more information from various sources to support the learning process. In
sum, higher education systems need to redesign and look at how they can suit and shift the instructional environment to
the benefit of both students and academics.
MOBILE APP INTEGRATION INTO THE BLENDED LEARNING SETTING
‘MobiEko’ is an educational application in the form of a mobile app. The application was designed and developed by the
researcher to make teaching and learning of Microeconomics concepts more interesting and enjoyable for teachers and
students, and to bridge the gap between formal pedagogic education and informal forms of education, with which students
come into contact outside. MobiEko app can be used either for self-learning by the students or as a teaching aid for the
Microeconomics instructor, who can prompt the students to use it and then assume the role of a ‘guide on the side’. The
approach adopted in the design of the application was that of active, exploratory learning within a multimedia environment
that combines access to hypermedia learning material in the form of HTML pages, web, and interactive games.

Figure 1. MobiEko features

Through navigation within the environment of the application, the student can think and reflect about the concepts presented
in the learning material and to test his/her understanding of these concepts through the engaging and amusing activity of
mobile application. The design of MobiEko app comprise several interactive features, including user profiles, course
materials, educational video, self-assessment, quiz, links, portfolio, games, chat, feedbacks and pocket tools. (Fig. 1). The
learning material comprises texts, images, and interactive animations. The application runs on Android Operating System
and uses AppiePie: a free web-based application that provides varieties of modules and components for both Android and
Apple platforms. A user has to download and install the MobiEko application onto their mobiles to get the full access to
the learning activities.
The developed “MobiEko” smartphone app was designed to be user-friendly. Touching the start-up screen makes the main
menu appear. The mobile application is developed by dividing the content of the application into four main activities
namely as learning menu, learning activities, assessment activities and support activities (table 1). The learning menu
consists of offline notes, online notes and main chapter for every topic while learning activities provide activities like
problem-solving, tutorials, portfolio, video, and gamification incorporated for strengthening and enrichment elements. For
the assessment activities, the MobiEko application integrate quizzes, test and past year test so that student able to review
and exercise the quizzes and test. Lastly, the support section provides the additional activities that can support learning as
an enrichment and reinforcement activity for students. Among the activities provided in the support section are information,
chatting section, feedback and reflection, appointment, tips and pocket tools. Meanwhile, the log in menu, home menu and
some features of MobiEko application are shown in fig.2.

2
66
 53

Components/ Menu Modules/ icon Description

E-notes
Presenting information, providing offline and online
Learning menu Main chapter
learning notes, interactive notes & link to another website
Links (website)
Portfolio
Preparing teaching and learning activities, providing
Educational video
Activities menu individual & group activities, discussions & presentations,
M-enrichment
gamification and self- reflections
Gamification
Self-assessment Opportunity to think hard about the concepts presented in
Assessment menu Quiz the learning material and to test his/her understanding of
Archive test the topics.
User profile
Chat / WhatsApp
Feedback Provide support for learning activities, provide learning
Support menu
Learning tips links & encouragement.
Pocket tools
Survey
Table 1. Main component of MobiEko application
Mobile blended learning refers to educational concepts that integrate special mobile learning activities into blend or non-
blend learning as to encourage higher-order thinking skills. These include active discussion through WhatsApp chat (Ismail
Mohamed Nazul, Ellyza, Manisah, Normah, & Haliza, 2014; So, 2016), Edmodo portfolio (Enriquez, 2014; Giang, Minh,
& Noi, 2014), enrichment activities (Chau, 2014) and interactive games (Asikhia & Vora, 2017). Active discussion via
WhatsApp application which embedded in MobiEko application provide a medium for learners and instructors collaborate
with each other and construct knowledge online. Portfolio features allow learners to develop and publish a piece of writing,
which other learners can then comment upon. An effective teaching/learning process must stimulate intellectual curiosity
and offer a sense of enjoyment that will move the students from the passive role of recipients of information to the active
role of builders of knowledge. One way to achieve higher-order and critical thinking is to provide learners with a complex
problem, such as a case study to solve, and use discussion platform and portfolio as shared online collaborative spaces for
interaction. Likewise, the blended learning method has given opportunity for student to further explore their own (self-
exploratory) materials and other sources of reference, deepen the learning, knowledgeable about the topic and related
topics, improve student constructivism and improve student understanding (Alipor, 2010).

Login interface Chapter interface Support interface Content interface Self Assesment interface

E-Quiz interface Tutorial interface E-notes interface Video interface Discussion interface

Figure 2. MobiEko interfaces and menu activities

Ideas for Mobile Blended Learning Activities with MobiEko application
1. Course preparation - the mobile educational application (MobiEko) can be used as a preparation material for students
and lecturers by clearly defining what to learn and put together course materials that serve the learning outcomes.
2. Homework for face-to-face classes - various activities provided through the application can be used for face-to-face
discussions in the classroom

3
67
 54

3. Flipped classroom - The mobile flipped classroom scenario is very similar to the mobile blended classroom learning.
The students can work on several problems in order to prepare for the next session. This helps the students have familiarized
themselves with some contents and discuss the students' questions.
4. Group activities - facilitate discussions in which groups of students should learn about different argumentation lines,
e.g., for a role play session. The student separated into groups and assign the related question to them. The task and activities
were designed in a way that students have completely independent insights on the topics and integrate with them during
the discussion session.
CONCLUSION
In this paper, the work-in-progress of MobiEko - an Android version of mobile learning application has been reported. The
concept of mobile learning application seems to be an interesting and mobile educational application have the potential to
provide a different and exciting learning experience for users. Therefore, a mobile educational application should be given
the opportunity to offer their benefits in the learning process especially in the context of blended learning. The importance
of blended learning integration is justified by the fact that learning activities which can be realized both in the classroom
and in the e-learning environment. Furthermore, blended learning provides a number of important advantages for both
teachers and students, making them active participants of the learning process responsible for the results of their own work.
The suggested learning mode helps to keep pace with the time and correspond to new requirements of the educational
system where information technologies and the use of online resources play a vital role.

REFERENCES
Alipor, A. (2010). A Blended Education Program Based On Critical Thinking And Its Effect On Personality Type And
Attribution. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 11(April), 185–196.
Asikhia, I. S., & Vora, A. (2017). To Enhance Engagement for An Evaluating The Use Of Manifest Justice In The
Washington State Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent
Psychiatry, 56(10), S191. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2017.09.121
Bidin, S., & Ziden, A. A. (2013). Adoption and Application of Mobile Learning in the Education Industry. Procedia -
Social and Behavioral Sciences, 90, 720–729. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.07.145
Chau, C. L. (2014). Positive Technological Development for Young Children in the Context of Children’s Mobile Apps.
Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling, 160. http://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004
Ding, M., & Li, H. (2011). On the Application of Multimedia in Economics Teaching. International Education Studies,
4(3), 2010–2012. http://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v4n3p88
Enriquez, M. A. S. (2014). Students ’ Perceptions on the Effectiveness of the Use of Edmodo as a Supplementary Tool for
Learning, 6–11.
Giang, T. N., Minh, N. V. A. N., & Noi, H. A. (2014). Edmodo - A New And Effective Blended Learning Solution Edmodo
- A New And Effective Blended, (June).
Ismail Mohamed Nazul, Ellyza, K., Manisah, M. S., Normah, A. A., & Haliza, H. (2014). WhatsApp: Komuniti Maya
dalam Teknologi Komunikasi Mudah Alih. Sains Humanika, 3(1), 23–30. Retrieved from
www.sainshumanika.utm.my
Joshi, P., & Marri, A. R. (2006). An Economics Methods Course?: Challenges of Teaching an Economics Education
Methods Course for Secondary Social Studies Preservice Teachers. The Social Studies, 97(October), 197–202.
http://doi.org/10.3200/TSSS.97.5.197-202
Moos van Wyk, M. (2015). Teaching Economics. International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, (April),
83–88. http://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.92072-5
Nordin, N., Amin, M., & Yunus, M. (2010). Mobile Learning Framework for Lifelong Learning. In International
Conference on Learner Diversity 2010 (Vol. 7, pp. 130–138). http://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.10.019
Sharples, M. (2000). The design of personal mobile technologies for lifelong learning. Computers & Education, 34(3–4),
177–193. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0360-1315(99)00044-5
Sharples, M., Taylor, J., & Vavoula, G. (2005). Towards a Theory of Mobile Learning. Proceedings of mLearn, 1(1), 1–9.
http://doi.org/citeulike-article-id:6652555
So, S. (2016). Mobile instant messaging support for teaching and learning in higher education. Internet and Higher
Education, 31, 32–42. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2016.06.001

4
68
 55

Dronagogy: A Framework of Drone-based Learning for

Higher Education in the Fourth Industrial Revolution
Helmi Norman, Norazah Nordin, Mohamed Mohamed Ally
Amin Embi, Hafiz Zaini Center for Distance Education,
Faculty of Education, Athabasca University
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Alberta, Canada
Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia [email protected]
[email protected];
[email protected]; [email protected]

ABSTRACT
The Economic World Forum has suggested that the fourth industrial revolution impacts the world in three megatrends
which include physical, digital, and biological trends. Drone technology is one of the physical megatrends that have the
potential to re-design education towards the fourth industrial revolution. Yet, as the technology is newly made for the
public, its’ affordances in learning environments are still not fully understood. Hence, the study investigates drone-based
learning in higher education settings and develops a framework for its’ integration as a learning strategy. The study uses a
case study to explain how small autonomous drones could be integrated using problem-based learning and MOOCs using
the pedagogical-space-technology framework. The case study illustrates that that drone-based learning could be used as a
learning strategy in different learning contexts and the proposed framework could be used to guide integration of drone-
based learning in higher educational settings.
Author Keywords
Drone-based learning, fourth industrial revolution, pedagogy-space-technology framework, 4IR learning strategy, higher
education
INTRODUCTION
In the fourth industrial revolution (4IR), the blurring of physical, digital, and biological worlds is affecting the educational
landscape. Technological advancements in 4IR such as drones in the physical world, Internet-of-Things (IoT) in the digital
world, and synthetic biology in biological world is offering educational affordances that have been never possible (World
Economic Forum, 2016). As learners today are digital natives, blending teaching and learning with technology is important
to engage them in learning. Yet, merely using technology without well-designed pedagogy may lead to disruption of
learning rather than engagement (Sattar et al., 2017). Design of the “right” blended between pedagogy, space and
technology is crucial is ensuring both instructors and learners are empowered during teaching and learning (Schwab, 2017).
One of the emerging technologies of 4IR is drones. Drones could be considered relatively new technologies as they have
used in the past for military purposes. The emerging aspect of drones are they are available in the current public market, as
drones’ usage have shifted from military purposes (e.g. for intelligence) to agricultural, passenger and delivery drones
(Floreano & Wood, 2015). For agriculture, drones have been utilized to monitor tree plantations. In a study by Torres-
Sanchez et al. (2015), drones were used to gain information on geometric features of agricultural trees for optimization of
crop management operations. The drones assisted farmers in terms of three-dimensional (3-D) features such as canopy
area, tree height and crown volume that were important information for plantation status. With regards to delivery drones,
Dubai created a “buzz” by the launching of the world’s first “drone taxi” for passenger transport. BBC (2017) reported that
the drone can autonomously take passengers and transport two passengers other locations via use of mobile apps (BBC,
2017; Nneji et al., 2017). As for delivery drones, several companies such as Amazon are using drones for delivery services.
In late 2016, Amazon launched the “Prime Air” service that offers transportation of small goods and products via drones
within a maximum air time of 30-minutes (Amazon, 2017). This spurred a discussion of on customer-drone relationship in
which service-delivery drones with regards to consumer-brand relationships were studied (Ramadan et al., 2017).
Albeit emerging usage of drones in various sectors, the usage of drones in education is still new. Previous studies have
shown educational affordances of drones in fields of geology (Jordan, 2015), journalism education (Marron, 2013), model-
based learning (Mirot & Klein, 2014), and environmental chemistry (Fung & Watts, 2017). In environmental chemistry,
Fungs and Watts (2017) used drones for environmental sampling experiments. The drones were used to find suitable
sampling sites in which they could collect samples for their experiments. In addition, drones assisted students in risk
assessment – whether the sites where suitable for land exploration and the degree of safety at the potential sampling site.
In model-based learning, Mirot and Klein (2014) modeled activities and features of the drones to teach about situational
analysis, in which students analyze situations and scenarios (in this case, setting up and flying the drones) and map them
to produce mental models. In relation, Jordan (2015) and Marron (2013) describe the potential of drones to be applied in
geology and journalism education. The former explained that drones could be potentially aerial surveys, field mapping,

1
69
 56

and monitoring (i.e. dangerous or hard-to-reach locations such as volcanoes and overhanging rocks outcrops). The latter
highlighted that drones could be integrated in journalism as newsgathering tools.

Despite all these potential and educational affordances, there are still limited frameworks and models to guide integration
of drone-based learning in higher educational settings (Fungs and Watts, 2017). Previous research related to framework or
models of drones include studies by Jacques et al. (2016), Zapata Garcia et al. (2016) and Appelbaum & Nehmer (2017).
In the study of Jacques and colleagues (2016), a framework for collaborative learning was produced by using drones as the
subject matter. Here, students were required to design and manufacture drones, and this assisted them in production of
drone conceptions. As for Zapata Garcia’s (2016) study, a project-based learning toolkit was developed for automation and
robotics engineering, where a series of activities were designed in development of an aerial robotic system (i.e. drone).
With regards to Appelbaum & Nehmer (2017) study, they studied on frameworks for internal and external auditing in
which they proposed a framework for prototype inventory counts. Although these studies proposed drone-based
frameworks, the studies used drones as educational outputs rather than offering frameworks that assist educationists in
designing learning environments by integration of drones. Moreover, there are also limited frameworks that link drones to
the aspects of pedagogy, space, and technology. As such, in resolving the issues and filling in the gaps, this study
investigates the educational affordance of drones (i.e. consumer quadcopters) and develops a framework of drone-based
learning for 4IR higher education. The study also links the framework with the design of pedagogy, space and technology
for 4IR.
PROPOSED FRAMEWORK FOR DRONE-BASED LEARNING IN 4IR HIGHER EDUCATION
The proposed framework for drone-based learning is adapted from the works of Radcliffe (2009) and Floerano & Wood
(2015). Radcliffe (2009) proposed a pedagogy-space-technology framework for design and evaluation of learning places.
In the framework, all three aspects (pedagogy, space and technology) influenced each other in a reciprocal manner, in
which an intended pedagogy could influence arrangement of space, while a space could equally influence what people do
in it and influence teaching and learning patterns. Similarly, a learning space could influence opportunities and constraints
on a type of technology, while a particular technology could influence how a learning space is utilized by educators and
learners. Thus, the study adapts the pedagogy-space-framework and links the framework for framing drone-based learning.
The proposed framework for drone-based learning in 4IR Education is illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Framework of drone-based learning for 4IR higher education

Technological aspect
By definition, drones are unmanned aerial devices (UAVs) and are aircrafts that are controlled by human pilots which are
not onboard. Drones range from quadcopters, helicopter drones, RTF drones, delivery drones, photography drones and
racing drones (Floreano & Wood, 2015; Jacques et al., 2016). This study focuses on small autonomous drones, specifically,
quadcopters (or rotorcrafts) that are available in the market for the public. In development of the framework, drone-based
learning is linked to the perspectives of pedagogy, space, and technology by Radcliffe (2009). In a review on small
autonomous drones, Floreano & Wood (2015) explains that drones have three-levels of autonomy, which are sensory-

2
70
 57

motor autonomy, reactive autonomy, and cognitive autonomy. Autonomy of drones can be related to robot autonomy,
where autonomy is based on their abilities to carry out tasks without human interventions based on aspects such as current
state and sensing. At first level autonomy (sensory-motor autonomy), drones can perform high-level human commands
(e.g. move to a global positioning system or fly at a given altitude). At the next level autonomy (reactive autonomy), drones
are capable of avoiding obstacles, take off, land, coordinate with other moving objects, and maintain a predefined distance
from the ground. In the highest autonomy level (cognitive autonomy), drones can carry out simultaneous localization and
mapping, recognize objects and humans, plan and learn (Floreano & Wood, 2015). Based on the three levels of drone
control autonomy, the educational affordances of small autonomous drones can be categorized as follows: (i) active
tracking-based video shooting and monitoring; (iii) gesture-based video shooting and monitoring; and (iii) controller-based
video shooting and monitoring.
Active tracking-based video shooting is related to video shooting that is performed by the drone on an intended fixated
object or area. This is performed by using geolocations and video imagery tracking (Hosseinpour et al., 2016). Using the
active tracking feature, drones video shoot on a fixated target and follow the movement of the target without the
interventions of humans using controllers. For instance, drones can be used to video shoot a student conducting fieldwork
without the student having to control the drone. Gesture-based video shooting involves human operators using hand
gestures to command and control drones as well as give directions of movements. This is done via machine vision
techniques using locally on-board video cameras on drones. When a hand gesture indicating an intended direction of drones
are given, the drone estimates the angle and distance by the estimated hand direction and face score system (Nagi et al.,
2014). Controller-based video shooting is typically type of video shooting that can be performed by drones. The controller
is usually connected via radio or Wi-Fi signals and in some cases connected to mobile phone or tablet PCs for visualization
of during video shooting.
Space aspect
The space aspect is defined by Radcliffe (2009) as physical learning spaces or places. In relation, Wilson (2009) elaborated
on the physical learning space concept, explaining that learning spaces are on the continuum of two ends of unstructured
and structured physical learning spaces. Structured physical learning spaces are spaces that are designed for teaching and
learning, such as collaborative teaching and learning spaces. Unstructured physical learning spaces are informal social
learning spaces such as “eddy spaces” which are small spaces for learning (Wilson, 2009; Souter et al., 2011). This can be
further extended to virtual learning spaces, where they can also be categorized as structured and unstructured virtual
learning spaces. Here, the structured virtual learning spaces refer to formal virtual learning environments such as massive
open online courses (MOOCs) or learning management systems while unstructured ones refer to informal virtual learning
environments such as social media and blogs (Dabbagh & Kitsantas, 2012).
With regards to drones and learning spaces, drones offer educational affordances in both physical and virtual learning
spaces. From physical learning spaces, drones can be designed to be used for structured and unstructured learning
environments. In structured learning spaces, drones could be used for outdoor lab experiments and fieldwork such as
suggested by Jordan (2015). As for unstructured ones, drone features such as active tracking-based video shooting could
be used in recording group discussions in indoor or outdoor learning spaces (Hosseinpour et al., 2016). With regards to
structured and unstructured virtual spaces, video shots by drones could be shared in formal and informal spaces such
MOOCs and social media.
Pedagogical aspect
In terms of the pedagogical aspect, drones could be used with application of various learning theories and learning
strategies. As drones offer interesting educational affordances that could be utilized in different learning contexts,
appropriate teaching and learning strategies and theories have to be selected in order to maximize the potential of drones.
Floreano & Wood (2015) explains that drones have three-levels of autonomy, which are sensory-motor autonomy, reactive
autonomy, and cognitive autonomy. Here, depending on the learning aims, an educator would have to first understand the
educational affordance of a drone type (e.g. small autonomous drone) according to the levels of autonomy. This would
enable educators to design their pedagogy to suit the educational affordance of drones or utilize drones to suit their
pedagogy.
A CASE STUDY OF DRONE-BASED LEARNING FOR 4IR HIGHER EDUCATION
To illustrate how drone-based learning can be applied for 4IR higher education, a case study was conducted in a course
applying drone-based learning is presented.
Overview of case study
The case study was conducted in an educational technology course at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia in a period of five
months, from February to June 2017. The course is a postgraduate course that provided exposure on instructional design
as well as learning material and task development for blended learning. The course was conducted in blended learning
format, where the course 50 percent of the course was conducted online while the remaining 50 percent was conducted in
face-to-face format. The platform used for the virtual learning space was a MOOC on the openlearning.com platform. The
MOOC was a self-paced MOOC opened to the public, in other words, anyone, not necessarily a student could enroll in the
course. The total number of student enrolled for the course is nearly 400 students and the MOOC can be accessed at
https://www.openlearning.com/design-of-blended-learning-courses/.

3
71
 58

Pedagogical-space-technological design applied in the case study

The pedagogical design applied in the case study was problem-based learning as discussed by Ryberg et al. (2010). They
posit that problem-based learning is defined by three main aspects, which are: the problem, the work process, and the
solution. The problem is related to any issues or problems that were intended to be solved while the work process involves
processes that were carried out to solve the problem. The solution is the solution designed and developed based on the
work process that was conducted. As discussed by Ryberg and colleagues (2010), defining the three aspects are important
in problem-based learning – as to who defines the problem, who organizes and controls the work process, and who owns
the solution – between both the educator and learner. In the case study, an overall task was given to learners, where the
students were assigned to produce videos related to a given theme. The problem and the work process were own by learners
in which learners were responsible to define their research problems, project management and teamwork processes.
Meanwhile, the solution was co-owned between learners and educators. With regards to the problem, the educator provided
a general rubric for video components, and a general task was given, which was to create a video on the theme of “awareness
on the future learning”. The learners were empowered in finding their own topic and research problem that was related to
the theme. As for the work process, learners were given total autonomy over management of their learning. Drones were
introduced to learners as a potential learning tool and features that included active tracking-based video shooting and
monitoring, gesture-based video shooting and monitoring, as well as controller-based video shooting and monitoring. For
the solution, learners were required to produce a video that solved the problem identified with the use of drones. The space
aspect in this study was the course MOOC as the virtual learning space and physical learning space that included computer
labs and fieldwork sites involving drones. The technology aspect integrated were drones, specifically, small autonomous
drones, where the drones allowed for active tracking-based video shooting, gesture-based video shooting, and controlled-
based video shooting. The brand used of drone used was the DJI Spark that is a mini drone with a mechanical gimbal and
camera allowing for intelligent flight control options.
The learning process: The problem phase
In the problem phase, learners defined their own research problem of their tasks based on the research theme “awareness
on the future of learning” (pedagogical aspect). Materials were gathered by using document analysis, in which documents
relating to problems related to the community were collected from sources such as newspapers, journal articles, community-
based websites and social media sites. Here, the aim was to elicit a real-world problem based on what is happening in the
community. This was done via the online collaborative mind-mapping where learners conducted brainstorming over the
internet in real-time by using online maps (Norman et al., 2017). The mind-maps produced were shared in the virtual
learning space, which was the course MOOC (space aspect). An example of an online collaborative mind-map produced
by a group of learners in depicted in Figure 2. In this phase, learners also familiarized themselves with drones, in terms of
management, safety issues, flight control features, and video shooting techniques (technological aspect). This was
important as most of the learners were not familiar with handling and management of drones.

Figure 2. An example of a online collaborative mind-map created by a group of learners in the course MOOC

4
72
 59

THE LEARNING PROCESS: THE WORK PHASE

With regards to the work phase, learners used drones to create their learning products (technological aspect). Based on the
research problems elicited in the previous phase, the learners develop solutions by producing learning products
(pedagogical aspect). Based on the problems, learners used the educational affordances of drones which were active
tracking-based video shooting, gesture-based video shooting, and controlled-based video shooting. The video shots were
conducted in communities based on their research problems (space aspect). With active tracking-based video shooting,
learners utilized the features in scenarios that required video shooting on moving objects or focus areas. This feature
allowing continuous video shooting on a intended focus areas/object by tracking its’ movements, as in Figure 3(a) and
Figure 3(b). As the study used the DJI Spark drone, four types of video shots were available in the active tracking-based
video shooting mode, which were: (i) ascend drones with camera pointing downwards; (ii) fly backwards and upwards
with drones locked on an intended focus area; (iii) circle around an intended focus area; and (iv) flying upward with drones
circling around an intended focus area (DJI, 2017). Meanwhile, gesture-based shooting was used for video-shooting
without remote controls and controller-based video shooting was used for aerial shots that required high elevation levels.

Figure 3(a): A mobile phone connected to the drone remote for viewing and monitoring of the video shots captured by the
drone

Figure 3(b): An example of active tracking-based video shooting conducted by a group of learners using drones and the
different types of video shots afforded by the drone

THE LEARNING PROCESS: THE SOLUTION PHASE

In the final phase, learners performed video-editing and shared their learning products (i.e. videos) on the course MOOC
(space aspect), as shown in Figure 4. The videos were developed in solving research problems that were identified in the
problem phase (pedagogical aspect). Learners then peer-reviewed their work and suggested feedback on refinements. These
feedbacks were then implemented to enhance the learning products. In relation, we also accessed learning analytics in the
course MOOC to assess learning pattern of learners across the five-month period (February to June 2017), illustrated in
Figure 5. The analytics show that the interaction in the MOOC was high in the initial (February and March) and final

5
73
 60

months (April and June). This was due to the fact that in the initial months, learners conducted online discussions regarding
their learning problem design while in the final months, discussions were related to peer-reviewing their learning products
that were solutions to problems elicited in the initial months.

Figure 4: Learning products (videos) produced by learners using drones shared on the course MOOC

Figure 5: Learning analytics of learning participation in the course MOOC from February to June 2017

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

The study has proposed a framework for drone-based learning for higher education in the fourth industrial revolution,
which consisted of three main aspects of pedagogy, space and technology. A case study was also discussed in applying the
framework in learning situation, where small autonomous drones educational affordances were integrated with regards to
the technological aspect, while problem-based learning, MOOCs and outdoor physical learning spaces where used in terms
of the pedagogical and space aspects.

6
74
 61

The limitations and future directions of the study are as follows. First, with regards to drones, the study used small
autonomous drones for learning. Utilization of other types of drones, such as helicopter drones, RTF drones, delivery
drones, photography drones and racing drones, could offer different educational affordances. Second, the study was
conducted with participants who were postgraduates taking an educational technology course. Using undergraduates and
applying it to a different field other than social science, for example engineering, could yield in different findings. Third,
with regards to the pedagogical aspect, problem-based learning was integrated as the teaching and learning strategy.
Application of other learning strategies such as heutagogy or challenge-based learning could be more suitable depending
on the learning contexts and could yield in other interesting educational affordances of drones. Finally, MOOCs were used
as virtual learning spaces for project discussion and management of learning products. It would be interesting to investigate
how other learning environments such as mobile learning and ubiquitous learning environments combined with other 4IR
technologies such as mobile augmented reality and interaction analysis tools such as social network analysis could be used
in drone-based learning (Norman et al., 2015; Tesolin & Tsinakos, 2018). In sum, it is hoped that the study could be used
for educators and researchers interested in the field of drone-based learning.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was funded by the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia and Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia under the
Fundamental Grant Research Scheme, no: FRGS/1/2016/SSI09/UKM/02/2.
REFERENCES
Appelbaum, D., & Nehmer, R. A. (2017). Using Drones in Internal and External Audits: An Exploratory
Framework. Journal of Emerging Technologies in Accounting, 14(1), 99-113.
BBC (2017). Dubai test drone taxi service. Accessed on 6 December 2017 at http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-
41399406
Dabbagh, N., & Kitsantas, A. (2012). Personal Learning Environments, social media, and self-regulated learning: A natural
formula for connecting formal and informal learning. The Internet and higher education, 15(1), 3-8.
DJI (2017). Spark: Seize the moment. Accessed on 18 December 2017 at https://www.dji.com/spark
Floreano, D., & Wood, R. J. (2015). Science, technology and the future of small autonomous drones. Nature, 521(7553),
460-466.
Fung, F. M., & Watts, S. (2017). The Application of Drones in Chemical Education for Analytical Environmental
Chemistry. In Teaching and the Internet: The Application of Web Apps, Networking, and Online Tech for Chemistry
Education (pp. 155-169). American Chemical Society.
Gernez, E., Harada, C. M., Bootsman, R., Chaczko, Z., Levine, G., & Keen, P. (2012, June). Protei open source sailing
drones: A platform for education in ocean exploration and conservation. In Information Technology Based Higher
Education and Training (ITHET), 2012 International Conference on (pp. 1-7). IEEE.
Hosseinpoor, H. R., Samadzadegan, F., & Dadras Javan, F. (2016). Pricise target geolocation and tracking based on uav
video imagery. International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing & Spatial Information Sciences, 41.
Jacques, S., Bissey, S., & Martin, A. (2016). Multidisciplinary Project Based Learning Within a Collaborative Framework:
A Case Study on Urban Drone Conception. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (iJET), 11(12),
36-44.
Marron, M. B. (2013). Drones in journalism education. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator 68 (2), 2013
Mirot, A., & Klein, J. (2014). Using the AR. Drone to Implement Model-Based Learning. Journal of Applied Learning
Technology, 4(2).
Nagi, J., Giusti, A., Di Caro, G. A., & Gambardella, L. M. (2014, March). Human control of UAVs using face pose
estimates and hand gestures. In Proceedings of the 2014 ACM/IEEE international conference on Human-robot
interaction (pp. 252-253). ACM.
Nneji, V. C., Stimpson, A., Cummings, M. M., & Goodrich, K. H. (2017). Exploring Concepts of Operations for On-
Demand Passenger Air Transportation. In 17th AIAA Aviation Technology, Integration, and Operations Conference (p.
3085).
Norman, H., Nordin, N., Din, R., Ally, M., & Dogan, H. (2015). Exploring the roles of social participation in mobile social
media learning: A social network analysis. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed
Learning, 16(4).
Norman, H., Nordin, N., Yunus, M., Sham, F.M., Zaidi, M.A.S., & Ally, M. (2017). Online Collaborative Mind-mapping
in Multidisciplinary Research Teams for Eliciting Bottom 40 Transdisciplinary Community Issues. In IABL 2017: 2nd
World Conference on Blended Learning (p. 103-107).
Radcliffe, D. (2009) A pedagogy–space–technology (PST) framework for designing and evaluating learning places, in: D.
Radcliffe, H. Wilson, D. Powell & B. Tibbetts (Eds) Proceedings of the Next Generation Learning Spaces 2008
Colloquium (Brisbane, Australia, University of Queensland).

7
75
 62

Ramadan, Z. B., Farah, M. F., & Mrad, M. (2017). An adapted TPB approach to consumers’ acceptance of service-delivery
drones. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 29(7), 817-828.
Ryberg, T., Glud, L. N., Buus, L., & Georgsen, M. (2010, May). Identifying differences in understandings of PBL, theory
and Interactional interdependencies. In Networked Learning Conference 2010 (pp. 943-951).
Sattar, F., Tamatea, L., & Nawaz, M. (2017). Droning the Pedagogy: Future Prospect of Teaching and Learning. World
Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, International Journal of Social, Behavioral, Educational, Economic,
Business and Industrial Engineering, 11(6), 1622-1627.
Schwab, K. (2017). The fourth industrial revolution. Crown Business.
Souter, K., Riddle, M., Sellers, W., & Keppell, M. (2011). Spaces for knowledge generation. Final report.
Tesolin, A., & Tsinakos, A. (2018). Opening Real Doors: Strategies for Using Mobile Augmented Reality to Create
Inclusive Distance Education for Learners with Different-Abilities. In Mobile and Ubiquitous Learning (pp. 59-80).
Springer, Singapore.
Torres-Sánchez, J., López-Granados, F., Serrano, N., Arquero, O., & Peña, J. M. (2015). High-throughput 3-D monitoring
of agricultural-tree plantations with unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) technology. PloS one, 10(6), e0130479.
Wilson (2009). The process of creating learning space, in: D. Radcliffe, H. Wilson, D. Powell & B. Tibbetts (Eds)
Proceedings of the Next Generation Learning Spaces 2008 Colloquium (Brisbane, Australia, University of Queensland).
World Economic Forum (2016). The fourth industrial revolution: What it means and how to respond. Accessed on 18
December 2017 at https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/01/the-fourth-industrial-revolution-what-it-means-and-how-
to-respond/
Zapata García, D. F., Garzón Oviedo, M. A., Pereira Valente, J. R., & Barrientos, A. (2016). QuadLab: a Project-Based
Learning Toolkit for Automation and Robotics Engineering Education.

8
76
 63

Reconfiguring Blended K-12 Professional Learning

Through the BOLT Initiative
Constance Blomgren
Athabasca University
Alberta, Canada
[email protected]

ABSTRACT

In this pedagogical reflective paper, as part of a larger qualitative and interpretive research study, the author
explicates her experience of redesigning three graduate courses as part of a professional learning initiative for
blended and online K-12 teachers. Athabasca University’s Blended and Online Learning and Teaching (BOLT)
initiative has evolved from its original inception and has grown to include a multi-authored blog and a virtual
conference. For the teacher of teachers, this initiative has imparted many insights of what it means to meet the
professional learning needs of practitioners who daily encounter the challenges and rewards of teaching K-12
students in an online or blended delivery format. Using the Community of Inquiry framework, these redesigned
graduate courses offered various opportunities for two distinct learning assignments. Using self-reflective processes
based upon small, student-generated artifacts produced during the online offerings, these graduate students created a
Pengagement assignment, a portmanteau of engagement and pen. A second distinct assignment were blog posts that
featured the teacher’s lived experiences integrated with insights from current research articles and what it means to
blend content and pedagogical knowledge with technology-enhanced teaching and learning. These curated posts
form part of the BOLT Multi-authored blog, along with podcasts and videos of the implications of teaching with
Open Educational Resources. The blog also hosts archived presentations from a virtual K-12 OER conference.
Taken together the assignments and the components of the blog aim to support authentic professional learning
during BOLT and upon graduation. The essential question encounters how the BOLT initiative aligns with the
findings of an evidence-based research study that identified the needs of and opportunities for teacher professional
development.
Author Keywords

pedagogy of blended learning, blended learning in K-12, blended learning in teacher professional development

BACKGROUND

Although a separate and independent country, Canada as a nation experiences a variety of strong and significant
influences from the United States. These influences range from approximately 90 percent of all Canadians living
within 160 kilometres of the shared and longest unguarded international border to English as the first language of the
majority of Canadians (CBC news, 2009). Economic ties are also exceptionally strong and collectively these
influences also permeate into the area of K-12 educational research and pursuits. Unlike the area of psychology
where there has been a recent questioning of the American domination of psychological research (Arnett, 2008), no
similarly robust questioning has evolved in Canadian educational studies. Recent changes towards professional
learning communities (PLC), problem-based learning, and technology-enhanced learning, for example, are felt both
below and above the international border and it is not uncommon for teacher conferences to have American keynote
speakers. In a recent Canadian study, professional learning was identified as a key contributor toward enhancing
teacher self-efficacy (Beauchamp, Klassen, Parsons, Durksen, & Taylor, 2015) and furthers the pursuit of
understanding the learning needs of teachers.

Within the USA, professional development for K-12 teachers has been established by the Boston Consulting Group
(BCG) to cost 18 billion dollars annually (2015, p. 13) and yet the effectiveness of this PD to address the ongoing
changes brought by technology-enhanced learning and teaching appears inconsistent (p. 14). In 2014, the Gates
Foundation hired the BCG and with data from over 1300 teachers, the results indicate a stark divide between
practitioner-based perception of authentic professional learning experiences and those orchestrated by educational
leaders. Through the survey instrument and its questions related to teacher professional development, teacher
respondents identified that effective PD necessities: relevancy, interactivity, authenticity (i.e. delivered by someone
who understands the teachers’ contexts), is sustained over time, and enhances the professional nature of teaching

77
 64

(p.4). This list indicates the demanding nature of what constitutes effective professional learning for in-service
teachers who range from first-year novices to those close to retirement.

In one attempt to address these identified learning needs, Athabasca University’s Centre for Distance Education
(CDE) entered into a formal agreement with the Alberta Distance Learning Centre (ADLC) to produce the BOLT
initiative and created an innovative, professional learning offering for in-service K-12 teachers. From the autumn of
2014 until the end of 2016, a curriculum redesign process occurred whereby 3 graduate level courses from the
master’s program in Education were selected and recrafted to fit current K-12 contexts. Each graduate course was
divided into 3 modules of one credit each, with an early access period, three weeks of synchronous activity and a
further week to complete assignments. Based on the Community of Inquiry (CoI) (Anderson, Liam, Garrison, and
Archer, 2001) the pedagogy of technology-enhanced learning formed the essence of the nine modules. Offered to
complement the intense periods of the K-12 school calendar, assignments were parsed to be manageably intense yet
not overwhelming. Contextualized and personalized by the teacher through examining the lived experiences of
pedagogical shifts, the assignments explored technology integration models, current research regarding blended
approaches and the emergence of a digital pedagogy.
PENGAGEMENT

Self-reflective practice has become essential to enhancing one’s professional meta-cognition and reflecting-in-action
(Schön, 1983, Moon, 2001) but within the complexity of a teaching day, many practitioners appreciate an
opportunity to thoughtfully apply these skills as a means to integrate professional learning. Rather than having a
participation mark, or a quantified measurement of discussion post activity, in the re-design process of the three
graduate courses I created the Pengagement assignment - a mashup of CoI engagement determined through the
cognitive, social and teaching presences; meta-cognition processes; artifact collection, examination and self-critique
of the learning encountered in the module; and ending with a self-assessment of one’s engagement within the BOLT
modules. Over the duration of the module, students collect evidence of their interaction within the content (cognitive
presence) or their engagement with the community of learners (social presence) or occurrences of instruction
(teaching presence). From these artifacts, students then analyze what was occurring, determine its significance and
use these meta-cognitive processes to inform their self-assessed mark. From my own lived experience of self-
assessment by students, I included a proviso in the Pengagement assignment description whereby the instructor
reserved the right to adjust the self-assessed mark, either lowering or raising it and within a rationale. Although rare,
students have self-inflated their level of engagement or conversely underestimated their contributions and the
proviso allows a second look at the self-assessed mark and reinforces the understanding that self-assessment requires
structure and parameters.

The Pengagement rubric, which I provided at the beginning of each module, encouraged these teachers to see how
the CoI could inform their understanding of a blended and digital pedagogy. The reaction to the Pengagement
assignment, which originates in the concept of thinking through a pen, self-engagement and active participation,
frequently produced insightful student gains even through the limited word count for the artifact exploration may
have confined some explorations. The assignment intent was to use what these teachers had created through the
module, not demand a new product but to drill down to find through self-reflective writing levels of inter-
connections (Dewey as cited by Moon, 2001) that existed in the educational experience that is at the heart of the CoI
model ( Lipman, 1991) . Schön (1983, 1987) and others have illustrated the significance of self-reflective practice as
part expanding and deepening professional knowledge gained through experience. Experience becomes more
meaningful, relevant and potent when it is thoughtfully examined, thereby changing an experience into praxis
(Gadamer, Weinsheimer, Russell, 2004) and experience therefore, a teacher unto itself.
NON-DISPOSABLE ASSIGNMENTS

Many teachers who are required to participate in professional development are curious about in-depth study, and in
the 2015 BCG report, courses were the most strongly ranked by both teachers and administrators as having the
highest satisfaction for a PD format (p. 5). However, many classroom teachers, whether face-to-face, blended or
fully online, do not see a personal move into administration roles yet they would like to experience aspects of
graduate school. Many teachers love to learn as well as to teach and in some top-performing countries such as
Finland, K-12 teachers are required to have a graduate degree before entering the profession (Finnish National
Agency for Education, n.d.). The BOLT modules are a potential bridge into graduate studies, and they provide the
sustained professional learning of a course but they also challenge the systemic legacy culture of advanced degrees
only for teachers who wish to transition into formal administrative roles, such as a school principal. With the BOLT
modules’ emphasis of a critically informed digital pedagogy for technology-enhanced teaching and learning, the

78
 65

courses over time extend and deepen the complex skills required to amplify professional competencies through a
thoughtfulness of pedagogical knowledge, as identified by Schulman (1986) and an identified need in the Gates
report (BCG, 2015, p. 3).

However, the question arises regarding how does one continue to learn once the module, course or program ends?
To address this concern, as well as the necessity to thoughtfully encounter theory and research through written
compositions, a keystone assignment of graduate school, the BOLT multi-authored blog became part of making
BOLT writing assignments relevant, and to avoid Wiley’s (2013) “disposable assignments” (para 5) with their large
investment of time by two individuals – the student and the instructor but with questionable value more broadly.
Over the nine modules, five require students to create a blog post within the context of the curriculum of that
specific module, and using a suggested format, akin to the expository expectations of a scholarly essay, these
classroom teachers use creative commons images, quotes from current research and scholars, APA citations, and
hyperlinks to supporting websites to produce an integration of theory and practice of a complex blog post reflective
of the lived experience of a teacher-in-action teaching with technology. The blog author currently understands the
teaching context, because the author, similar to the intended reader, is a classroom teacher, not an IT guru, an
industry expert or an academic. In the Teachers Know Best report (BCG, 2015) skepticism of PD experts even
extended to administrators who were perceived as not understanding a teacher’s context due to a paucity of
“classroom seat time” enroute to an administrative role (p. 7). For the 1300 teachers surveyed, ideal professional
learning was delivered by another teacher who understood the teaching context (p. 4).

On the BOLT multi-authored blog which has cross-posts to the ADLC blog, the curated posts aim to avoid repetition
of popular topics and have covered what it means to teaching code to the post-conference reflections from attending a
BlendED teacher conference. These teacher-authors do not have the pressure of maintaining their own blog but yet
benefit from the professional growth these posts exemplify as well as the status of digital publication, a kudo to their
hard-wrought expertise. These theoretical connections and self-reflective moments woven throughout an informative
yet engaging format provide evidence and insights for their own students, parent, colleagues and other stakeholders
regarding the sophistication required to teach in this digital age. The long term success of this form of sharing
professional knowledge is uncertain, but in the meantime, the BOLT blog provides one avenue of various teacher
voices and thereby speaks to the diversity and range of what technology-enhanced teaching and learning entails. It is
an authentic blend of how teachers are using digital tools as part of their repertoire, including their reservations,
honest concerns and acknowledgement of their limitations and successes. More than a tweet and less than a typical
graduate research essay, the BOLT blog models and encourages other teachers to also use a thoughtful pedagogy
when teaching with technology.

RECONFIGURING POST-GRADUATION

With the ongoing developments within K-12 Open Educational Resources (OER), the BOLT blog also houses the
Multiply K-12 OER media project which holds 17 podcasts and three videos regarding what it means to teach and
learn with OER. The BOLT blog also archives the OpenCon18 K-12 Athabasca virtual conference presentations.
Offered as a free virtual event in early 2018, this satellite conference included a remix panel based from a similar
offering from the recorded OpenCon17 Berlin conference which was supported in part through the Scholarly
Publishing and Academic Resources Coalition (SPARC). The January satellite offering allowed for the contextual
professional learning needs of Canadian teachers interested in K-12 OER which inevitably includes blended
teaching approaches. As well, this innovative offering also tied into the larger OER global conversations
experienced earlier in Berlin.

Although there were various reasons to pursue a virtual conference, a significant one was the need to support BOLT
graduates with the knowledge of what the upcoming changes OER will require at all levels of K-12 education.
Wiley’s (2014) 5Rs of OER – retain, reuse, revise, remix and redistribute – are part of the culture of OER and
advocates see teacher awareness and use as a means for “bottom-up” (Rennie and Reynolds, 2014, p. 17) or little
OER (Weller, 2010) to percolate up to meet with “top-down” OER (Rennie and Reynolds, 2014, p. 17) or big OER
(Weller, 2010). OER effectively implemented is a sophisticated form of collegial collaboration although different
from a school-based collaborative community, both forms require elements of trust, sharing and ongoing

79
 66

commitment to the broad goals of education. As indicated in the Gates survey results (BCG, 2014) collaborative
communities are a professional characteristic highly valued due to their varied and substantial individual and
collective benefits. The virtual conference archive allows visitors, including BOLT graduates and those within their
professional networks to view or review these short presentations and partake of the ongoing professional learning
opportunities that the BOLT initiative has established. The BOLT blog is about extending and reconfiguring
graduate course assignments and learning to become a touchstone beyond graduation. Through the authentic teacher
voice and experiences of blended K-12 teaching and learning the BOLT blog is more than a collection of posts, as it
holds relevant media about what it means to teach with OER and holds potential to become an even stronger node in
the connections that define the Canadian emerging K-12 OER and blended teacher community network.
CONCLUSION

Despite BOLT’s alignment with clearly identified teacher professional development needs the initiative has had
minimal success with respect to robust enrollments. There are numerous rejoinders to the call for professional
development by teachers, administrators, and other stakeholders, of which BOLT is one small response. There are
plentiful demands for teachers’ attention with ongoing and substantial curriculum changes, students’ complex
learning needs, the movement toward personalized learning, data analytics, and the list goes on and on. But yet,
teachers do know best what they need and want:

Much of what systems consider professional development, teachers perceive as wasted time. But learning
activities that directly support teacher practice, such as planning and reflecting on instruction [emphasis
added], are valued much more positively by teachers, as they tap into their motivation to help students
learn.(BCG, 2014, p. 11).

Additionally, the lack of time, is a substantial stress for all level of educators and this very lack influences the
instruction provided (Alberta Teachers Association, 2011). A short half day workshop versus the time commitment
of a course, even a parsed one-credit offering, works against professional learning responses such as BOLT. This is
not an excuse but a reality and hence the need for a shift in the conception of a static noun phrase, professional
development, to the progressive tense and its embedded sense of activity ongoing, of professional learning.
Although the BOLT initiative is relevant, interactive and sustained over time, its success is not clear. Along with
similar offerings, as the Gates Foundation’s BCG survey showed, the disconnect between the perceived teacher
needs and the meeting of these stated needs require a substantial shift in conceptualizing the roles and
responsibilities to support the learning needs of teachers. It is time to redefine and reconfigure in-service teacher
professional learning.

REFERENCES

Alberta Teachers Association, (2011). The impact of digital technologies on teachers working in flexible working
environments. Retrieved from
ttps://www.teachers.ab.ca/SiteCollectionDocuments/ATA/Publications/Research/PD-86-
21%20Impact%20of%20Digital%20Technologies.pdf

Anderson, T., Liam, R., Garrison, D. R., & Archer, W. (2001). Assessing teaching presence in a computer
conferencing context.

Arnett, J. J. (2008). The neglected 95%: why American psychology needs to become less American. American
Psychologist, 63(7), 602.

Beauchamp, L., Klassen, R., Parsons, J., Durksen, T., & Taylor, L. (2015). Exploring the development of teacher
efficacy through professional learning experiences. Alberta Teachers' Association.

Boston Consulting Group, (2015). Teachers know best: Teachers’ views on professional development. Bill and
Melinda Gates Foundation. [pdf file] Retrieved from
http://k12education.gatesfoundation.org/resource/teachers-know-best-teachers-views-on-professional-
development/

CBC News (2009). By the numbers [Blog post] Retrieved from http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/by-the-numbers-

80
 67

1.801937

Dewey, J (1993) How we think. Boston, MA: D.C. Heath and Co.

Gadamer, H.-G., Weinsheimer, J., & Marshall, D. G. (2004). Truth and method. London: Continuum.

Finnish National Agency for Education, (n.d.). Teacher education. Retrieved from
http://www.oph.fi/english/education_system/teacher_education.

Lipman, M. (1991). Thinking in education. New York: Cambridge University Press

Moon, J. (2001). PDP working paper 4: Reflection in higher education learning. Higher Education Academy.
Retrieved from www.sussex.ac.uk/education/.../jenny-moon-workshop---reflection-in-higher-education

Rennie, F., & Reynolds, P. (2014). Two Models for Sharing Digital Open Educational Resources. Journal of
Perspectives in Applied Academic Practice, 2(2).

Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books.

Schön, D. A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching and learning in the
professions. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational researcher, 15(2), 4-14.

Weller, M. (2010). Big and Little OER. In Open Ed 2010 Proceedings. Barcelona: UOC, OU,
BYU. Retrieved from http://openaccess.uoc.edu/webapps/o2/bitstream/10609/4851/6/Weller.pdf

Wiley, D. (2013, October 21). What is open pedagogy? [Blog post] https://opencontent.org/blog/archives/2975

Wiley, D. (2014, March 5). The access compromise and the 5th R. [blog post]
https://opencontent.org/blog/archives/3221

81
 68

A Proposed Blended Educational Framework for

Administration of Enterprises in Nowadays’ Greek
Financial Crisis
Thalia Vasiliadou, Evgenia Papadopoulou, Avgoustos Tsinakos,
Advanced Educational Technologies and Mobile Applications Lab, Eastern Macedonia and Thrace
Institute of Technology (AETMA lab), Kavala, 65404, Greece;
[email protected] (Th.V.); [email protected] (E.P.); [email protected] (A.T.)

ABSTRACT
Training on issues concerning the administration of enterprises is very wide spread in educational systems and is requested
from most people who want to work for enterprises or to become entrepreneurs themselves. Many Greek universities,
institutions and organizations that support life-long learning offer education on this subject field. Greek entrepreneurs
nowadays need to face issues that they have not faced before and were not able to predict, due to the current Greek financial
crisis. Many of them have studied to the above programs to get the background knowledge for their job; however the great
difficulties that they seem to face and the continuous closing of the enterprises demonstrate that the knowledge they got is not
applicable and effective to solve the current issues. In an attempt to solve this problem the creation of a blended learning
course is proposed to train Greek entrepreneurs on how to practically face their issues. The program will consider the
characteristics of human nature that resists to changing of thinking. It will focus on persuading entrepreneurs about the
importance of applying the presented new effective strategies and on how to practice them. The proposed educational
framework will combine the asynchronous and synchronous communication, so that entrepreneurs can access from their
mobile devices. This will make it easier for them to study, considering the daily stressed program of the entrepreneurs. The
synchronous meetings will assist interaction where current real problems of entrepreneurs will be presented and solutions
based on the practices will be discussed so that the entrepreneurs will practice systematically the theory. On campus support
will also be offered partially with the aim to assist entrepreneurs and future students all over the country.

KEYWORDS
mobile learning, blended learning, entrepreneurs, Greek financial crisis, training, practical solutions

INTRODUCTION
New financial problems of crucial importance occur nowadays in Greece for the first time and affect the enterprises’
functioning (Beis, 2011). The Greek economy is currently in the seventh year of recession. The country’s debts are high and
the public revenues are not enough to pay for these debts (Misik, 2016, Kirtsos, 2013 & Koukakis, 2017). These issues
created a feeling of insecurity and pessimism in the market place (Ravanos, 2017). People find it difficult to get a job in
private enterprises or in public services (Salourou, 2017). Others get fired from their jobs, because the enterprise where they
had been working is about to close (Belos, 2016). Others who work in banks or public institutions lose their jobs because
many of these organizations close. Other employees had to face a remarkable decrease in their wages, which made it difficult
for them to afford their personal financial obligations (Mihalaros, 2016). The rest of those who keep working, live with the
continuous fear of getting fired in the near future.
Considering also the following data that afford the current Greek enterprising conditions, a number of relevant
conclusions are drawn. These data were all selected from a recent research conducted by the FEIR, the Greek Foundation for
Economic and Industrial Research, during Greece’s last financial crisis (Giotopoulos, Stavraki, Tsakanikas, Valavanioti,
2017). The FEIR is an organization that was created in 1975, in Greece with the aim to do research on issues concerning
Greek economy, to offer objective and reliable information to public concerning important financial issues, to make
suggestions and to offer solutions on issues of great importance on crucial moments of Greek economy. The FEIR has done
research for the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) research program. The GEM program collects elements from
developing and innovative countries and contributes to the international forum about entrepreneurship. According to the same

82
 69

FEIR’s research concerning entrepreneurship in Greece, the following findings were presented. About 400,000 people in
Greece start working as entrepreneurs and 1,200,000 people will have become entrepreneurs by the end of the next 3 years. 4
out of 9 people, who are thinking of becoming entrepreneurs, finally do so. Also, although the Greek entrepreneurs are among
the first who believe they have all the necessary knowledge to become a good entrepreneur, they are also among the first
people in the list of GEM countries who are afraid of failure. Other elements of the research are that the number of enterprises
that are functioning for a period of at least 3.5 years is increasing steadily and the 20% of people aged between 18 and 64
years work as entrepreneurs. Greece holds the third position in enterprising among the GEM countries. Moreover, almost the
36% of the entrepreneurs hold a degree of tertiary education. The 42.7% are only high school graduates and this number is
bigger than the one in 2015. Last, the 3.8% of entrepreneurs have stopped or paused their businesses’ functioning in 2016.
This number seems to be far from the 1.9% percentage of the GEM countries, and happens mainly due to the bad
administration of enterprises which causes small profits. The above numbers present a tendency to enterprising and a
simultaneous need to assist the new businesses due to the failures that occur to them.
Based on the above current and real economic data, it can be considered that although Greece currently meets
financial crisis that hits the businesses’ functioning, the number of people who want to become entrepreneurs will increase
even more, regarding that people lose their current jobs and it is not easy for them to find new ones at public services or
enterprises, so they will be enforced to start their own businesses. Most of these people are also not aware of the fact that they
have the opportunity to learn how to manage an enterprise in the current situation, whatever their location or age is and
without the prerequisite of having graduated a university. Also, most entrepreneurs are afraid of expanding their enterprises,
as they are not trained to manage larger companies. However, the Greek enterprises have the possibility to succeed. This can
be achieved by training entrepreneurs to acquire the proper competencies, as today they are not suitably trained to face the
above current situation which they were not able to predict (Barton & Look, 2008). Considering the elements of FEIR and the
whole context created by the current Greek financial crisis for the Greek enterprises, people will be looking for solutions to
their fears, as they unavoidably realize that they have to start a business on their own or alternatively acquire the knowledge
and the skills that will make them competent enough to maintain their jobs in enterprises under the current new financial
conditions (Krause, 1998 & Warnecke, 1993). The market seems to need a training program on these skills because of the
conditions that will keep changing dynamically and more intensively for the next period. In an attempt to service this need,
this paper presents a proposal for the creation of an innovative for the Greek educational system blended learning framework.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PROPOSED BLENDED LEARNING FRAMEWORK - METHODOLOGY

The proposal affords the creation of an educational program that aims to train students to be able to organize and
manage a Greek enterprise under the current Greek financial crisis, through blended learning procedures and without the
requirement for the students to move for studying. The students will be taught all the knowledge needed for someone to start
up an enterprise. They will get trained on how to maintain and support their businesses and on all the entrepreneurship skills
needed to manage and organize an enterprise effectively, on their own, under current Greek financial conditions that change
dynamically and affect enterprises’ functioning (Fox, 2000, Blanchard, 2008 & Mandino, 2002). They will practice to be
innovative and become able to determine whether a product is innovative at the market. They will also get trained on
marketing skills concerning how products can be sold throughout the country and abroad. They will acquire skills on how to
manage the producing procedure, how an enterprise is organized and operated, how they can respond to competition and take
risks, how the enterprise can be expanded through its sales and investments, how the entrepreneur can control and manage
time, first materials, money, resources and maintain quality in products, by creating effective business plans. The students will
learn to make the proper decision making in each occasion that arises and to react to sudden problems and failures or to
predict them. Also, they will get skilled on how to inspire personnel, organize teamwork, set goals and visions for growth.
The fact that they will be taught how to react to sudden problems and failures and practice many interesting authentic
examples will certainly be of high and special importance. Considering also the fact that the nowadays’ Greek financial crisis
caused a major reduction of government funding to enterprises, one of the program’s goals will be to support the
government’s policies by qualifying entrepreneurs to function independently from government support and to respond to
current financial demands at the market.
The program will offer a low-cost short-lasting blended learning course that will train on the above skills. The course
will be offered through an online educational platform, Moodle, where the syllabus and the exercises will be uploaded. The
exercises will be interactive and give students immediate feedback on their every wrong or right answer. The online learning
will be enhanced by synchronous communication meetings among the parties that will take place in agreed dates, through
Skype, and in which realistic examples of good and bad practices will be presented. The synchronous communications will
significantly support the students and focus on persuading them that using only their experience is not enough to make the
proper decisions and they will get trained to apply effective integrated plans on real situations (Blanchard, 2008). Experiences
will be exchanged in these synchronous communications and effective solutions will be examined for every situation,
considering the particular characteristics of the entrepreneurs’ personalities. These synchronous communications will be
recorded and uploaded to the YouTube channel that will be created for the program’s learning goals. These videos will be

83
 70

accessible by the students as a supplementary learning resource. Twitter will also be used to send immediate messages to
students for any important announcements concerning the courses. Last, the students will be able to meet physically at
scheduled classroom meetings in Kavala that will centrally administer the program; however their presence will not be
required at any of these meetings. The students will be able to completely attend the program through their mobile devices as
the program considers seriously the busy and stressful daily program of people who work for enterprises. Figure 1 presents
the methodology of interaction among the parties:

Figure 1. Teacher – Student interaction

Figure 2 presents a screenshot of a sample of the course in Moodle:

84
 71

Figure 2. A screenshot of the sample course in Moodle

The course will be offered in the Greek and the English language and there will be an effort to reach 10,000 students.
It will last for three months. The tuition fees will be low. Students will receive certificates of successful performance or
simply of attendance of the course if they fail the assessment exercises. The funding will be ensured by governmental support,
tuition fees, by the private sector and European programmes which currently financially support Greek economy. Moreover,
the program will offer consulting services to its students after they finish their studies, to associations whose members
attended the program and to anyone interested individual, enterprise or organization. Last, a digital library will be available to
anyone interested.
The new program will be supported by the “Advanced Educational Technologies and Mobile Applications Lab
(AETMA Lab)” which is established and functions at the “Eastern Macedonia and Thrace Institute of Technology
(EMATTECH)”, in Kavala, Greece. The Institute is public and trains its students on technological sciences and offers
degrees. The program will be functioning according to the vision, mission and goals of the AETMA Lab. The AETMA Lab
has its own department that creates and offers e-learning and blended learning courses through the Moodle platform, so it will
have the responsibility and decision making for the new program’s organizing and functioning. The Lab hosts its own
building and technological equipment to support its blended learning courses, so the new program’s courses will be hosted in
the Lab’s server. The instructors and students will only need internet connection to access the material. The future students
who live in Kavala will supplementary be able to attend scheduled classroom meetings with their instructors at the AETMA’s
venue. Moreover, people who have completed the program successfully will be able to support voluntarily any new registered
students locally, by answering their questions concerning the implementation of the program. This way, the Lab aims to
create a community of skilled people who will support the promotion and effective implementation of the program and the
training of entrepreneurs all over the country. Figure 3 presents analytically the structure of the proposed framework:

85
 72

Figure 3. The structure of the framework

PARTICIPANTS’ PROFILE
Description of the Staff
The technical personnel of the AETMA Lab have experience in the creation of blended learning courses, so they are
already acquainted with e-learning technologies. Personnel for the secretariat services will be provided by the EMATTECH.
The best teaching personnel will be employed to cover the needs of students as effectively as possible through blended
learning techniques. Instructors for the e-learning courses will be Greek or foreign professors from the EMATTECH or all
country’s Institutes or universities’ faculties who have degrees or certificates in teaching through e-learning or will be experts
that work outside the EMATTECH so that they will connect instruction to the market. Currently, the instructors of
EMATTECH’s faculties have already been allotted to create e-learning courses on the Moodle platform to support the
students’ blended learning. At present, the instructors are in an effort to embrace the online constructed courses in the
instructional processes, so they are acquainted with the blended learning techniques and able to support the proposed
program.

Description of the Students

The following issues should seriously be taken into account concerning our potential students’ profile. The
difficulties that nowadays people meet to find a new job will make a lot of them and especially young to want to start their
own business. Considering that the Greek economy needs to be facilitated, most people need to become entrepreneurs or work
in enterprises. Also, many Greek entrepreneurs are not usually formally trained. Some of them have acquired degrees and
certificates on managing enterprises but their enterprises are also hit by the Greek financial crisis, so the knowledge they had
gained is proved to be not practically effective. A big percentage and mainly the old entrepreneurs have acquired their
managing skills only through their experience and through the directions they are given from parents in family enterprises.
Considering these issues we conclude on the following categories for our students’ profile: 1) Old existing entrepreneurs.
These people must be decided and willing to make changes in the strategies that they apply for years in their enterprises and
through their training to the new program to become able to make adjustments in order to face the current new market
demands. 2) Those who think about creating their own enterprise. This category includes people, who cannot find a job in the
public sector or got fired from public sector so they choose to make their own business. It needs to be considered that
currently the Greek government does not hire new civil servants and dismisses many old, as due to the current financial
conditions they can no longer be paid. There are also people who have been fired from their jobs in the private sector and
need a new one, so they think about creating their own. This category includes a lot of Greek people who have high
educational background and had been working in high level positions. Moreover, there are people in this category who have a

86
 73

job but are afraid of losing it due to the uncertainty that the financial issues have created. These people are willing to learn
how a new enterprise is set, in case they will need to create their own. Last, there may be people that have immigrated and
have come to work and start a new enterprise in Greece. All these people need to get trained in order to acquire all the needed
skills to set up an enterprise that will be adjusted to the new market demands. 3) Those who work in enterprises, public
institutions or associations. These people need to get trained in order to get adjusted to the new market demands and assist the
organizations where they work to more easily respond to these demands. This is a difficult task, considering the Greek
personality’s attribute for resistance to change, as people in this category consider that they already know everything needed
about their jobs.
The future students will generally be men and women, irrelevant of their ages, must be graduates at least of
secondary education and acquainted with the basics of computers and the use of internet. Last, among the students there will
be those entrepreneurs that have already built their company somewhere and cannot move to Kavala to study or those that
because of financial difficulties or family reasons cannot move to another place. The common attribute of all will be their
willingness to change current views and get trained on new strategies that fit the current financial conditions. These attributes
will be intensively practised during the synchronous communications and this is part of the competitive advantage of the
program.

Potential Student Sensitivities

There are issues that would be important to consider for the future students of the innovative proposed program. The
teachers will have the responsibility to persuade them about how valuable our program would be for them in order to face the
current demanding conditions that have been created due to the Greek financial crisis, considering that it will train them on
practical effective applications. There will be offered little theoretical knowledge presented in the online platform but mainly
practical knowledge that will be shared in synchronous communications with simple, understandable terms. Through this
simplicity of knowledge and the convenience of the learning procedure, there will be an effort to make students more open to
the new knowledge and persuade them about its effectiveness in order to adopt it. There are certainly a lot of Greek people
that believe that they have all the necessary knowledge and that applying to our product would be waste of money and that
teaching them on how to act would be a violation of their personality. The need for change in this attitude is something in
which the new unit will focus. Another Greek characteristic is the fact that people want to spend little time on training and get
fast the successful results and with the lowest cost required. All these are considered by the new program, so emphasis will be
given to synchronous communication with students in order to minimize the unsolved problems and questions. Recognizing
all these Greek sensitivities would be a necessary step before designing the program, so that to be considered effectively to its
strategic planning and gain the competitive advantage.

CHALLENGES – EXPECTED RESULTS

Outcomes
The following outcomes are expected to be achieved through the creation of the new program. Learners, instructors,
support staff and managers, all contribute to the outcomes’ successful accomplishment. The expected outcomes are aligned
with the mission of the AETMA Lab. Specifically, 1) The program will be short-lasting, in low cost that will train on
practical and not theoretical knowledge. 2) The knowledge offered will be adjusted to the new Greek market conditions which
demand direct and effective solutions to the problems that have arose. There will be created effective learning courses
towards this goal. This will considerably assist people who want to immigrate in Greece. 3) The AETMA Lab and the
Institute will become an attractive point for teachers and students, in order to work and get trained on the program, irrelevant
of their age and ethnicity. 4) The AETMA Lab will cooperate with other Universities and offer certificates of higher
education level, with the validity of these Universities. 5) The instructors will work towards the AETMA Lab’s vision. 6) The
personnel occupied will be experts in blended learning 7) The number of registered students will continuously increase and it
will have reached 10,000 by the end of the next 5 years 8) The AETMA Lab will make people want to become entrepreneurs.
This will assist the government’s effort to promote entrepreneurship and reduction of unemployment. 9) The students will be
satisfied from their training, regarding their personal learning goals and expectations. The knowledge will assist them with
solving problems to their jobs. 10) The courseware will be of high quality and will be continuously upgraded and improved in
accordance with the current market demands. The program will be supportive to any problems that the students face. 11) The
managing and teaching personnel as well as the students will be proud of their coping with the Lab and the EMATTECH. The
local governors and generally Greek people will be proud of the program’s existence. 12) The AETMA Lab will promote
student’s access to knowledge. This will be achieved through: a)The program will be advertised following the marketing plan
b)The tuition fees will be maintained low c)A digital library will be created that will be used by the students even after their
completion of the program 13)The Lab will be reinforced financially. This way it will verify high quality of instruction,
teaching personnel and technological equipment. The financial strength will assist its work towards the AETMA Lab’s vision,
mission and goals. It will be achieved through: a)The application of an effective marketing plan for registration of new
students b)Ensuring revenues from European programs c)Ensuring revenues from institutions and enterprises whose

87
 74

personnel are among the new program’s students d)Ensuring revenues from social events e)Ensuring governmental funding.
Government will on its side be supported by the program’s functioning towards the goal for adjustment of Greek
entrepreneurs to the new market conditions. 14)The program will have as a central point in the Institute of Kavala and can
then make secondary supportive nodes for its functioning in surrounding cities of Kavala, like Thessaloniki, Alexandrupoli
and Ioannina. There are a lot of enterprises functioning in the surrounding cities of Kavala which will need the support of the
AETMA Lab’s new program.
Current Competitors
Based on our business analysis results, there are very few competitors that offer the same program with us at the
Greek market. Among them, we distinguish our major existing Greek competitor: the “Business Administration” e-learning
program of the “National and Kapodestrian University (NKU)” of Athens (http://en.uoa.gr/). Another competitor is the
“Hellenic Open University (HOU)” (http://www.eap.gr). We should also note that there are a numerous Greek ‘Managing
Enterprises’ faculties in Greek Tertiary Education and many seminars that are offered from other Greek educational
institutions like the University of Ioannina or the Democritus University of Thrace. Most of these programs neither are
offered through blended learning nor focus on practical applications of financial theory to nowadays financial reality. Instead,
these programs focus on much general theoretical knowledge during traditional classroom meetings.

Where is the Overlap

The proposed program and the above three major competitors will overlap. Firstly, except for theoretical issues on
organizing and managing enterprises, the proposed program will concentrate on practical applications and effective solutions
to crucial issues. This is something that the already existing competitors do not offer considering that people who have studied
to them keep facing practical issues to their enterprises and they seem that they have not acquired the necessary skills to
encounter these issues. Secondly, in contrast to competitors, the program will take in serious consideration the attribute of the
Greek entrepreneur’s sensitive personality characteristics that finds it difficult to approve new knowledge through studying
and is looking for positive results the sooner the possible, with the least effort required. On the contrary, the proposed
program will use simple terminology for easy understanding without theoretical and not applicable details that would
disappoint the entrepreneur, in order to persuade him about the effectiveness of the new knowledge that will be offered. Third,
the new program will offer certificates exclusively on organizing and managing enterprises, in contrast to our competitors that
offer certificates and degrees on more general categories. It will also be offered through mobile learning, in contrast to some
of competitors that require student’s physical presence.

CONCLUSION
The current Greek financial crisis has created a need for the people who work for enterprises to get trained on how to
face uncertain conditions and unpredictable problems. Today in the Greek market, there are institutes, private and public
organizations that offer education on managing and administering enterprises. Unfortunately, the existing Greek educational
system offers a mass of theoretical knowledge. The recent elements collected by FEIR and the difficulties with disastrous
results that the Greek enterprises face nowadays demonstrate that the knowledge that the above educational organizations
offer is not adjusted to the current Greek market’s demands. The Greek financial circumstances will keep changing
intensively for the next period of time and will cause the same problems to all entrepreneurs. So, entrepreneurs and generally
Greeks need immediate support considering the dynamic changes in Greek economy and the sense of uncertainty that these
conditions create. The on campus training that many of the above current educational organizations offer is not a form of
training that fits the stressed program of entrepreneurs who cannot easily find time to move to study. Instead, the proposed
innovative for the Greek market program-course focuses on training entrepreneurs through mobile learning to become able to
face the current Greek financial problems independently and will be designed considering the special characteristics of Greek
entrepreneurs’ personalities. The program concentrates to offering practical and effective knowledge and giving solutions to
students’ problems directly through the effective, easy to understand instruction of experts. Through the asynchronous
communication students will practice through interactive exercises, receiving a lot of feedback. The obligatory synchronous
will focus on practice of effective strategies and the optional supportive classroom meetings will complement the others. The
AETMA Lab will fully support the organization of the program and there will be a plan of creating a community of successful
graduates of the innovative program who will volunteer to support the promotion of the program in the areas of their living all
over the country. As a result, it seems that it is the proper time for the AETMA Lab to work towards the new program’s
accomplishment and release it to the Greek market. Its success will be based on achieving the Lab’s vision, meaning first, to
reach excellence in education of Greeks and foreign students on Organizing and Managing Enterprises who want to start-up a
business in nowadays’ Greek financial reality, second, to continuously train and increase the occupied personnel and, of
course, third to ensure funding in order to achieve all the above.

88
 75

REFERENCES

Barton L. & Look, R. (2008). Harvard business essentials – Crisis management. Athens: Moderni Keri A.E.E.
Beis, K. (2011). The Greece that I loved, the Greek bankruptcy. Where are we? Where do we go? What perspectives do we
have? Athens: Livani A.V.E.
Belos, E. (2016, June, 29). More than 244,000 Greek businesses have been closed since 2008. Kathimerini, Retrieved from
http://www.kathimerini.gr/865447/article/oikonomia/ellhnikh-oikonomia/perissoteres-apo-244000-ellhnikes-
epixeirhseis-ekleisan-apo-to-2008
Blanchard, K. (2008). Leadership at a higher level. Athens: Klidarithmos with license from Pearson Education, Inc.
Fox, J. (2000). How to become CEO. Athens: Kritiki AE
Giotopoulos, I., Stavraki, S., Tsakanikas, A., Valavanioti, E. (2017). Annual Entrepreneurship report 2016-2017: Early
stage entrepreneurship rates decrease, Foundation for Economic & Industrial Research. Retrieved from
http://iobe.gr/research_b_en.asp
Hellenic Open University Retrieved from www.eap.gr
Kirtsos, G. (2013). Get angry but dare! Lake Mary: Progressive communications
Koukakis, Th. (2017, July, 21). Why the International Monetary Fund makes Greek debt "extremely unsustainable". CNN
Greece, Retrieved from http://www.cnn.gr/oikonomia/story/90005/giati-to-dnt-vgazei-exairetika-mi-viosimo-to-
elliniko-xreos
Krause, D. (1998). The art of war for executives. Athens: Kritiki A.E.
Mandino, O. (2002). The largest seller in the world. Athens: Dioptra
Mihalaros, S. (2016, August, 24). World champion Greece in wage cuts due to the crisis. Protothema, Retrieved from
http://www.protothema.gr/economy/article/605058/pagosmia-protathlitria-i-ellada-sti-meiosi-misthon-logo-tis-krisis/
Misik, R. (2016). Capitalism breaks: Do we now become happier? Athens: Metaihmio
National Kapodestrian University Retrieved from http://www.uoa.gr/
Planning and Management in DE. (2012). MDDE 605 Study Guide. Athabasca, AB: Master of
Distance Education, Athabasca University
Project Management. (2013). MDDE 618 Study Guide. Athabasca, AB: Master of
Distance Education, Athabasca University
Ravanos, A. (2017, December, 17). Melancholic Democracy. Tovima, Retrieved from
http://www.tovima.gr/politics/article/?aid=925530
Salourou, R. (2017, October, 17). No 1 out of 2 Greek young graduates find work. Kathimerini, Retrieved from
http://www.kathimerini.gr/879372/article/oikonomia/ellhnikh-oikonomia/den-vriskei-doyleia-1-stoys-2-ellhnes-
neoys-ptyxioyxoys
University of Ioannina Retrieved from http://www.uoi.gr/gr/
Warnecke H.-J. (1993). Τhe other management: New culture in business. Athens: Fotosin AVEE - Ypsilon

89
 76

Create a Blended Learning Space with Whatsapp

Alice Gasparini
University G. D'Annunzio
Chieti and Pescara, Italy
[email protected]
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
The paper explores how instant messaging platforms can be used as informal learning spaces
where students can practice communication skills in a foreign language out of the classroom. The
experiment focuses on Whatsapp, the most popular instant messaging platform in Italy, where the
research will take place. Whatsapp will be used to implement an informal learning path, parallel to
formal learning, using Task Based Learning. It draws upon the theories of Kukulska-Hulme (2005,
2017), G.Trentin (2015) and Danesi (1988) and refers to the BYOD approach.
Most of the students own a mobile tool: a smartphone or a tablet and use Whatsapp on a daily
basis. The platform is multimodal for recording and sharing, photos, audio and video files, and
offers a chat where students can write in the foreign language they are studying, which makes it the
perfect environment for this research. The expected outcomes of the experiment aim at giving
learners more opportunities to use the language outside formal learning settings and, therefore,
communication skills and problem solving will be enhanced. In the specific case of a foreign
language, there is a strong need to use the language out of the classroom and, consequently, to
create opportunities in less formal contexts. Therefore, small tasks related to real life will be
identified and carried out in a Task-Based Language Teaching perspective through the chosen
platform.
The tasks will be linked to the syllabus and curriculum of the courses; the students will carry
them out after the formal teaching hours. The targeted population of the study will consist of Italian
mother-tongue students attending foreign language courses and not Italian speaking students who
are learning Italian as 2 nd language at University. This step will be followed by interviews and
surveys to assess the effects of the intervention on their language learning process, participation and
motivation.

90
 77

Author Keywords
Whatsapp, informal learning, task based learning, blended learning.

INTRODUCTION
Mobile learning is defined “as learning or teaching by means of mobile devices such as tablets,
laptops, smartphones, to which you can add consoles, or video game devices”. (Fratter, 2016).
However, the difference between e-learning and mobile learning lies not only in the type of device
chosen by the student, but in a greater immediacy of use and in greater flexibility compared to the
computer, just think of the ease and speed with which you can access to the functions and
applications of tablets and smartphones thanks to touchscreens. Learning is everywhere, anytime
and anywhere, and thanks to that it often goes beyond the dimension and formal aspect of learning.
The possibility of using these devices anywhere and at any time makes them the ideal tools for
informal learning as well as creators of greater learning opportunities, “another aspect of the ability
of mobile learning to provide extra opportunities for learning is the way mobile devices can be used
in dead-time, small bursts of otherwise unused time, such as waiting in lifts, cafes, buses or queues".
(Traxler &Wishart, 2011).
In Kukulska-Hulme words, “mobile technologies are uniquely suited to supporting language
learning on an on-going basis, in a range of settings according to a person's ability and adapted their
needs” . (Kukulska-Hulme, 2017)
Smartphones and tablets are more widespread than traditional computers and user trends make
them the new frontier of distance learning. The February 2017 Audiweb data on the digital audience
shows that in Italy the total digital audience in the reference month reached 30.7 million unique
users (56% of the population aged 2 and over), of which 13 million on mobile devices such as
smartphones and tablets. According the Global Digital Report 2018 by Hootsuite and Wearesocial
Italy has 49 million of unique mobile users of which 30 million of active mobile social users 1.
Worldwide, according to the Ericsson Mobility Report of November 2016 there were 250 million
subscriptions to mobile devices, such as smartphones, tablets and routers for internet connection; by
2022, an increase of up to 320 million is expected. Also based on these latest forecasts, mobile
learning is, without a doubt, a very current topic and studied in the educational field. It is possible to
find a wide bibliography on the use of SMS (Short Message Service) and on the impact of mobile
learning on teaching; for example, the aforementioned Traxler and Wishart or the experiment
carried out in the School of Languages and Linguistics of Griffith University in Australia, where the
SMS has become a means of learning Italian for beginners.
In Italy we can name successful experiments which introduced and tested the use of mobile
technology in schools: the project MouLE by CNR, Italian National Research Council, Institute for
Educational Technologies. The research focused on investigating the impact of mobile technologies
on educational contexts. It was awarded with the GOLD Award at the mLearn 2009, in recognition
of Mobile Learning Excellence for the Education category. The scholars involved designed a special
platform as learning environment, a very challenging project that proved how technology can
enhance teaching and learning experience. Another mobile learning experiment is called
O'Munacciedd2, a mobile didactic treasure hunt in which children explore the city.
1
https://wearesocial.com/blog/2018/01/global-digital-report-2018
2
App available at http://munaciedd.pa.itd.cnr.it/

92
 78

These challenging and interesting projects share a common element: a software or an

application were designed especially for the experiment.
The project, instead, aims to use an already existing platform, known and popular among youth
but not only: the instant messaging platform Whatsapp. It is an instant messaging platform, owned
by Facebook, used by more than a billion people in 180 countries 3. In Italy Whatsapp is the most
downloaded application used to communicate. It offers a high range of multimodality: video, audio
recording, photos, chat. “New models and teaching approaches which can fully exploit the potential
of those technologies that most of us now habitually use in everyday life […]. Deep reflection is
thus required as to how technological, particularly communication, tools can be fruitfully used in
this sense”. (Trentin 2015). Whatsapp is not designed to be a teaching or learning platform, it is a
platform designed for communication, it can't be a learning environment in itself, as a matter of fact
the research employs it not as a substitution of formal experience but it is complementary to it.
Formal and informal learning merge, traditional and innovation merge.
Using something already existing and known implies no extra costs, no extra time to spend on
instructing people to use it. Creating a blended mobile learning experience is an answer to the strong
resistance of the teachers toward mobile tools, like smartphones, and an answer the limitations of
the tool. The smartphone will be used outside of the classroom, where, instead, the traditional,
formal teaching of the foreign language is preserved. It is a compromise between tradition and
technology, a first step toward a change, the teacher who tries to get closer to their students using
their own way of communication. The teacher is still there, guides the students but the learning
experience for the students is completely different.
Another strong point of the research project consists in the fact that the creation of a course of
study that can merge formal and informal learning experiences refers to both hemispheres, such as
the bimodal learning described by Marcel Danesi; the inputs offered by video, images, audio follow
the general-particular, holistic-analytical axis by first activating the sensory component that
subsequently stimulates the formal cognitive modalities. (Danesi, 1988).
A further reason for the choice of mobile devices and Whatsapp is strictly connected to the
BYOD approach, bring your own device, or "an increasingly widespread orientation that consists in
requiring users / learners to be equipped with personal tools of work and learning such as
smartphones and tablets» (Fratter, 2016). Learners use their own devices for different purposes,
such as personal, leisure and training reasons and this gives them the opportunity to better adapt
them to their learning style.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
The innovative interest of the research project, proposed both at a methodological, cognitive
and interpretative level is to explore the teaching potential of a platform, which is not yet exploited
in Italian teaching and to create, analyze and propose, at a theoretical level, a method of use.
Whatsapp will be used to implement an informal learning path, parallel to formal learning, using
Task Based Learning. In so doing the project tries to answer these questions:

 Is it possible using a communication platform as a learning and teaching environment?

 How can we do it? How can we integrate the two experiences: formal and informal?
 How can we assess the learning experience?

3
https://www.whatsapp.com/about/

93
 79

Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is born within the communicative method and places
at the centre of the didactic activity some tasks that the students have to do. With "task" specialized
literature refers to an activity "in which the language in question is used with a communicative
purpose to achieve an outcome and which presents the following aspects: the meaning is paramount,
there is a connection with an activity in the real world, there is a communicative problem to solve,
the completion of the task is a priority, the verification consists in the outcome of the task itself".
(Diadori, P. et al. 2008).
Small tasks related to real life will be identified that can be carried out and implemented in a
Task-Based Language Teaching perspective through the chosen platform. The tasks aim at giving
learners more opportunities to use the foreign languages they study outside lessons and, therefore,
communication skills and problem solving will be enhanced. In the specific case of a foreign
language, there is a strong need to use the language out of the classroom and, consequently, to
create opportunities in less formal contexts.
Besides TBLT is considered to very fruitful if associated to web 2.0 technologies “the best fit
principles of TBLT, Web 2.0 technologies are ideal because they allow users to create digital content
and communicate with other users. Using Web 2.0 functionalities students can engage in doing
things with language and with other speakers rather than just listening, viewing, and reading about
language and culture in text- books or on Web pages that others have created” (González ‐Lloret,
2017).
RESEARCH METODOLOGY
The PHD project is in its very first stages having started a few months ago, in November 2017.
I am currently deepening and broadening my knowledge of mobile learning and the important
changes and challenges in didactics it is posing. I am also investigating and studying cases of
mobile learning projects and experiences already tested in other countries and TBLT theories and its
application to technology.
My first year will be dedicated to thorough bibliographic research to build a solid theorical
ground for the experiment. The second year will be devoted to the experiment with the students. It
will take place in foreign languages courses (English, Spanish and Italian as L2) held in the
University. The targeted population are Italian mother-tongue students and not Italophone students
for the courses of Italian as second language.
The tasks will be create following the syllabus with the help of the teacher who is responsible
for the course. Therefore they will be sequence according to the complexity of the syllabus.
The task will be carried out as follows: the teacher will create a class group chat and
workgroup chats on WhatsApp, small groups in which the students can communicate with each
other independently. The learners, after the teacher has sent the main input, will interact based on
this; the teacher can check the interaction without intervening or will intervene only when he thinks
it appropriate or if requested by the learners. In this way it will be possible to create a virtual
working group where the teacher can observe progress without interfering. In retrospect, in the
presidential or virtual class, the difficulties, the errors, the problems arisen will be highlighted.
At the beginning, two intermediate level groups will be chosen, B1/B2, to carry out the pilot
project for the first experiment (over six-months). The intermediate groups will be chosen for the
"pilot project" because they already have a good knowledge of Italian and can use the language to
communicate fairly freely.
During the pilot project, during the lectures, an ongoing assessment of the experience will be
made and this will give the possibility to make changes or changes based on the results obtained.

94
 80

The pilot project is considered fundamental to start the subsequent experimentation in a more
effective and efficient way. At the end of the pilot project, an experience assessment questionnaire
will be submitted to the learners of the courses so that changes can be made both on the basis of the
suggestions and on the basis of the teacher's observation of the experience. Subsequently, the
experiment will be continued on the same groups and four more will be introduced, two groups of
the lowest level, A2, and two groups of the highest level, C1. The projects will last two / three hours
and will be put forward during the teaching units of the manuals. The teacher will also provide the
creation of a table to be filled by the learners, who will guide them in selecting the most important
information and that will help them in planning the final report.
Here we consider Willis's TBLT model: pre task, in which the teacher presents the instructions
of the task and divides the class into groups or pairs; learners prepare for the task with the help of
the teacher, at this stage the teacher must increase the awareness of the structures, urging the
planning of the task that can be performed with greater fluency and accuracy.
This is followed by the task cycle phase, the real task, which is divided into three phases: task
execution in pairs and groups, planning of the oral or written report and presentation of the report
(Diadori et al., 2008). The third and last phase is called post-task, which is dedicated to the focus on
form, that is the focusing and explanation of grammatical structures and lexical aspects not fully
internalized by learners or only partially emerged during the previous phases. In the project, this last
phase will be adapted each time by the teacher according to the task objective and based on the
moment of the teaching unit in which the task takes place, a wider function of a mere focus on the
forms will be reserved.
For each proposed task the teacher will employ a performance-based assessment: the
consistency of the outcome and delivery, the communicative effectiveness of the students and other
aspects that change according to the objective of the task will be evaluated such as linguistic
competence or correctness. According to González-Lloret, (2016) “An example of authentic
performance-based tests using chat or phone application, e.g. Whatsapp) […]. the teacher could be
part of the group to observe and grade the “conversation”.
This ongoing assessment will be associated with an intermediate and final evaluation of the
students through questionnaires in which they will ask to evaluate the experience of the use of
Whatsapp associated with the presidential course and to give any suggestions to change the course.
Given the questionnaires, analyzed and crossed data will be advanced theoretical models on the
method of use of the peculiar form of mobile learning proposed.
The context and the use of mobile learning presented in this research project offers all learners,
with consequent different cognitive styles, the possibility of feeling included and involved. The
virtual mode has, in fact, another great advantage: the lowering of the affective filter hypothesized
by Krashen (Krashen, S. D., 1981) of those in the classroom are struggling to express themselves.
This mode balances the situations, which are very common in a class group, where the more
introverted learners are "overtaken" by the more extroverted ones which gives the former the
opportunity to express themselves in writing (usually introverts are more at ease in writing while for
the extroverted characters it will be one more channel to give them the chance to free their
communicative nature), to feel more involved and increase confidence in their own means and,
therefore, increase the motivation and the pleasure of studying the foreign language. Pleasure and
success in learning set the motivation in motion, essential for the success of the learning process,
therefore the inclusion of Whatsapp in the language course will offer variety, novelty and new

95
 81

challenges; these elements are listed by Balboni as "pleasant emotions linked to teaching" and
reinforce the idea that learning a language is "unpredictably stimulating". (Balboni, 2002).
CONCLUSION
In this proposal, what we want to verify and test is the effectiveness of the introduction of the
Whatsapp platform. Distance learning is taking on an increasingly dynamic appearance and is more
in keeping with learners' needs and rhythms. The BYOD concept and that of hybrid learning space
make the use of teaching technologies more flexible. The course is shaped and transformed on the
needs, on the times, on the ways and on the personalities of the learners, a further push to overcome
the now primitive conception that the learner must adapt to the course and the proposed didactics.
Some educational activities are carried out in the classroom, while others remotely, so that all
students can find their personal expression. Some students are more prone to presidentiality, others
are more inclined to online activities mediated by a screen.
The experimentation contained in the research project suggests this direction, the creation of a
blended, hybrid and simplified learning space, combining both physical and digital space. It
reinvents the use of technologies in a different, stimulating way, able to give them a new place to
"take full advantage of the mobile and network potential both for collaborative study and for
individual access to knowledge" (Trentin, 2015); the project re-qualifies a platform that is normally
used in leisure time and as a means of communication, in education.
The experimentation of Whatsapp in the educational field can open new frontiers of e-learning,
because it represents a new way of presenting blended courses to students, and can present itself as
a simplification method for training institutions that want to include ICT in their offer, but that for
various reasons can not or can not be equipped with platforms or virtual spaces.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many thanks to my University, G.D'Annunzio, especially to Prof. Martinez and Prof. Consani,
Dean of the Foreign Languages Department who gave the opportunity to be here. I would like also
to thank Prof. Villarini, professor at University of Foreigners of Siena and tutor of the project. Great
and loving thanks to my partner, Pietro, and my son, Maksim.
REFERENCES

Arrigo, M., Fulantelli, G., Gentile, M., Taibi D., (2017) Integrating Mobile Technologies in the
Italian Educational Context. Arrigo, M., Fulantelli, G., Gentile, M., Taibi D., Integrating
Mobile Technologies in the Italian Educational Context. in Chapelle, C., A., Sauro, S., (eds).
The Handbook of Technology and Second Language Teaching and Learning. Wiley & Sons,
Oxford, pp. 20-41.
Audiweb, (2017). Total digital audience nel mese di febbraio 2017, online press release:
http://www.audiweb.it/news/total-digital-audience-a-febbraio-2017/
Balboni, P. E., (2002). Le sfide di Babele. Utet Università. Torino.
Berger, P., Trexler, S., (2010). Choosing Web 2.0 Tools for Learning and Teaching in a Digital
World.
Calvani, A., Vivanet, G., (2016), Le tecnologie per apprendere nella scuola. Oltre il fallimento. In
Pedagogia oggi. (2) 2016. Pensa Multimedia. Napoli, pp.155-178.
Danesi, M., (1988). Neurolinguistica e glottodidattica. Liviana. Padova.
Danesi, M., (2015). Il cervello in aula. Guerra. Perugia.

96
 82

Dewey, J., (1916). Democracy and education. Macmillan. London.

Diadori, P., (eds) (2001). Insegnare italiano a stranieri. Le Monnier. Firenze.
Diadori, P., Palermo, M., Troncarelli, D., (2008). Manuale di nuove tecnologie per l'educazione
linguistica. Guerra. Perugia.
Diadori, P., Palermo, M., Troncarelli, D., (2009). Manuale di didattica dell'italiano L2. Guerra.
Perugia.
Eletti, V., (eds). (2014). Che cos’è l’e-learning. Carocci. Roma.
Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
Ericsson, 2016, Mobility report November 2016, online press release:
https://www.ericsson.com/assets/local/mobility-report/documents/2016/ericsson-mobility-
report-november-2016.pdf
Fratter, I., (2004).Tecnologie per l'insegnamento delle lingue. Carrocci. Roma.
Fratter, I., (2016). Il Mobile Learning e le nuove frontiere per la didattica delle lingue. in
Troncarelli, D., La Grassa, M. Orientarsi in rete. Didattica delle lingue e tecnologie digitali. (p.
110,127). Becarelli, Siena.
Fratter, I., Jafrancesco, E., (eds.) (2014). Guida alla formazione del docente di lingue all'uso delle
TIC. Le lingue straniere e l'italiano L2. Aracne. Roma.
González-Lloret, M., (2016). A Practical Guide to Integrating Technology into Task-Based
Language Teaching. Georgetown University Press. Washington. D.C.
González-Lloret, M., (2017). Technology for Task-based Language Teaching, Chapelle, C., A.,
Sauro, S., (eds). The Handbook of Technology and Second Language Teaching and Learning.
pp. (234-247).
Kennedy, C., Levy, M. (2008). L'italiano al telefonino: Using SMS to support beginners' language
learning. in ReCALL 20 (3). (p. 315-330).
Krashen, S. D., (1981). Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Pergamon.
Oxford.
Kukulska-Hulme, A, Lee, H., Norris, L. (2017). Mobile Learning Revolution: Implications for
Language Pedagogy. in Chapelle, C., A., Sauro, S., (eds). The Handbook of Technology and
Second Language Teaching and Learning. pp. (217-233). Wiley & Sons. Oxford.
Kukulska-Hulme, A, Traxler, J. (2005). Mobile Learning: A Handbook for Educators and Trainers.
Routledge. Londra.
Midoro, V. , (eds) (2015). La scuola ai tempi del digitale. Istruzioni per costruire una scuola nuova.
FrancoAngeli. Milano.
Pachler, N., Bachmair, B., Cook, J. (2010) Mobile Learning: structures, agency practices. Springer.
New York.
Pachler, N., Ranieri, M., Manca, S., Cook, J. (2012). Editorial: Social Networking and Mobile
Learning. in British Journal of Educational Technology, 43 (5). (pp. 707-710).
Ranieri, M., Pieri, M. (2014). Mobile Learning. Dimensioni teoriche, modelli didattici, scenari
applicativi. Unicopli. Milano.
Sharples, M., Taylor, J., Vavoula, G. (2007). A theory of learning for the mobile age. in Andrews, R.,
Haythornthwate, C., (eds). The Sage Handbook of Elearning Research. (pp. 221-247). Sage.
Londra.
Traxler, J., (2007). Defining, Discussing, and Evaluating Mobile Learning: The moving finger
writes and having writ.... in The International Review on Research in Open and Distance
Learning (IRRODL). 8 (2).

95
 83

Traxler, J., (2009). Learning in a Mobile Age. in International Journal of Mobile and Blended
Learning. 1 (1). (pp. 1-12).
Traxler, J., Wishart, J. M., (2011), Making Mobile Learning work: Case. Studies of Practice.
ESCalate. Bristol.
Trentin, G. (2015). Always-on education e spazi ibridi di apprendimento. in Midoro, V. (eds). La
scuola ai tempi del digitale. Istruzioni per costruire una scuola nuova. (pp. 43-59).
FrancoAngeli. Milano.
Troncarelli, D., La Grassa, M. (eds) (2016). Orientarsi in Rete. Becarelli. Siena.
Unesco (2012). Exploring the Potential of Mobile Technologies to Support Teachers and Improve
Practice. UNESCO. Paris.
Unesco (2013). Policy Guidelines for Mobile Learning. Unesco. Paris.
Unesco (2014). Mobile Learning and Policies. Key Issues to consider. Unesco. Paris.
Villarini, A. (eds) (2010). L’apprendimento a distanza dell’italiano come lingua straniera. Modelli
teorici e proposte didattiche. Le Monnier. Firenze.
Willis, J. (1996). A Framework for Task-Based Learning. Longman. London.
Winters, N. (2007). What is Mobile Learning?. in Sharples, M. (eds). Big issues in Mobile Learning.
(pp. 7-11). University of Nottingham. Nottingham.

96
 84

Mindfulness in Online and Blended Education

Agnieszka (Aga) Anastasia Mavraki Kokkoni Drampala Anna Krassa
Palalas Athabasca University Primary School Teacher eLearning Consultant
Athabasca University1 Student2 Athabasca University Athabasca University
Student3 Student4

ABSTRACT
This paper reports the experience of three international graduate students in an online Master of Education program at
Athabasca University. It also includes the voice of their instructor who guided them through the experience and supported
in the critical inquiry, including the writing of this autoethnographic account, on how selected mindfulness-based teaching
and learning strategies impacted students’ experience and learning outcomes. The findings of our autoethnography
consistently pointed to the positive effects of blending into an online program instructional strategies that combined the
online asynchronous interaction with synchronous virtual meetings and chats as well as face-to-face encounters. They also
demonstrated positive effects of incorporating mindfulness-based teaching and learning strategies in this environment.
There is a growing body of scientific evidence on benefits of mindfulness practices on teaching and learning, cognitive and
emotional performance, as well as general well-being of students and teachers. Mindfulness is often defined as “the
awareness that emerges through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally to the unfolding
of experience moment by moment.” Some of the mindfulness-based teaching and learning strategies include mindful
listening and speaking, storytelling, deep reflection, quieting the mind, centering, visualization, establishing personal versus
collective space, explicit gratitude, and mindful feedback. This study addressed the gap in research on the integration of
mindfulness-based teaching-learning strategies in the online and blended environment. In short, students reported that
mindfulness strategies empowered them, made them become their better selves, and promoted successful self-directed
learning and a rewarding learning experience.
Author Keywords
Mindfulness, blended education, online education, autoethnography
INTRODUCTION
This paper is based on the experience of three international graduate students in an online Master of Education program at
Athabasca University, Canada. It also includes the voice of the instructor who guided us through the reported experience
and supported us in the critical inquiry, including the writing of this autoethnographic account of how the introductions of
mindfulness-based teaching and learning strategies impacted students’ experience and outcomes in the graduate-level
online program.
Based on our individual and collective observations and reflections, we set out to document and analyze our online learning
experience before and after we were introduced to mindfulness-based strategies. We share herein our analytical account of
selected aspects of the rich and challenging experience inherent in the online learning environment. We also highlight the
advantage of blending into the online course synchronous and, whenever possible, face-to-face (f2f) interactions with other
students and the instructor, which add extra depth and the indispensable human connection element to the experience.
It was the course described herein, enriched by mindfulness-based strategies, which transformed our perspective on
teaching and learning; it impacted our practice and left us with a wealth of reflections and questions, with many of them
addressed in this report. In bringing this autobiographical experience and thought into the present, and by combining voices
of four researcher participants, we aim to re-experience the past and deepen our perspective on it. In the process of co-
authoring the paper, we also rewrote the past experience and enhanced it with a new co-created understanding. We went
beyond self-understanding and evolving our own practice of teaching and learning to sharing our data and insider meanings
with fellow scholars.
I, the instructor, invited the three students to share their thoughts in a co-authored text and obtained the permission of each
student to submit our collectively written autoethongraphy as a conference paper. I asked them to reflect on and write about
their experiences during the course I facilitated and beyond. The resulting learners’ story follows and contains the students’
journal entries in their original form and language, with my minor corrections only where they were needed to clarify the

1
Alberta, Canada, [email protected]
2
Athens, Attiki, Greece, [email protected]
3
Agiasma, Kavala, Greece, [email protected]
4
Nea Moudania, Chalkidiki, Greece, [email protected]

97
 85

meaning. I also marked explicitly the sections of this paper authored solely by the three students, without my written
contributions, by adding the phrase “Student voice” to the respective headings.
CONTEXT PRESENTATION
Master of Education in Distance Education (MEd): Introduction to Mobile Learning (MDDE 623)
The experience, reflections, and feedback reported herein originated from the Introduction to Mobile Learning course
(MDDE 623) which is one of the electives offered in the MEd program at the Centre for Distance Education (CDE) at
Athabasca University (AU), the online university of Canada. The program includes ten online courses (13 weeks each) and
an e-portfolio which upon successful completion earn the student a master degree and “strong distance-education skills,
knowledge and values” (“Program Overview”, n.d., para. 1).
MDDE 623 provides students with the opportunity to explore and experience firsthand the potential of m-learning as they
experiment with mobile technology and existing m-learning designs. It is delivered as a cross-platform option, using
Moodle, so that students can access it on their tethered computers and on mobile devices. The course comprises seven
units, four assignments - two individual and two collaborative ones, seven discussion forums, and four required
synchronous sessions which students are encouraged to attend in real time with an option to interact with the session
recording instead, for those who cannot participate in the synchronous event. The latter requirement was added based on
former students’ feedback which had consistently emphasized the value added of these online meetings of the community
of learners.
The course was originally designed, regularly updated, and facilitated (nine times) by me, the instructor. I have cyclically
refined it to reflect the current state of knowledge and research in mobile learning. During the last three iterations of the
course, content and delivery modifications also included evidence-based mindfulness-informed activities and resources.
The course teaching and learning strategies were updated to reflect students’ feedback and to incorporate selected
mindfulness-based components to ensure an inspiring, as opposed to “expiring”, environment for students (these are
discussed in more detail below). My co-authors studied in the course as part of their Greek Cohort MEd journey. They
elaborate on the course below.
It was a teacher-supported course, combining asynchronous and synchronous delivery with inspiring teaching and learning
approaches, which were seamlessly built into the course, and initially not identified as mindfulness-based elements until
the instructor explicitly introduced the concept of mindfulness during the optional synchronous session and a discussion
forum presenting the research and practice of mindfulness in education.
MDDE 623 was an extremely demanding but also very informative and transformative course on mobile learning. It was
underpinned by the Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2001), a process-oriented
theoretical model that can be applied to improve online learning and instruction starting with its design (Garrison et al.,
2001; Garrison & Arbaugh, 2007); it is addressed in more detail below. The collaborative learning approach aimed to
support students in their process of becoming self-directed learners. Therefore, as a major requirement, it included the
consistent participation in discussion forums and engagement in group activities. As expected in a learning environment
informed by social constructivism (Vygotsky, 1980), learners were encouraged to base their cognitive processes on
collaboration, communication, and interaction, including co-creation and peer evaluation. The instructor actively guided
us in the process and monitored individual progress of all students. Depending on students’ reflections and her observations,
the instructor gauged the extent to which she would provide scaffoldings to support students on their learning path and
their readiness to become increasingly autonomous as learners. The fact that we were moving through our program as a
cohort greatly helped in this collaborative process.
Cohort Model
The cohort model, defined by Yerkes (as cited in McDonald, Shroyer, Urbanski, & Vertin, 2002) as “a group of students
who engage in a program of studies together” (para. 7), has been found to be very effective amongst adult learners who
want to get involved in the learning process. Cohort-based learning is likely to be successful when groups of people have
the same purpose, interact with and help each other, thus contributing to each other’s progress (McDonald et al., 2002).
We experienced firsthand what Conrad (2005) observed in her longitudinal study of cohort-based online learning, namely
that “learners’ perceptions of community and online learning shifted away from technical considerations and toward
affective considerations” (p. 1) and that learners not only valued their community but also took responsibility and credit
for building and maintaining that community. In addition, the design of the course and our instructor’s facilitation combined
with her caring attitude positively impacted the sense of community.
The MDDE 623 instructor had taught most of the MEd courses to our and previous Greek cohorts at CDE and, from the
very beginning of this Master’s journey. New and old members of the Greek Cohorts were connected in more than one
way: they were brought together in a synchronous online session in order for peers to meet and support each other; students
who were more advanced or had graduated from the program were assigned to the new cohort members to mentor them
and peer-support them during the years of the Master’s; social networks were also established as additional communication
channels. An icebreaker session alone would have not been enough to build relations between strangers (even if they are
of the same cultural origin), hence the establishment of communication channels between cohort members was essential to
the feeling of being connected to the community and the comfort of knowing where to go for help when the need arises.
2

98
 86

Another factor that greatly strengthened our community of learners was the ability to meet face-to-face, for instance when
we met in person at two conferences. Blending in f2f encounters positively impacted our connection and the reciprocally
valued relationship, as earlier observed in the Conrad (2005) study.
Blended Learning
While this autoethnographic study originally set out to provide an account of learning experience in an online course, its
findings would consistently point to the positive effects of blending in instructional strategies that combined the online
asynchronous interaction with synchronous virtual meetings and chats as well as face-to-face encounters. The frequency
and the effect of these synchronous connections in the real and virtual worlds (through computers, mobile devices, and in
person) suggested a need to redefine our MDDE 623 experience as a blended learning one.
Graham, Allen, and Ure (as cited in Graham, 2006) concluded that the most common definitions refer to blended learning
as combining (a) instructional modalities, (b) instructional methods, and (c) online with face-to-face instruction. Today,
synchronous interactions can be mediated through high-fidelity technologies (Graham, 2006) that promote richer and more
engaging connection and interaction. In our MDDE 623 experience, computer interfaces facilitated human interaction “in
the form of computer-supported collaboration, virtual communities, instant messaging, blogging, etc.” (Graham, 2006, p.
5). We employed, amongst other tools, Messenger instant messaging, Skype discussions, Adobe Connect sessions and the
Remind mobile app5. In addition, phone calls and our f2f meetings strengthened even more the personal and professional
links, interaction, and collaboration within the group. The combination of all these communication platforms, frequently
accessed through mobile devices, resulted in the heightened levels of presence and engagement of the course participants.
The availability of mobile access added an extra dimension to this interaction. With mobile technologies taking the
flexibility of learning to a whole new level, m-learning had become an integral part of blended education which was
originally defined as “an educational platform that represents some combination of face-to-face and online learning”
(Moskal, Dziuban, & Hartman, 2013, p. 15). Accordingly, for the purpose of this discussion we use the following definition
of blended learning put forth by the International Association for Blended Learning (IABL, n.d.): “the educational
approach, which integrates face-to-face classroom practices with online and mobile delivery methods” (para. 3). The
intention is to offer learners a well-organized teacher-facilitated interactive learning environment of high quality content,
and activities where experiences can be adopted to learners’ needs and preferences, unbound from time and location
restrictions. Consistent with this definition, teachers are a significant element of a blended learning environment as
facilitators of the learning process.
According to Kron and Sofos (2007), the form of teaching processes determine the level of e-learning under the frame of
time and place. Thus, on the one hand, there are forms of teaching that might employ Information and Communication
Technologies (ICTs) in a specific time and place, just enriching the f2f teaching in the classroom. On the other hand, there
is the Internet-based setting where the time- and place-flexible instruction is realized by digital means, e.g., asynchronous
communication via forums or recorded teleconferences. There is also the third scenario when online asynchronous
instruction is combined with synchronous virtual teaching and communication platforms, and as a result, benefits from the
advantages of both methods. We submit that the latter case can also be regarded as a blended learning or hybrid
environment, which promotes higher levels of the cognitive, teaching, and especially the social presence, as per the CoI
model (Vaughan, Cleveland-Innes, & Garrison, 2013).
WHY MINDFULNESS IN THE ONLINE COURSE?
Mindfulness – Brief Overview
The word mindfulness, although used for centuries, has appeared increasingly more frequently not only in mass media but
also in the scholarly publications and conversations. According to the notion mindfulness “began to gain traction among
scientists, clinicians, and scholars as the Mind and Life Institute emerged in 1987” and since the early 2000s, “mindfulness
saw an exponential growth trajectory that continues to this day” (Van Dam et al., 2018, p. 37). Most definitions of
mindfulness draw from the one proposed by Jon Kabat-Zinn (1994), the founder of health-based mindfulness training, and
refer to the significance of awareness and giving full attention to the here and now (including the surroundings, our feelings,
emotions, and their impact on us), on purpose, in a non-judgmental way (i.e., by being open and accepting), or more
specifically, mindfulness is “the awareness that emerges through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and
nonjudgmentally to the unfolding of experience moment by moment” (Kabat-Zinn, 2003, p. 145). Kabat-Zinn (2003) has
also identified seven attitudinal foundations of mindfulness practice, namely, non-judgmental, patience, beginner’s mind
(not to let our past experience and knowledge affect present thought), trust, non-striving, acceptance, letting go (avoiding
unreflective selection of state of mind). Mindfulness is a training - exercise for our minds in paying attention and developing
healthy attitudes. It can be cultivated through mind-body practices, such as focus on breath, dance, art, meditation, prayer,
yoga, Tai Chi, walking in nature and many other sensory experiences engaging our senses to take us off auto pilot and
make us pause and experience the present moment with attention and gratitude, with one's mind present with one's body
rather than in the future or past (Miller, 2013). According to the science of neuroplasticity, our repeated experiences shape
our brains (Kays, Hurley, & Taber, 2012), thus regular sustained mindfulness training may reduce mind wandering and

5
see https://www.remind.com/
3

99
 87

build our ability to focus and keep our mind where we want it (Killingsworth & Gilbert, 2010; Morrison, Goolsarran,
Rogers, & Jha, 2014; Palalas, 2018).
While mindfulness research has its critics and it has to ensure rigour and accuracy to avoid negative effects of “mindfulness
hype” (Van Dam et al., 2018), the science supporting the positive impact of mindfulness practices is rather persuasive. As
noted in my earlier publication (Palalas, 2018), including examples, some of the benefits of mindfulness practice include
reduced anxiety and depression, lower stress, improved personal relationships, increased self-regulation, enhanced
attention skills, ability to regulate attention and executive function. These improvements in mind-brain-body habits and
attitudes have been noticed by education researchers and practitioners, and consequently tested in educational contexts.
Mindfulness in Education
Thanks to the latest discoveries of neuroscience and other sciences related to the study of the mind-brain-body connection,
there has been a growing body of evidence “that mindfulness practice can be transformative not only to our health and
well-being but also to our educational system” (Palalas, 2018, p. 33). David and Sheth (as cited in Palalas, 2018), in their
book on mindful teaching, compiled a list of ten key benefits of mindfulness for students: mindfulness promotes (1)
readiness to learn, (2) academic performance, (3) attentions and concentration, (4) self-reflection and self-calming, (5)
social and emotional learning, (6) pro-social behaviours and healthy relationships, (7) holistic well-being; it also (8) reduces
anxiety before testing, (9) provides tools to reduce stress, and (10) improves participation by promoting impulse control
(p. 9). David and Sheth (2009) further concluded that cultivating mindfulness through simple mental training techniques
can enhance teaching and learning process and outcomes as well as promote a learning community “in which students
flourish academically, emotionally, and socially” (p. 1). Some of the mindfulness-based teaching and learning strategies
include mindful listening and speaking, storytelling, deep reflection, quieting the mind, centering, visualization,
establishing personal versus collective space, explicit gratitude, mindful feedback, and many other techniques presented,
for instance, in books by David and Sheth (2009), Barbezat and Bush (2014), and Hanh and Weare (2017).
Indeed, there is a growing body of scientific evidence of positive effects of mindfulness-based practices on teaching and
learning, cognitive and emotional performance, as well as general well-being of students and teachers, especially in f2f
educational settings (e.g., Miller, 2013; Mrazek et al., 2017; Rechtschaffen, 2014; Schonert-Reichl et al., 2015; Schwind
et al., 2017; Zenner, Herrnleben-Kurz, & Walach, 2014). According to the meta-analysis conducted by Meiklejohn et al.
(2012), f2f mindfulness programs in schools have been shown to improve working memory, attention, academic skills,
social skills, self-regulation, emotional regulation and self-esteem, mood and anxiety, as well as lower stress and fatigue.
Mindfulness was also consistently reported to increases empathy and compassion, for others and for oneself (Shapiro,
2013). Moreover, “mindfulness may mediate positive socio-emotional and cognitive changes stretching beyond the
immediate school environments” (Powietrzynska, 2014, p. iv) and help develop good habits of mind that promote self-
awareness, self-regulation, and resilience applicable in all aspects of life.
So far, little research on the integration of mindfulness-based teaching-learning strategies in the online environment has
been reported. To address the need for investigation into the impact of such practices in the field of online learning, I first
piloted selected mindfulness-based practices in Fall 2016 and Spring 2017 sessions of the MDDE 623 course (as part of
my action research study) and then conducted the case study reported herein in the Fall 2017 semester. The study explored
the perceived and observable impact of integrating modified mindfulness teaching-learning strategies, previously piloted
in f2f educational contexts and in the MDDE 623 pilots – the impact on student learning experience in an online graduate
level course. The mindfulness-informed strategies incorporated in MDDE623 Fall 2017 were refined to reflect the feedback
from the pilots and further adapted to address the challenges inherent in online environments. A brief overview of the key
mindfulness strategies added to the course is presented in the next sub-section.
Mindfulness Learning and Teaching Strategies in MDDE 623
Due to the scope of this paper, only selected examples of activities are mentioned. Note that all explicit mindfulness-based
strategies, such as the centering moment at the begging of the class, were entirely optional to all students. So was the
discussion forum and the synchronous virtual session presenting research-based evidence on the benefits of mindfulness
and the follow-up discussion.
Focusing Attention on Intention
Siegel (2007) observed that intentions gear up our neural system to be ready “to receive, to sense, to focus, to behave in a
certain manner” (p. 177). Intentions, while rooted in the now, have long-term effects and they promote clarity, motivation,
and more purposeful engagement. When learners were asked to implicitly or explicitly set their intentions, e.g., during the
check-ins in the Adobe Connect virtual sessions, they could uncover what motivates them, strategize their attention and
applying purpose to their learning, which also furthers learners’ agency and ownership.
Self-regulation through Self-awareness and Reflection
Siegel (2016) studies on mindfulness demonstrated that mindfulness training promotes the integration of the brain resulting
in enhanced self-regulation and co-regulation of “emotions, thoughts, attention, behavior, and relationships” (p. 82). Self-
awareness, self-monitoring, and other meta-cognitive strategies have been interwoven into the assignments and interactions
in the course. I encouraged students to reflect on their learning through journaling and notes to themselves as well as
through discussions in our virtual sessions. Students were also asked about their preferred methods of learning,
communication, and resources, and any changes to their preferences they might have observed. We took time for those
4

100
 88

who were willing to speak about their “aha” moments and other updates they wanted to share with their peers or privately
with me. Documented and informal reflection on all aspects of their learning was encouraged, e.g., through replies to my
comments in the feedback on their written assignments. In addition, I pointed students to some tools used to block sources
of distraction and discussed with them any barriers to focused learning that they might have identified along with strategies
that promote higher levels of engagement in their own learning process.
Meditation: A Three-minute Centering Practice and Mindful Breathing Exercise
Meditation, especially, regular practice over-time, has been repeatedly proven to promote long-lasting positive changes in
brain activity, including improved attentive and focus capacities (Davidson, 2012; Barbezat & Bush, 2014; Miller, 2013;
Rechtschaffen, 2014) and other benefits already mentioned above. A shorter practice, at the beginning or during a learning
event, also helps with bringing our attention to the present moment and “checking-in at the door” the distractions of our
complex life that could negatively affect our interaction.
Pausing to take a breath, with full awareness of the breath, can help to slow down, notice, and redirect our energy (David
& Sheth, 2009). It also helps to reflect inward and get ready for intentional learning. To promote students’ engagement,
both cognitive and emotional, in our shared learning, our virtual sessions would start with a guided centering practice or
mindful breathing practice, using pre-recorded audio that students could either ignore or interact with from their end. I
shared with students a number of digital resources for self-practice outside our class. I also reminded students to take a
break and engage in mindfulness moments (e.g., 30 seconds of silence).
Mindful Speaking and Listening
Students were guided to apply mindful listening and speaking techniques during their group activities in our virtual
sessions. Reminders and precise directions (available on the Internet) on why and how to use these techniques were given.
I refined this approach overtime to suit our specific learning setting and the needs of the students.
Mindful Feedback
I crafted my feedback on the students’ assignments prudently and considerately to encourage advancement, invite reflection
and provide directions for improvements. The language and content of my comments was chosen to, at the same time,
challenge “the current behavioral and cognitive state of the learner” (Hattie & Gan, 2016, p. 253) and provide cognitive
and emotional support to individual students and groups (e.g., team evaluation rubric). Students were encouraged to interact
with the feedback, reply to my comments, and revise their work based on the result of our conversation about that feedback.
I invested time and effort in creating a supportive and safe environment where students were safe to make mistakes and
learn from them.
Other Mindful Strategies
With an intention of creating a safe environment of trust and support and a strong community of learners that together
engage in a collective process of inquiry combined with individual self-discovery, it was essential to minimize stress, threat,
and fear that can hinder information processing, patterning, and memory circuits (Willis, 2006). I ensured to consistently
use and model mindful, respectful, and relational language to express messages of support, gratitude, and compassion,
balanced out with constructive feedback and critique. To further promote a supportive professional and emotional climate,
communication with students was offering clear guidance through deliberate and focused dialogue designed and executed
to promote the cognitive, teaching, and social presences of our Community of Inquiry (Garrison et al., 2001). We used a
variety of channels to stay connected, including the tools in the Moodle LMS, our Adobe Connect sessions, Skype,
telephone, WhatsApp, email, the Remind mobile app, as well as f2f meetings if and when possible. More comprehensive
description and research supporting these approaches are presented in Palalas (2018).
METHODOLOGY: COLLECTIVE AUTOETHNOGRAPHY
As noted above, this is an autoethnographic study, qualitative research that combines characteristics from both
autobiography and ethnography. Autoethnography allows authors to describe and analyze their personal experiences,
extending the analysis, and building on the literature and theory (Bennett & Folley, 2014). Autoethnographies tend to focus
on the original story using it to extrapolate wider social, political and cultural meanings (Ellis, 1997, 2004). While we
followed the four key criteria for evaluating the quality of autoethnographic research, i.e., its substantive contribution,
aesthetic merit, reflexivity, and impact (Ellis, 2004), we departed from the traditional approach and shared one collective
account representing experiences as told and analysed by a team, and subsequently retold as one story. This
autoethnography has been conducted and co-written by a team of four, one instructor and three students. We generated our
individual data sets, then systematically debriefed, shared, and negotiated the meaning of our observations and
interpretations (Chang, Ngunjiri, & Hernandez, 2016). We thus created a collective database which was analyzed and
interpreted to reach collective conclusions. We participated in this joint analysis and writing process.
The study was conducted at a “distributed” site, the online course that blended in elements of synchronous and sporadic
f2f encounters. Our collaborative process evolved organically. I initially invited all students to explore mindfulness (as an
optional element of the course), to discover it with a “beginner’s mind” and to journal their experience. I provided some
instruction on mindfulness in education and progressively identified the mindfulness-based strategies embedded in the
course. My three co-authors expressed their growing interest in the topic and responded to my invitation to co-author a
paper. They were encouraged to take an observer role and document their reflections through their journals. They reported
similar patterns of activity in the course; they worked together on collaborative projects and developed a strong connection.
5

100
 89

Some questions and discussion of mindfulness emerged during the course in the Mindfulness in Education forum and
virtual Adobe Connect session but most of it occurred naturally as an extension of our conversation of the learner
experience towards the end of the course and subsequently during our collaboration on the paper.
My co-authors, as insiders in the research setting, contributed their individual observations and journal entries, which
formed the base for our conversation leading to the co-creation of the collective narrative that unfolded during the co-
writing process. Hence, their collective story originated during the course and then was re-created retrospectively through
conversations and the process of co-writing. They were self-reflexive. Writing about their experiences seemed to rise to
consciousness many notions related to mindfulness-based approaches. It helped them better understand these concepts as
well as organize their thoughts and feelings and make sense of them through the lens of mindfulness. This autoethnographic
process provided a positive and empowering experience to my co-authors which was evident in the progression of the
consecutive drafts of their narrative.
Although there were some differences in their learner profile, they created one collective voice based on the selection of
themes and reflections that they had in common; their similarities outweighed their differences. They negotiated a narrative
that presented they shared individual perspectives enriched by the depth and breadth of the negotiated narrative. Their story
is presented in the next section.
OUR STORY (STUDENT VOICE)
Who Are We?
Our team consists of three Greek women aged 30-42 years old. We are married and we have one or two children, ages of
3, 9, 8, and 11. We all are employed and two of us are working from home. We live in three different cities in Greece and
our family and work obligations have led us to this online master program. The reason we decided to choose this particular
program was either for professional development in our current job or for pursuing a better one. We are employed in the
field of education: one as a teacher in secondary and adult education, one as an e-learning consultant in a Corporate
Academy, and one as a Primary School teacher posted in an administrative position.
Our attendance in this program started in September 2016 when all three of us were members of the Greek cohort, which
meant that we would follow a joint program and attend the same courses. We first met when the coordinator of the program
held a Skype teleconference to orient us to the program. Thus, we were given the opportunity to exchange emails and
connect on Facebook. Beyond that, in the first term, we worked together on a collaborative assignment, so we gradually
began to get to know each other better. Consequently, a year later, and after many collaborative assignments and hours of
exchanging opinions, we became friends.
With the launch of the Fall 2017 term, we knew that, despite the overwhelming amount of work, we had the support of
each other. Our communication in MDDE 623 was not limited to the combination of asynchronous and synchronous
interactions within the course, but also included our informal exchanges through Skype, phone, and Google Docs. At times,
we would work together and talk to each other for several hours a day. Finally, two of us met at a conference in Greece,
and a bit later all three of us managed to meet in person in Thessaloniki. This blend of communication channels and
interactivity has proven empowering and indispensable to our success in the online program and this study. In the resulting
autoethnographic account, we report our own individual experiences and co-experiences combined with reflection and
conversations on those experiences which shaped our co-understanding and “collaborative textual co-interpretations”
(Lassiter, 2005, p. 104).
What Challenges We Discovered in Online Courses?
The key challenges we have experienced in our distance education (DE) journey are shared below along with literature
support that demonstrates that these are common issues in online learning.
Social Presence and Present-Moment Awareness
In DE, several problems arise that are under the umbrella of the lack of social presence. This issue derives mainly from the
absence of students’ physical contact with their teachers and their classmates. First of all, a student may experience a feeling
of isolation because he/she does not have a lot of opportunities for effective communication due to the different cultural
backgrounds and the difficulty in bonding with other online students (Visser, Visser, Amirault, & Simonson, 2012). Online
learning is an environment that, by nature, separates psychologically teachers from learners; namely, it creates transactional
distance (Moore, 1993). This environment defines the behavioral patterns of the individuals since the lack of
communication can affect teaching and learning. Apostolakis (2004) stresses that teachers are not able to inspire students
due to the rare and impersonal communication. The author continues that students cannot develop competition as they
cannot compare their progress with the progress of their classmates.
Consequently, online students often lack motivation (Galusha, 1998). The absence of interaction between students and
instructors affects the latter as they cannot be sure if their students have comprehended the new knowledge (LaBay &
Comm, 2003). Similarly, Vonderwell (2003) reported that the lack of social interaction in online learning resulted in student
disappointment. As negative factors, students mentioned the lack of connection with their instructors, the fact that they did
not know much about their personalities, as well as the delay of immediate feedback. Kalogiannakis and Touvlatzis (2015)
stressed that emotional experiences are the dynamics that had been neglected in distance education. Positive feelings derive

101
 90

from interaction, peer-to-peer exchange, collaborative activities, as well as from the tutor’s ability to recognize learners’
emotional state. Gutierrez (2016) observed that the leverage point of social interaction in the f2f classroom is the way that
students, colleagues, and instructors are approached, namely, “[h]ands are raised, questions asked and answered,
presentations given” (para. 4). Whereas, in online learning instructors are able to have access only to what students “allow”
to be displayed in public. Negative feelings of pressure and anxiety are rarely articulated, and cannot be easily perceived
due to the lack of body language (Wilson et al., 2007). It appears that the social nature of humans creates the need for social
presence in education. Its absence in online education leads to a gap that becomes a burden in the learning process.
In an online learning environment, we learners still want to benefit from the participation in discourse, collaborative
activities, self-assessment, and decision making, where knowledge is acquired constructively and the responsibility for the
learning processes is shared with the instructor. For that reason, criteria must be in place to ensure that the educational
experience is fulfilling and rewarding. The framework of Community of Inquiry (CoI) that was employed in our course
can address these needs. It has been shaped under a collaborative constructivist approach, and it addresses the new
knowledge requirements of the 21st century (Vaughan, Cleveland-Innes, & Garrison, 2013). More specifically, CoI consists
of three elements: teaching, social, and cognitive presences. In social presence, the feeling of belongingness and groupness
prevails as learners form common rituals, norms, and language and, thus, feel that by participating in the discourse, they
contribute to an open communication, to the cohesion of the group, and to the sustainability of its synthesis. Besides, “social
presence must move beyond simply establishing socio-emotional presence and personal relationships” (Garrison &
Arbaugh, 2007, p. 160). In cognitive presence, participants engage in critical discourse and construct new knowledge. They
are well-informed of course expectations and get direct instructions. Through this process, they gain metacognitive skills.
Social and cognitive presence are highly depended on three categories of teaching presence, namely, design, facilitation
and direction (Vaughan, Cleveland-Innes, & Garrison, 2013). More particularly, it is vital that the instructor plans in a way
that open communication and trust is reinforced, critical reflection and discourse are facilitated, and “assessment is
congruent with intended processes and outcomes” (Vaughan, Cleveland-Innes, & Garrison, 2013, p. 17). Of course,
teaching presence does not only include the role of the tutor, but also the shared responsibility that participants and teacher
undertake to successfully clarify, negotiate, and meet the requirements of the course. That is why through timely and
descriptive feedback, students are required to proceed to peer-assessment and self-assessment.
Time management
One of the most important strengths of distance education is the flexibility that is provided to learners as they can “pursue
coursework at any time that fits into their busy lives” (Kassop, 2003, para. 16). However, as we discovered, flexibility can
be tricky. Time management demands high level of self-regulation, especially when there are several external factors that
affect a learner’s life, such as family or professional obligations and challenges. These factors are quite common for distant
learners as the majority of them are older adult learners (Dabbagh, 2007). The challenge we experienced with insufficient
time and constant stress resulting from that, was reflected in studies on time management amongst distant learners (Galusha,
1998; Vaughan, 2007). Online courses require more time to be spent on material than face-to-face courses. This is because
students in online learning are responsible for comprehending critical issues, asking questions, managing participation and
self-motivation, and completing assignments within specific time frames. Accordingly, “students who are not able to cope
with the form of studying required within distance education are at risk of failing or noncompletion of courses” (Visser et
al., 2012, p. 61). In fact, Galusha (1998) stresses that time management is “a critical success factor for the distant student”
(p. 9). Therefore, it is very important for a distant learner to develop time-management skills in order to be able to benefit
from the flexibility of distance education.
Self-behaviours
Distance education is sometimes the only way for people that aspire to further their studies. However, it is not a choice that
should be taken lightheartedly. A distant learner, who aspires to succeed, must be able to acknowledge the need for
independent, self-regulated learning, and foster a sense of responsibility towards this realization. Cheurprakobkit, Hale,
and Olson (2002) mention that “students must […] possess requisite “self-” behaviors (e.g., self-discipline, self-monitoring,
self-initiative, and self-management)” (p. 257). In addition, LaBay and Comm (2003) recognize among others that a distant
learner should be self-directed which is related to a high level of metacognitive skills. Finally, Dabbagh (2007) stresses
that a successful distant learner should possess internal locus of control. Hence, all the aforementioned characteristics lead
to the conclusion that distance learning is a difficult process and demands special skills. In our experience, adding elements
of blended learning helped develop critical thinking through “a scaffolded acceptance of responsibility for constructing
meaning and understanding” (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004, p. 98) and the essential skills of self-regulation. This, in the era
of lifelong learning, points to the need of the incremental addition of blended learning elements to foster the development
of future-ready skills.
Lynch and Dembo (2004) point that according to Moore’s transactional distance (1993), the variable of interaction,
structure, and autonomy are interrelated in DE programs. All the aforementioned challenges directly affect these factors.
Thus, in order for online learners to become self-directed and self-motivated for a lifelong learning, these challenges must
be addressed.

102
 91

Before We Were Introduced to Mindfulness

Being a DE learner is rather difficult and this was something each one of us experienced from the very beginning of the
program. A variety of negative feelings were overwhelming us, reducing our learning margin. First of all, we were feeling
disorientated due to the stress and demands of everyday lives. Balancing life challenges and studying was onerous.
While I am generally a positive person, that period, I was facing several challenges at work. These were making me feel
sadness, fear, and uncertainty. Although I am very familiar with distance education, being a student in such a demanding
program was α ‘mission impossible’ at that time. The combination of work and studying stress, turned to panic attacks that
forced me to withdraw from one of the two courses.
Secondly, our problems did not let us study with a clear mind and that was making us feel exhausted as a result of the
ineffective time management.
The beginning of this term coincided with the start of the school year in Greece. This for me meant that I would have a
very large workload in my job for at least two months. Simultaneously, my son had started going to daycare and I knew
that several viruses lurked. Challenges were piling…frustration resulted.
This domino effect was leading us to a lack of productivity as we could not take the time to absorb the information we were
receiving in order to acquire knowledge and reach our learning goals. Also, the sense of isolation was causing disillusion
and frustration as the social presence was limited. This fact made us believe that there was no teaching presence either,
because we were not able to distinguish the meaning and the value of the guidance we were receiving; we were not in a
state of mind to benefit from what was offered to us. These problematic situations were hindering our engagement in the
CoI experience.
I would like to know more about my teacher’s personality. I cannot see her body language while she is talking to us through
forums and, thus, I cannot fully understand where her guidance is leading to. I can only see the course of my progress as
well as the achievement of the goals after I receive her feedback on my assignments.
Hence, we could not enjoy a complete learning experience as we were not able to acquire metacognitive skills because our
learning process was aggravated. Our learning journey was not guided by clear intention as our actions were automated
and hasty with the only goal of moving on to the next assignment or activity.
When Dr. Aga first introduced us to mindfulness, we had already realized a need for a different approach that would help
us control the amount of stress, put us in the driver seat in our learning journey, engage in the learning community, and
bring in feelings of satisfaction and happiness.
When Dr. Aga introduced us the notion of mindfulness, I had already spent a year in uncertainty, fear, and sadness, and
all I was looking for was a way to feel happy again. My first reaction towards mindfulness, was "this is exactly what I am
looking for!", and through a short 3 minute meditation I felt centred and a bit positive again. Positive not towards the
challenge of the job, or the studies, but towards life... positive that I can be happy, less stressed, and more productive.
How Mindfulness-Based Teaching-Learning Strategies Helped Us in the Course?
During MDDE 623, several mindfulness strategies were applied by our instructor, Dr. Aga Palalas. When that was
communicated to us, we tried to locate them and realized that they were put in crucial parts of the course. These significantly
helped us deal with the biggest challenges of our DE learning. The following strategies stood out for us:
Forum guidance (ensuring a safe environment and support for a strong community of learners; trust in our skills balanced
out with guidance; mindful language): During forum discussions, we were led to paths that helped us achieve our learning
goals. We were not disorientated by constant interventions with replies to our every forum post. Dr. Aga was facilitating
discussions leaving us enough space to express our thoughts, reflect on new learning, and interact with peers.
Reflection: Many times, in forums and during the group assignments, we had the chance for self-reflection and peer-to-
peer reflection in order to realize the significance of our learning and our own preferences needs, and achievements.
Empathy and compassion: Elements that characterize Dr. Aga’s teaching approach are active listening, time and respect
for students, compassion, and a non-judgmental disposition. All these were particularly evident during live sessions.
Until I participated in a live session with Dr. Aga, I was negative towards live sessions. She was initiating the sessions
passing the microphone through each one of us, just to share the highlight of our week. And it didn’t matter if that was
relevant to the course, or our personal lives. She was just spending few minutes to hear each one of us, to listen to our
concerns, our challenges, or our good news. And she always had a positive saying for everyone.
Enhancement of social presence: Support for a healthy connection amongst the peers and strategies to collaborate within
a group and the whole class made collaborative work more effective (e.g., mindful group feedback evolution form).
The first time, before MDEE 623, I worked on a major assignment with two other colleagues, I had a mixed experience.
One of my colleagues was collaborative and active, but the other didn’t contribute at all, chewing the time available with
vague excuses. Just before the deadline, she confessed that a health problem held her back. I felt really annoyed, but
because of the health problem, we (the active members of the group) agreed to not escalate the issue. Consequently, we

103
 92

shared the same grade. It’s not about the grade, but the feeling of unfairness, the lack of recognition of the amount of
contribution were really demotivating. In MDDE 623 group assignments were accompanied with a self and peer evaluation
rubric. This rubric has a low mark affect, yet, it focuses on the important aspects of a team's collaboration. It allows to
evaluate different aspects of contribution, and in a similar case, it was enough to establish the feeling of fairness, and
improve the attitude of low contributors.
Self-direction and self-regulation supports: Learning processes were supported by scaffolding that was gradually
removed. For this purpose, Remind, a mobile app, was introduced to us as a tool to provide us with quick reminders
regarding the course schedule. We were getting notifications in real time, and as the course progressed, Dr. Aga after
checking with us if we were ready, started removing these scaffolds.
I got a remind today, about our next meeting. I had forgotten that! Thank you, Dr. Aga!
Personalized learning: Some tasks were based on our interests, so they were more individualized. We were encouraged
to reflect on our individual interests, talk about our needs, and take time to consider what works for us. Assignments and
resources were also organized in a scaffolded way that allowed students to develop their learning up to their ability level.
Mindful feedback: The analytic and comprehensive feedback, inviting students’ input and rewrites, allowed us to learn
from our mistakes and improve ourselves.
Today, I got my mark for assignment #1. I got 92%! It is the first time Dr. Aga gives me a grade that high! And she wrote
to me “great improvement”. I am so happy about that! Of course, when I saw her comments I, once again, was like “how
did I get this mark with so many mistakes?” but I know the answer! She always gives us so many details in the feedback.
Fortunately, I did not make the same mistakes as the previous times. I have improved!
Social presence and present-moment awareness challenges were encountered with reflection, enhancement of social
presence, empathy, and compassion. Time-management challenges were managed effectively with the cultivation of
present-moment awareness that increased the ability of concentration, an essential ingredient of effectiveness. Our self-
behaviours were enhanced with discreet forum guidance, reflective discussions, fadeout scaffolding, constructive,
personalized, and detailed feedback.
More comprehensive discussion of these and other mindfulness-based teaching and learning techniques will be presented
in our future publication.
How Mindfulness-Based Teaching-Learning Strategies Helped Us beyond the Course?
The immediate, short effects of mindfulness may develop further through practicing, giving stronger and more permanent
results.
Bit by bit, I started consciously practising mindfulness for several months. Until the end of MDDE 623, where I realized
that my level of concentration, and consequently my effectiveness, had been improved. I was able to control my mindset
and go through a very demanding end-of-course period, without getting cluttered, or sick as I used to, from the weight of
tasks.
Having been introduced to mindfulness for almost a year now, we have some clear evidence of its effect towards the way
we learn, think, and behave.
I came out exhausted but deeply satisfied from myself, with higher confidence on my skills, and with a new methodological
approach that can be used in all aspects of life to bring in more happiness; from the boring chores like washing the dishes,
and the little habits of writing without minding word spell, to bigger job challenges, and crucial family issues. I am not
considering mindfulness as a destination to reach, but as an intentional journey of growth.
CONCLUSIONS (STUDENT VOICE)
Mindfulness makes learners become their better selves. The most important mindfulness strategies are for teachers to pay
attention to learners’ thoughts and needs without judging them - to accept them as they are, explore their unique
characteristics, truly enjoy the moments spent with them, and also learn from them. This can assist learners in being present,
have clear objectives, and explore on their own the processes that will lead them to the fulfillment of their learning goals.
Therefore, they can be more focused and productive, fulfilling simultaneously social, teaching, and cognitive presence.
Accordingly, mindfulness strategies in the Greek cohort worked to foster successful self-directed learning and a rewarding
learning experience that can last beyond the course. By empowering us as learners and people, these strategies promoted
our autonomous ability “to manage his or her own learning process, by perceiving oneself as the source of one’s own
actions and decisions as a responsibility towards one’s own lifelong learning” (Sze-Yeng & Hussian, 2010, p. 1913).
Applying these teaching-learning strategies provides learners with the opportunity to have an active role in the teaching
process and to trust themselves and their abilities. Students, who through such an experience, come to be more self-directed,
consequently, become more motivated to learn (Bonk et al., 2015). They feel that they participate in the course planning,
and, therefore, they become more engaged. The teacher’s role here should be not that of the guardian of knowledge but
rather a facilitator (Birzer, 2004) – the facilitator of the teaching, cognitive, and social presences…and not ignoring the

104
 93

emotional well-being of the learner either. This can lead to positive learning experiences like our, which we documented
in this paper.
Mindfulness provided us with a positive outlook of our own behaviour, of ourselves, and ultimately of our own group. This
state of mind, combined with elements that were built into the course curriculum, contributed to a new level of awareness
and resulted in constant improvements due to the observation of our actions and reactions before and after mindfulness
strategies were introduced. Lessons of the past became a reminder of how we can become more productive, self-directed
learners but, above all, less stressed, ready to enjoy the learning process, and proceed to meaningful learning. We blended
formal with informal learning, and found our own learning strategies to create an individualized learning experience, that
proved to be more effective to us.
Undoubtedly, there were some characteristics of online education that cultivated mindfulness and vice-versa. First and
foremost, the fact that all students had a voice and no one could dominate a conversation combined with the anonymity
created a culture of reflection since online discussion became more equitable and democratic (Bourne & Moore, 2003) and,
thus, more mindful and reflective than f2f discussion (Bouhnik & Marcus, 2006). Second, mindfulness strategies helped
us as learners take a full advantage of online learning characteristics, namely, experimentation, divergent thinking, and
exploration of multiple perspectives which liberated us from rigid values and personal views (Anderson, 2003). Third,
there was a state of heightened psychological commitment when peers publicly espoused each other’s views in group
activities and forums. According to Langer (as cited in Moore, 2013) the increased level of this factor is practically related
to mindfulness which is identified as critical in an online learning environment.
The aforementioned experiences made us reflect that mindfulness strategies could gradually lead to an extension of
students’ role leading them to heutagogy, namely, the total control of their learning (Blaschke, 2012), with learners deciding
on what they want to learn and what skills they want to acquire. Adult learners need this empowering perspective during
the transitions in various aspects of their life so that they can engage in self-determined, real-life, meaningful tasks which
can arouse new interests (Bonk et al., 2015). This can happen in the context of formal or informal learning, and it is essential
in the context of lifelong learning - one of the 21st century educational goals is.
Moreover, mindfulness in online education can reduce transactional distance and replace verbal and non-verbal physical
proximity because it cultivates personal and social skills. It can increase understanding, collaboration, and cover
communicational and psychological gaps. Accordingly, students can draw on their instructors’ experiences and go further.
Particularly,
mindfulness helps the transformative nature of learning flourish at all levels; its inward-looking features encourage
reflection;
it fosters constructivist online learning environments encouraging curiosity (beginner’s mind), discovery and meaningful
hands-on learning;
it liberates students from constant mind-wandering and restless striving which is habit-driven and derives from struggling
to deal with various identities, needs, values, and life stories in distance education; thus, it leads to deep learning and full
engagement.
Our collective story contributes to the understanding of the impact of mindfulness-based teaching-learning strategies in an
online course enriched with elements of f2f peer interaction. Considering that there is very little research on mindfulness
in online education, our study open doors to well-needed exploration of this approach. Further research into the notions
and observations we presented is needed not only to validate them but also to elaborate on each of concepts in more depth.

10

105
 94

REFERENCES
Anderson, T. (2003). Modes of interaction in distance education: Recent developments and research questions.
Handbook of distance education, 129-144.
Apostolakis, I. (2004). Ex apostάsews ekpaίdeysh noshleytikoύ proswpikoύ: technikέs kai leitoyrgikέs proseggίseis
[Nurses’ distance education: practical and functional approaches]. Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop in clinical nursing
education. Greece. 61-90.
Barbezat, D. P., & Bush, M. (2014). Contemplative practices in higher education: Powerful methods to transform
teaching and learning. John Wiley & Sons.
Bennett, L., & Folley, S. (2014). A tale of two doctoral students: social media tools and hybridised identities. Research In
Learning Technology, 22. http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/rlt.v22.23791
Birzer, M. L. (2004). Andragogy: Student centered classrooms in criminal justice programs. Journal of Criminal Justice
Education, 15(2), 393-412.
Blaschke, L. M. (2012). Heutagogy and lifelong learning: A review of heutagogical practice and self-determined
learning. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 13(1), 56-71.
Bonk, C. J., Lee, M. M., Kou, X., Xu, S., & Sheu, F. R. (2015). Understanding the self-directed online learning
preferences, goals, achievements, and challenges of MIT OpenCourseWare subscribers. Journal of Educational
Technology & Society, 18(2), 349.
Bouhnik, D., & Marcus, T. (2006). Interaction in distance learning courses. Journal of the Association for Information
Science and Technology, 57(3), 299-305.
Bourne, J., & Moore, J. C. (Eds.). (2003). Elements of quality online education: Practice and direction (Vol. 4). Olin
College-Sloan-C.
Chang, H., Ngunjiri, F., & Hernandez, K. A. C. (2016). Collaborative autoethnography. Routledge.
Cheurprakobkit, S., Hale, D. F., & Olson, J. N. (2002). Technicians' perceptions about Web-based courses: The
University of Texas system experience. The American Journal of Distance Education, 16(4), 245-257.
Conrad, D. (2005). Building and maintaining community in cohort-based online learning. Journal of Distance Education,
20(1), 1-20.
Dabbagh, N. (2007). The online learner: Characteristics and pedagogical implications. Contemporary Issues in
Technology and Teacher Education, 7(3), 217- 226.
David, D. S., & Sheth, S. (2009). Mindful teaching and teaching mindfulness: A guide for anyone who teaches anything.
Somerville, MA, USA: Wisdom Publications.
Davidson, R. J. (2012). The emotional life of your brain: How its unique patterns affect the way you think, feel, and live--
and how you can change them. Penguin.
Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2001). Critical thinking, cognitive presence, and computer conferencing in
distance education. American Journal of Distance Education, 15(1), 7-23.
Garrison, D. R., & Arbaugh, J. B. (2007). Researching the community of inquiry framework: Review, issues, and future
directions. The Internet and Higher Education, 10(3), 157-172.
Ellis, C. (1997). Evocative autoethnography: Writing emotionally about our lives. In W. G.Tierney & Y.Lincoln (Eds.),
Representation and the text: Reframing the narrative voice (pp.115–139). New York: State University of New York
Press.
Ellis, C. (2004). The ethnographic I: A methodological novel about autoethnography. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.
Galusha, J. M. (1998). Barriers to learning in distance education. Retrieved from
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED416377.pdf
Garrison, D. R., & Kanuka, H. (2004). Blended learning: Uncovering its transformative potential in higher education.
The internet and higher education, 7(2), 95-105.
Graham, C. R. (2006). Blended learning systems. The handbook of blended learning, 3-21.
Gutierrez, C. (2016, August 16). eLearning vs Classroom Training—How Different Are They? Retrieved from
http://info.shiftelearning.com/blog/bid/354977/elearning-vs-classroom-training-how-different-are-they
Hanh, T. N., & Weare, K. (2017). Happy Teachers Change the World: A Guide for Cultivating Mindfulness in
Education. Parallax Press.

11

106
 95

Hattie, J., & Gan, M. (2016). Instruction based on feedback. In R. E. Mayer & P. A. Alexander, (Eds.). Handbook of
research on learning and instruction, 249-271. Taylor & Francis.
IABL. (n.d.). About IABL. Retrieved 23 January 2018, from http://iabl.teiemt.gr/about-us/
Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994). Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. London: Piatkus.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: past, present, and future. Clinical psychology: Science
and practice, 10(2), 144-156.
Kalogiannakis, M., & Touvlatzis, S. (2015). Emotions Experienced by Learners and their Development through
Communication with the Tutor-Counsellor. European Journal of Open, Distance and E-learning, 18(2), 36-48.
Kassop, M. (2003, May/June). Ten ways online education matches, or surpasses, face-to-face learning. The Technology
Source Archives. Retrieved from
http://www.technologysource.org/article/ten_ways_online_education_matches_or_surpasses_facetoface_learning/
Kays, J. L., Hurley, R. A., & Taber, K. H. (2012). The dynamic brain: neuroplasticity and mental health. The Journal of
neuropsychiatry and clinical neurosciences, 24(2), 118-124.
Killingsworth, M. A., & Gilbert, D. T. (2010). A wandering mind is an unhappy mind. Science, 330(6006), 932-932.
Kron, F. W., & Sofos, A. (2007). Didaktikí ton Méson. Néa Mésa sto plaísio Didaktikón kai Mathisiakón Diadikasión
[Teaching of the Media. New Media in the frame of Teaching and Learning Processes]. Athens: Gutenberg.
LaBay, D. G., & Comm, C. L. (2003). A case study using gap analysis to assess distance learning versus traditional
course delivery. International Journal of Educational Management, 17(7), 312-317.
Lassiter, L. E. (2005). The Chicago guide to collaborative ethnography. University of Chicago Press.
Lynch, R., & Dembo, M. (2004). The relationship between self-regulation and online learning in a blended learning
context. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 5(2).
McDonald, B. J., Shroyer, P., Urbanski, B., & Vertin, D. (2002). Meeting the graduate education needs of Minnesota
extension educators. Journal of Extension, 40(4).
Meiklejohn, J., Phillips, C., Freedman, M. L., Griffin, M. L., Biegel, G., Roach, A., ... & Isberg, R. (2012). Integrating
mindfulness training into K-12 education: Fostering the resilience of teachers and students. Mindfulness, 3(4), 291-307.
Miller, J. P. (2013). The contemplative practitioner: Meditation in education and the workplace. University of Toronto
Press.
Moore, M. G. (1993). Theory of transactional distance. Theoretical principles of distance education, 1, 22-38.
Moore, M. G. (Ed.). (2013). Handbook of distance education. Routledge.
Morrison, A. B., Goolsarran, M., Rogers, S. L., & Jha, A. P. (2014). Taming a wandering attention: short-form
mindfulness training in student cohorts. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 897.
Moskal, P., Dziuban, C., & Hartman, J. (2013). Blended learning: A dangerous idea?. The Internet and Higher
Education, 18, 15-23.
Mrazek, M. D., Zedelius, C. M., Gross, M. E., Mrazek, A. J., Phillips, D. T., & Schooler, J. W. (2017). Mindfulness in
Education. In J. C. Karremans, & E. K. Papies, (Eds.), Mindfulness in social psychology, pp. 139 – 152. Taylor &
Francis.
Palalas, A. (2018). Mindfulness in Mobile and Ubiquitous Learning: Harnessing the Power of Attention. In S. Yu, M.
Ally, and A. Tsinakos (Eds.), Mobile and Ubiquitous Learning: Perspectives on Rethinking and Reforming Education
(pp. 19-44). Springer, Singapore.
Powietrzynska, M. (2014). Promoting wellness through mindfulness-based activities. (Doctoral dissertation). City
University of New York. Retrieved from
https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1267&context=gc_etds
Program Overview (n.d.). Master of Education in Distance Education. Retrieved from
http://www.athabascau.ca/programs/summary/master-of-education-in-distance-education/
Rechtschaffen, D. (2014). The way of mindful education: Cultivating well-being in teachers and students. WW Norton &
Company.
Shapiro, S. (2013). Does Mindfulness Make You More Compassionate? Greater Good, 27.

12

107
 96

Schonert-Reichl, K. A., Oberle, E., Lawlor, M. S., Abbott, D., Thomson, K., Oberlander, T. F., & Diamond, A. (2015).
Enhancing cognitive and social–emotional development through a simple-to-administer mindfulness-based school
program for elementary school children: A randomized controlled trial. Developmental Psychology, 51(1), 52.
Schwind, J. K., McCay, E., Beanlands, H., Martin, L. S., Martin, J., & Binder, M. (2017). Mindfulness practice as a
teaching-learning strategy in higher education: A qualitative exploratory pilot study. Nurse education today, 50, 92-96.
Siegel, D. J. (2007). The mindful brain: Reflection and attunement in the cultivation of well-being. WW Norton &
Company.
Siegel, D. J. (2016). Mind: A journey to the heart of being human. WW Norton & Company.
Sze-Yeng, F., & Hussian, R. (2010). Self-directed learning in a socioconstructivist learning environment. Procedia Social
and Behavioral Sciences, 9,1913-1917.
Van Dam, N. T., van Vugt, M. K., Vago, D. R., Schmalzl, L., Saron, C. D., Olendzki, A., ... & Fox, K. C. (2018). Mind
the hype: A critical evaluation and prescriptive agenda for research on mindfulness and meditation. Perspectives on
Psychological Science, 13(1), 36-61.
Vaughan, N. (2007). Perspectives on blended learning in higher education. International Journal on ELearning, 6(1), 81.
Vaughan, N. D., Cleveland-Innes, M., & Garrison, D. R. (2013). Teaching in blended learning environments: Creating
and sustaining communities of inquiry. Athabasca University Press.
Visser, L., Visser, Y., Amirault, R., & Simonson, M. (2012). Trends and issues in distance education: International
perspectives, Second Edition. IAP.
Vonderwell, S. (2003). An examination of asynchronous communication experiences and perspectives of students in an
online course: A case study. Internet and Higher Education, 6, 77–90
Vygotsky, L. S. (1980). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.
Willis, J. (2006). Research-based strategies to ignite student learning: Insights from a neurologist and classroom
teacher. ASCD.
Wilson, D., Varnhagen, S., Krupa, E., Kasprzak, S., Hunting, V., & Taylor, A. (2007). Instructors’ adaptation to online
graduate education in health promotion: A qualitative study. International Journal of E-Learning & Distance
Education, 18(2), 1-15.
Zenner, C., Herrnleben-Kurz, S., & Walach, H. (2014). Mindfulness-based interventions in schools—a systematic review
and meta-analysis. Frontiers in psychology, 5, 603.

13

108
 97

Effective Use of Online Tools in Engineering Classes

Yasemin Bayyurt Feza Kerestecioğlu
Boğaziçi University Kadir Has University
Istanbul, Turkey Istanbul, Turkey
[email protected] [email protected]

ABSTRACT
In this paper, we present the results of the second phase of a study that we have been conducting since the 2016–2017
academic year at a private university in Turkey. This phase of the study was conducted in a compulsory sophomore-level
core engineering course of the Electrical-Electronics Engineering undergraduate programme. The online components of
the course included, among other activities, online videos prepared by the instructor as well as videos on the Internet with
public access. In this paper, we report the findings on the usage of videos prepared by the instructor. These videos were
prepared as narrated and animated slide shows so that the students could link online experiences to in-class lectures.
Statistics related to accessing these videos, as well comparisons between current and previous students’ performances,
reveal insights about the motivation of students to use online tools and how these tools affect student performance.
Author Keywords
Engineering education, blended learning, face-to-face instruction, online instruction

INTRODUCTION
In today’s world, technology has become part of people’s everyday lives in all domains of life. As young people’s digital
literacy skills become more and more advanced, their learning habits and expectations change accordingly. Learner needs
vary from discipline to discipline. Therefore, students’ and instructors’ expectations vary in different programs of study
within the social sciences, sciences, and engineering. In traditional engineering classrooms, instructors deliver lectures
during class hours, then, instructors ask students to complete assignments and homework outside of class time (e.g., at
home or in the library). When students are exposed to course materials in different environments (i.e., face-to-face during
class time and online outside of class time) they become more engaged with the course materials and course content
(Debnath et al., 2014; Harris & Park, 2016; Kerestecioğlu & Bayyurt, 2017). Jones and Chew (2015) indicated that
engineering education has evolved from traditional classroom learning to e-learning due to young people’s intensive
involvement with technology. Hence, we can say that a blended learning approach gives learners many chances to learn
the course content via a combination of different pedagogical approaches.
According to Debnath et al. (2014), online learning provides learners with an online learning environment, motivation,
mode of communication, ability to carry out tasks, efficacy, and achievement. A number of studies have focused on various
aspects of blended learning in engineering programs all over the world, sharing similar methodologies and results ranging
from students’ and lecturers’ perceptions of blended learning classrooms (e.g., Canino, 2015; Harris & Park, 2016; Hotle
& Garrow, 2016; Liyanapathirana, & Mirza, 2016; Mason et al., 2013) to developing and implementing a blended learning
course (e.g., Jones & Chew, 2015; Kerestecioğlu & Bayyurt, 2017; Perez-Marin & Pascual Nieto, 2012; Silva & Barroca,
2015; Singh, 2013). Since students are the central agents in blended learning environments, their opinions are necessary to
reveal the extent to which a blended learning approach influences academic performance in the course. Therefore, it is
necessary to focus on not only the effectiveness of blended course designs but also students’ opinions about the course
content and its online/face-to-face implementation.
In this paper, we report the results of the implementation of an innovative blended learning approach to an engineering
course at a university in Turkey. In the light of the findings, we discuss to what extent this innovative blended learning
approach may affect students’ end-of-the-year success. In addition, we also examine who benefits more from the learning
materials presented in face-to-face and online environments (i.e., high or low achieving students).
METHODOLOGY
This section first presents relevant information on the course in which an innovative blended teaching approach was adopted
as well as the curriculum to which the course belongs. The online tools blended into the course are described subsequently.
Course Description:
Typical Electrical and Computer Engineering curricula have common courses. Some of those are taught in other branches
of engineering, too, such as calculus, physics, and core engineering courses. Other courses, however, are common
exclusively among electrical engineering and computer engineering courses. The course in which data collection was
performed (i.e., EE 205 Digital Design) can be considered as one of those. This course introduces students to Boolean
algebra and logic circuits. Such a course is an indispensable block in the curricula of both electrical and computer
engineering programmes. At Kadir Has University, Istanbul, it is a compulsory course in the second-year curricula of the
Electrical-Electronics Engineering and Computer Engineering Undergraduate Programmes, offered in two sections for
students in these programmes.

109
 98
EE 205 does not have any prerequisites. It starts with an introduction to the number systems and leads students to the realm
of binary numbers. Following the preliminaries, the material is presented in three parts, namely, Boolean algebra,
combinational logic circuits, and sequential circuits. Detailed information about the course, including its learning outcomes
and its contribution to the outcomes of both undergraduate programmes can be found in the university’s online course
catalogue (http://bologna.khas.edu.tr/ders/50002971/program/50000566).
One of the authors has been teaching this course for more than 10 years. Originally, the teaching method was very
traditional. That is, the lectures were given using a PowerPoint slide show. The students were assigned about 4–5 homework
assignments during the term. There was hardly any use of online or audio-visual material in or out of the classroom. After
observing a degradation of student motivation and performance over several years, three years ago the homework was
replaced by classwork. That is, after the course material was presented and some examples were solved, the students were
asked to work in pairs to solve an exercise similar to the examples solved in the same hour. This peer-to-peer teaching
approach resulted in some improvement in student performance and motivation. Nevertheless, the instructor was still
searching for methods to extend student activity outside the classroom. In another course during the 2016–2017 academic
year, he tried engaging students in using course videos and forum discussions for the first time. Preliminary results of this
pilot application were presented by Kerestecioğlu & Bayyurt (2017).
Online Tools:
A blended teaching method similar to that used in the other course during the previous term was adopted in the EE 205
Digital Design course. Besides the lectures, asynchronous interactive online tools were used. These included videos,
discussions forums, and online homework. All these aspects of the blended course were implemented via Blackboard
Learn®, a teaching support platform widely used in Kadir Has University.
The online videos can be considered in two groups. The first one consisted of course videos. The course videos were not
recordings of lectures; they were movies obtained from the animated PowerPoint shows, which were narrated by the
instructor. The videos were made accessible to students after completing each chapter of the course in the class. The students
also had access to handouts of the PowerPoint presentations before the lectures. Nevertheless, the rationale for providing
these narrated PowerPoint movies was to help students prepare for exams and catch up if they missed a lecture. They could
also use the course videos to refresh their memories, even pick-up any part of these videos to use them as so-to-say an
audio-visual handout. Eight videos between 20–45 minutes were prepared, which can be viewed on YouTube via these
links:
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8y8e4VVMXiw (Binary Systems — Part I)
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S5mHsIvGwZ4 (Binary Systems — Part II)
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UjsJ7tFo6IA (Boolean Algebra)
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-12LhSwGgVE (Simplification of Functions)
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lRuyL1_JzKw (Combinational Logic)
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K06q7ElT3i0 (Design with MSI Components)
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GujqOx-u-A8 (Sequential Logic)
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oJuPsZ5AhT4 (Analysis and Design of Sequential Circuits)
The students were required to complete an assignment after watching each video and submit it online via Blackboard. The
submissions were accepted through the SafeAssign tool in Blackboard to avoid plagiarism. The assignments included only
one task. In this task, the students are expected to write a textbook question on their own and solve it.
The second group of videos consisted of publicly accessible short videos on YouTube. The aim of these videos was to show
students examples, applications, and recent technological advances related to subjects presented in class. Students were
required to write reflections about these videos, and to discuss and present opinions about a question raised by the instructor
in an online discussion forum. The instructor replied to all contributions shared in the forum to correct any
misunderstandings about the facts and ideas presented in the videos and explain ambiguities that might arise from the
students’ points of view. The short videos used in this activity can be accessed via the following links:
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U6xJfP7-HCc (Base 12 – Numberphile)
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3pbH9IhxwOg (Redundancy Theorem (Boolean Algebra Trick))
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U5V1sxAKu5I (Bell Labs Innovations Song)
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sYO6vm9PTsI (7-4 Hamming code (Errors Aren't Forever [part 2/2]))
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UTVEVvfGOIw (Moore's Law is Ending - Here's 7 Technologies … )
Each of these two video-watching activities constituted 5% of students’ overall course grade. Course results related to the
usage of videos in the first group (i.e., instructor-created) are presented below. The results related to other aspects of the
blended teaching method will be presented in a future publication.

109
 99
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The activities described above were blended in a course offered during fall semester of the 2017–2018 academic year.
There were 55 Electrical-Electronics Engineering students registered in the course. Only four of them were repeating the
course; the others were taking it for the first time.
The native language of all students was Turkish and they were speaking English as a foreign language. The medium of
instruction in the Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences at Kadir Has University, and hence the language in the
course, is English.
Table 1 displays access statistics for the course videos. Actual access frequencies might be higher than those given in
Table 1, however, because some students subscribed to the instructor’s YouTube channel. Therefore, they may have ac-
cessed the videos directly through YouTube as soon as they were uploaded without visiting the Blackboard Learn® system.

Number of students Number of times Number of homework

Videos
accessing the videos video was accessed assignments submitted
Binary Systems 52 393 21
Boolean Algebra 50 316 27
Simplification of Functions 48 213 33
Combinational Logic 44 172 *
Design with MSI Components 44 161 27
Sequential Logic 41 130 14
Analysis and Design of Sequential Circuits 31 68 *
*No homework assigned for video
Table 1. Course video access via Blackboard
The videos in Table 1 are listed in the order in which they were posted during the term, starting with the first and ending
with the last. Table 1 illustrates how the number of times the videos were accessed during the term decreased as the term
progressed. We observed the same phenomenon also in another course taught during spring semester of the 2016–2017
academic year in which the course videos were piloted (Kerestecioğlu & Bayyurt, 2017). At first glance, such access
frequencies suggest a diminishing interest in watching the videos towards the end of the term. Nevertheless, it should be
kept in mind that earlier videos were available for a longer period. Hence, these values may indicate that the earlier videos
were accessed repeatedly during the term. Daily access statistics for two of the videos are presented to support this latter
interpretation (see Figure 1). This chart illustrates how students watched the videos repeatedly during the term—the longer
the videos were available, the more times they were played.

a) Video 1 (Binary Systems)

b) Video 3 (Simplification of Functions)

Figure 1. Daily access statistics
3

110
 100

Figure 1 revealed another interesting fact. We observed six peak dates for accessing Video 1. Two of them, which were
prior to posting Video 3 (i.e., October 22nd, 2017 and November 6th, 2017), were the deadlines for the first two
assignments. Also, the latter was the day before the first midterm exam. The other four peak dates (November 25th, 2017,
December 18th, 2017, December 25th, 2017, and January 7th, 2018) matched the peak dates for accessing Video 3. The
first three dates were the homework assignment deadlines while the second and last of these dates were the days before the
second midterm and final exams. Therefore, we concluded that both videos were re-visited by students not only to prepare
their homework assignments but also to review course subjects before exams. Similar observations were made about
statistics for other course videos but cannot be displayed in this paper due to space limitations.
Figure 2 illustrates the relationship between accessing the videos and students’ course performance. It displays a scatter
plot of the total number of times all videos were accessed by a student in relation to that student’s final score out of 100 at
the end of the course. Quantitative analyses indicated a positive correlation between these two variables (r = .44).

Figure 2. Relation of students’ performances to number of video accesses

Lastly, students’ performance was compared to that of students who had taken the same course the previous year, which
did not include any online components (see Table 2). Although the average grades of these two years were about the same,
the number of AA’s (highest letter grade) as well as FF’s (fail grade) increased considerably with the application of online
tools in the course. In parallel, there was a clear difference between the standard deviations of the grades of these years.
This can be interpreted as indicating that high-achieving students benefited more from online tools whereas low-achieving
students found it more difficult to cope with online learning methods.

Number of students Number of AA’s Number of FF’s Class average Class std. dev.
2017 Fall 55 4 (7.3%) 17 (31%) 42/100 24.2
2016 Fall 35 1 (2.9%) 6 (17%) 43/100 16.6
Table 2. Students’ performance of last two years
In sum, the implementation of a blended learning approach in engineering courses enable high achievers to get better in
their understanding of the course content. The high achievers’ end-of-the-year course grades are a good indication of how
much they made progress in this respect. However, low achievers still do not show much interest in course activities whether
these activities are presented online or face-to-face. The end-of-year success of low achievers does not seem to change in
this respect.
CONCLUSION
This case study reported the implementation of an innovative blended learning approach in an engineering course at a
private university in Istanbul, Turkey. The paper focused on to what extent student achievement was influenced by the
implementation of this pedagogical approach. Similar to other studies, findings suggest that a blended learning approach
helps students to better understand course content. However, when examined closely, high achieving students seemed to
benefit more than did low achieving students. Therefore, there was considerable difference in end-of-term success between
high and low-achieving students.
Further studies should be carried out to increase the generalizability of the results of this study. In addition, similar
innovative teaching and learning approaches should be adopted in other courses as well to reach more students and foster
equal learning opportunities. As blended learning is becoming more widespread throughout the world, future research and
4

111
 101
practice should involve developing an understanding at the institutional level of how blended learning can impact students’
success in their study programs and finding ways to implement blended learning successfully.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank all second-year electrical engineering students for taking part in the study and giving us consent to
use the data we collected in this respect.
REFERENCES
Canino, J.V. (2015). Comparing student performance in thermodynamics using the flipped classroom and think-pair-share
pedagogies. In Proceedings of ASEE Annual Conference, Seattle, WA, USA; 14-17 June 2015.
Debnath, B.C., Rahman, M.M. & Hossain, M.J. (2014). Blended learning approach for engineering education — An
improvement phase of traditional learning. International Journal of Computer Science and Network Security (IJCSNS),
14(11), 85–90.
Harris, J. & Park, C. (2016). A case study on blended learning in engineering education. Proceedings of the Canadian
Engineering Education Association (CEEA) Conference Halifax, Canada, 19-22 June 2016, 1–5.
Hotle, S. & Garrow, L.A. (2016). Effects of the traditional and flipped classrooms on undergraduate student opinions and
success. ASCE's Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice, 142(1), 11.
Jones L.J.N., & Chew E. (2015) Blended Learning in Engineering Education: Curriculum Redesign and Development. In
Tang S., Logonnathan L. (eds) Taylor’s 7th Teaching and Learning Conference 2014 Proceedings (pp. 441-448), Springer,
Singapore.
Kerestecioğlu F. & Bayyurt, Y. (2017). Blending on-line tools in engineering courses. Proceedings of Second World
Conference on Blended Learning (IABL'17), Toronto, Canada, 35–40.
Liyanapathirana, S., & Mirza, O. (2016). Blended learning in engineering education: students and lecturers’ perceptions
and achieving learning outcomes. Proceedings of International Conference on Engineering Education and Research,
Sydney, Australia; 21-24 November 2016.
Mason, G., Shuman, T. R., & Cook, K. E. (2013). Comparing the effectiveness of an inverted classroom to a traditional
classroom in an upper-division engineering course. IEEE Transactions on Education, 56(4), 430–435.
Pérez-Marín, D. & Pascual-Nieto, I. (2012). A Case Study on the Use of Blended Learning to Encourage Computer Science
Students to Study. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 21(1), 74–82.
Silva, L. & Barroca, L. (2015). Towards a blended learning approach to teach a theoretical computer science module. In
7th International Conference on Computer Supported Education (CSEDU 2015), Lisbon, Portugal; 23-25 May 2015.
Singh, H. (2003). Building effective blended learning programs. Educational Technology, 43(6), 51–54.

112
 102

Investigating the Reasons for

Low Level of Interaction in a Blended Course
Ayşegül Sallı Ülker Vancı Osam
Eastern Mediterranean University Eastern Mediterranean University
Famagusta, Northern Cyprus Famagusta, Northern Cyprus
[email protected] [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Blended learning has become widespread in the field of teacher education in part due to the opportunities for interaction
offered by the online component. This study discusses how and why the expectation for more interaction was not met in a
blended course. The research context is a 4-year teacher education program in Northern Cyprus where preservice
teachers of English learn how to teach English. One of the final year courses, ELTE406 Teaching Practice, was
redesigned into a blended form by integrating a blog tool into the face-to-face course. The purpose of the redesign was to
create an opportunity for preservice teachers to share their teaching practice experiences with one another and provide
feedback in an effort to overcome limited in-class contact hours that inhibited interaction and sharing among the
preservice teachers. The preservice teachers’ blog entries and interactions (i.e., blog artefacts) and semi-structured
interviews conducted upon the completion of the course were analysed qualitatively. The findings revealed a number of
reasons for hindered interaction among preservice teachers. These findings were grouped in five broad categories: (a)
attitudes towards the online medium, (b) devaluing peer feedback, (c) perceived inadequacy of written self-expression,
(d) group dynamics, and (e) challenges of blogging. Some implications and practical solutions are offered for more
efficient blended instruction.
Author Keywords
Blended learning; preservice teachers, practicum; interaction
INTRODUCTION
Emergence of various Web 2.0 tools in education has led to changes in teaching methodologies. Whittaker (2013)
defined blended learning for English language practitioners as a “term most commonly used to refer to any combination
of face-to-face teaching with online technology” (p.12). Traditional in-class teaching has been complemented with
various synchronous and asynchronous communication technologies to enable learners to access knowledge in virtual
environments and communicate with each other without any limitations. As Osguthorpe and Graham (2003) pointed out,
blended instruction combined online and face-to-face learning to bring the benefits of both mediums together.
Many research studies have been carried out to determine the effects of communication technologies on teaching and
learning. While some studies reported significant benefits of utilizing online components to face-to-face instruction
(Garrison & Anderson, 2003; Garrison & Kanuka, 2004; Garrison & Vaughan, 2008; Singh, 2003; Sitzmann, Kraiger,
Stewart, & Wisher, 2006), other research results indicated no difference (Spooner, Jordan, Algozzine, & Spooner, 1999).
Findings of research on blended learning suggested that integrating technological tools in instruction encouraged learners
to become more active and lead to deeper learning (Bonk, Kim, & Zeng, 2006). Also, blended courses were reported to
be more flexible than face-to-face teaching alone (Graham, 2006), which also resulted in better learner outcomes (Zhao,
Lei, Yan, & Tan, 2005).
Blogs are one of the most common Web 2.0 tools that have been integrated in education at all levels to enhance teaching
and learning processes. Many features of blogs enable users to add different media such as videos, pictures, and podcasts.
Furthermore, blogs are used as a part of face-to-face instruction to encourage learners to communicate with a wider range
of individuals for a more global experience (Steinweg, Davis, & Thomson, 2005). It is also reported that blogs are used
as supplementary tools to compensate the limiting effects of in-class discussions and sustain continuous communication
among and between them (Wang & Hsua, 2008). In teacher education, blogs are used as channels of communication to
announce new information, post assignments, and facilitate out-of-class discussions, and provide students with the
opportunity to share critical reflections with other bloggers (Oravec, 2003; Richardson, 2004; Roberts, 2003). Blogs have
the potential to serve as a social platform to establish interaction among preservice teachers by exchanging ideas with
their peers in an online social environment through reflective practices. As mentioned by Romiszowski and Mason
(2004), the utilization of blogs in instruction seems to encourage active participation of learners in discussions and
increase interaction among them, which may result in extended and more authentic opportunities for knowledge
generation and teacher learning.
RESEARCH QUESTION
The following research question was asked to achieve the aim of the study:
1. What are the reasons for low level of interaction among the preservice teachers in the blog component of
ELTE406 Teaching Practice course?

1
113
 103

METHODOLOGY
Problem and Context
In teacher education, learning from each other’s experiences is important for preservice language teachers during their
internship period. The unique experience of learning how to teach can be best realized by encouraging preservice
teachers to critically reflect on their teaching experiences and share these with others. After years of formal classroom
instruction about how to teach, preservice teachers are placed in real classrooms to practice teaching in their final year. In
the research context (i.e., the English Language Teaching Program in the Foreign Languages Department at Eastern
Mediterranean University, Northern Cyprus) the ELTE406 Teaching Practice course was offered face-to-face and had
only three contact hours weekly. However, the course was highly practical and demanding in nature, and weekly contact
hours were not sufficient for ample interaction, and sharing. The course required the preservice teachers to carry out
classroom observations, and teaching practice lessons in schools. They needed to share their lesson plans with their
course instructors before lesson execution, which would be observed and assessed by both the course instructor and the
class teacher, reflect on their lesson, and discuss the lesson with the observers afterwards. Considering the amount of
work and the number of preservice teachers the course instructor had to manage, the first author of the paper decided to
redesign ELTE406 Teaching Practice course into a blended format by adding a class blog and moving reflective activities
there to facilitate more interaction.
Participants
Fifteen preservice teachers (who were enrolled in ELTE406 Teaching practice course) participated in this action research
study. They were identified by convenience sampling. The participants’ age ranged between 22 and 26. Out of 15
participants, 10 were Turkish, 4 were Turkish Cypriot, and 1 was Russian. None of the participants had previous
blogging experience. In this paper, the participants will be mentioned as P1, P2, and so on.
Research Procedures
First, the course instructor (i.e., the first author) held a training session with the preservice teachers on how to use blogs.
Then, they posted their lesson plans on the blog before conducting their teaching practice lessons to receive feedback
from their peers and the course instructor. The course instructor video-recorded their teaching practice lessons during the
lesson execution. Then, she shared 10-15 minutes of segments of videos on the blog for the preservice teachers to watch
the lesson and leave constructive feedback. The preservice teachers were also required to post their reflections on their
lessons on the class blog.
Data Collection Instruments and Procedures
This paper reports a part of a larger study that investigated the contribution of preservice teachers’ blogging interactions
to their reflection. It aims to report reasons for the unexpected low level of interaction among the preservice teachers on
a blog tool during the course delivery. For this purpose, the preservice teachers’ feedback posts to one another and the
final reports that they posted were copied from the blog and pasted into Word documents. Also, semi-structured
interviews were conducted in a private environment and were recorded with a voice-recorder. Each interview lasted from
thirty to forty minutes and was transcribed for data analysis.
Analysis
Qualitative measures were applied to analyze the data that involved the blog artifacts and interview transcripts. Content
analysis was carried out. Coding schemes were not pre-determined for the data analysis. Instead, the data were read and
re-read for emerging themes. A second coder, who had completed his PhD dissertation, followed the same steps to
perform the analysis. The second coder only analyzed 25% of the data comprised of randomly selected blog artifacts and
one interview transcript. After coding the data separately, two coders shared their findings and found almost 89% match
between their analyses.
RESULTS
Preservice Teachers’ Blogging Interactions
Analysis of the preservice teachers’ blogging interactions with their peers revealed that only a small number of preservice
teachers was active throughout the semester. Most of the participants were somewhat active, while few participants
interacted neither with their peers nor with the course instructor. They only posted the required tasks without leaving any
comments on their peers’ blog entries or video-recorded teaching practice lessons. In order to gather some insights from
the preservice teachers regarding their interactions at different levels, their blog communications and reflections on
blogging interactions were investigated during the interviews. Due to word limits, only results related to reasons that
hindered participants’ interactions will be discussed.

Factors that Inhibited Blogging Interactions

The findings revealed some potential reasons hindered interaction among the preservice teachers. These reasons were
grouped in five categories as follows: (a) attitudes towards the online medium, (b) devaluing peer feedback, (c) perceived
inadequacy of written self-expression, (d) group dynamics, and (e) challenges of blogging. Each category is described in
detail in the following sections.

2
114
 104

1. Attitudes towards Blogs

The findings revealed that some of the preservice teachers were not enthusiastic to interact with their peers and the course
instructor through the blog due to their attitudes towards the online tool. They admitted logging into the blog only to post
their tasks. Also, they stated that they felt reluctant to leave any comments even when they watched their peers’ video
recorded lessons. The excerpt taken from one of the interview sessions clearly demonstrates the view of P8.

Researcher: As you know, we had the blogs in order to better communicate with each other. Do you think we
achieved this goal?

P8: In my opinion, this wasn’t achieved because we didn’t use the blogs to communicate with each other. We
just used it to post our tasks.

Researcher: OK. What sort of communication did you have with your friends?

P8: I didn’t use it to communicate with them. I checked my friends’ work before posting my tasks. I also read
the feedback and comments written to them to have some ideas.

Researcher: Can you please be more specific?

P8: For example, before writing up my lesson plan, I checked my friends’ lesson plans to see how they made it
or whether I missed anything.

P8 considered the blog as a tool to post the tasks and a place to have ideas by viewing others’ work before perming the
assigned task. It seems that P8 was not interested in communicating with others. This attitude towards the use of blogs
appeared as a factor that hindered communication among the preservice teachers.

Likewise, another participant explained the reasons for not engaging in any blogging interaction with others. P14
attributed this to her perception of the blog tool and other commitments.

P14: Honestly, I did not think of blogs as a place where we can communicate with each other. To me, it was a
place where I can reflect on my experiences. Now, thinking back, I wish I had spent more time, but we had
other projects and assignments and blog was not our priority. So, I just posted my tasks but did not leave any
comments to my friends.

R: Do you mean you did not do anything other than posting your tasks?

P14: Nooo! I liked the videos of other friends. Even I watched them with my friend. When we watched them
to see what we could do better in our teaching practices. Also, we realized that we also had the same problems
to work on. That was good.

The excerpt above clearly indicates that P14 viewed the blog tool as a site to submit her assignments. She reported
viewing her peers’ teaching practice videos and reflecting on their performances with her peer(s). She was not involved
in any interaction with her peers on the blog.

2. Devaluing Peer Feedback

Another issue emerged was the participants’ opinions about the quality of their peers’ feedback. It seems that some of the
participants did not consider their peers’ feedback genuine. So, they avoided replying to their comments. For instance, P9
stated that she did not consider online feedback sincere and that she valued face-to-face feedback more. Data analysis
revealed that the participant did not show interest in exchanging feedback with her peers because she devalued their
feedback:

P9: While reading the comments, you feel like the friends who wrote the comments have 40 years of teaching
experience and you are just a new teacher who has no teaching experience. They give you feedback as if they
have years of teaching experience. Don’t you react to it?

R: Did you not like the feedback you received from your peers? Is that what you mean?

3
115
 105

P9: I did mostly but I did not like their style. I did not consider their feedback seriously. Your feedback was
enough for me. The value of their feedback compared to yours was like grain of sand in the sea.

P9 seemed to devalue her peers’ feedback due to their inexperience, which led her to discontinue her interactions with her
peers. P5 also mentioned this issue:

P5: I expected responses from you, not from them, because other students, they were in the same situation.

The perceived quality of peer feedback appeared as important reasons that prevented some of the participants from being
involving in blogging interaction.

3. Perceived Inadequacy of Written Self-Expression

Preservice teachers’ perceived ability of written self-expression emerged as another reason for limited blog interaction.
Data analysis revealed that some of the preservice teachers were reluctant write feedback posts to their peers. They
avoided leaving feedback for their peers due to their fear of making language mistakes in English:

Researcher: Considering your blogging activities, were you an active or a passive blogger?

P12: I think I am in the passive users group.

Researcher: OK. In your opinion, what were the reasons that prevented you from interacting with your friends
or making comments on their blog posts?

P12: What influenced my interaction with my friends could be my lack of language practice. I mean thinking
fast in English and writing fast is not like what I do in mother tongue and this affected me. For example, if
writing a blog entry or leaving a comment took one hour of your time, it would take me two hours for me. I
mean, it is not about not being able to write but it takes a long time for me to write on the blog, because I have
to think and write accurately.

As the findings indicate, some of the participants may have had some anxiety because the instructor and other preservice
teachers would read their blog entries and comments. Communicating in an online medium using a foreign language may
have affected their self-confidence as they had to write in English. Therefore, they seemed to avoid writing comments to
their peers as they did not want to make language mistakes. P12 reported that writing in a foreign language involved
more careful thinking on word choice and it took more time for her to compose a blog entry. Thus, instead of writing
comments, she was content with reading others’ blog entries.

4. Group Dynamics
Group dynamics emerged from the data analysis as another inhibiting factor. To illustrate, one of the preservice teachers
said she read the feedback she received but she did not respond to it because she considered the feedback insincere as it
came from a peer with whom she did not have good relations.

Researcher: So, you said you received feedback from some of your peers. Did you respond to their feedback?
Or did you write feedback to them?

P9: I did not write to some of my friends because I did not like their style. Also, to be honest, I did not want to
write feedback to them.

Researcher: Why?

P9: It may be something personal… Umm, personal feelings.

P9 did not respond to some of her peers because of her personal attitudes. Furthermore, some other participants
mentioned paying more attention to the blog entries of the peers with whom they had better relations. For example, P12
said she chose to watch the videos of the peers she was friends with.

P12: Actually, I watched my friends’ teaching practice ideas and read some of my friends’ lesson plans to have
some ideas for my own teaching. To be honest, I liked what we shared in blogs but I only write feedback to my
peers that I was good friends with. I did not know whether to write feedback to others because I did not want

4
116
 106

to offend them. They could say ‘who are you to criticize me’. So, I just watched the videos and read the
comments written.

Not being sure whether to write feedback to peers with whom she was not so close, P12 chose to refrain from actively
contributing to blog interaction through commenting and providing feedback. Preservice teachers like P12 might have
faced this challenging situation that resulted in avoidance of interaction in order not to hurt their peers’ feelings.

5. Challenges of Blogging
The participants mentioned a number of blogging challenges that potentially hindered their blogging activities and
interactions with peers. The findings revealed a number of issues, which were clustered into three categories. Each
category is explained below.

Lack of previous blogging experience

Preservice teachers stated that they did not have enough time to experiment with the blogs. Hence, learning how to use
the blogs and blogging efficiently at the same time was challenging. One of the participants shared her reflections about
these challenges in the interview.

P5: For me, it was a difficult experience because it was the first time for me. If we had used it from the first
year, it would be fine. We are in our last semester and we were introduced to blogs. It was difficult for me.
Also, learning computer technologies takes a long time for me.

Lack of enough time to explore blogs

Some of the preservice teachers complained that they were given limited time to learn to use blogs and fulfill the course
expectations in one semester. Due to deadlines and other course-related commitments, they felt frustrated. The preservice
teachers also mentioned that having a number of blog tasks to complete in a short period of time was stressful. P15’s
explanation is illustrative:

P15: To be honest, I did not think that the blogs would be useful for us but when I watched the lesson of my
friends whom I have spent four years of education together. I felt proud. At the beginning, I had difficulty with
using the blogs and I did not want to do the tasks. However, later I had time problem. We had other
assignments and projects. I really had to devote good time to write feedback or my reflections on the blog. I
think most of my friends could not write feedback on my videos because of lack of time.

Preference of face-to-face communication

A number of participants clearly stated their preference of face-to-face contact. For example, P5 stated her opinion about
the whole blogging experience in her final report. In her view, online communication was not sincere.

P5: Personally, I don’t really like all these blogs and commenting online because it is proved by reality and by
students themselves that people are lazy to come to blog and leave sensitive and meaningful comments. For
me, personally, it would be more effective if the same feedback would be done in the classroom.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Notwithstanding the fact that the participants who were actively engaged in blogging interactions acknowledged the
benefits, other participants remained inactive throughout the semester. Similar results were reported in previous studies
concerning students’ participation and interaction rates. To illustrate, in Guzdial and Turns’s (2000) and Lipponen
Rahikainen, Lallimo, and Hakkarainen’s (2003) studies, it was reported that despite the density of interaction and
participation, some participants remained inactive while others were active. The participants who were reluctant to
engage in blogging interaction in the present study articulated a number of factors that hindered interaction. These factors
emerged as attitudes towards the online tool, time constraints, perceived quality of peer feedback, perceived inadequacy
of written self-expression, and group dynamics. Each of these factors is discussed below in light of the related literature.

Regarding the preservice teachers’ attitudes towards the blog tool, the absence of previous blogging experience and lack
of familiarity with blogs appeared as an important factor. Since none of them had previous blogging experience it was
challenging for them to use the blog efficiently. Furthermore, some participants reported hesitating to interact with their
peers in the blog due to the difficulties of learning and using the blog tool at the same time within a short period of time.
In other words, the feeling of frustration seemed to be an issue that negatively affected preservice teachers. Consistent
with Kistow’s (2009) suggestions, more tutor support and more workshops need to be held before launching blended
learning instruction to reach more positive results. As Osguthorpe and Graham (2003) suggested, course instructors ought
to be aware of their students’ previous experience of technological tools, degree of familiarity, and amount of training
needed before initiating blended instruction.

5
117
 107

Time constraint emerged as another reason that hindered interaction. The participants were required to view their peers’
video-recorded teaching practice lessons and write comments. Also, they were expected to provide timely responses to
the feedback they received from their peers and the course instructor. It seems that time constrains led to frustration and
thus, they seemed to have refrained from contributing to the blog interactions. Considering time as an aspect, these
results seem to be in line with another study in which Luehmann (2008) reported ‘time’ as a factor (along with effort and
confidence at personal and professional levels) for efficient use of blogging. Therefore, providing sufficient time for the
participants to complete the blog tasks and engage in interaction with their peers should be ensured by scheduling
different blog activities at different times.

Perceived quality of peer feedback was revealed as another factor that potentially inhibited online participation and
interaction. Some of the participants admitted that they did not value their peers’ feedback as they believed that their
peers were neither superior nor more knowledgeable than themselves. Furthermore, some of the participants reported not
learning from their peers’ feedback as the feedback was rather surface-level. In other words, they found feedback coming
from their peers unbeneficial as it lacked depth and value. This finding was also reported in Kwon (2014) and
Vonderwell (2003): preservice teachers indicated that they valued the course instructor’s feedback much more as it
helped them to improve their lesson plans and future teaching practices. Similar findings were also found by Kwon
(2014) who reported that students valued teacher feedback and considered it positive and reliable due to the expertise of
the course instructor. Likewise, some other studies (Deng & Yuen, 2013; Kerawalla, Minocha, Kirkup, & Conole, 2008)
also confirm that users’ perceived academic value of the blogs influenced the level of their participation.

Perceived inadequacy of written self-expression in blogs appeared to be yet another factor that prevented active
participation and interaction. Writing in an online environment was perceived as a discomforting experience for some the
preservice teachers who avoided engaging written interaction with their peers, perhaps because they may have had
difficulty in expressing their opinions in written form. Previous studies confirm that students’ low language proficiency
proved to be a factor that caused avoidance (Storch, 2005) due to the fear of making mistakes or offending their peers
with their critical feedback.

Finally, group dynamics was another factor that inhibited blogging interaction. A close investigation of interaction
among the preservice teachers and the interview results revealed that the participants who were close friends in and out of
class tended to view each other’s blog posts and send feedback to one another. Apparently, friendship proved to be a
motivating factor for those who interacted with each other the most. Focusing on trust-building activities and
implementing methodologies that foster sharing and scaffolding bonds among preservice teachers in face-to-face
meetings would potentially increase the sense of friendship. Moreover, assigning specific roles to participants and
designing tasks that aim to bring them together in blogs would help to generate friendship among participants (Çuhadar
& Kuzu, 2006).

IMPLICATIONS

The findings point to several issues to address and some problems to deal with. First, providing ample training prior to
launching blended instruction appeared to be a vital issue. In order to ensure that all preservice teachers are clear about
how to use the blog tool effectively before its implementation, necessary training should be provided and ample support
should be given throughout the semester (Kistow, 2009). Furthermore, preservice teachers should be informed about the
benefits of blended instruction so that they can develop and maintain a positive attitude towards the online medium
(Deng & Yuen, 2013). Merits of online sharing and learning from others’ experience should be deep-seated in their
cognition. Not having previous blogging experiences appeared as a barrier for some of the participants. This can be
eliminated by integrating blogs into other courses offered in the first years of their higher education so that preservice
teachers may feel more comfortable with posting blog tasks and interacting with others via an online platform.
Acceptance and practice of blended learning instruction by faculty members will equip teacher candidates with important
technological knowledge required for future professional development.

Furthermore, preservice teachers should be provided with a secure and private online environment so that they feel
comfortable sharing their experiences with others and writing feedback to their peers. Preservice teachers could also be
given additional guidelines and prompts regarding blogging conventions (e.g., how to write a blog entry in different
genres), or different ways of responding to a peer or received feedback. Initially, some blogging activities could be
allocated in class hours so that the course instructor would provide an instant response to preservice teachers as an
example. The role of the instructor in an online medium should be well outlined and planned before launching the
blended learning instruction in order for more efficient management of online interaction. In an online environment, the
role of the instructor appears to be crucial in triggering participants’ ideas to share with their peers and further ensure that
interaction evolves among them.

6
118
 108

REFERENCES
Bonk, C. J., Malinkowski, S., Angeli, C., & East, J. (1998). Web-based case conferencing for perspective teacher
education: Electronic discourse from the field. The Journal of Educational Computing Research, 19(3), 269-
306.
Çuhadar, C., & Kuzu, A. (2006). Öğretim ve sosyal etkileşim amaçlı blog kullanımına yönelik öğrenci görüşleri. 6.
Uluslararası Eğitim Teknolojileri Konferansı, Gazimağusa, KKTC.
Deng, Y., & Yuen, A. H. K. (2013). Blogs in pre-service teacher education: Exploring the participation issue.
Technology, Pedagogy and Education, (22)3, 339-356. doi:10.1080/1475939X.2013.802990
Ferdig, R. E. & Trammell, K. D. (2004). Content delivery in the ‘blogosphere’. Technological Horizons in Education
Journal, 31(7), 12-15.
Garrison, D. R., & Anderson, T. (2003). E-learning in the 21st century: A framework for research and practice. London:
Routledge/Palmer.
Garrison, D. R., & Vaughan, N., D. (2008). Blended learning in higher education. San Francisco: Wiley Imprint.
Garrison, D. R., & Kanuka, H. (2004). Blended learning: Uncovering its transformative potential in higher education.
The Internet and Higher Education, 7(2), 95-105.
Guzdial, M., & Turns, J. (2000). Effective discussion through a computer-mediated anchored forum. Journal of the
Learning Sciences, 9(4), 437-470.
Kerawalla, L., Minocha, S., Kirkup, G., & Conole, G. (2008). Characterizing the different blogging behaviours of
students on an online distance learning course. Learning, Media and Technology, 33, 21–33.
Kistow, B. (2009). E-learning at the Arthur Lokjack Graduate School of Business: A survey of faculty members.
International Journal of Education and Development Using ICT, 5(4). Retrieved January, 29, 2015 from
http://ijedict.dec.uwi.edu/viewarticle.php?id=845
Kwon, C. (2014). Student perspectives on group work and use of L1: Academic writing in a university EFL course in
Thailand. University of Hawai'i Second Language Studies Papers, 33(1), 85-124.
Lipponen, L., Rahikainen, M., Lallimo, J., & Hakkarainen, K., (2003). Patterns of participation and discourse in
elementary students’ computer-supported collaborative learning. Learning and Instruction, 13, 487–509.
Luehmann, A. L. (2008), Using blogging in support of teacher professional identity development: A case study. Journal
of the Learning Sciences, (17)3, 287-337. doi: 10.1080/10508400802192706
Oravec, J. A. (2003). Blending by blogging: Weblogs in blended learning initiatives. Journal of Educational Media,
28(2/3), 225-233.
Osguthorpe, R. T., & Graham, C. R. (2003). Blended learning environments: Definitions and directions. Quarterly
Review of Distance Education, 4(3), 227-233.
Richardson, W. (2004, January/February). Blogging and RSS—The “what’s it” and “how to” of powerful new Web tools
for educators. Multimedia and Internet@Schools, 11(1), 10-13.
Roberts, S. (2003). Campus communications & the wisdom of blogging. Syllabus, 17(1), 22-25.
Singh, H. (2003). Building effective blended learning programs. Educational Technology, 43(6), 51-54.
Sitzmann, T., Kraiger, K., Stewart, D., & Wisher, R. (2006). The comparative effectiveness of web-based and classroom
instruction: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, (59), 623-664.
Spooner, F., Jordan, L., Algozzine, B., & Spooner, M. (1999). Student ratings of instruction in distance learning and on-
campus classes. Journal of Educational Research, 92(3), 32-40.
Steinweg, S. B., Davis, M. L., & Thomson, W. S. (2005). A comparison of traditional and online instruction in an
introduction to special education course. Teacher Education and Special Education, 28(1), 62-73.
Storch, N. (2005). Collaborative writing: Product, process, and students’ reflections. Journal of Second Language
Writing, 14(3), 153-173.
Wang, S., & Hsua, H. (2008).Reflections on using blogs to expand in-class discussion. TechTrends. 52(3), 81-85.
Whittaker, C. (2013). Introduction. In B. Tomlinson & C. Whittaker (Еds.), Blended learning in English language
teaching: Course design and implementation. London: British Council (pp. 11-23)
Zhao, Y., Lei, J., Yan, B., & Tan, S. (2005). What makes the difference? A practical analysis of research on the
effectiveness of distance education. Teacher College Record, 107, 1836-1884.

7
119
 109

Assessing the Value of Virtual Worlds for Distance

Education Students through Collaborative Role-playing
Activities - An Explanatory Case Study
Sofia Nteliopoulou Vasileios Kratidis Avgoustos Tsinakos
Mathemagenesis IKE Mathemagenesis IKE Eastern Macedonia and Thrace
eLearning eLearning Institute of Technology
Service & Content Providers Service & Content Providers (EMATTECH)
Thermi, Thessaloniki, Greece Thermi, Thessaloniki, Greece Agios Loukas, Kavala, Greece
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Virtual worlds (VWs) seem to have great potential in education. Current educational uses of VWs seem to exploit them
more as group interaction platforms in terms of their potential to support collaborative e-learning in both online and
blending learning programs. There is also a need for systematic research efforts that will lead to guidelines and principles
for designing and evaluating effective learning activities in VWs. This paper presents preliminary empirical results from a
sequential explanatory case study with graduate students from a distance education program. A collaborative role-playing
learning activity was designed in Second Life (SL) following Salmon’s five-stage model (2004) for computer-mediated
conferencing. Graduate students collaborated in-world acting as educational counselors in order to achieve the educational
goals of the role-playing scenario. The study presents the process of project implementation and preliminary quantitative
findings related to issues may affect the student’s familiarization, collaboration and learning in the three-dimensional (3D)
environment.
Author Keywords
Second Life; Virtual Worlds; Role-playing; Collaborative Learning; Blended Learning; Online Learning; Instructional
Design
INTRODUCTION
The pedagogical value of Virtual Worlds (VWs) is being extensively embraced in the recent research literature (Jarmon,
Traphagan, Mayrath & Trivedi, 2009; Minocha & Roberts, 2008; Nteliopoulou & Tsinakos, 2011). Although three-
dimensional (3D) Virtual Worlds are relatively new, they have already been used as pedagogical media (Dickey, 2003),
often towards more personalized learning tailored to the individual learner‘s needs (de Freitas & Yapp, 2005; West-
Burnham, 2005) and greater learner autonomy (Field, 2007). This kind of environment has been also widely applied for
conducting virtual meetings and discussions (Chow, Andrews & Trueman, 2007; De Lucia, Francese, Passero & Tortora,
2009). The main reason is that VWs are particularly suitable for communicating because they enhance the users’ perception
of presence, awareness, communication and their sense of belonging to a community, facts that are of great importance in
the field of Distance Education (De Lucia et al., 2009).
This paper reports on the progress of a project that has been implemented in the virtual world of SL and seeks evidence on
how 3D worlds can be effectively used to support collaborative learning techniques in Distance Education in both online
and blended learning programs. Although there is a steep learning curve in SL especially for adult learners, we found that
a virtual world can enable collaboration through the use of suitably structured tasks.
PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
In-world tasks were structured according to the Salmon’s five-stage model (2004) for computer-mediated conferencing.
The model comprises a framework of five stages, each stage building on the previous, to enable increasing student
interaction through structured activities and decreasing levels of tutors’ or facilitators’ support (‘’scaffolding’’). Salmon
(2004) reports that students can benefit from increasing skill and comfort in working, networking and learning online
through the use of this framework. Salmon, Nie and Edirisingha (2010) have also tested the model’s applicability to
teaching and learning in Second Life. They found (2010) that the basic structure of the model appears to hold good, but the
potential at each stage may be slightly different. The in-world tasks as they were designed for each stage are described
below.
Registration and Orientation: Stage 1, Access and Motivation
Online resources for the project such as project information, links and instructions for Second Life, schedule for individual
and group tasks, were emailed to the participants. During the first week, students create their own accounts in SL by
choosing their avatars and undertake 1 to 2 hours Orientation using the Orientation building that has been created on
Athabasca Island in SL for this purpose. Through this orientation they acquire basic interaction skills such as moving,
communicating and personalising their avatars. Other orientation tasks involve users’ familiarization with the basic SL
tools such as using the mini map, creating and sharing notecards, taking snapshots, interacting with the objects etc. The

1
120
 110

above tasks are conducted asynchronously and students are unable to meet in-world mentors. The purpose of Stage 1 is for
students to familiarize themselves with the environment.
Second Life Presentation: Stage 2, Socialization
The first synchronous session is an in-world conference conducted by the researcher and it aims to inform students about
SL and its possible applications in education as well as to give them a detailed description about the in-world learning
activities that will follow. Students are directed to the AU amphitheatre in SL where the presentation takes place. A
facilitator is always on the welcome point so as to help students, if any problems arise. This is the first time students meet
in Second Life. At the end of the presentation students are encouraged to form groups. This gives them the opportunity to
practise the skills they have learned during the Orientation session and also prepares them for Stage 3.
Choose Group Identity and Roles: Stage 3, Information Exchange
In the previous stage, students were divided into small groups. Their task in the second synchronous session is to meet with
their group members in SL and to choose their group’s identity for the role-playing activity. They can choose between the
Blue and the Orange team. According to this choice each team will visit different places and access different resources in
the virtual world. Students are also encouraged to decide their role in the team. The available roles for the activity are
Group Leader, Group Recorder and Investigators/Note Keepers.
Role-playing: Stage 4, Knowledge Construction
After having decided their group’s identity, students’ task is to study the role-playing scenario. The role-playing scenario
requires students to act as educational counselors coming to advise the University’s Dean about a proposed educational
change regarding the introduction of Mobile Learning in the University. The group task is to observe some of the University
Professors, see what their thoughts and concerns on the issue are and then report to the Dean their suggestions on what
should be done. At this stage, each group visits the virtual world separately. According to their team color educational
counselors visit two out of four Professors in their offices (Figure 1) and interact with them through notecards as well as
other resources that may provide them with additional information. The Blue team visits two Professors that are proponents
of M-Learning while the Orange team visits the other two that are against the integration of M-Learning in the University.

Figure 1. Visiting professors’ offices during the role-playing activity.

After that the group returns to the meeting room (Figure 2), discusses their findings and answers a couple of questions that
have been given to the group in the form of a notecard based on what they have observed. The idea behind this activity is
to facilitate the development of collaboration and team work skills.

Figure 2. The meeting room where the group discussions take place.

2
121
 111

Submission of the Report: Stage 5, Development

During the third synchronous session the three groups meet all together. In the meeting space each group’s answers from
the previous session have been uploaded in three separate boards. This enables the Blue teams to access the observations
of the Orange teams and respectively. They are also able to ask questions to one another and discuss any issue relevant to
the scenario or the strategy they followed. The idea behind this activity is to promote critical thinking and dialogue between
teams and help them decide about the most important learning artifacts that should be included in the group’s final report.
After that each team re-gathers separately, re-assigns roles to the team members and based on all the available information,
they start preparing their report with their suggestions to the Dean. This activity is completed when the group leader presents
their team’s suggestions to the Dean.
METHODOLOGY
This research was carried out as a sequential explanatory case study as the combination of quantitative and qualitative
approaches offers a deeper understanding of the research questions of this study. The sequential explanatory strategy is
characterized by the collection and analysis of quantitative data in the first phase of the research followed by the collection
and analysis of qualitative data in the second phase that builds on the results of the initial quantitative results (Creswell,
2009). The following section summarizes the most important quantitative findings of this research that were gathered
through an online survey that was designed to evaluate users’ experience in SL during the in-world activities.
Research Questions
This study was designed to investigate the following research questions:
1. What are the design specifications for a suitable evaluation framework for 3D virtual collaborative learning
environments?
2. How can 3D virtual worlds (efficiently or inefficiently) support collaborative learning techniques for distance education
students?
Bounded the Study
The Master of Education in Distance Education (MEd) program of Athabasca University (AU) has been selected as it is
considered a “typical case” of a program delivered at a distance. A typical case highlights what is normal on average.
Graduate students who were enrolled in MEd program when the data collection took place were identified as potential
study participants.
Sample
As far as the demographic characteristics of the sample (n=9) starting from the gender distribution it was observed that the
ratio of male and female participants was 44.4% and 55.6% respectively. As far as the average age of the participants this
was 50.6 years old with standard deviation equal to 8.6 years old. The youngest person was 39 years old and the oldest 61
years old. All the participants attended a distance education program, which was the Master of Education. Regarding any
previous experience of the participants in virtual worlds (Second Life, Open Simulator, Croquet Project, Active Worlds,
Quest Atlantis) only one replied that he had in the past. His experience was linked with gaming and educational reasons.
Moreover, he used to spend less than one-hour time per week in the virtual world.
Instrumentation
A demographic questionnaire was developed to obtain data on gender, age, and previous experience with virtual worlds as
described above. The online survey was divided in three parts. The familiarization survey, the collaboration survey and the
learning survey. The goal of the familiarization survey is to uncover usability problems of the most important parts of the
user interface, concerning the basic functionalities of the SL environment while the goal of the collaboration survey is to
uncover usability problems in terms of communication and the collaborative functionalities of the environment. Finally,
the learning survey has been designed to evaluate students’ learning in the VW, to collect further requirements and
additional functionality of the virtual environment and to determine the appropriation of different kinds of learning
scenarios. A Likert 5-point scale ranging from “Strongly disagree” to “Strongly agree”, was used to measure students’
attitudes towards these issues.
Results
The results of the study are divided into three sections to present the students’ level of comfort during the phases of
familiarization (Table 1), collaboration (Table 2) and learning (Table 3) for the in-world activities that took place in SL.
Table 4 shows which SL features according to the participants’ opinion boosted interaction and facilitated collaboration
during the activities.
According to Table 1, the participants appear to have a low level of familiarization to virtual worlds regarding issues of
moving or teleporting from one virtual area to another and orientating inside the virtual environment. A mediocrity level
of familiarization appears in issues of moving their avatar and learning how to use the functions of the environment with
ease. They also believe in a medium level that both the 3D and 2D user interface were not difficult; that it was quite clear
when they had to choose right or left click on the objects of the environment and that overall their first impression of the
environment was positive. Moreover, a high level of familiarization was associated with interface issues of finding the
feature ‘’change view’’ useful and the avatar’s animation, the graphics and the virtual areas of the environment satisfactory.
Also a high level of familiarization is associated with the ease to interact with 3D objects, to modify the avatar’s appearance

3
122
 112

and to distinguish 2D from 3D windows. Finally, most of the participants believe that the system’s speed was quite good
on their computers.

Std.
Statement N Mean
Deviation
I had no problem to move or teleport from one
9 2.0 1.0
virtual area to another.
I did not lose my orientation inside the virtual
9 2.3 1.3
environment.
It was not difficult to move my avatar. 9 2.7 1.2
Learning to use the functions of the environment
9 2.8 1.0
was easy.
3D user interface was not difficult (e.g 3D
avatars, worlds, textures, forms, objects and 9 2.9 1.1
places/scenes).
I was not sure when to right-click or left-click on
9 3.2 0.8
the objects of the environment.
My first impression of the environment was
9 3.3 0.9
positive.
2D user interface was not difficult (e.g pictures,
9 3.4 1.3
words, pages, windows on the flat screen).
I found the feature “change view” useful inside
9 3.6 0.5
the environment.
The animation of the avatar was satisfactory. 9 3.6 1.0
It was easy to learn how to interact with 3D
9 3.8 1.2
objects (e.g touching objects, sitting on a chair).
I found the graphics of the environment
9 3.9 0.9
satisfactory.
Virtual areas (spaces, buildings) of the
9 3.9 0.6
environment were satisfactory.
The avatar’s appearance modification tool was
9 3.9 0.9
satisfactory.
I could easily distinguish 2D from 3D windows. 9 4.0 0.7
The system was fast enough on my computer. 9 4.2 1.1

Table 1. Familiarization Issues.

As far as the collaboration through the virtual worlds, various results have been brought to our attention. According to
Table 2, the participants appear to believe that collaboration via gestures with their team members in the VW was difficult.
On the other hand, collaboration was roughly good since they found the representation of the other user through an avatar
mediocre. They believed that at a medium level they could collaborate more effectively in a 2D environment and they
found the feature of being able to see other users interact with objects, somehow useful. They also agreed they did not
encounter any major technical problem inside the environment and they found it somehow useful to see the way their
partner interacted with the environment. They considered the representation of the user’s field of view/vision through the
avatar’s head movement roughly good. Most of the participants also stated that collaboration would be better supported, if
they were able to contact their partners through VoIP or other communication. Finally, the participants agreed that the
system helped them to collaborate effectively with their partners and the system’s feedback mechanisms were adequatety
fast on their computers.

4
123
 113

Std.
Statement N Mean
Deviation
I found avatars gestures useful for the
9 2.1 0.8
collaboration.
The representation of the other user though an
9 2.9 0.9
avatar helped me to collaborate effectively.
I consider I could collaborate more effectively
9 3.1 0.9
with my partner in a 2D environment.
I found the feature of being able to see other
9 3.3 1.1
users interact with objects useful.
I did not encounter any technical problem
9 3.4 1.4
inside the environment.
I found useful to see the way my partner
9 3.4 1.1
interacts with the environment.
I found useful the representation of the user’s
field of view/vision through the avatar’s head 9 3.4 1.2
movement.
I would prefer to contact my partner though
9 3.6 1.1
VoIP or other communication tools.
System features helped me to collaborate
9 3.9 0.9
effectively with my partners.
The system’s feedback mechanisms were fast
9 4.0 1.0
on my computer.
Table 2. Collaboration Issues
In regard to the evaluation of their learning (Table 3) the participants appear to believe that it would be slightly easy to
organize and run a course through SL. In addition, they have found the avatar’s facial expressions somehow useful and
they believe that at a medium level they could easily attend an entire course through SL. However, they consider the users’
ability to create and share 3D objects with others useful and they believe that it would not cause any disturbance in the
educational procedure, if avatars were less anthropoid. They have found the feature of editing their avatar’s appearance
mediocrily useful for their learning.
Moreover, the participants believe that the existence of suitable objects relevant to the learning scenario that is executed
could support user’s immersion while the SL environment supported the educational scenario effectively. The existence of
a forum inside second life would be useful and users’ ability to record video inside SL would be also useful. Furthermore,
they liked the “bubble chat” and the “save text” features of the chat tool as well as the possibility to distinguish the role
(facilitators, instructors, students) of each avatar.
Additionally, the participants consider the users’ ability to create and share simulations useful and they believe that SL
could provide tools for assessment such as tests, quizzes etc. They are also in favor of the possibility to be able to use and
share audio video files inside SL and they consider the existence of SL educational agents (e.g. Andreas, Robert, Mary,
Kathrin, Sunny Davros) useful. Finally, they strongly believe that voting and decision making tools would be helpful as
well as a map of the AU island inside Second Life.

5
124
 114

Std.
Statement N Mean
Deviation
I think it would be easy to organize and run a
9 1.8 1.1
course through Second Life.
I found avatars’ facial expressions useful. 9 2.6 1.0
I believe that I could easily attend a course
9 2.8 1.5
through Second Life.
I think that if avatars were less anthropoid (not
people but animals, vehicles, robots) they
9 2.9 1.6
would not cause any disturbance in the
educational procedure.
I found the feature of editing my avatar’s
9 3.2 0.8
appearance useful.
I consider users’ ability to create and share 3D
9 3.4 1.5
objects would be useful.
I found the “bubble chat” feature overhead the
9 3.6 1.1
avatar useful.
I think that the existence of suitable objects
relevant to the learning scenario that is 9 3.8 1.2
executed could support user’s immersion.
I consider that Second Life environment
9 3.9 1.1
supported the educational scenario effectively.
I think that the existence of a forum inside
9 3.9 1.5
Second Life would be useful.
I consider users’ ability to record video inside
9 4.0 1.0
Second Life would be useful.
I would like to be able to distinguish the role of
each avatar (students, researcher, facilitator) 9 4.1 0.8
through its appearance.
I find the “save text” feature of the chat tool
9 4.1 0.8
useful.
I consider users’ ability to create and share
9 4.2 1.0
simulations would be useful.
I believe that Second Life could provide tools
9 4.3 1.0
for assessment such as tests, quizzes etc.
I would like to be able to use and share audio
9 4.3 0.7
and video files inside Second Life.
I found useful that the “SL educational agents”
(e.g Andreas, Robert, Mary, Kathrin) provided
9 4.4 0.7
information relevant to the educational scenario
that is executed.
I found that the existence of “SL agents” (e.g
9 4.4 0.7
Sunny Davros) useful.
I consider that voting and decision making tools
9 4.6 0.9
would be useful.
I think that a map of the AU island inside
9 4.6 0.5
Second Life would be helpful.

Table 3. Learning Issues

Table 4 shows which SL features according to the participants’ opinion enhance interaction and collaboration during the
in-world activities (Table 4). All the participants stated that features like the chat and the speak tool were definitely valuable
for their interaction and collaboration in the virtual world. Moreover, 88.9% of the participants believe that features like
“search”, “share” and “notecards” also facilitated the collaboration process. A 66.7% of the participants also believe that
navigation tools and camera controls were useful while 44.4% of them believe that features like gestures and mini map
could further support the interaction process. The rest of the features like the snapshot tool, world map and teleport are
supported by a small percentage of the respondents.

6
125
 115

SL Feature Yes No Uncertain

N % N % N %

Navigation tools 6 66.7% 2 22.2% 1 11.1%

Camera Controls 6 66.7% 2 22.2% 1 11.1%

Search tool 8 88.9% 1 11.1% 0 0.0%

Gestures 4 44.4% 2 22.2% 3 33.3%

Chat tool 9 100.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0%

Speak tool 9 100.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0%

Notecards 8 88.9% 1 11.1% 0 0.0%

Teleport 2 22.2% 4 44.4% 3 33.3%

Share tool 8 88.9% 0 0.0% 1 11.1%

Mini map 4 44.4% 1 11.1% 4 44.4%

World map 1 11.1% 1 11.1% 7 77.8%

Snapshot tool 1 11.1% 2 22.2% 6 66.7%

Table 4. SL Features that Enhance Interaction and Collaboration

DISCUSSION AND FUTURE WORK

This study extends the research on the effect of employing 3D virtual worlds in e-learning. The researchers focused on
implementing a role-play activity among e-learners to further explore issues that may affect users’ familiarization,
collaboration and learning in the virtual world. The first quantitative results revealed that although there is a steep learning
curve in SL with most of the students having difficulties in navigating or manipulating their avatars, the virtual environment
successfully supports synchronous communication and encourages e-learners to interact with each other in order to
complete the learning task.
Most of the participants agreed that SL features helped them to collaborate effectively with their partners during the activity
and that the existence of avatars provided them with the visual experience of a more real face-to-face interaction. However,
the majority of them were unable to express nonverbal behaviors such as gestures, head movement or facial expressions, a
fact that may affect e-learners’ perceptions of the quality of interaction. This poses the need to those who are planning to
use VWs for instruction to provide adequate training to students. Discussions, videos, hands-on lab sessions in SL will
ensure that students know how to navigate in the system and how to control their avatars and it will further improve student
engagement and learning.
There are also some limitations in this study. First, due to the convenience sample strategy and the small sample size, a
replication of this experiment is encouraged. Second, this investigation utilizes the collaborative technique of role-playing
and therefore participants’ responses and reflections are confined only to this technique. It is possible, that participants’
perceptions might have been different if other collaborative techniques had been introduced. Third, this research was based
on the virtual world of SL, just one of many virtual worlds that are currently available, so that we cannot generalize our
results to other virtual worlds.
Future studies may extend to other collaborative techniques inside SL or may investigate the functionality of other VWs
as collaborative learning environments. It would also be interesting to replicate the experiment with a different age group
of distant learners so as to examine how age may affect learners’ perception on the pre-discussed issues.

7
126
 116

REFERENCES
Chow, A., Andrews, S., & Trueman, R. (2007). A "Second Life": Can this online, virtual reality world be used to increase
the overall quality of learning and instruction in graduate distance learning programs? In M. Simonson et al. (Eds.),
Proceedings of Association for Educational Communications and Technology 2007, Volume 2 (pp. 86-94). Anaheim,
CA: AECT.
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Los Angeles: Sage.
de Freitas, S., Dickinson, C., Yapp, C. (2005) Personalizing learning: Is there a shared vision? in S. de Freitas & C. Yapp
(eds) Personalizing Learning in the 21st Century. Stafford. Network Educational Press: 109-112.
De Lucia, A., Francese, R., Passero, I., & Tortora, G. (2009). Development and evaluation of a virtual campus on second
life: The case of SecondDMI. Computers & Education, 52(1), 220-233. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2008.08.001
Dickey, M. D. (2003). Teaching in 3D: Pedagogical affordances and constraints of 3D virtual worlds for synchronous
distance learning. Distance Education, 24(1), 105-121. doi:10.1080/01587910303047
Field, J. (2007). Looking outwards, not inwards. ELT Journal, 61(1), 30-38. doi:10.1093/elt/ccl042
Jarmon, L., Traphagan, T., Mayrath, M., & Trivedi, A. (2009). Virtual world teaching, experiential learning, and
assessment: An interdisciplinary communication course in second life. Computers & Education, 53(1), 169-182.
doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.01.010
Minocha, S., & Roberts, D. (2008). Laying the groundwork for socialisation and knowledge construction within 3D virtual
worlds. ALT-J: Research in Learning Technology, 16(3), 181-196.
Nteliopoulou, S., & Tsinakos, A. (2011). The Path from First to Second Life. In T. Bastiaens & M. Ebner (Eds.),
Proceedings of World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications 2011 (pp. 3807-
3814). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.
Salmon, G., Nie, M., & Edirisingha, P. (2010). Developing a five-stage model of learning in second life. Educational
Research, 52(2), 169-182. doi:10.1080/00131881.2010.482744
Salmon, G. (2004). E-moderating: The key to teaching and learning online. New York: Routledge.
West-Burnham, J. (2005). “Understanding Personilization”, In J. West-BurnHam & M.Coates (Eds.), Personalizing
learning, Stafford UK: Network Educational Press.

8
127
 117

Integrating Blended Learning Tools into University

Courses: A Survey of Student Perceptions
Erkan Arkin
Eastern Mediterranean University
North Cyprus
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
This paper presents the process of a blended learning (BL) approach to course delivery and evaluation of this approach
from the perspective of students in a survey-based study at two undergraduate courses at a foreign language teacher
education program in the Turkish context. BL is argued to help improve learning by supplementing the traditional
classroom method with online activities and sources, as well as adding to the flexibility of learning as students can access
material anywhere and anytime suitable. In the study, as part of the BL format, a virtual learning environment (VLE) was
used to complement the traditional classroom teaching. The BL tools and activities that were used were lecture videos (i.e.
screencast lecture notes with voice-over) and PPT lecture notes uploaded to the VLE (in this case, Edmodo), online
assignments posted on Edmodo, and online feedback to assignments. Evaluation of the BL approach and the tools used in
the process was done via a questionnaire and a set of open-ended questions distributed to students at the end of the course
teaching period. The results indicated that most of the participating students found the BL approach useful for studying
course content, using both lecture notes and videos for reviewing course material and revising for the exam. It was also
found that efforts of the course instructor for integrating BL tools into classroom instruction can be a good model for the
student teachers to experience and reflect on the potential of BL in their own teaching in the future.
Author Keywords
Blended learning, university lectures, teacher education, student perceptions

INTRODUCTION
Over the past few decades, with new advances in technology and especially after the arrival of the Internet, practices of
and opportunities for teaching and learning have extended outside the classroom. The choice and decision of how to blend
the technology into instructional practices, however, i.e. finding a balance between what is done in class and what is
assigned for outside class hours on computers and online has been a long disputed issue, for it would require a rethinking
of the pedagogy (McCarthy, 2016, p. 2). Still, the implementation of blended learning (BL), the combination of traditional
face to face and technology-mediated instruction, is gaining popularity in higher education around the world (Graham,
Woodfield, & Harrison, 2012).
Similar discussions are also taking place in the university context in which this study took place. Although there is
institutional support and encouragement for technology integration into classroom instruction practices, it does not usually
go beyond discussion of the infrastructure and technical skills that are needed to use technology. While this has been the
case, there are attempts at the individual level by some instructors exploring different blended learning approaches into
course delivery. In such cases, perceptions and reactions of the course participants are important for evaluation and revision
of course design and delivery, as well as revising the mode and extent of blended learning, since such approaches are novel
and careful evaluation of these are necessary in offering insight for any possible institutional adoption. This paper reports
on the findings from a study in which the efforts of an individual course instructor using both in-class and online teaching
strategies were evaluated by the course participants.
BLENDED LEARNING
The most common and the mostly accepted definitions of blended learning (BL) are given as “a combination of traditional
learning with web based online approaches”, “a combination of technologies’ and “a combination of methodologies”
(Sharma, 2010). A broader interpretation of the term considers BL as a combination of the face-to-face part of a course and
an ‘appropriate use of technology’ (Sharma & Barrett, 2007, p.7). Similarly, Dudeney and Hockly (2007) define blended
learning as a mixture of online and face to face course delivery. Hockly (2011) argues that an important reason for an
increasing trend of BL approaches to higher education is learners’ expectations for technology to be integrated into their
classes since it would provide more flexibility in accessing course material online outside the class hours. A newly
emerging model of BL in course delivery is known as the flipped classroom, in which instructors share pre-recorded
lectures online before the class so that they can free up class time for more engaging follow-up activities (Saxena, 2013).
The online platforms for BL are known as learning management systems (LMSs) or virtual learning environments (VLEs).
One example is Edmodo which is a free resource for teachers to create an online learning platform. It gives students virtual
access to course content, tests and assignments.

128
 118

PREVIOUS RESEARCH
There has been numerous research across different educational contexts on the perceptions of students about the use of BL
in higher education. These studies have investigated perceptions of university students from different disciplinary areas.
On the positive side of the results, similar findings have been obtained in regards to the advantages of BL approaches to
course delivery. These are flexibility to review materials at one’s own pace, more practice time, collaboration and social
learning (Davies, Dean, & Ball, 2013; Jamaludin & Osman, 2014; Lai & Gu, 2011; Nesbitt, 2013; Sagarra & Zapata, 2008).
Some studies also draw attention to possible drawbacks. In their study, Chen, Wang, Kinshuk, and Chen (2014) found that
the use of BL by the course instructor actually caused disadvantage for some students; those who did not view material
posted online felt significantly more behind than those who did, so that during class, when they were required to participate
in discussions they could not. The study argues there may be need for more incentives to encourage self-directed study
outside the classroom so that students can effectively switch over to the new BL model.
In the context of language teacher education, Moloney and O’Keeffe (2016) evaluated the process of transition from a face
to face course delivery to a BL mode through the use of a VLE. The findings showed that while there were challenges in
the process, the students responded very positively to the innovations of their course instructors, and the instructors reported
feeling more confident and proficient in their skills for BL instruction. In one of the studies in the Turkish higher education
context, Adnan (2017) found that the student teachers taking a course in BL mode were particularly satisfied with the
design, format and structure of instructional materials, together with technology usage and multimedia resources, as the
BL format provided students opportunity for flexible access to course materials at their own will and pace.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
To achieve the aim of the study, the following research questions were asked:
1. What are the students’ perceptions of their learning experiences in a blended learning environment?
2. What are the students’ evaluation of the delivery of course content in the BL mode?
METHODOLOGY
Context and participants
The study took place in two undergraduate courses at the foreign language teacher education program of a state university
in North Cyprus. As most of the disciplinary programs are offered in English-medium, students have to pass an in-house
English proficiency test with a minimum score that is equivalent to IELTS-6, in order to start their English-medium
disciplinary studies. The courses in the foreign language teacher education program are also offered in English-medium.
Students attend this four-year undergraduate degree program to obtain their qualification as an English as a foreign
language (EFL) teacher. In the first year of their study, students take English language improvement courses such as
advanced reading and writing, and oral communication skills. From the second year onwards, student start taking theory,
methodology and pedagogy courses. The courses in which the course instructor integrated BL are a second year and a
fourth year course, details of which are given below.
BL tools: Rationale and procedure
The decision to use Edmodo was after a professional development workshop the course instructor attended in the fall
semester of 2016 academic year. The workshop was on classroom technologies, a four-day intensive hands-on training
given by Russell Stannard, an online technologies expert and teacher trainer. In the workshop sessions the participants
explored the potential of integrating Edmodo as a BL platform for supplementing course work, giving the teacher
opportunity to share digital resources with their students, as well as keeping all assignments and coursework online, and so
on. The two tools specifically explored in this course was screencast software to create voiceover lecture notes and use
them for flipped classroom, and the online assignment system where students submit their work online on Edmodo and the
teacher can check the assignments, give individual feedback to each student online and assign grades, which are saved and
can be tracked online on Edmodo’s gradebook.
The reason for deciding to integrate these tools into the lectures was the need to create more time in the classroom for
discussion of course material and further follow-up activities, as the weekly teaching hours for the both courses are limited
(Research Methods- two hours a week; English for Specific Purposes- three hours a week). Leaving presentation and
revision of some of the course content online on Edmodo would help reduce lecturing/revision of course content in the
classroom. Similarly, by setting all assignments online, discussing details, answering questions regarding the requirements
of the assignments and providing feedback online would allow the instructor extra time for more productive follow-up
work and discussions.
For the screen cast video lectures, the SnagIt screen capture software was used. SnagIt records everything that is projected
on the computer’s screen, MS Word page, PPT slide, figures, tables, and all, including the voice of the user. Using the
lecture notes, usually in the form of PPT slides (sometimes MS Word pages, Excel and SPSS sheets as well), the instructor
recorded his voice while going over the notes and explaining them, just as the way he would normally do lecturing in the
classroom using the same notes. The lecture videos were then uploaded on the Edmodo class, together with the lecture
notes used for the screencast videos, for students to view before class or review after class, and before the exams.

2
129
 119

For the assignments, the assignment tool in Edmodo was used where the instructor shared a template (e.g. an analysis and
summary template). The students were asked to download the template, fill it in according to the requirements of the
assignment, and submit it by clicking on the turn in button on the assignment page where they are asked to upload the
document and click done. The instructor viewed the assignments online, gave feedback (Edmodo allows the teacher to give
written feedback to each individual student on the assignment submission page) and assigned a grade for each assignment.
Edmodo also provides an online gradebook, where students’ grades are saved automatically. Below are the details of the
two courses in which these BL tools were integrated.
Research methods course
This is a second-year course in the undergraduate program, Research Methods in English Language Teaching (ELT). The
course is designed to introduce and familiarize students with the basic types of research design in ELT and second/foreign
language studies. To this aim, the characteristics of various design types are explained, together with the logic underlying
design selection, the steps that are typical of each type of research design, and the purposes of such designs. On successful
completion of the course, students are expected to have developed knowledge and understanding of major research
paradigms, research procedures for data collection and analysis. They are also expected to have developed skills in review
of published research studies, and analysis, summary and presentation of published research reports. The BL format used
in this course included the following material shared with students on Edmodo:
- Lecture videos: Descriptive Research and Statistical Tools; Quasi Experimental Research Design
- Lecture Notes: Descriptive Research, Quasi Experimental Research, Case Study research, Action Research
- Five assignments (to be submitted online): Analysis and summary of ELT Journal articles- Survey, Exploratory,
Quasi Experimental, Case Study, Classroom Action research study reports
- Feedback to assignments (given online on Edmodo to each student)
- Screencast feedback on the Midterm Exam questions
English for specific purposes course
This is a fourth-year course in the undergraduate program, Teaching English for Specific Purposes (ESP). The aim of the
course is to introduce prospective English language teachers to an overview of the origins and development of ESP. It also
aims to provide the course participants with the principles and techniques for designing an ESP course, with particular
focus on practical applications of the course design which includes a syllabus, materials, methodology, assessment and
evaluation. The BL format used in this course included the following material shared with students on Edmodo:
- Lecture videos: History and Origins of ESP; Needs Analysis; Investigating Specialist Discourse
- Lecture Notes: History and Origins of ESP; Needs Analysis; Investigating Specialist Discourse; Developing the
Curriculum
- Four assignments (to be submitted online): Analysis and summary of ESP case studies- Needs Analysis;
Investigating Specialist Discourse; Developing the Curriculum; Reflecting on Issues in Course Design
- Feedback to assignments (given online on Edmodo to each student)
Research design
This study was conducted using a survey-based research design, in which the purpose was to obtain feedback from students
on their perceptions of the BL tools and evaluation of the BL approach to revise and improve the course delivery format
and approach. At the end of the course the students were given a printed copy of a course evaluation survey. They were
also sent a set of open-ended follow-up questions on their Edmodo class and were asked to respond to the questions after
they responded to the survey.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
All the students taking the two courses (thirty eight in total; 24 in research methods and 14 in ESP) responded to the course
evaluation survey. The response rate for the open-ended questions was 40% in total (9 students from the research methods,
and 6 students from the ESP course).
In the survey, the course instructor asked students:
(1) how often they watched the video lectures (i.e. screencast lecture notes with voice over) and reviewed lecture
notes;
(2) how they used video lectures as an aid to learning of course content;
(3) which one they used for review for the midterm exam, video lectures, lecture notes, or both;
(4) which they preferred for review, video lectures or lecture notes;
(5) if they were they happy with the online assignments and feedback given on Edmodo;
(6) whether they would like other course instructors to use video lectures and Edmodo as part of their course delivery.
Quantitative findings from responses to the above questions, together with qualitative data from the responses to the related
open-ended questions, are presented below in figures 1 to 6. Results in the figures are given as percentages.

130
 120

50 47
45
39
40
34 34
35
30
25
20 16
15 13
10 8
5
5 3
0
0
Video lectures Lecture notes

rarely not very often sometimes often very often

Figure 1. ‘How often do you watch the video lectures on Edmodo?’ ‘How often do you review the lecture notes on Edmodo?’

100
89
90
80
70
60 55
50
37
40
30
20
10 2.6
0
revising before exam reviewing after lecture checking my notes after I don't use them
lecture

Figure 2. ‘How do you use the video lectures as an aid to learning of course content?’

80 74
70
60
50
40
30 21
20
10 3 2
0
Which did you use for
review? video lectures lecture notes both my notes

Figure 3. ‘Which one did you use for review for the midterm exam?’

4
131
 121

80
68
70
60
50
40
30 24
20
10 5 3
0
Which do you prefer? video lectures lecture notes both not sure

Figure 4. ‘Which do you prefer for review, video lectures or lecture notes only, or both?’

In the open-ended evaluation questions, the students were asked whether they preferred video lectures, lecture notes, or
both, and whether they found video lectures useful. They were asked to give their reasons as well. Some typical responses
were as follows, highlighting the benefit of both reviewing lecture notes and viewing lecture videos out of class time and
at any time that is convenient, as well as the advantage of pausing and taking notes while listening to the lecture videos,
which may not be possible while listening to the lecture live in the classroom.
I prefer both, video lectures and lecture notes. And I think the video recorded lectures were useful, because it gave
me the opportunity to listen and see the content at the same time, and also to pause it and take notes whenever I
want.
Video lectures are better because I can listen and watch carefully at the same time and take notes whenever I
want and it's like that you are in your class so you try to learn better and better.
I personally found both video lectures and lecture notes useful because I prefer to study on my own pace and
desired time so it's very practical in terms of studying at home.
I found the video lectures and lecture notes combined together useful because I'm a person who learns visually
and by reading by herself; after viewing visually, see the thing with the video is I can stop the video anytime, read
the notes, take notes and make sure I understand. But in a classroom sometimes I don't have that opportunity
because we don't have time to stop the teacher.

80 71 71
70
60
50
40
30 21 21
20
8 8
10
0
Happy with online Happy with feedback yes not sure no
assignments? given online?

Figure 5. ‘Are you happy with the decision that all the assignments are to be submitted and graded online on Edmodo?’ ‘Are
you happy with the feedback you got on your assignments online on Edmodo?’

132
 122

Looking at the responses in figure 5, overall it seems the system was well-received by students. Some typical student
responses to the open-ended question are given below. Respondents were mostly happy with the system as it was practical
in terms of submitting assignments online, without having to print them, and they got online feedback from their instructor,
which they found convenient and useful.
I found the system useful because the internet has become a part of our lives and submitting assignments online
is easier because it saves time (we don't have to go and print it out) and also when we become teachers we'll
probably be using the internet more than we do today, so it's better getting used to it already.
Submitting my assignments online was easier for me since going to a photocopy place, printing out an assignment
and delivering it to the teacher is very time consuming considering how advanced the technology is today.
I liked the assignment system, it was very easy to follow and very practical, I used to get notification reminding
me of deadline if I hadn't turn in the assignment which I found really helpful.
It was useful because the students should submit their assignments on time. So it gives the students a chance to
take their own responsibilities and submit their assignments online in Edmodo. Also the teacher checks our
assignments and gives us feedback.
I found the assignments to be submitted online part very useful in a way that it is effective and helps keep the
teacher and students in contact with one another and keeps a close eye on their work. It also helps the teacher
observe their work instantly which is great for the teacher and the students and gives feedback right away which
also is an advantage for us.
I also like the idea to not to be attached to the classroom or the teacher’s office hours only. I had the chance to
check my assignments, see the direction and submit my works any time without waiting for the class time or
looking for the teacher everywhere. Sometimes we even come to university just to submit homework but thanks to
Edmodo this process got much more practical.

Of a few negative comments, some students complained that they had difficulty to keeping with the number of assignments
and deadlines. One student complained that feedback was given late on some assignments.
Sometimes it is hard to follow assignments on Edmodo, for example deadlines.
The feedback was very late for some assignments.

The final question in the survey, and in the open-ended questions, was whether the students would like other course
instructors to use video lectures as part of their course delivery, and Edmodo as an online platform to supplement traditional
classroom instruction. The responses are presented in figure 6.

70 61
60 53
50
40 31 29
30
20 16
10
10
0
Would you like other Would you like other yes not sure no
instructors to use video instructors to use
lectures? Edmodo?

Figure 6. ‘Would you like other instructors to use video lectures as part of their course?’ ‘Would you like other instructors to
use Edmodo as part of their course?’
Qualitative analysis of the responses to the open-ended question showed that Edmodo provided an online repository for
supplementary materials for the students which they found useful, as well as providing a platform for further contact and
communication between the instructor and the students, while sharing the lecture notes and videos helped some for better
understanding and revision of course content. These seem to be the reasons for those who wanted other instructors to use
these resources as part of their course. What is more striking, however, is that some students would like their instructors to
keep up to date with the technology and integrate technology tools to make their courses more interesting and attractive,
while others said there is too much content in the courses and it is not possible to cover everything in the classroom. One

6
133
 123

student also highlighted the importance of providing an environment with the help of technology to help students become
more autonomous choosing when and what to study.
Yes, the technology can be used not to getting print-outs but submitting the assignments online instead, just like
we did. Because it saves time and also teachers can share the materials they used in the classroom so that the
learners can revise the lesson easier.
Yes, because it enables learning to be more long lasting. If you miss something during the class, you can revise it
at home, for example. And you can listen the video lectures many times to understand the subject better. The
assignments also contribute to learning. It gives a better contact opportunity between teacher and student. You
can ask your questions by this way.
Yes, definitely. I find it very encouraging for learner autonomy and I personally prefer being autonomous when
learning and studying which is why I'd find it more useful if the other instructors also used this way of teaching.
Yes, it would be really nice if the teachers gave us extra instructional materials like summaries, power point
presentations, and links for extra information. The reason I would like that is that a lot of the time I forget what
the teachers said (which is totally on me), so having the website can be something I would use to check that I
cover everything mentioned.
Yes, because some lectures in the program have lots of content and it's not possible to learn efficiently. The way
you do, with summaries and homework, is useful.
Yes because the lectures in our department have a lot of information in the content so it is useful if they share
some of these information online.
Yes, because it provides many advantages and the teachers need to keep up to date in order to integrate technology
into courses effectively.
Yes, because it can be interesting and attractive through the online course. Maybe they can give us some research
about the topics, they can use some voice records, videos or pictures to make the lesson interesting and attractive.
Definitely yes! Why not? Because of being in this new generation, I think we need to put aside of old style and
start to learn new style of learning and teaching.

One particular type of feedback from students in their evaluation of the course instructor’s attempts to integrate BL tools
into classroom instruction was their reflection on the potential of such tools in their own instruction when they become
teachers. The responses were as follows:

When we become teachers we'll probably be using the internet more than we do today, so it's better getting used
to it already. Because I believe that knowing educational platforms like Edmodo as students will help us when we
become teachers.
Edmodo is a very useful platform to share materials info etc. And it supports course delivery and contact between
teacher and student. When I become a teacher I want to use it, as well.
I can say that having learnt about all of these technology integrations, tools and platforms, I believe that I can
support my teaching career with these knowledge and skills now because it is out of all the traditional ways of
teaching and it opens a new window to teaching a language in different ways.
The comments indicate the importance of modelling technology integration by teacher trainers in teacher education
programs, as student teachers learn not only from theories and lecture discussions, but from actual practices of their
instructors.
CONCLUSION
The findings of this study have shown how students responded to a BL approach in two undergraduate courses over one
semester. In general, students responded quite positively to their instructor’s efforts with 68% of students responding that
BL helped them learn course content, using both lecture notes and videos for reviewing course content and revising for the
exam. Also, 71% of students responded that they found online assignments and feedback useful, arguing that submission
of assignments online was more practical, and getting feedback was more convenient, compared to the traditional method.
It seems BL integration into course delivery also helped students become more autonomous and responsible in studying
course material at their own time and pace, and meeting the deadlines for the course work (i.e. assignments). The results
are in line with findings from previous research. An important finding was that by implementing a BL approach, more
resources can be shared with students online, including material for presentation and revision of course content, so that
there is more time in the classroom for further discussion and more coverage of course material, as there may not be enough
time to cover everything in the classroom time. Further, efforts of the course instructor for integrating BL tools into
classroom instruction can be a good model for the student teachers, who will be teachers in the future, to observe, experience
and reflect on the potential of BL in their own teaching.
One of the two other points from the results of the study that are worth taking into consideration was the challenge for
some students adapting to the BL mode of course delivery, e.g. dealing with the requirements of online assignments such
as meeting the submission deadlines. Course instructors need to consider providing students with training and technical
7

134
 124

support before and during the BL mode, and should also consider the amount of time their students might need to complete
online tasks and assignments. The second point is concerned with students’ expectations to receive timely feedback on
their assignments, which may be a challenge for the course instructor managing the online platform in addition to face to
face classroom instruction. This issue is an important one for course instructors to consider planning for BL approaches to
course delivery, as it might require extra time and responsibility on behalf of instructors. Finally, as is also highlighted in
previous research (Adnan, 2017), instructors’ efforts should also be supported by institutions through a comprehensive
professional development scheme, not only on technology, but also on how to integrate technology into teaching practices.
In the context of teacher education, this is especially important since teacher educators are the models for student teachers,
not only by what they teach in their courses but also by how they deliver course content. Thus, an effective blending of
technology into instructional practices may provide an example for student teachers to adopt when they start their teaching
practice.
Admittedly, much more research is necessary before any conclusions and generalisations are made in regards to learner
perceptions of their BL experiences and their evaluation of course delivery in the BL mode. This paper has shown responses
from students over one semester in a specific discipline, but more work must be done to test the effectiveness of BL
approaches in other educational contexts, including teacher education.

REFERENCES
Adnan, M. (2017). Perceptions of senior-year ELT students for flipped classroom: a materials development course.
Computer Assisted Language Learning, 30, 204-222. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2017.1301958
Chen, Y., Wang, Y., Kinshuk, & Chen, N. (2014). Is FLIP enough? Or should we use the FLIPPED model instead?
Computers & Education, 79, 16-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.07.004
Davies, R. S., Dean, D. L., & Ball, N. (2013). Flipping the classroom and instructional technology integration in a
college-level information systems spreadsheet course. Educational Technology Research and Development (ETR&D),
61(4), 563-580. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-013-9305-6
Dudeney, G., & Hockly, N. (2007). How to Teach English with Technology. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
Graham, C. R., Woodfield, W., & Harrison, J. B. (2012). A framework for institutional adoption and implementation of
blended learning in higher education. Internet and Higher Education, 18, 4-14.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2012.09.003
Hockly, N. (2011). Five things you always wanted to know about blended learning (but were afraid to ask). English
Teaching Professional, 75, 58.
Jamaludin, R., & Osman, S. Z. M. (2014). The use of a flipped classroom to enhance engagement and promote active
learning. Journal of Education and Practice, 5 (2), 124-131.
Lai, C., & Gu, M. (2011). Self-regulated out-of-class language learning with technology. Computer Assisted Language
Learning, 24 (4), 317-335. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2011.568417
McCarthy, M. (Ed.). (2016). The Cambridge Guide to Blended Learning for Language Teaching. Cambridge. Cambridge
University Press.
Moloney, D., & O’Keeffe, A. (2016). A case study in language teacher education. In M. McCarthy (Ed.), The Cambridge
Guide to Blended Learning for Language Teaching (pp.176-199). Cambridge. Cambridge University Press.
Nesbitt, D. (2013). Student evaluation of CALL tools during the design process. Computer Assisted Language Learning,
26 (4), 371-387. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2012.680471
Sagarra, N., & Zapata, G. C. (2008). Blending classroom instruction with online homework: A study of student perceptions
of computer-assisted L2 learning. ReCALL 20 (2), 208-224. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0958344008000621
Saxena, S. (2013). How to best use the class time when flipping your classroom. EdTech Review. Retrieved from
http://edtechreview.in/trends-insights/insights/726-how-to-best-use-the-class-timewhen-flipping-your-classroom
Sharma, P. (2010). Blended learning. ELT Journal, 64 (4), 456-458. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccq043
Sharma, P., & Barrett, B. (2007). Blended Learning: Using Technology in and Beyond the Language Classroom. Oxford:
Macmillan.

8
135
 125

The Needs Analysis of Developing an Information Literacy

Education Model Based on School Culture Shaped
by Hidden Curriculum
Lee Lee Chua1, Saedah Siraj1, Nabeel Abdallah Abedalaziz2
Lee Lee Chua,Department of Curriculum and Instructional Technology
Saedah Siraj, 1,
Helmi Norman
Nabeel AbdallahDepartment
Abedalazizof Educational Psychology & Counselling
Faculty of2,Education
Faculty
Faculty of Education, of Education,
University of Malaya University of Malaya,Universiti
Kuala Lumpur.
Kebangsaan Malaysia
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia [email protected]
[email protected] Helmi Norman3
3
Center for Teaching and Learning Innovations

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to explore teachers’ perceptions on the need to develop an Information Literacy
Education Model based on school culture shaped by hidden curriculum. It was performed in two stages. First, a
focus group discussion with school principals, library and media teachers and school administrators was
conducted. As a result, three themes were identified from the qualitative data, they were school culture that values:
(i) information technology and student-centered teaching and learning, (ii) independent learning and autonomy
support, and (iii) character development. These themes were then used for survey item development. Second, the
validity and reliability of the survey instrument were further ascertained with a pilot study before a quantitative
survey involving 386 secondary school teachers was carried out. The findings of this needs analysis study justified
the need to develop a more comprehensive information literacy education model based on school culture shaped
by hidden curriculum. The results also showed that teachers were generally agreed (mode=4.00 for all items) that
all aspects of the school culture mentioned in the survey were important to support information literacy education.

Keywords: information literacy, hidden curriculum, school culture

INTRODUCTION
One of the new challenges faced by educators today is actually created by the rapid progression in information and
communication technology which has drastic changed the learning environment from limited information
resources to an abundance of information resources. In this very environment of information over-abundance, how
to equip students with abilities necessary to use information effectively becomes the main issue among the
educators. Our younger generations who are born into this information age may be technology savvy, they may
know the tools better, but we as educators have to teach them how to use the tools wisely, we need to help them
to effectively use all the technology tools available to them to locate, access, navigate, evaluate, analyze and create
new knowledge; to share, collaborate and communicate with others with the information they have. In other words,
we need to help them to become information literate.
Many information literacy (IL) initiatives and programs, such as the formulation of guidelines, standards, teaching
strategies, and the development of IL models, can be found in developed countries such as the United States, the
United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand (Kay & Ahmadpour, 2015; Virkus, 2003). The literature on this
topic in the developing countries such as Malaysia is very limited (Saidatul Akmar Ismail, 2014; Tan, 2014).
Obviously, this is the gap needs to be filled.
The Information Age requires schools to train students to become information literate lifelong learners. This idea
should be recognized and shared by all the stakeholders in the school settings and it should be promoted and
embedded as part of the school culture. We must allow this idea to be in the forefront of our thoughts as we
examine ways to enhance students’ IL skills. What are the characteristics of school culture that have positive effect
on IL education? Perhaps the suggestions by Brown (2015) on how school can direct the school culture through
hidden curriculum will provide us some ideas, “As educators make it a priority to examine their school culture
through the hidden curriculum, changes can be made that promote a positive school environment in which young
adolescents have a desire to be present and learn” (Brown, 2015, p. 9). Similarly, if our intention is to promote IL
education, cultivating the school culture through hidden curriculum to create a positive school environment that is
conducive to teaching and learning of IL will be a sound approach.

THE PURPOSE AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this study was to explore teachers’ perceptions of the need to develop an Information Literacy
Education Model based on school culture shaped by hidden curriculum.
There are two stages in this study. The research question for this stage was:
1) From the hidden curriculum perspective, what are the characteristics of school culture that have positive
effects on students’ information literacy skills acquisition?
For the second stage, the research questions were:
2) What are teachers’ perceptions of their students’ information literacy competence?

136
 126

3) What are teachers’ perceptions of the problems of implementing information literacy education in
schools?
4) What are teachers’ perceptions of the need to develop an information literacy education model?
5) What are teachers’ perceptions of the aspects of school culture shaped by hidden curriculum that support
information literacy education?

LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Information Literacy
The term “information literacy” (IL) was first used by Paul Zurkowski. The term refers to the ability and skills to
use a large number of information tools and resources, to search for and evaluate information, and to effectively
solve a given problem, particularly in a workplace context (Zurkowski, 1974). Since then, information literacy has
been of great interest to librarians and information professionals (Kay & Ahmadpour, 2015; Pinto, Cordon, &
Diaz, 2010; Wen, 2008). Substantial efforts have been made, and a huge amount of literature on the topic has been
produced, to analyze the concept of information literacy (Julien, McKechnie, & Hart, 2005; Kay & Ahmadpour,
2015; Pinto et al., 2010; Virkus, 2003).
By examining key terms related to information literacy used from 1977 to 2007 in a wide range of databases, Pinto
et al. (2010) successfully illustrated thirty years of information literacy evolution. According to the authors, the
concept of information literacy evolved over time depends on the perspectives and the context in which it was
developed. Initially, information literacy was viewed as an approach in workplace problem solving. Later,
librarians and academics associated information literacy with bibliographic instruction programs in the form of
short orientations on how to use library and information resources. With rapid technological change and the
proliferation of information resources in the 1980s and 1990s, information literacy expanded beyond library
resources to include ‘information and communication technology literacy,’ ‘digital literacy,’ ‘computer literacy,’
‘information and communication technology skills,’ ‘technological literacy,’ and ‘media literacy’ (Pinto et al.,
2010).

B. Hidden Curriculum and School Culture

The hidden curriculum consists of the rules and regulations of the school, its physical and psychological
environment, and hidden messages that are communicated during the interaction between teachers and students,
or between students and their peers. The implicit influences of this type of curriculum are mostly on the students’
values, attitudes, beliefs, and norms, and can be positive or negative. The hidden curriculum is described as
“hidden” because it is usually unacknowledged or unexamined by students and teachers; students normally learn
the lessons or messages unconsciously (Martin, 1976; Ponyatovska, 2011; Portelli, 1993; Shaw, 2006). According
to Peterson and Deal (1998), school culture covers the “norms, values, beliefs, traditions, and rituals that has built
up over time as people work together, solve problems, and confront challenges. This set of informal expectations
and values shapes how people think, feel, and act in schools” (Peterson & Deal, 1998, p. 28). This is very similar
with the concept of hidden curriculum which emphasizes on the nonacademic aspect of schooling. Furthermore,
like the hidden curriculum, the impact of school culture on student learning and development is pervasive and
implicit. It can be positive or negative depending on how the school leader as well as the school community work
on it.
Some researchers associated the concept of hidden curriculum to the concept of school culture. For example,
Longstreet and Shane (1993) says, “[the hidden curriculum] refers to the kinds of learning [that] children derive
from the very nature and organizational design of the public school, as well as from the behaviors and attitudes of
teachers and administrators” (Longstreet & Shane, 1993, p. 46). This idea informs us that the influence of school
culture on student learning can be one form of hidden curriculum. Students learned the unspoken rules and
expectations within the school based on how the stakeholders in the school settings reinforce, nurture, or transform
the norms, beliefs and values of the school. Educators need to understand the importance and the influence of the
hidden curriculum in their own classes because effective education can only take place when the hidden curriculum
is intentionally designed rather than unintentionally accepted (Shaw, 2006). One way to harness the hidden
curriculum is to make it explicit and visible, “once revealed, the hidden curriculum becomes negotiable and visible
to all participants including teachers, students and society in general. Exposure, in turn, allows for remediation,
change, defense, and improvement ...” (Anderson, 2001, p. 30).

THE STUDY
There were two stages in this study. First, a focus group discussion was conducted to gather the themes describing
the dimensions of school culture from hidden curriculum perspective intended for information literacy skills
acquisition. These themes were then used for survey item development. Second, a quantitative survey involving
386 secondary school teachers was carried out to understand the need to develop the information literacy model.

Stage 1: Identifying the Dimensions of School Culture Shaped by Hidden Curriculum

136
 127

Methods. The purpose of this stage is to identify the dimensions of school culture shaped by hidden curriculum
intended for information literacy skills acquisition. The researchers grounded their guiding questions for the focus
group based on the literature review on information literacy, hidden curriculum and school culture. Since the
school leadership’s role is as a catalyst in creating desired school culture for every individual school, the
researchers intended to have in-depth understanding of the school’s principal and administrative teachers’ views
on this matter. So, this was a purposive sampling. The researchers invited three school principals, two library and
media teachers and two school administrators from four different secondary schools to participate in this focus
group discussion.

Data Analysis. The transcribed data were analyzed using the Atlas. Ti software. This software facilitated the
task of coding the data. When all the data had been examined, units containing the codes were identified and
arranged in the same category. Trustworthiness of the data was ensured through member checking where four
participants were invited to check on the quality and accuracy of data interpretation.

Findings. As response to research question 1, three categories of theme describing the dimensions of school
culture from hidden curriculum perspective intended for information literacy skills acquisition were identified
from the qualitative data (see Table 1). They were school culture that values: (i) information technology and
student-centered teaching and learning, (ii) independent learning and autonomy support, and (iii) character
development.

Table 1
Categories and Themes of School Culture Shaped by Hidden Curriculum Perspective Intended for Information
Literacy Skills Acquisition
Category Themes Subthemes
1) School culture that values Information and • e-learning platform
information and communication communication • Computer aided
technologies (ICT) and student- technologies instruction
centered teaching and learning Student-centered • Interaction and
teaching and learning inspiration
• Multivariate
evaluation
• Experiencing
information
• Opportunity to
perform
• Higher order thinking
• Critical thinking.
2) School culture that values Independent Learning • Extracurricular
independent learning and activities
autonomy support Autonomy support • Autonomy supportive
climate and practices
3) School culture that values Character development • Role Model
character development • Moral Education
(fairness, respect,
responsibility and
kindness)

Stage 2: Teachers’ Survey

Methods. In order to understand the teachers’ views on whether there is a need to develop an information literacy
education model, and dimensions of school culture shaped by hidden curriculum that could be used to support the
current information literacy education efforts, the researchers utilized a self-administered survey research method
at this stage. For the purpose of this study, non-probability purposive sampling is used to select participants for
this stage.

Instrument development and validation. The researchers designed and developed a “Needs for Information
Literacy Education Model (NILEM)” survey questionnaire. The items were created based on the research
questions, literature review and the data of each theme generated from focus group discussion. For the instrument

137
 128

validation, a series of instrument validation process were conducted, such as face validity, content validity, pilot
study and reliability testing, exploratory factor analysis as well as confirmatory factor analysis.

Data Collection and Analysis. The data for this study were obtained by surveying teachers from six secondary
schools in Malaysia. Verbal permission to administer the questionnaire was obtained from the principal of each
school. Out of 500 survey questionnaires distributed, 397 responses were collected, resulting in an 79.4% response
rate. After deleted 11 responses with missing values, the number of complete responses that can be used for data
analysis were 386. Data collected were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)
version 22 software.
Findings. According to the “Information Literacy Standard for Students Learning”, for a student to be
information literate, he needs the competence to access information efficiently and effectively; evaluate
information critically and competently and use information accurately and creatively, and also practice ethical
behavior in regard to information and information technology (Librarians & Communications, 1998). Therefore,
a few key competencies were highlighted in section B of the NILEM questionnaire, such as “information need”,
“search” “critical thinking”, “inferences”, “social etiquette and responsibility”, “information technology skills”
and “independent problem solving”. For research question 2, the results of teachers’ perceptions on their students’
mentioned competencies were presented in Table 2.
Table 2
Item, Mean, Mode and Standard Deviation for Teachers ’ Perceptions on their students ’ information literacy
competence (Section B)
Mean Mode Std.
Items Deviation
1) Identifying information need. 3.168 4.0 1.0091
2) Establishing information search. 3.544 4.0 0.8941
3) Use information for critical thinking. 2.469 2.0 0.9004
4) Find the interconnection between information to make proper inferences 2.541 2.0 0.8913
and conclusions.
5) Use IT in the learning process. 3.622 4.0 0.9128
6) Use IT to present learning outcomes. 3.438 4.0 0.9272
7) Pay attention to the social etiquette and responsibility when using IT 2.539 2.0 0.8972

The overall findings for Section B indicated that although students possess the competence in using information
technology tools, most teachers still perceived their students as lacking of required information literacy
competence. For example, most of them claimed their that students are not able to use information for critical
thinking (mode=2), making proper inferences and conclusions from information (mode=2), more importantly,
students are lacking awareness of social etiquette and responsibility when using information technology to
communicate with others (mode=2). The lack of information literacy competence of students needed to be
addressed as information literacy is the prerequisite skills to success in this information age. Thus, the proposal of
developing an information literacy education model to support current information literacy education should be
considered.
However, prior to considering a new approach of information literacy education, it is also essential to understand
the problems of current information literacy education implementation. Table 3 demonstrates the answer for
research question 3.
Table 3
Item Mean, Mode and Standard Deviation for Teachers’ Perceptions of the Problems of Implementing Information
Literacy Education in Schools (Section C)
Mean Mode Std.
Items Deviation
1) School leaders are lacking awareness of IL education. 3.070 3.0 0.9413
2) Insufficient time for teaching IL. 3.510 4.0 0.9541

3) As IL is not an examination subject. 3.518 4.0 0.9808

138
 129

4) Teachers are lacking interdisciplinary cooperation awareness. 3.469 4.0 0.9033

5) IL is an area of concern of the IT Department or the School Resource 3.111 4.0 1.0016
Center only.
6) Teachers are more used to teacher-centered teaching approach. 3.425 4.0 0.9007
In short, the overall findings of Section C revealed several key issues in information literacy education
implementation. Problems in implementing information literacy education in schools are: lack of information
literacy education consciousness of the school leaders (mode=3), insufficient time (mode=4), information literacy
is not an examination subject (mode=4), teachers are lacking interdisciplinary cooperation awareness (mode=4),
the perception of information literacy concern party is limited to information technology department and school
resource center (mode=4), and teachers are more used to the traditional teacher-centered teaching approach
(mode=4). Therefore, a whole school approach of information literacy education model which emphasized on
creating a school information literacy culture through hidden curriculum was proposed and the research question
4 attempted to explore teachers’ perceptions on the need to develop such model.
Table 4
Item Mean, Mode and Standard Deviation for Teachers’ Perceptions of the Need to Develop an Information
Literacy Education Model (Section D)
Mean Mode Std.
Items Deviation
1) Our students need to have IL education. 3.922 4.0 0.6755
2) Schools need to have a more comprehensive IL education model. 3.990 4.0 0.6605

3) It is feasible to have IL education model based on school culture shaped 3.902 4.0 0.6330
by hidden curriculum.

As presents in Table 4, the overall results indicate that most teachers agreed that their students need to have
information literacy education, and that their schools need to have a more comprehensive information literacy
education model to enhance students’ information literacy skills. The results also confirm that most teachers
perceived it is feasible to develop a more comprehensive information literacy education model based on school
culture shaped by hidden curriculum to enhance students’ information literacy skills (mode=4 for all items).
However, prior to develop the model, we need to identify the aspects of school culture shaped by hidden curriculum
that have positive effects on students’ information literacy skills acquisition. The answer for research question 5
is presented in Table 5.
Table 5
Item Mean, Mode and Standard Deviation for Teachers’ Perceptions of the Aspects of School Culture Shaped by
Hidden Curriculum that support Information Literacy Education (Section E)
Mean Mode Std.
Items
Deviation
Environment:
1) The school has enough IT equipment to support computer-aided 3.500 4.0 0.9994
teaching.
2) The school establishes an Information Literacy Education committee or 3.560 4.0 0.8815
group responsible for planning strategies and activities.
3) The school attaches great importance to the teaching of ICT and regards 3.575 4.0 0.7916
this as one of the compulsory subjects.
4) Teachers are willing to integrate IL and use student-centered teaching 3.552 4.0 0.7516
approach.
5) Teachers focus on cultivating student’s higher order and critical thinking 3.858 4.0 0.6325
skills.
6) Teachers utilize the IT and help students to become active participants. 3.790 4.0 0.6325
7) Teachers are willing to help students construct collaborative learning. 3.860 4.0 0.7107
8) Teachers using multi-variate assessments. 3.674 4.0 0.7114

139
 130

Activities:
9) The school’s website offers columns to provide all sorts of activities for 3.793 4.0 0.7269
students to participate in.
10) Provides opportunities for talented students to participate in school 3.870 4.0 0.6675
website construction and maintenance.
11) Provides students with information learning experiences through extra- 3.870 4.0 0.6517
curricular activities.
12) Invites experts or scholars to share about the latest developments in IT 3.759 4.0 0.7396
with teachers and students to enhance their information awareness.
13) Links the formal curriculum activities with social practice activities, 3.881 4.0 0.6616
organized outdoor information learning activities.
Teacher’s Role
14) Teacher as role model 4.145 4.0 0.6404
15) Teachers’ expectations 4.142 4.0 0.6140
16) Teachers’ motivations 4.181 4.0 0.6186

For the “Environment” dimension, it can be concluded a school information literacy culture can be created from
the physical environment that has sufficient facilities for teaching and learning of information technology and
computer (mode=4). In addition, it is better for a school to have Information Literacy Education committee or
group responsible for planning strategies and activities to promote information literacy (mode=4). Another aspect
is to promote information technology and computer as a compulsory subject (mode=4). Furthermore, a school
information literacy culture also can be provided by teachers who recognize the importance of information literacy
education (mode=4), who are willing to create an efficient use of information technology in the teaching-learning
environment (mode=4), who are willing to use student-centered teaching approaches and multivariate assessments
(mode=4), and who want to emphasize higher order thinking teaching to enhance students’ critical thinking skills
and strengthen their information literacy competence (mode=4).
Next, majority of the teachers also agreed that school activities related to information technology learning can
enhance students’ information literacy skills implicitly (mode=4). These activities can carry out through activities
in the school’s website and extra-curricular activities (mode=4), inviting experts or scholars to share about their
knowledge of latest development in information world (mode=4), and links the formal curriculum activities with
social practice activities (mode=4).
Finally, for the “Teacher’s Roles” dimension, teachers as role models (mode=4), the expectations of teachers
towards their students (mode=4), and the motivations of teachers (mode=4), always create some kind of implicit
psychological influence on student beliefs, values, and attitudes. As such, teacher’s roles are perceived as being
essential for the development of students’ information literacy competence.

CONCLUSIONS
As the digital natives who live in a world where technology is omnipresent, there is no doubt that most of the
students today are technology savvy, because for most of them technology has become part of their life. However,
technology savvy does not ensure that the students are able to use technology critically and responsibly. This was
evident through the findings that indicated that most of the teachers were not satisfied with the level of their
students’ higher order thinking skills. This result is aligned with the findings by Chang, Lian, Zhang, and Wang
(2016) which highlighted that computer operation as an information skill may not necessarily benefit overall
information literacy and traditional literacy. They suggested that the improvement of information literacy
competency cannot be simply dependent on digital media operation literacy, but also other aspects.
The findings for the research questions 2 to 4 have clearly justified the need to undertake a whole school approach
model to support current information literacy education. To address this shortcoming, the researchers proposed a
school culture approach and this school information literacy culture needs to be created through the hidden
curriculum so that it can reflect what students have actually experienced or learned in enhancing their information
literacy skills. As a whole, this needs analysis study justified the need to develop a more comprehensive
information literacy education model based on school culture approach.

140
 131

REFERENCES

Anderson, T. (2001). The hidden curriculum in distance education an updated view. Change: the magazine of
higher learning, 33(6), 28-35.
Brown, P. (2015). Intertwining School Culture and Hidden Curriculum: A Positive Influence on Young
Adolescents. North Carolina Association for Middle Level Education Journal, 29(1).
Chang, C.-P., Lian, Y.-H., Zhang, D.-D., & Wang, S.-C. (2016). The Influence of Students Information Literacy
Competency on Creativity under the Regulation of Classroom Climate. Creative Education, 7(11),
1551.
Julien, H., McKechnie, L. E. F., & Hart, S. (2005). A Content Analysis of Affective Issues in Library and
Information Science Systems Work. Library and Information Science Research, 27(4), 453-466.
doi:10.1016/j.lisr.2005.08.004
Kay, R. H., & Ahmadpour, K. (2015). Negotiating the Digital Maze of Information Literacy: A Review of
Literature. Journal of Educational Informatics, 1, 1-25.
Librarians, A. A. o. S., & Communications, A. f. E. (1998). Information Power: building partnerships for
learning: American Library Association.
Longstreet, W. S., & Shane, H. G. (1993). Curriculum for a new millennium Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Martin, J. R. (1976). What should we do with a hidden curriculum when we find one? Curriculum Inquiry, 6(2),
135-151.
Peterson, K. D., & Deal, T. E. (1998). How leaders influence the culture of schools. Educational leadership, 56,
28-31.
Pinto, M., Cordon, J. A., & Diaz, R. G. (2010). Thirty years of information literacy (1977-2007): A
terminological, conceptual and statistical analysis. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science.
Ponyatovska, L. (2011). Principals’ perspectives on the influence of the hidden curriculum on children’s
school development. Paper presented at the International Forum Journal.
Portelli, J. P. (1993). Exposing the hidden curriculum. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 25(4), 343-358.
Saidatul Akmar Ismail. (2014). Factors affecting the implementation of information literacy education in
Malaysian primary schools. (Doctor of Philosophy), Victoria University of Wellington.
Shaw, P. (2006). The hidden curriculum of seminary education. Journal of Asian Mission, 8(1-2), 23-51.
Tan, S. M. (2014). School Librarians' Readiness for Information Literacy Implementation in Secondary Schools.
(Doctor of Philosophy), University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Virkus, S. (2003). Information literacy in Europe: a literature. Inf. Res, 8(4), 1-56.
Wen, J. R., & Shih, W. L. (2008). Exploring the information literacy competence standards for elementary and
high school teachers. . Computers & Education, 50(3), 787-806. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2006.08.011
Zurkowski, P. (1974). The Information Service Environment: Relationships and Priorities Retrieved from
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED100391.pdf

141
 132

Instructional Design for Blended Language Learning:

Methodological Considerations and Course Applications
Guiding the Effective Design of Blended Language
Courses
Daria Mizza
Johns Hopkins University – SAIS
Washington, DC, USA
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this article is to guide readers through the crucial steps of the instructional design (ID) process, enabling
them to design and organize a successful blended language course. This article is composed of two main sections: a
methodological one, focusing on the importance of the ID process, and an applied one, devoted to the description of
examples. Methodologically, we recommend teachers and course designers follow two main steps. The first involves the
needs analysis, composed of a learner analysis and a context analysis, in which educators set the learning outcomes, plan
the learning activities and the assessment elements needed to achieve outcomes. The second requires the application of a
research-based framework that consists of the underpinnings of learning theories and research findings regarded as central
to blended learning and language learning, such as the importance of fostering learning autonomy while creating
opportunities for interaction and negotiation of meaning. In the applied section, it is recommended that teachers
operationalize each of the steps in their own teaching contexts, with the help of an example illustrating the sequencing of
activities that foster autonomy, promote collaboration, create opportunities for interaction and negotiation of meaning, and
find opportunities for reflection. The paper concludes by specifying whether a research-based framework informs the
design of such examples.
Author Keywords
Blended language learning, instructional design, needs analysis, research-based framework

1
141
 133

INTRODUCTION
From published information on blended language courses in the US1 and Europe2, it emerges that external
factors related to administration (e.g. scheduling conflicts), logistics (e.g. classroom space), human
resources (e.g. teaching personnel) have often generated the need for course design or redesign in a blended
format.
Different combinations of F2F (face-to-face) and remote components may be at the core of the design or
redesign of these courses. Many institutions seem to prefer the option that consists in a reduction of weekly
F2F instruction (whether in the number of days or in the amount of time per day) with the integration of
remote components that include learning resources, as well as learning activities and tasks (Scida & Sauri,
2006), mediated by technological tools. A fewer number of institutions combine F2F meetings and small -
group tutoring sessions, with the remainder of the contact hours occurring virtually.
Whatever pattern an institution or language program may go for, or whether this design or redesign is part
of the whole program, some courses or just course sections, teachers and program directors face the
challenge of how to effectively design the new learning environment. More than just a logistical benefit -
providing temporal and geographical flexibility, a structured plan for pedagogical enhancement must serve
as a catalyst for an effective design. Such a plan aims at creating a learning experience that results in
improved pedagogy that is beneficial for teachers and learners, by combining the inherent advantages of
F2F and online environments and integrating them seamlessly (Mizza & Rubio, forthcoming).
Language teachers and course designers play a crucial role in the implementation of such a plan, requiring
their involvement in a process of instructional design (ID). In the following sections we will delve into the
crucial stages of ID, with the aim of providing relevant recommendations for instructional sequencing in a
blended language course (See also Blake, 2011; Kraemer, 2008; Goertler, 2012).

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN FOR BLENDED LANGUAGE LEARNING: METHODOLOGICAL

CONSIDERATIONS
The term instructional design (ID), whose definition is quite vague in the literature, refers to the “process
involved in the systematic planning of instruction” (Smith & Ragan, 2005, p. 8), “in order to facilitate
learning most effectively” (Ravi, 2016). The term also refers to the consideration of critical factors in the
creation of instructional environments conducive to learning, currently identified as “student-centered”,
where students can participate in rich and meaningful learning experiences (Baturay, 2005).
Essential in the ID concept is the role of:
! Pedagogical principles related to theories about how we learn3;
! Skilled professionals, teachers or instructional designers who, guided by learning theory, are able
to apply the subject matter, or collaborate with the subject matter experts, in order to apply it.
Professionals may adopt several design models, providing a framework for the application of the principles
of ID. Although the description and application of one or more design models is beyond the scope of this
article, interested readers may find it useful to delve into the commonly accepted models such as the

1
In the US, it has been considered the information related to the blended language course design or redesign of the
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (http://romlcourses.unc.edu/Spanish/spanhybrid/), Texas Tech University
(www.depts.ttu.edu/education/graduate/blpl/), Portland State University
(http://www.thencat.org/PCR/R3/PoSU/PoSU_Overview.htm), the University of Vermont
(http://www.uvm.edu/ctl/?Page=resources-teaching/hybrid-courses/span002/index.php), and the DC campus of the
School of Advanced International Studies of the Johns Hopkins University (https://www.sais-jhu.edu/atoz/language-
studies-program#languages-offered).
2
In Europe, it has been considered the information related to the National University of Ireland in Galway
(https://www.nuigalway.ie/courses/adult-and-continuing-education-courses/italianonline.html/) and the University of
Nottingham in the UK (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09571736.2017.1280526).
3
Research on student learning has witnessed a paradigm shift from behavioristic, cognitive, to social constructivist
orientation, where collaborative learning is a central aspect.

3
142
 134

ADDIE Model (Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate), the Assure Model (Analyze learners,
State standards & objectives, Select strategies, technology, media & materials, Utilize technology, media &
materials, Require learner participation, Evaluate & revise), the Backward Design (Understanding By
Design), the Dick and Carey Model, the Gerlach-Ely Model, the Kemp Design Model, The Kirkpatrick
Model, and the SAM Model (Successive Approximation Model).
Regardless of the model adopted when starting the ID process for creating a blended language course,
educators face the dilemma of having to engage students in effective learning in a combined environment.
Thus, teachers simultaneously need to conduct a needs analysis that considers learners’ needs and
contextual constraints (e.g. time available and number of students), define the course objectives and
learning outcomes, and consider relevant SLA principles, in addition to components based on research
findings related to distance education and blended learning (BL). This implies considering two distinct
aspects of the instructional (re)design intervention: planning and design. While planning involves laying
out constraints in terms of a mixture of logistical and pedagogical factors, including time, location, number
of students, learning outcomes, and content, design focuses on what can be achieved within those
constraints that will motivate and engage students (Masterman, 2013). The distinction between planning
and design is particularly useful in language instruction, as it makes educators aware of what resources and
constraints a blended course may be built on before turning to sound SLA pedagogical principles and
practices that allow for the sequencing of F2F and online components beneficial to learners.
The ID steps presented in this paper are intended to provide teachers and course designers with specific
guidance to set-up the learning plan, with situational factors related to logistics and pedagogy, and organize
the learning design, through the identification of the desired results of a blended language course.
Step 1. The Learning Plan: Needs Analysis
Through the needs analysis, educators designing or re-designing a blended course can analyze the
characteristics of their potential learners, by conducting an analysis of them (“learner analysis”) and
explore the context in which learners will eventually develop their new language skills, through a context
analysis (“context analysis”).
The learner analysis may be accomplished by using several different approaches to needs analysis that have
so far attempted to meet the requirements of FL learners. Teachers may find it useful to adopt the following
suggestions, based partly on a comprehensive concept of needs proposed by Dudley-Evans and St. John
(1998, p. 125) in the field of English for Specific Purposes (ESP), and partly on the description that Dick
and Carey (1978, 1996) used to identify learner characteristics in the field of education. Readers may
gather the following comprehensive information: the dominant learning style and learning preferences of
each learner, the kinds of instructional experiences learners may have had previously, providing an
understanding of their ability to cope with new and different approaches to instruction, learner motivation
to learn the target language and reasons for attending the course, learner language background and
languages previously learned, learner current language competencies and skills, and learner future
academic/professional perspectives.
By conducting the context analysis, educators may identify the characteristics of settings where BL could
take place and where learners can develop and use their new language skills. It is recommended that one
establish a realistic minimum level and define language goals, based on descriptors such a CEFR Levels4 or
ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines5, and based on these descriptors, set achievable course objectives and
learning outcomes while planning the learning activities and the assessment elements to reach them. For
practitioners working in the American Educational System, it is recommended that one consider also the
National FL Standards6 based on the content and the pedagogical approach found most appropriate for
adult FL learning and the goals of the program.

4
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) is an international standard that describes
language proficiency in 40 languages. For a detailed description of the CEFR Levels, visit:
https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages/level-descriptions.
5
For a detailed description of the American Council for the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) Proficiency
Guidelines, visit: https://www.actfl.org/publications/guidelines-and-manuals/actfl-proficiency-guidelines-2012.
6
To download the two-page summary of the World-Readiness Standards for Learning Languages, visit
https://www.actfl.org/publications/all/world-readiness-standards-learning-languages.

4
143
 135

Step 2. The Learning Design: Research-based Framework

A framework based on aspects relevant to BL and distance education and principles necessary for language
learning is at the core of an effective blended language learning (BLL) design.
The two aspects described below are the underpinnings of learning theories and research findings
considered central to BL and distance education, both of which are recommended when taking into
consideration when starting the design process of a course.
- Promoting Collaboration in Communities of Practice
Learning that benefits from collaboration and assistance of instructors and peers7 through the means of the
target language is especially important for distance learners in the online component of a blended course, as
they are often exposed to isolation and lack of communication without available support from peers and
educators. Research has shown that such a lack of support may create frustration and affect a student’s
confidence in learning (Brown, 1996; Williams & Sharma, 1988).
As Kilpatrick, Jones, and Barrett (2003) underline, there has been a shift in the emphasis from “learning by
the individual” to “learning as part of a community,” that involves a minimum of four to five active
people.8 Such a shift is particularly evident in the online components of a blended course, where students
and teachers need to establish some forms of community through the learning process and achieve a
successful level of social interaction within it (Dabbagh, 2003; Pifarré, 2007).9
Thus, the concepts of a “virtual learning community” (Palloff & Pratt, 1999) and “the community of
practice” (Wenger et al., 2002) are central in a research-based framework that supports a blended language
course.
- Providing Space for Reflection
According to researchers (Day, 1993; Freeman, 1982), reflection should also be a collective endeavor
involving dialogue with others. A research-based framework may include reflection of an individual (such
as monologues) and social nature (social conversations), providing learners with an opportunity to reflect
on his/her learning, both individually, through the use of reflection to build understanding, and
collaboratively, by sharing learning experiences or engaging in collaborative and reflective learning
activities, for example when students exchange their online learning journals.
For most learning tasks that involve reading and writing, reflection allows for planning and preparation
time, giving learners the opportunity to think about the content and the form of their utterance, thereby
reducing stress, anxiety and the risk of an early breakdown of an activity (Brandl, 2008).
The two SLA principles described below are also relevant for distance education and BL. It is
recommended that one takes them into consideration when designing a blended language course.
- Fostering Autonomous Learning
Contrary to what the term might evoke in popular usage in a blended course, learner autonomy does not
necessarily involve solitary contact with learning resources and tasks. In several published examples of
blended language courses mentioned at the beginning of this article, the online component preparing
learners for the F2F class often includes interactive and social activities based on group brainstorming and
collaborative scaffolding, in addition to individual access to grammar explanations, which are often

7
Collaboration in learning, together with the support from more knowledgeable people in the co-construction of
knowledge stems from a social constructivist approach to learning, which holds that meaningful learning occurs in the
process of negotiation among the participants through dialogues, collaboration, and interaction (Vygotsky, 1978;
Jonassen et al., 1999; Swan, 2005).
8
In his online matrix, Watkins (2005) classified group sizes into three categories: a small group (one to seven people),
a medium group (eight to fifteen people), and a large group (more than sixteen people), that would be difficult to
control as feedback can not be given appropriately by the facilitator.
9
Such engagement in the collaboration of knowledge construction, however, may posit additional challenges in the
blended type of environments, compared to the F2F one with constant presence of instructor as facilitator. Sharing the
information with their peers or learning from other sources, for example, may posit problems to those students with a
studying habit emphasizing rote learning over a student-centered approach and believe they learn better when the
information is facilitated exclusively by educators (Wang, 2004).

5
144
 136

proposed on video tutorials, pronunciation practice, and cultural content. The importance of social
interaction for fostering autonomous learning is confirmed and reflected in the work of several researchers
who regard the synergy between social collaboration (Vygotsky, 1962; Little, 1996) and autonomy as
fundamental in higher-education language learning (Orsini-Jones, Brick, Pibworth, 2013), based on the
innate predisposition towards autonomous behavior (Little, 1996). Furthermore, due to the strong social
dimension in learning acknowledged since Vygotsky (1978), other researchers (Bax, 2011; White, 2013)
claim that learner’s use of interaction in communities of practices, among other features, determines a great
deal of autonomy in language development.
- Opportunities for Interaction and Negotiation of Meaning
Integral to communicative language learning, interaction is a significant factor in language development
(Ellis, 1994; Swain, 1995; van Lier, 1996).10 According to interactionist-cognitive theories of learning11,
interaction especially conversational interaction has a facilitating effect in language learning. Such a
facilitating effect is best summed up in the Interaction Hypothesis (Long, 1996), in which interaction is
treated as a source of acquisition and viewed as exposing learners to input. When trying to “negotiate
meaning” (Pica, Young, & Doughty, 1987; Pica, 1994), as speakers clarify their intended meaning and
have an opportunity to reword what they are trying to say, interaction and feedback represent opportunities
given by peers and/or instructors to modify their own output. Modifying their own output includes
producing more comprehensible, coherent, and grammatically improved discourse by focusing the learner’s
attention on the ways they are expressing themselves and on specific linguistic forms. Therefore, it is
important for learners to have opportunities to use stretches of discourse in contexts where there is a press
on their linguistic resources and where they must focus not only on what they wish to say, but also on how
they are saying for the benefit of their listeners.

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN FOR BLENDED LANGUAGE LEARNING: COURSE APPLICATIONS

Once step # 1 and step # 2 are completed, what remains to be defined is the pedagogical emphasis of each
component of both components of the blended sequence: offline/F2F and online/remote. In order to define
it, we will posit two questions whose answer will be explored below:
a. Which portions of a language course can benefit from being moved to the online/remote
environment?
b. How does this move alter the pedagogical emphasis of the offline/F2F component?
Lessons Learned from Existing Language Course Design
Some general implications may be based on published information on blended language courses mentioned
at the beginning of the chapter. Especially in the case of courses experiencing a decrease in contact time,
university-wide technological constraints related to large multi-section programs and/or issues of instructor
workload have led to the deliberate decisions to restructure the existing courses by eliminating or
drastically reducing F2F teacher-led and teacher–fronted instruction and instead focusing on
communicative and collaborative tasks (Neumeier, 2005). By moving input-based activities and more
mechanical practices, mostly related to vocabulary, grammar familiarization, and cultural content, from the
offline/F2F to the online/remote component of the course students are prepared, for real-life tasks requiring
the use of grammar and vocabulary in meaningful and live in-class communication. Most references to
such practices are based on electronic textbooks (eTB), such as Centro, WileyPLUS, MySpanishLab, iLrn
that are accessible through the electronic platforms of commercial textbook publishers (Rossomondo,

10
Interaction is also regarded as central to distance education (Holmerg, 1986). As distance learning in the 20th century
was largely dominated by self-study with occasional F2F instruction, interaction in online environments had been
problematic until recently.
11
Theoretical orientations have led to different approaches to investigating the role of interaction in learning. While
socio-cultural researchers investigated how learners’ participation in interaction changes from one time to another as a
result of collaborative scaffolding at the zone of proximal development, or assists understanding of specific language
features and their internalization; interactionist-cognitive theories have explored how learner involvement in the form-
focused episodes arising in fluency-and-accuracy contexts leads to learning, and investigated the effects of corrective
feedback on learning (Ellis, 2014, pp. 266, 267).

6
145
 137

2014).
Often, however, when the online session relies only on commercial textbooks with eTB, learners are left to
cope with a collection of fragmented material and tasks presented offline and online, with scarce, if any,
opportunities for autonomous learning, collaboration, interaction, and negotiation of meaning. Furthermore,
if teacher guidance and monitoring are missing, learners do not have the appropriate support to work
autonomously, and therefore do not get adequate preparation for the communicative tasks that are often the
focus of the F2F component.
Thus, a research-based framework does not inform the design of such courses.
Example of a Blended Sequence Design in a Persian Language Course
The example below illustrates a unit that is part of a blended course for learning Persian (Farsi) at the
ACTFL advanced level, offered in the Language Studies Program of the School of Advanced International
Studies (DC Campus) of the Johns Hopkins University (USA). The unit has a participative design in which
the blended sequence fosters autonomy, promotes collaboration, creates opportunities for interaction and
negotiation of meaning, and finds opportunities for reflection.
The sequencing of activities and tasks in this unit follows the guidelines suggested by Brandl (2008, pp.
179-181), who proposes four different lesson phases (non communicative learning, input, assimilation, and
application and extension) grounded on SLA research and communicative language teaching principles,
mainly related to the importance of proceeding from structured input to communicative output (VanPatten,
1995) and from lower to higher-level tasks (Walz, 1998).
For each phase of the unit described below, we will be able to answer the questions posited at the beginning
of this applied section (a. Which portions of a language course can benefit from being moved to the
online/remote environment? and b. How does this move alter the pedagogical emphasis of each
component?).
Phase 1: Preparation to Input or Main Text of the Unit
- Recommended instructional environment: Online.
- Sequence in the chapter: Precede the presentation of the input or main text of the unit.
- Purpose: Mainly awareness-raising or discovery-learning: guiding learners in their understanding
of how language works and in the development of learning skills and strategies.
- Type of tasks included: Activities that prepare learners for the comprehension of the oral or
written input. Generally, preparation activities are conducted autonomously and may also include
“non-communicative” learning tasks, in order to introduce students to the topic of the input,
activate background knowledge, and make them explore the new vocabulary and grammar
structures.
- Role of teacher: May implement a scaffolding plan to guide learners to access input through the
above- mentioned activities.
- Example: An activity involving an autonomous type of learning fostered through a socially-
mediated activity on a collaborative wiki page (www.wikispaces.com), for example, may require
students to devise a brief title in Farsi for each of the images provided, encouraging them to make
predictions about the title and the main idea of the ensuing reading passage.
Phase 2: Exposure to Language in Context
- Recommended instructional environment: Online, as students may benefit from a prolonged and
repeated input exposure.
- Sequence in the chapter: During and immediately after input exposure.
- Type of tasks included: Presentation of the new content that introduces new vocabulary and/or
grammar structures through textual resources, audio or video-based language situations,
communicative language acts and input-based processing activities.
- Purpose: Lead learners towards the comprehension of the target language input and expose
learners to model structures of language in context, while keeping meaning in focus.
- Role of student: Teacher-centered learning tasks.
- Role of teacher: Monitors student comprehension.
- Example: A suitable example of activity for this phase may be an activity requiring students to

7
146
 138

skim the text to get a general overview (e.g. by reading the title and the introduction, as well as
noticing the picture) and to find the specific keywords that will be required in more
communicative type of tasks.
Phase 3: Controlled and Guided Practice
- Recommended instructional environment: F2F.
- Sequence in the chapter: After input exposure.
- Type of tasks included: Controlled and guided practice.
- Purpose: Allow students to incrementally build skills with the teacher’s help, attending to both
meaning and form of the new linguistic features.
- Role of student: Student-centered learning tasks in pairs or groups.
- Role of teacher: Controls and guides the student language.
- Role of correction: Enhanced role of feedback and error correction.
- Example: A task composed of an initial and follow-up activity may be designed for students to
focus on isolated aspects that will be required to perform the following communicative task.
o Initial activity (in pairs): The initial activity deals with receptive skills (listening), in
which learners are required to focus on specific linguistic features within a narrow
communicative context, in small chunks, by answering yes/no or providing one-word
answer.
o Following activity (in small groups): Controlled and guided by the instructor, the same
task may move to longer discourse answers, predictable but increasingly more
communicative, allowing student language production to move from a list to longer
discourse answers through the application of small batches of new vocabulary within a
narrow communicative context.
- Role of the teacher: Enhanced role of teacher’s feedback and error correction.
Phase 4: Output Interaction and Negotiation of Meaning
- Recommended environment: F2F.
- Purpose: Use much, if not all, the lesson’s target vocabulary, grammar, and content (Ballman,
1998), as well as the integration of multiple skills (Brandl, 2008).
- Activity type: Focus on communication and requiring students to interact and take on
responsibility for their participation, such as through role-plays, writing emails, or whole class
discussions and debate.
- Role of student: Student-centered learning tasks.
- Role of teacher: Does not control or guide the student language.
- Role of correction: Feedback and error correction play a reduced role, as the assessment of
learning is demonstrated through students’ achievement of communicative goals.
As suggested by Long’s (1996) interaction hypothesis that focuses on speaking, this is the stage in which
increased learner/learner oral interaction encourages negotiation of meaning and pushes learners to produce
oral output.
- Example: A discussion/debate in which students in small groups draw up arguments supporting
their stance with the use of the target vocabulary of the unit constitutes a suitable example for this
phase. This is a student-centered activity where most learner/learner interaction occurs. Students
are required to take on the responsibility for their participation through the use of an open-ended,
creative, and spontaneous language that is not controlled or guided by the teacher.
Phase 5: Autonomous and Collaborative Homework
Finally, opportunities for students to become more autonomous and more engaged in the target language
may be given through homework to be completed online. This constitutes the online “follow-up” phase
after the F2F class, in which open-ended and creative communicative extension activities require the
application of multiple skills, the activation of interaction, and the negotiation of meaning in digital
applications, such as synchronous and asynchronous web-based technologies (e.g. discussion boards, blogs,
wikis). The latter have also been claimed to encourage negotiation of meaning.
- Example: In an online discussion board, students may be required to post their comment, as well

8
147
 139

as reacting and responding to the comment of two or more classmates.

The design of the blended sequence described above provides learners with guidance in developing
autonomous learning skills, communicating through interaction and collaboration with opportunities for
output and negotiation of meaning, as well as giving reflective opportunities for attending to meaning and
form.
A rich source of input is provided in the initial phases. Tackling material that is new or slightly beyond the
learner’s knowledge, together with the additional complexity represented by the BL environment, may be
challenging though. Thus, the teacher may implement a scaffolding plan to support access to input by
introducing learners to the topic and activating background knowledge, and to facilitate the completion of
complex tasks, by promoting interaction and collaboration.

SUMMARY
It has been stressed in the course of this article, the importance of the ID process that teachers and/or course
designers engage in for improving the pedagogical effectiveness of their blended language course. With
this aim in mind, we have retraced the main steps of the ID process, from the needs analysis/assessment for
exploring the complexity of learners’ needs and the contextual characteristics of the setting where the BLL
will take place, to the definition of a research-based framework that allows fostering autonomous learning;
promoting collaboration in communities of practice; creating opportunities for interaction and negotiation
of meaning, and providing space for reflection.
This paper has provided the description of a blended instructional sequence of offline/F2F and
online/remote components grounded on SLA research findings and equipped with an assistive and
participatory design. This provides opportunities for accessing input while developing both autonomous
and collaborative learning skills within a learning community of practice, producing output and negotiating
meaning, and allowing for further reflection on meaning and forms.
We can conclude that the provision of such opportunities is particularly challenging in the online/remote
component of the blend, which justifies the design of a blended sequence of activities that provide guidance
and support to learners, both to develop autonomous learning skills and foster interactive collaborative ones
as a preparation to or follow-up of the communicative tasks, mainly proposed on the offline/F2F
component.

REFERENCES

American Council for the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL). (n.d.). World Readiness Standards for

Learning Languages. Retrieved from https://www.actfl.org/publications/all/world-readiness-

standards-learning-languages.

Ballman, T. L. (1998). From teacher-centered to learner-centered: Guidelines for sequencing and

presenting the elements of a foreign language class. In J. Harper, 116 M. Lively, & M. Williams

(Eds.), The coming of age of the profession: Issues and emerging ideas for the teaching of foreign

languages (pp. 97–111). Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.

Baturay, M. H., & Daloğlu, A. (2010). E-portfolio assessment in an online English language

course. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 23(5), 413-428.

Bax, S. (2011). Normalisation revisited: The effective use of technology in language education.

9
148
 140

International Journal of Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Teaching (IJCALLT), 1(2), 1-

15.

Beauvois, M. (1998). E-talk: Computer-assisted classroom discussion. In J. Swaffer, S. Romano, P.

Markley & K. Arens (Eds.), Language learning online: Theory and practice in the ESL and L2

computer classroom. Austin, TX: Labyrinth.

Beetham, H., & Sharpe, R. (2013). Rethinking pedagogy for a digital age. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis.

Blake, R. J. (2011). Current trends in online language learning. Annual Review of Applied

Linguistics, 31, 19-35.

Bower, J., & Kawaguchi, S. (2011). Negotiation of meaning and corrective feedback in japanese/english

eTandem, Language Learning & Technology, February 2011, 15(1), 41-71.

Brandl, K. (2008). Communicative language teaching in action. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson Prentice

Hall.

Brown, A. L., & Campione, J. C. (1996). Psychological theory and the design of innovative learning

environments: On procedures, principles, and systems. (pp. 289-325). Hillsdale, N.J: Lawrence

Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Christopher Day. (1993). Reflection: A necessary but not sufficient condition for professional development.

British Educational Research Journal, 19(1), 83-93.

Council of Europe. (n.d.). The CEFR levels. Retrieved from https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-

european-framework-reference-languages/level-descriptions

Dabbagh, N. (2003, Mar). Scaffolding: An important teacher competency in online learning. TechTrends,

47, 39-44.

Dick, W., & Carey, L. (1978). The systematic design of instruction. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.

Dick, W., & Carey, L. (1996). The systematic design of instruction (4. ed. ed.). New York, NY: Longman.

Dudley-Evans, T., & St John, M. J. (1998). Developments in English for specific purposes: A multi-

disciplinary approach. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Ellis, S., Carette, B., Anseel, F., & Lievens, F. (2014). Systematic reflection. Current Directions in

Psychological Science, 23(1), 67-72.

10
149
 141

Finholt, T., & Sproull, L. S. (1990). Electronic groups at work. Organization Science, 1(1), 41-64.

Freeman, D. (1982). Observing teachers: Three approaches to in service training and development. TESOL

Quarterly, 16(1), 28.

Goertler, S., Bollen, M., & Gaff, J., Jr. (2012). Students' readiness for and attitudes toward hybrid FL

instruction. CALICO Journal, 29(2), 297.

Guerin, E. et al. (2005). A post-graduate program in "e-learning design and management: The University of

Florence experience. Paper presented at the EDEN Conference, Helsinki, 20–23 June, 2005.

Helen, Beetham, & Rhona Sharpe. (2007). Rethinking pedagogy for a digital age. Taylor and Francis.

Holmberg, B. (1986). Growth and structure of distance education. London, UK: Croom Helm.

Hughes, N., Lo, L., & Xu, S. (2017). Blended Chinese language learning design: an integrative review and

synthesis of the literature. The Language Learning Journal, 1-19.

Jonassen, D. H., 1947, Peck, K. L., & Wilson, B. G. (1999). Learning with technology: A constructivist

perspective. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Kilpatrick, S., Barrett, M., &Jones, T. (2003). Defining learning communities. Discussion Paper D1/2003.

CRLRA Discussion Paper Series. Retrieved from

http://publications.aare.edu.au/03pap/jon03441.pdf.

Kraemer, A. (2008). Happily ever after: Integrating language and literature through technology?

Unterrichtspraxis/Teaching German, 41(1), 61.

Van Lier, L. (1996). Interaction in the language curriculum. Florence: Routledge Ltd.

Little, D. (1996). Freedom to learn and compulsion to interact: promoting learner autonomy through the use

of information systems and information technologies. Taking control: Autonomy in language

learning, 1, 203-218.

Lo, L., Xu, S., (2017). Blended Chinese Language Learning Design: an integrative review and synthesis of

the literature. University of Nottingham. Retrieved from

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09571736.2017.1280526

Long, M. H. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. Handbook of

second language acquisition, 2(2), 413-468.

Masterman, L. (2013). The challenge of teachers' design practice. In H. Beetham, & R. Sharpe (Eds.),

11
150
 142

Rethinking pedagogy for a digital age: Designing and delivering e-learning (pp. 234-259). London,

UK: Routledge.

Mizza, D., & Rubio, F. (Forthcoming). Developing Effective Blended Foreign Language Courses. A

Research-based Guide from Planning to Evaluation in Higher Education Contexts. Cambridge, UK:

Cambridge University Press.

Neumeier, P. (2005). A closer look at blended learning - parameters for designing a blended learning

environment for language teaching and learning. ReCALL, 17(2), 163-178.

Palloff, R. M., & Pratt, K. (1999). Building learning communities in cyberspace. San Francisco, CA:

Jossey-Bass.

Pellettieri, J. (2000). Negotiation in cyberspace: The role of chatting in the development of grammatical

competence. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Orsini-Jones, M., Brick, B., & Pibworth, L. (2013). Practising language interaction via social networking

sites: The expert student’s perspective on personalized language learning. In B. Zou, M. Xing, C.

Xiang, Y. Wang, & M. Sun (Eds.), Computer-Assisted Foreign Language Teaching and Learning:

Technological Advances (pp. 40-53). Hershey, PA: IGI Global.

Pica, T. (1994). Research on negotiation: What does it reveal about second-language learning conditions,

processes, and outcomes? Language Learning, 44(3), 493-527.

Pica, T., Young, R., & Doughty, C. (1987). The impact of interaction on comprehension. TESOL

Quarterly, 21(4), 758.

Pifarré, M. (2007). Scaffolding through the network: Analysing the promotion of improved online scaffolds

among university students. Studies in Higher Education, 32(3), 389-408.

Ravi, V. (2016). Educational Technology. Ashok Yakkaldevi.

Rossomondo, A. (2014). Integrating foundational language and content study through new approaches to

hybrid learning and teaching. In F. Rubio and J. Thoms (eds.), Hybrid Language Teaching and.

Learning: Exploring Theoretical, Pedagogical and Curricular Issues (pp. 219–238). Boston, MA:

Heinle.

12
151
 143

Sauro, S. (2009). Computer-mediated corrective feedback and the development of second language

grammar. Language Learning & Technology, 13(1), 96–120. Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/

vol13num1/sauro.pdf

Scida, E. E., & Saury, R. E. (2006). Hybrid courses and their impact on student and classroom

performance: A case study at the University of Virginia. CALICO Journal, 23(3), 517.

Smith, P. L., & Ragan, T. J. (2005). Instructional design. Hoboken, N.J.: J. Wiley & Sons.

Swain, M. (2000). The Output Hypothesis and beyond: Mediating Acquisition through Collaborative

Dialogue. In J. P. Lantolf (Ed.), Sociocultural Theory and Second Language Learning (pp. 97-

114). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language learning. In G. Cook, & B. Seidlhofer

(Eds.), Principle and practice in applied linguistics (pp. 125-144). New York, NY: Oxford

University Press.

Swan, M. (2005). Legislation by hypothesis: The case of task-based instruction. Applied Linguistics, 26(3),

376-401.

Swender, E., Conrad, D., & Vicars, R. (2012). ACTFL proficiency guidelines 2012. Alexandria, VA:

American Council for the Teaching of Foreign Languages.

Van Patten, B., & Sanz, C. (1995). From input to output: Processing instruction and communicative tasks.

Second Language Acquisition Theory and Pedagogy, 169-185.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Vygotsky, L. S., & Cole, M. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Walther, J. B. (1995). Relational aspects of computer-mediated communication: Experimental observations

over time. Organization Science, 6(2), 186-203.

Walz, J. (1998). Meeting standards for foreign language learning with world wide web activities. Foreign

Language Annals, 31(1), 103-114.

Wang, M. (2004). Correlational analysis of student visibility and performance in online learning. Journal of

Asynchronous Learning Networks, 8(4), 71-82.

Warschauer, M. (1997). Computer-mediated collaborative learning: Theory and practice. The Modern

Language Journal, 81(4), 470-481.

13
152
 144

Watkins, C. (2005). Classrooms as learning communities. London, UK: Routledge.

Wenger, E., McDermott, R. A., & Snyder, W. (2002). Cultivating communities of practice: A guide to

managing knowledge. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Review Press.

White, C. (2014). The distance learning of foreign languages: A research agenda. Language

Teaching, 47(4), 538-553.

Williams, S., & Sharma, P. (1988). Language acquisition by distance education: An Australian survey.

Distance Education, 9(1), 127-146.

WEBSITES

National University of Ireland in Galway. (n.d.). Italian Online (Diploma) {Beginners}.

Retrieved from www.nuigalway.ie/courses/adult-and-continuing-education-

courses/italianonline.html/

Portland State University. (n.d.). Program in Course Redesign. Retrieved from

www.thencat.org/PCR/R3/PoSU/PoSU_Overview.htm

School of Advanced International Studies - DC Campus - of the Johns Hopkins University. (n.d.)

Languages Offered.

Retrieved from https://www.sais-jhu.edu/atoz/language-studies-program#languages-offered

Texas Tech University. (n.d.). Blended Learning/ Personalized Learning. Retrieved from

www.depts.ttu.edu/education/graduate/blpl/

University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. (n.d.). Spanish Hybrid courses. Retrieved from

http://romlcourses.unc.edu/Spanish/spanhybrid/

University of Vermont. (n.d.). Center for Teaching and Learning.

Retrieved from www.uvm.edu/ctl/?Page=resources-teaching/hybrid-courses/span002/index.php

14
153
 145

Reflecting MOOC-Blend Experience in “Teaching Writing

in an ESL Context”
Melor Md Yunus Harwati Hashim
Faculty of Education Faculty of Education
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
[email protected] [email protected]

Helmi Norman
Faculty of Education
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
helmi. [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) have demonstrated a high potential platform in delivering quality and cost-
effective course materials to large numbers of students. Thus, MOOCs, has become widespread among everyone around
the world. At many institutions in Malaysia, MOOCs are also integrated in blended learning. In line with this current
movement of blended learning, the researchers have also integrated the use of MOOC for one of the courses offered for
undergraduates at the Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM). Teaching Writing in an ESL
Context is a compulsory course that need to be enrolled by students of Teaching English as Second Language (TESL)
programme. This paper aims to describe the integration of MOOC into the teaching of the course as a blended learning
approach and reflects MOOC-blend experience among the students and the researchers. Qualitative research design was
employed and data were collected based on students’ reflections. Thirty students who enrolled the course were involved
in this study and their reflections were analysed. It was found that MOOC was accepted as emerging technology for
learning. The experience with this MOOC-blend in this paper could lead to reflection about the achieved results, lessons
learned and future steps in the implementation of MOOCs.

Author Keywords
Massive Open Online Course (MOOCs), blended learning, Teaching Writing, English as Second Language (ESL),
technology and ESL, higher learning institutions.

INTRODUCTION
Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) are the most popular technological trend in the present education systems
(Thamarana & Narayana, 2016). In the Malaysia Education Blueprint 2015-2025 (Higher Education), the Ministry of
Higher Education Malaysia (MOHE) has aspired to increase the number of student enrolment, enhance the quality of
teaching and learning, as well as globalize Malaysian higher education institutions. Therefore, MOOCs are introduced to
be integrated into the learning at the higher education institutions. The Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) fully
supports the implementation of MOOCs in the aspect of education in Malaysia and there is an increasing number of
institutions which have started to develop the Malaysia MOOCs. At the Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia (UKM), more than 20 MOOCs which offer various courses have been produced. One of the MOOCs produced
by the researchers is Teaching Writing in an ESL Context. For the purpose of teaching and learning, the researchers have
integrated the use of MOOC into teaching the course which is enrolled by year 3 students of Teaching English as Second
Language (TESL) programme. Thus, this paper describes the integration of MOOC into the teaching of the course as a
blended learning approach and reflects the students and researchers’ experience in blending the MOOC with face-to-face
instructions. In this paper, the reflections of the students from the previous semester who had undergone the course for
one semester were reported to describe the MOOC-blend experience.

LITERATURE REVIEW
BLENDED LEARNING AND MASSIVE OPEN ONLINE COURSES (MOOCS)
The definition of blended learning has evolved over time. Blended learning can be interpreted in many ways and take
various forms. In most studies, blended learning has been associated with a blend of face-to-face delivery with online
delivery in variable percentages. Nevertheless, the new types of ‘blends’ reported by Bonk et al. (2015) is referring to a
number of courses blend either commercial or tailor-made MOOCs with both face-to-face. MOOCs are some of the most
popular and innovative approaches in language education especially to provide great opportunities (Thamarana &
Narayana, 2016).

1
153
 146

MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses) refer to a new model of online education delivering content and
proposing activities to meet learning goals for a large number of people with a shared interest, with no initial limits of
access, attendance and credits offered at the end (Martín-Monje et al., 2013). Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs)
are (re)shaping, (re)configuring, and (re)defining the landscape of teaching and learning across the globe (Mabuan &
Ebron, 2018) and thus making higher education accessible to everyone with an internet connection (Uchidiuno et al.,
2017). Siemens (2012) states, massive open online course participants are very much connected to their teachers and
other peers online, thus making it an interactive platform for the learners and the teachers.
The emergence of massive open online courses (MOOCs) has great impact on the educational field, particularly
in the distance education field (Norazah et al., 2015). The MOOC movement in educational landscape was picked up by
various institutions and they started establishing MOOC platforms in collaboration with various field experts. Although
MOOCs are commonly designed and delivered as independent courses, several studies have already explored MOOC
integration into university classes (Caulfield et al., 2013; Firmin et al., 2014; Griffiths et al., 2014), indicating the
possibility of utilizing MOOC elements in delivering course content as a form of blended learning approach with the aim
of enhancing student learning experiences.Yunus et al. (2017) stated that MOOC could be among the main platforms for
students of all groups to develop their writing skills. Therefore, Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) have also
emerged as one of the trending learning environments for online learning (McClure, 2016). Undeniably, the effect of
applying modern technology such as MOOC in pedagogy has introduced an innovative contribution to education (Yuan
& Cetis, 2013). In this paper, ‘MOOC-blend’ is defined as the blend of face-to-face instructions with customised MOOC
into the teaching of the course.

METHODOLOGY
Qualitative research design was employed in this study. Thirty year 3 TESL students were involved as the participants in
this study. These students were enrolled to the ‘Teaching of Writing in an ESL Context’ on MOOC. The duration of the
students’ experience using MOOC for the purpose of this course is one semester. Data were collected based on the
students’ reflection in MOOC at the end of the course. The reflections were then analysed and reported as in the
following section.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

MOOC-BLEND EXPERIENCE IN “TEACHING WRITING IN AN ESL CONTEXT”
Teaching Writing in an ESL Context aims to acquaint learners with writing techniques necessary for effective teaching of
writing in English. By the end of the course, learners should be able to:

a. Understand the theories and approaches required for effective teaching of writing
b. Teach students to write grammatically correct English
c. Utilize appropriate writing techniques essential for the teaching of ESL writing

For the teaching of this course, the researchers have integrated the use of MOOC to support the blended learning
approach. Face-to-face instructions are conducted every week but the meetings are basically for the students to discuss
further with the guidance of the lecturers as well as for the presentation of tasks which are assigned in classroom. In
MOOC, this module consists of eight units which covers the theory of writing in first language and second language that
assist learners to understand what is involved in the writing process and the teaching process.

Learners are also introduced to writing approaches and writing strategies and skills and mechanics of writing. In the
end, learners will be able to identify strategies to teach writing for different level students and assessing writing skills and
therein design lesson plan and find out resources for varieties of materials to be used in writing. The following figure
shows the screenshot of the MOOC interface of the course.

2
154
 147

Figure 1. Screenshot of the MOOC.

Figure 1 displays the screenshot of the MOOC for this course. Students are required to access the MOOC every
week before the face-to-face instructions with the lecturers. To date, around 104 students are enrolled on the MOOC.
The topics covered on the MOOC, are:
Topic 1 - Theory of Writing in L1 & L2
Topic 2 - Spoken vs. Written Language
Topic 3 - Types of Writing & Skills
Topic 4 - Process vs. Product
Topic 5 - Teaching Writing for Beginners & Intermediates
Topic 6 - Assessment in Writing
Topic 7 - Resources and Materials for Teaching Writing
Topic 8 - Planning for Teaching Writing

Figure 2. Screenshot of the topics.

3
155
 148

Figure 2 displays the interface of the topics prepared in the MOOC for the course. In total, there are 8 topics
covered for the whole semester. Students are required to go through one topic weekly and later meet in the face-to-face
instructions for task-based learning. In the beginning of the MOOC, the students were asked on their first impression of
the course. The screenshot of the section is as presented in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Screenshot of students’ responses for their first impression of the course.

Based on Figure 3, we can see that students responded variously on when being asked about their first
impression of the course. Many of the responses given by the students were quite negative. Some of the responses are as
follow:

“My first impression is that, I don’t really look forward to learn this course because I hate writing.
Writing is one of my weaknesses. How can I teach writing when I myself don’t like writing. But I
really need to learn this because writing is one of the most important thing in TESL.”

“To be honest, I was freaking out at first when I knew that I had to learn how to actually
professionally teach writing to students. I know that this course is going to be interesting but tough
and challenging at the same time. I had this mindset that I will not excel in this course because I am
not that good in writing. Writing is really not my best friend. I still struggle to write and by taking
this course, I really can feel the burden and stress. However, I know this course will guide and help
me to be an excellent English teacher who is capable to write and inspire students to write.
Hopefully, this course will help me to be a better English teacher.”

“To be honest, I was very stressed out on the first day of lecture. Writing is not simple, what more
teaching of writing. I was afraid that I would not be able to learn the topics effectively. I was even
more anxious when we were introduced to the assignments that we needed to complete by the end of
semester. However, my anxiety and worries decreased a lot as the weeks went by because my
classmates and I had two wonderful lecturers. We were not left alone to finish all assignments and
tasks. Both lecturers constantly helped us by giving us guidelines and advice. Without me realizing
it, I was actually enjoying the class.”

4
156
 149

From some of the responses given by the students above, it was shown that the students were not fond of taking
the course. For them, learning to teach writing was challenging as they themselves were not confident with their writing
skills. However, after undertaking the course for one semester, with the integration of MOOC, it was found that the
students’ perceptions had changed. The responses were obtained at the end of the semester where students were required
to write a reflection about the course. Figure 4 shows the screenshot of the section.

Figure 4. Screenshot of students’ responses for their thoughts/reflections.

From the students’ responses, it was found that the integration of MOOC was helpful for in this course. One of
the students responded,

“I learnt a lot in this course. Although at first, I don’t feel like learning, but after all, it is not like
what I thought. Teaching writing in ESL classroom need a lot of techniques so that the students
will not feel bored. In this course I learnt that teaching writing must first know the purpose of
writing, how to write, how to organised ideas and so on. Other than that, I also learnt that teacher
need to use the technology to boost students’ interest in writing. Therefore, while completing the
task in MOOC I have use a lot of applications and learnt how to use many of it. After using
them, I can think of ways to boost students’ interest and made them writing. After all, this course
helps me a lot no matter towards my writing and my teaching in the future.”

The student found that the use of technology in this course had somehow spark her interest in using technology
for teaching writing with her students in the future. Apart from that, another student also mentioned that the use of
MOOC for this course is very useful. The student commented:

“I had so much fun throughout this course. At first, I thought this was going to be just one of
another course to be completed. I was wrong. In this subject, I had the opportunity to again teach
in real world situation, by involving myself in service learning. I had detected my weaknesses in
teaching, so by doing this, I can improve myself for my future endeavour. Next, I had dived deeper
into the sea of writing process, and I had come to understand that teaching writing is not easily, as
the teacher will have to be extra prepared. Last but not least, I am impressed by the extensive
usage of technology in the class. The Open Learning, or MOOC is a welcome change to the
usual iFolio. It is much snappier, less prone to errors and I can use various websites linked to it.”

5
157
 150

Another positive reflection on the students’ experience of MOOC-blend approach for the course is reflected in
the following response given by another student:

“Through this course, I have learned that teaching writing is much more than just knowing how to
write, and as someone who has no skill in writing, I am proud of my self-achievement in
developing interest in writing at the end of this course. For MOOC, all the materials and tasks
really helped me in understanding further regarding the topics of this course, and thank you for
the favour of giving us chances in completing them at our own pace.”

From the students’ responses, it was clearly shown that the integration of MOOC into the teaching of the course
was beneficial for them. Even though they study the course on MOOC independently, at the same time, they can
collaborate with their peers from different locations. Students could also reflect on their own motivation for enhancing
their knowledge about the topics covered on the MOOC and on the collaboration with their peers. However, despite of
the benefits, the researchers found a slight drawback of the integration of MOOC. As the lecturers deal with a huge
audience, in consequence, the lecturers would not able to provide active feedbacks for the students’ responses om the
MOOC. This in the future might affect the students’ motivation and, in the end, affect the sustainability of the usage.

CONCLUSION
To conclude, MOOCs are a new initiative in the development of the huge possibilities of new technology which could be
integrated with face-to-face instructions for blended learning approach. MOOCs are really interesting especially because
a lot of users can be enrolled. Nevertheless, it is necessary to consider their advantages and disadvantages. In this paper,
it is discovered that MOOC was accepted as emerging technology for learning where positive results were obtained. The
experience with this MOOC-blend in this paper could lead to reflection about the achieved results, lessons learned and
future steps in the implementation of MOOCs.

REFERENCES
Caulfield, M., Collier, A., & Halawa, S. (2013). Rethinking Online Community in MOOCs Used for Blended Learning.
Retrieved from http://www.educause.edu/ero/article/rethinking-online-community-moocsused-blendedlearning.
Firmin, R., Schiorring, E., Whitmer, J., Willett, T., Collins, E., & Sujitparapitaya. (2014). Case study: Using MOOCs for
conventional college coursework. Distance Education, 35(2), 178-201.
Griffiths, R., Chingos, M., Mulhern, C., & Spies, R. (2014). Interactive Online Learning on Campus: Testing MOOCs
and Other Platforms in Hybrid Formats in the University System of Maryland. Retrieved from
http://www.sr.ithaka.org/wpcontent/mig/reports/S- R_Interactive_Online_Learning_Campus_20140710.pdf
Mabuan, R. A., & Ebron Jr, G. P. (2018). MOOCs & More: Integrating F2F & Virtual Classes via Blended Learning
Approach. Senior Editor: Paul Robertson, 220.
Malaysia Education Blueprint 2015-2025
Martín-Monje, E. Bárcena, E. and Ventura, P. at ECLL. (2013) – The European Conference on Language Learning.
McClure, M. W. (2016). Investing in MOOCs:“Frenemy” Risk and Information Quality. In Globalisation and Higher
Education Reforms (pp. 77-94). Springer International Publishing.
Nordin, N., Norman, H., & Embi, M. A. (2015). Technology acceptance of massive open online courses in Malaysia.
Malaysian Journal of Distance Education, 17(2), 1-16.
Siemens, G. (2012). Connectivism Learning Theory. Retrieved from: http://p2pfoundation.net/Connectivist_Learning_
Theory_-_Siemens
Thamarana, S., & Narayana, T. (2016). A Glimpse of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) for English Language
Learning (ELL). Researchgate.Net, (August). https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.2567.9602
Uchidiuno, J., Koedinger, K., Hammer, J., Yarzebinski, E., & Ogan, A. (2017). How Do English Language Learners
Interact with Different Content Types in MOOC Videos?. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in
Education, 1-20.
Yuan, L., Powell, S., & Cetis, J. (2013). MOOCs and Open Education: Implications for Higher Education. Cetis White
Paper. Available at:https://www.oerknowledgecloud.org/sites/oerknowledgecloud.org/files/MOOCs-and-Open
Education.pdf.
Yunus, M. M., Hashim, H., Ahmad, A. R., Sulaiman, N. A., Fadzila, A. S., Nurfitri, A., ... & Hasmirah, N. (2018).
MOOC as a Platform for Developing Writing Skills: Effectiveness and Challenges. Advanced Science Letters,
24(1), 199-201.

6
158
Keynote Presentations
 151

Agnes Kukulska-Hulme
Institute of Educational Technology
The Open University, UK
[email protected]

BIOGRAPHY
Agnes Kukulska-Hulme is Professor of Learning Technology and Communication in the Institute of Educational
Technology at The Open University, UK, and Past-President of the International Association for Mobile Learning. Her
research spans a number of inter-related fields including technology-supported learning, applied linguistics and language
learning. Her research in mobile learning began in 2001. Recent projects have included the MASELTOV project on
personalized technologies for informal learning and social inclusion, the British Council sponsored research on Mobile
Pedagogy for English Language Teaching, and the SALSA project on language learning in the next generation of smart
cities. She has also led course teams in the development of online teaching materials and conducted evaluations of online
and technology-enhanced learning. Professor Kukulska-Hulme’s publications include 130 articles, papers and books. She
has published widely on mobile learning and is the co-editor of three leading books in this field, the latest of which is
Mobile Learning: The Next Generation. She has produced commissioned reports for UNESCO, the British Council, the
Commonwealth of Learning, Cambridge University Press, and the International Research Foundation for English
Language Education. She is a graduate of Instytut Lingwistyki Stosowanej, Uniwersytet Warszawski (1980).

Mobile Technologies and Social Media for Assistance

and Collaboration
ABSTRACT
Mobile learning, supported by smartphones, tablets and other portable or wearable devices, broadens the scope and reach
of education to include a rich variety of contexts, people and learning challenges. Mobile learning can be solitary or
social. It is particularly valuable as a means to a personalized approach addressing the specific requirements of an
individual or group. Increased mobility of populations across the globe leads to new requirements in response to local
encounters and the demands of cross-cultural communication. Within a growing ecology of learning materials and
resources for language learning, mobile technologies and social media can provide assistance to help with various aspects
of learning. Furthermore, collaboration between learners can be a form of mutual assistance, with multiple additional
benefits arising from collaboration such as development of work-relevant skills, sustained engagement with learning, and
a learning experience that is enriched by multiple viewpoints and resources. This talk will focus on the dual concepts of
‘assistance’ and ‘collaboration’, examining their inter-dependence and considering a range of illustrative examples of
mobile learning in action.

2 1
 152

Joe Ganci
eLearningJoe, LLC
Ashburn, Virginia, USA
[email protected]

BIOGRAPHY
Joe Ganci is an eLearning consultant with a long track record. Joe's design approaches and his innovative use of tools,
such as Adobe Captivate, Articulate Storyline, Trivantis Lectora, Adobe Presenter, Articulate Studio, Harbinger
Raptivity, and many others, has caused many to improve how they are designing and developing their eLearning and to
implement new and better methods. Joe's personal and hands-on style to training and consulting has his services
constantly in demand and he is privileged to have visited with many clients all over the world. He has been involved in
every aspect of learning development since 1983. Joe holds a degree in Computer Science and is a published author,
having written several books, research papers and many articles about eLearning. He is widely considered a guru for his
expertise in eLearning development and teaches classes and seminars at commercial companies, government facilities,
leading universities and at many industry conferences, where he has often served as keynote speaker. He is on a mission
to improve the quality of eLearning with practical approaches that work.

Trends and Predictions in Blended Learning

ABSTRACT
Where is the world of learning heading? Blended learning is not new, but it is ever-changing! New technologies that we
can bring to bear to helping people learn are being introduced almost daily. Too often, though, we are ignoring the great
possibilities that those new developments bring because we think they're too difficult, too costly, or unnecessary.
Choosing the right blend of learning approaches is paramount! How else can you be sure that your learners are properly
prepared to put into practice the new skills you need them to acquire? Each learner audience and each topic list deserves
to be addressed uniquely. Know what questions to ask, including technology needs, and the answers will help lead to the
correct combination of learning approaches, including those that have been used before and those that may be new to
your organization.
When does it make sense to train people in a classroom or meeting room? When should eLearning be used? What about
synchronous online training? Augmented reality? Virtual reality? NFC chips (which can cost as little as US 0.10$)? What
will work best for your audience and topic to learn? What technology support do you need to make it all work?

3 2
 153

Agnieszka Biernacka
Institute of Applied Linguistics
University of Warsaw, Poland
[email protected]

BIOGRAPHY
Dr. Agnieszka Biernacka is a court interpreting researcher, legal translator and court interpreter trainer, and conference
interpreter trainer. Her professional experience as conference interpreter is 16 years and 14 years as court and legal
interpreter. Dr Agnieszka Biernacka is an Assistant Professor at the Institute of Applied Linguistics and Head of the
Interdisciplinary Postgraduate Studies in Translation and Interpreting. She has been involved in a number of national and
international projects concerning legal translator and court interpreter training, as well as blended learning in conference
interpreting. She obtained a scholarship at Institut Supérieur de Traducteurs et Interprètes (HEB- ISTI) in Brussels (2007)
and at Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (2017). She holds an MA degree in Iberian and Latin American Studies, MA
degree in American Studies and PhD degree in Humanities (all of them: University of Warsaw). She is a member of
professional organizations: Polish Association of Hispanists (PSH) and Spanish Applied Linguistics Association
(AESLA). She has written 13 papers on court interpreting and legal translation and published a monography on court
interpreters (2014, UW).

Virtual Classes as a Tool for Enhancing Interpreting

Competences
ABSTRACT
Virtual Classes (VCs) make use of the idea deployed in videoconference interpreting (VCI) and remote interpreting (RI)
(Moser-Mercer, 2003, 2005), where the interpreters and their clients are situated in different places and communicate via
special devices and infrastructure. VCI and RI are successfully deployed in healthcare, legal, and other institutional
settings (Braun 2012, 2013; Napier 2012; Locatis et al., 2010, 2011), even though both modes impose certain constraints
on communication situations (Braun, 2015; Mouzourakis, 2006).
Virtual Classes in consecutive interpreting form part of a blended learning model. The VCs which have been organized at
the Institute of Applied Linguistics (ILS) for five years now, were originally designed to meet the requirements of the
training within the EMCI (European Masters in Conference Interpreting) program, but soon they appeared to be a useful
tool enhancing the interpreting competences of MA students. Today, both of these groups actively participate in the
classes, where videoconferencing is used for simulations of interpreting.
At the Institute, the VCs are organized bilaterally (BVCs) and multilaterally (MVCs) with partner universities and
sponsor institutions, at least three times during semester. As regards partner universities, these are members of the
consortium EMCI, while EU institutions, i.e. the Directorate-General for Interpretation (DG SCIC) and the European
Parliament, offer e-learning training in both consecutive and simultaneous interpreting at all levels, through their
pedagogical assistance units.
As regards language pairs covered by the VCs provided at the Institute, Polish is obligatory as A language of the students
participating in the classes. Hence, two scenarios are possible: either the speeches are provided in Polish and interpreted
into the students’ B/C languages: English, French, German and Spanish, or, the interpretation is provided from these
languages into Polish, depending on an individual VC. VCs are associated with special challenges (both organizational
and technical) on the part of the trainers whose responsibilities before, during and after a VC include: preparation both in
the immediate run-up (sound tests, time constraints) and ahead of time (liaison, indicating students’ levels, ensuring a
feasible timetable of the VC), as well as providing a general and individual debriefing to make the students feel involved
and motivated.
The VCs cannot replace face-to-face training. On the contrary, while face-to-face classes, firstly, allow trainers to follow
the progression of students and take their individual needs into account, and secondly, enable students to interact with
peers who are welcome to give feedback on their colleagues’ performances, VCs provide special opportunities: an extra
occasion for the students to practice interpreting, direct contact with the professional world, chance to practice stress
management skills, getting feedback from the interpreters accredited with EU institutions and trainers of interpreting
from partner universities, allowing students to network and feel part of a large interpreting community, as well as are a
good occasion to compare their own skills with those of their colleagues representing other language sections.

4 3
Invited Speaker
 154

Lech Mankiewicz
Centre for Theoretical Physics of the
Polish Academy of Sciences (CFT PAN)
Poland
[email protected]

BIOGRAPHY
Lech Mankiewicz is a Polish astronomer and physicist, populariser of natural sciences. In 2011, he was awarded a
"Włodzimierz Zonna" medal by the Polish Astronomical Society for his unique contribution to the dissemination of
astronomical knowledge and enabling students and teachers of Polish schools to conduct their own regular astronomical
observations as part of the "Hands-On Universe" program. Known for his uncompromising and interdisciplinary
approach to the popularization of astronomy and other fields of science. Since 2001 associated with the Center for
Theoretical Physics PAS in Warsaw, and since 2007 is the director of this institution. Previously, he worked for several
years at the Astronomical Center Nicolaus Copernicus of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Polish coordinator of the EU-
HOU program (Hands-On Universe, Europe), active at Khan Academy. Students taking part in the International Asteroid
Search Campaigns (IASC - Charleston H21) research program proposed that the main belt asteroid (279377) 2010 CH1
be named Lechmankiewicz. Since 2011, he has represented in Poland the well-known educational platform of Khan
Academy.

Khan Academy in the Context of Blended Learning

ABSTRACT
In his talk during the World Economy Forum in Davos in January 2018, Jack Ma challenged the school as we know it by
saying that schools of today fail their students. Khan Academy and blended learning were both born not so long time ago
from a desire to modify learning processes using opportunities created by the advent of new technologies. Some years
later, do these one-time revolutionary ideas keep pace with the fast-changing world? Do we understand the world of
tomorrow well enough to be able to change our public education system in such a way that it will support students,
instead of alienating them? The presentation addresses these questions to stimulate discussion and refl
flection amongst
blended learning researchers and practitioners.

6 4
Practitioner Presentations
Abstracts
 155

Curriculum Development Using Project Management

Skills
Philip Cowcill
Ontario, Canada
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
Curriculum development is something that is done by teachers in K-12, higher education as well as in many corporate
environments. Often making individual lessons is very manageable and doesn’t require much in the way of planning.
However, if you’re looking at a significant amount of new online content, then planning the development of the content
is imperative if you want to be efficient. Have you ever looked at curriculum development in the same way as software is
developed? By using some of the practices found in Project Management for software, you can develop a very efficient
plan for developing your curriculum.
Most people are familiar with the ADDIE model. The name stems from Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation
and Evaluation. It was designed over a 100 years ago and has a proven track record. When the US Navy commissioned
building nuclear submarines, they trimmed two years off their project using the ADDIE methodology. While it is a
proven methodology, there are gaps with the development process the structure. It doesn’t suggest that there can be
iterations in the development cycle.
Another very popular Project Management methodology is Agile. This is much better suited for software and curriculum
development. It breaks projects into small sections called Sprints. Agile also works very well with teams. Each day there
would be a team meeting where each member is required to answer three questions. This is how the project can be
tracked and bottle neck issues can be addressed before it becomes a big problem. The downside to Agile is that it tends to
lack the initial research at the start of the project.
In this presentation, we start off by looking at the strength and weaknesses of both ADDIE and Agile project
management methodologies. Then there will be a demonstration on how ADDIE and Agile can be combined to make an
efficient development plan that uses the strengths of both methodologies.

Keywords
project management, ADDIE, agile, curriculum development, teams, online

8 5
 156

How AR and VR Can Impact Blended Learning – Looking

Past the Hype
Philip Cowcill
Ontario, Canada
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
To see what trends are going to impact learning, look at game industry. Game developers tend to be at the forefront of
new trends. Once a trend catches on and is being widely used by the population, educational institutions start to look at
how this trend can be adapted to education and training.
With that in mind, we can see that consumers are starting to adapt to two new emerging technologies – Augmented
Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR). While the technology has been available for a while, it’s now getting into the
hands of consumers on a mass scale. This indicates that AR/VR will be the next big thing in education and training.
While there is a lot of excitement around these new technologies, there is also a lot of hype. If these technologies are not
used correctly, they will be anti-productive. Institutions shouldn’t use technology for the sake of technology thinking it
will help better engage the learner. You can look at past introductions of technologies like Second Life to see that they
have not lived up to the hype.
Both Google and Apple have invested significant resources into their Augmented Reality tool kits making it easier for
developers to create AR apps. These investments mean the AR technology in today’s mobile phones is very solid and
dependable. Other companies have emerged to help you build your own AR apps without any great exposes.
In this session we will explore both AR and VR technologies. We’ll look at the advantages and disadvantages of these
technologies. We will discuss how they can best be implemented. If you’re on a limited budget, you can still implement
AR within your class and online papers. Using one of many free services, you can now create triggers in online and
paper-based material that allow students to get additional information on their phones. A sample on how to do this will be
demonstrated in this session.

Keywords
Augmented Reality, Virtual Reality, AR, VR, mobile

9 6
 157

The Business English Blend

Karen Eini Tal Levy
Ruppin Academic Center Ruppin Academic Center
Israel Israel
[email protected] [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Designing authentic, relevant tasks, a supportive learning environment and engaging opportunities that maximize
student-talk for large classes during 90 minute CEFR-aligned Business Communication lessons are just some of the
challenges in developing fast-paced English for specific purposes (ESP) courses. Motivating college students, providing
feedback and assessing their proficiency is no less important.
Almost a decade ago, Collopy and Arnold (2009) recognized that the increasing curricular demands and the desire to
provide meaningful, engaging instruction have pressed educators to review and revise their programs. Indeed, while
planning this dynamic communication course, we endeavored to implement sound pedagogical methodologies that would
support our learning objectives.
Fortunately, the advancement in communication and network technologies have facilitated innovative instructional
delivery and learning solutions, such as hybrid instruction or (BL), blended learning. Lim and Morris (2009) state the use
of blended instruction is growing rapidly because instructors believe diverse delivery methods may significantly enhance
learning outcomes as well as increase student satisfaction from the learning experience.
Blended learning (BL) has been defined in various ways by different authors. Garrison and Kanuka (2004) define
blended learning as “the thoughtful integration of classroom face-to-face learning experiences with online learning
experiences. Gülbahar and Madran (2009), Rovai and Jordan (2004), Thorne (2003), and Yildirim (2007) define blended
learning as “a mixture of online learning or web-based training with face-to-face communication and more traditional
methods of learning and teaching” (cited in Aguilar, 2012, p. 168). However, almost all definitions shared the core
concept of BL which is mixing two components: face-to-face teaching and online education, which is what will be
described in this presentation.
During our talk we discuss our student-centered design approach in the ESP blended courses in the School of Business
Administration at Ruppin Academic College. We demonstrate how the combination of SWOT analysis, carefully blended
activities using dynamic technology, diverse communication models, and Pecha Kucha presentations turned daunting
two-credit course preparation and implementation into a rewarding teaching and learning experience. In addition to our
reflections and insights, we share the process, tools, activities and samples of evaluations that served to help our students
identify and build upon their personal competencies while developing their interpersonal and presentation skills in
English.

Keywords
Business English, student-centred, blended learning, blended language learning

REFERENCES
Aguilar, J. A. M. (2012). Blended learning and the language teacher: A literature review. Colombian Applied
Linguistics Journal, 14(2), 163-180.
Collopy, R., & Arnold, J. M. (2009). To Blend or Not to Blend: Online and Blended Learning Environments in
Undergraduate Teacher Education. Issues in Teacher Education, 18(2), 85-101.
Garrison, D. R., & Kanuka, H. (2004). Blended learning: Uncovering its transformative potential in higher
education. The Internet and Higher Education, 7(2), 95-105.
Lim, D. H., & Morris, M. L. (2009). Learner and Instructional Factors Influencing Learning Outcomes within a
Blended Learning Environment. Educational Technology & Society, 12(4), 282-293.

10 7
 158

Tell the Tale of TEL: How to Support a Language Team in

the Blended Learning Arena

Tal Levy Karen Eini

Ruppin Academic Center Ruppin Academic Center
Israel Israel
[email protected] [email protected]

ABSTRACT
This presentation describes an ongoing professional development project implemented in the English for specific &
academic purposes (ESAP) department at Ruppin Academic College (RAC). Our college provides a wide range of
academic degrees in various programs in the fields of engineering, marine sciences, nursing, social work, business
administration, accountancy and more. While instruction of language for academic purposes is topic specific, standards
are maintained throughout. In order to ensure high standards at all levels of instruction of ESAP, Self-reflection surveys,
professional training, ongoing support and course audits have been key elements in the process of empowering and
enabling a team of over 20 ESAP teachers to implement a range of e-learning technologies in their courses. This led to a
digitally literate staff with the skills required to develop and deliver pedagogically sound, blended learning modules of
instruction.
More than ten years ago, RAC began to integrate MOODLE into the Virtual Learning Environment.
Research has shown that inadequate, inappropriate professional development is a significant barrier to successful
technology integration in schools (Kopcha, 2010). In addition, Koehler and Mishra (2008) identify content knowledge,
pedagogical knowledge, technological knowledge, and combinations of these as necessary for effective teaching with
technology. Based on these principles, we developed a model that ensures successful implementation of the above and
the delivery of various blended courses maintaining high academic standards which are supported by
a. Professional development workshops covering pedagogical theory and training
b. Ongoing sharing, case studies and follow up support
c. Identification of milestones in the use of Moodle for blended/online learning course.
d. The existence of a vibrant virtual staff room which serves as a meeting point for all teachers.
Our team is perceived as pioneers in blended learning both by faculty in our institution as well as by others.
Our systematic approach to enhancing digital knowledge and skills among our staff has enabled us to enter the realm of
fully blown blended and online courses. This presentation outlines how we motivate, empower, guide and support the
ESAP staff with the essential skills to be active players in the ever-changing educational landscape.

Keywords
professional development, digital literacy, blended learning, high academic standards

REFERENCES
Gefen, D., Straub, D. W., & Boudreau, M. C. (2000). Structural equation modeling and regression: Guidelines for
research practice. Communications of the AIS, 4(7), 1-78.
Hirschheim, R. (2005). The internet-based education bandwagon: Look before you leap. Communications of the ACM,
48(7), 97-101.
Koehler, M. J., & Mishra, P. (2008). Introducing TPCK. In Handbook of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge
TPCK for Educators (pp. 3-29). Routledge. Retrieved from http://punya.educ.msu.edu/2008/05/28/tpack-handbook-
chapter-1/
Kopcha, T. (2010). A systems-based approach to technology integration using mentoring and communities of practice.
Educational Technology Research and Development, 58(2), 175-doi:190.
10.1007/s11423-008-9095-4
Simon, H. A. (1957). Models of man: Social and rational. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

11 8 8
 159

A Blend of Pecha Kucha and Business English

Karen Eini Tal Levy

Ruppin Academic Center Ruppin Academic Center
Israel Israel
[email protected] [email protected]

ABSTRACT
As part of the Blended Business English Communication course in Ruppin Academic Center our students are required to
choose a relevant topic, interpret the content they find, and organize it in the form of an oral presentation. This process
not only enables our students to organize knowledge, but also improves their public speaking skills. As we view the skill
of presenting ideas in a systematic way and speaking effectively to an audience necessary for our students in their
academic and professional lives, oral presentation has been one of the main components of our Business English Courses.
A common way to present content is through the use of Microsoft Office PowerPoint. However, PowerPoint has become
a crutch rather than a catalyst for our students. A number of issues tend to hinder the quality of students’ presentations,
such as not concentrating on main points, reading from wordy slides, and overrunning the allocated time (Murugaiah,
2016). To avoid the dreaded “death by PowerPoint” we chose to use a Pecha Kucha (PK) style of presentation, which is a
creative use of PowerPoint software (Klentzin, Paladino, Johnston, & Devine, 2010; Robinson, 2015).
Pecha-Kucha is a short visual presentation comprised of 20 slides where each slide is timed to automatically advance
every 20 seconds. Presenters rely primarily on images to guide the presentation and need to be creative to communicate
their point precisely. The time and visual constraints in the PK presentation style can be considered a benefit rather than a
drawback in the language classroom. In addition to the fact that PKs provide EFL students with an opportunity to be
creative and make visual presentations on topics they are passionate about; the format has impact on language
production. While students consider the message that they want to convey visually in the 20 second time frame, they also
focus on the main ideas, relevant vocabulary and pronunciation required to produce natural speech to keep up with the
tempo of the presentation style (Ryan,2012).
In this practitioner presentation we demonstrate how we implemented a student-centered design approach to Pecha
Kucha presentations in our blended business English course. We share the exciting process of a carefully managed
combination of face to face and online lessons. We discuss how blended instruction provided via technology such as
Moodle, google docs and google slides, facilitated guided language teaching, constructive feedback. We present how this
process empowered our students to be able to design and deliver, dynamic engaging pecha kucha presentations in the
Business English classroom.

Keywords
presentations, Business English, communication, Pecha Kucha

12 9
 160

The Pustulka Project: Developing Online Testing

Software for English for Specific Purposes
Aleksandra Łuczak
Kozminski University
Poland
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
This is a presentation of PUSTULKA – a web-based testing software for foreign languages. It was originally developed
to cater for the needs of ESP teachers. Pustulka emerged as there was no freely available software that would be ideal,
mostly because they did not provide a sufficient variety of exercises (i.e. cloze/gapped texts) or let teachers create
databases whose content they could use at any institution they teach.
With Pustulka we went even further, and the hidden agenda of the Project was to form a community of teachers that goes
beyond the territory of one institution. Within the community teachers would contribute content and share their exercises
with the other contributors so that they all benefit from the growing database of exercises, simplifying their own and one
another’s work and could use the content anywhere they run their courses. Pustulka was created by a two-person team
composed of a programmer and an ESP teacher. Pustulka uses MySQL database, is hosted on Linux server (Debian), and
has been written in .NET Core 2.0. It works in all browsers and on all devices. Students do not need to create accounts
but do the tests on: pustulka.luczak.edu.pl.
Pustulka is a flexible software with which teachers can create various types of exercises that comprise cloze texts,
multiple choice, drop down list, check box exercises, matching as well as short and long answers. A unique feature of
Pustulka is that is saves all students’ answers automatically and eliminates the risk of losing their work when the internet
or equipment fail. Pustulka works on a website, so it does not require teachers to download it, to invest in a server or a
web domain and is not confined to the premises of one university.

Keywords
online foreign language testing, web-based language testing, English for Specific Purposes, ESP, legal English

13 10
 161

Going Hand in Hand: Blended Learning and University

Students?
Anna Ayliffe
School of Languages, Abdullah Gul University
Kayseri, Turkey
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
The Language Preparatory School at Abdullah University adopted a blended approach to learning when it opened in
2013. Positioning itself as a third-generation institution. In line with Hockly's (2018) interpretation of blended learning,
AGU promotes the use of up-to-date technology and autonomy among its students. The use of Schoology as a Learning
Management System (LMS) allows the instructors to change their approach to teaching. This presentation will focus on
the case of teaching listening, and here the use of an LMS provides a number of opportunities:
• The flipped classroom approach with a pre-lesson quiz.
• Extensive listening assignments are set online so that students could complete them in their own time by the
deadline. The assignments are accompanied by clear instructions and an assessment rubric.
• The material for each lesson is copied onto the students' course page. In addition to the handout that they get in
class, students have access to the audio, transcript and keys. In the same way test practice material is also made
available online, allowing students continue with their study autonomously.
Despite successfully integrating Schoology into our programme, we are still facing challenges trying to develop students'
independent studies. The pre-lesson quizzes are often disregarded. There were attempts to follow the flipped class mode
more closely and publish listening tasks and video lectures in the same mode - i.e., to be done before class with a view on
consolidating knowledge in class, but the practice proved even more troublesome. However, probably the biggest
problem we are facing is that the lesson and test practice materials copied onto the course page for self-study are also
overlooked. Analytically, we are able to track student progress/interaction and it is often noticed that the vast majority of
online material remained untouched.
As my practice at AGU Prep school has shown, an LMS is a valuable tool in a blended learning approach. It can facilitate
the teaching process and as Thornbury (2016) says it allows “the users to set their own learning paths and goals” (p. 31).
However, it appears that only if students have enough face-to-face instruction and the right level of motivation, the
blended learning approach can make its advantages work and facilitate the learning process.

Keywords
LMS, listening, autonomous study, flipped classroom

REFERENCES
Hockly, N. (2018). Blended Learning. ELT Journal Volume 72(1).
Thornbury, S. (2016). Educational technology: Assessing its fitness for purpose. In M. McCarthy (Ed.) (pp. 25-35).

14 11
 162

Gamification in Education: How Story Can Change the

Meaning
Daniel Pazura
Westhill Consulting, Poland
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
For most people learning is not a pleasant. In the majority of cases, it is a tedious process that requires a lot of time,
commitment and focus to get knowledge. What happens after? At least twice as much effort or even more is needed to
consolidate and practise the acquired knowledge. Even students, who study their course of studies of their dream, face the
crises resulting from having to go through less thrilling parts of the program. An additional problem for everyone,
regardless of their true willingness to get involved in the learning process, may be the issue of having to focus their
attention for a long time. This may not be easy considering that one-way activity quickly becomes boring. Equally
important is active memorizing, combining facts and drawing conclusions to achieve maximum benefits in the future.
The process of education can be the answer to these needs. A solution that allows you to organize actions according to
company's goals. Motivating to improve their competences on an everyday basis in the form of attractive challenges.
Individual development adapted to the level of difficulty with the ability to monitor your competences. Intuitive for the
user, factual for the superior and comfortable for the trainers. The whole covered by a fictional story, one of the most
interesting attributes of gamification. It's time to enter the world of a hero who is experiencing adventures, struggling
with difficulties, and the side effect will be your personal development. Because there is a difference in the message "I
have to read 100 pages of the book" and in "The pursuit of the legendary Road 66 at the side of beautiful Emma and the
fight for every gallon of gasoline" For these reasons we created Development Highway – Route 66.

Keywords
gamification, storytelling, blended learning, engagement, game mechanic

15 12
 163

Drawing on Social Networks Online and Offline: An

Introduction to Surveying Techniques
Alisa Masiejczyk
University of Warsaw
Warsaw, Poland
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
Online surveys have become commonplace, even ubiquitous – they appear daily on popular press websites, where they
pick up quick reader feedback and other measures of opinion on articles and new stories; we are also asked to rate
usability, reliability, and the like, for online experiences as well as actual consumer products received. Marketers (and
later, taste makers) have been gleaning the newest social preferences and opinions, sometimes in unexpected contexts, for
years: social media sites collect personality data via mini-surveys, such as ‘which famous painting do you resemble’,
‘what are your mood colors’, to ‘what spirit animal do you have’. Should one want to collect opinions, survey-making
tools are also easily accessed, as are hosting sites for such test instruments. In all of this information exchange, not to say
chaos, it seems one’s greatest challenge may be to direct people’s attention to the tests. To do so, one may draw upon
another online resource: one’s social media circles.
A number of second-year Academic Writing students at ILS did exactly that, in order to create surveys, collect data sets
for analysis, and subsequently write essays in English. When asked to survey people (namely family, peers, and
acquaintances) on topics of their own choosing, many students elected to access their online contacts for help in
completing surveys. Concerning the data collection process (quantity and relative ease of collection, in particular) certain
advantages and disadvantages emerged in the student projects, in part resulting from particulars of the online
environment. Those who used electronic surveys reasoned that they would save time, above all. However, some
students preferred to speak to survey informants individually, knowing they would reach fewer people. In both cases,
“social networks” were engaged to provide data, though the choice of online or offline survey style had clear effects on
the data types received.
The result, overall, has been a greater awareness of how data collection looks (for planning future projects), and what
opportunities and/or caveats may be identified in the collection/analysis of such data. Techniques for formalizing
discussion of such data are also a key takeaway of the project. This type of project and feedback process augments a
practical introduction to research design and questioning techniques. The presentation discusses selected details about
the students’ use of online versus personal surveying techniques, and includes reflective feedback from the student
researchers on their projects, whose initial experiences were largely positive.

Keywords
survey tools, classroom practices, EFL writing, academic writing, questionnaires, online networks

16 13
 164

Telecollaboration in Language Teacher Preservice

Education – A Bottom-Up Perspective
Elżbieta Gajek
University of Warsaw
Warsaw, Poland
[email protected]

ABSTRACT (PRACTITIONER PRESENTATION)

The paper presents the results of a telecollaborative project between BA students of University of Warsaw and students
of University of Valladolid within European Erasmus + EVALUATE project. The aim of the EVALUATE project is to
justify the effectiveness of telecollaborative activities for professional development of future language teachers. The
experience confirms that initial intercultural competence is essential for undertaking such project. The experience
confirms the need for blending professional preparation of language teachers so that they realize that the teaching
methods and pedagogical approaches which are introduced in their pre-service courses are very similar or even the same
irrespectively where they get their qualifications. Such blended learning activities are complementary to national teacher
training programmes and to Erasmus+ students exchanges.

Keywords
telecolaboration, teacher training, teaching English, intercultural competences

REFERENCES
Gajek, E. (2010). Jawne i ukryte cele współpracy międzynarodowej w programie studiów humanistycznych. In L.
Banachowski Postępy e-edukacji (pp.113-120). Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Polsko-Japońskiej Szkoły Technik
Komputerowych.
Gajek, E. (2012). Inter kulturowe QQanie polsko-chiński". EduAkcja. Magazyn edukacji elektronicznej 2(4), 69-79.
Gajek, E. (2013). Wirtualna wizyta w Pekini” Języki obce w szkole nr 4,113-118.
Gajek, E. (2014). The effects of Polish-Chinese language tandem work at tertiary level. US-China Educational Review,
4(3), 203-208.
Gajek, E. (2015). Projekty międzynarodowe online w akademickim kształceniu językowym. In M. Srebro, E. Typek, L.
Zielińska Przyszłość nauczania języków obcych na uczelniach wyższych, Kraków: Fundacja Uniwersytetu
Ekonomicznego w Krakowie, 147-157
Gajek, E. (2017). Students’ reflections on communication in Polish-Chinese tandems. In A. Duszak, A. Jabłoński, A.
Leńko-Szymańska (eds.). East-Asian and Central-European Encounters in Discourse Analysis and Translation (pp. 163-
182). Warszawa: ILS.
Lewis, T. and O'Dowd, R. (Eds.). (2016) Online Intercultural Exchange: Policy, Pedagogy, Practice. London:
Routledge.
Ware, P. and O’Dowd, R. (2008). Peer feedback on language form in telecollaboration. Language Learning &
Technology, 12(1), 43–63.

17 14
 165

The Effects of Blended Learning in India

Kawar Deep Bedi
Instructional Designer Consultant
New Delhi, India
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
In this Practitioner Presentation, various contemporary technologies and approaches utilised to deliver effective,
engaging blended learning programs, which provided prodigious results will be elucidated. As an Instructional Designer
with substantial experience in storyboarding, content development and course development, there is an array of
challenges that still transpire because of the process being extremely dynamic. Delivering an impeccable course that
augments productivity is an arduous task. Usually, organisations have different requirements, so adhering to a specific
approach or method perpetually can result in the training program being futile. This is why it is indispensable to consider
a blended learning environment during instructional designing rather than only a Web Based Training (WBT) or
Instructor Led Training (ILT) environment.
A learning program should be comprehensive and should accommodate the needs of different types of learners. One of
the most challenging projects as an Instructional designer in India was to develop training programs for Business Process
Outsourcing companies (BPO). Training programs that encompass various soft skills (people skills), communication
skills, and technical skills required to perform everyday tasks in customer and technical support were required. The
underlying purpose of fabricating these training modules was to ameliorate the productivity in these employees and
eliminate any egregious, inadvertent mistakes that can impact the business or impede its progress. Topics in soft skills
such as conflict resolution, empathy, probing, decision making, building rapport, time-management, active-listening, and
team-building were included. Topics in written and oral communication skills, and technical skills that were pertinent to
the process were included also. Robust training programs implemented in a blended learning structure that included
instructor led training in a classroom, hands on practical training, e-learning courses, short videos for micro learning,
simulations and screen capture videos were developed to fulfil expectations. Software authoring tools such as Articulate
Storyline, Captivate, Camtasia were used to develop interactive e-learning courses which included branching scenarios,
games, and supplementary material. Animation software such as Pow-Toon and Video-Scribe were used to create
succinct, concise cartoons which were very engaging and easily accessible through a mobile phone. The classroom
training curriculum consisted of a constructivist approach, which encourages learners to find answers on their own and
derive palatable, viable conclusions from the information they have obtained. Experiments, group discussions, activities,
and role-playing were pivotal elements of the classroom training program which were recorded to watch later on in an e-
learning course with an assessment.
Merrill’s first principles of instruction theory were applied to practice hypothetical situations in a classroom followed by
a branching scenario course which focused on integrating what was learned. It was imperative to keep in mind of the
Cognitive Theory and Behaviourism Theory in blended learning. Providing short videos that briefly delineate specific
content and providing recognitions of achievement with an accolade or reward concluded in favourable results. Majority
of the adept Instructional Designers with extensive experience in any industry, who have practiced blended learning,
would agree that multiple techniques and approaches in a blended learning environment are conducive to providing
significant results with the learner’s retention and assimilation of the content.

Keywords
experiment, approaches, India, authoring tools, behaviourism, cognitive

18 15
Panel Discussions
 166

Blended Language Learning

Chair:
Agnieszka Palalas
Athabasca University, Canada
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
Blended language learning (BLL), a subarea of blended learning (BL), is an emerging area of practice and research. BLL
has quickly become of paramount importance in language teaching around the world in the 21st century (Grgurović,
2011; Shelley, Murphy, & White, 2013; Viberg & Berg, in press; Palalas, in press). BLL was originally defined as
combing face-to-face and online learning instruction, with the aim to facilitate students' language learning: "in ELT
'blended learning' is the term most commonly used to refer to any combination of face-to-face teaching with computer
technology (online and offline activities/materials)" (Tomlinson & Whittaker, 2013, p. 12). According to the
International Association of Blended Learning (IABL, 2015), blended learning is defined as "an educational approach,
which integrates face-to-face classroom practices with online and mobile delivery methods." Mobile learning has indeed
become an increasingly common component of the blended learning ecosystem, often indispensable to the success of the
blended learning process and outcomes. Blended learning literature also refers to blending various pedagogical
approaches (Hwa, Weei & Len, 2012; Nissen & Tea, 2012). Palalas (2015) proposed that BL is a purposeful blend of the
following elements of the learning ecosystem: location and time (contexts); delivery method; pedagogical approaches;
technologies; materials and artifacts; roles of learners and teachers; formal and informal learning. In this panel, BLL
experts from diverse international contexts revisit the definition of BLL and share case studies supporting their
perspective.

Keywords
blended language learning, BLL definition, BLL pedagogy, BLL technology, BLL practice

REFERENCES
Grgurović, M. (2011). Blended Learning in an ESL class: A case study. CALICO Journal, 29(1), 100-117.
Hwa, S. P., Weei, P. S., & Len, L. H. (2012) The effects of blended learning approach through an interactive multimedia
e-book on students’ achievement in learning Chinese as a second language at tertiary level. IJCALLT, 2(1), 35-50.
IABL (2015). The International Association for Blended Learning: IABL Definition of Blended Learning. Retrieved
from http://iabl.teiemt.gr/about-us/
Nissen, E., & Tea, E. (2012). Going blended: New challenges for second generation L2 tutors. Computer Assisted
Language Learning, 25(2), 145-163.
Palalas, A. (in press). Blended language learning: International perspectives on innovative practices.
Shelley, M., Murphy, L., & White, C. J. (2013). Language teacher development in a narrative frame: The transition from
classroom to distance and blended settings. System, (41), 560-574.
Viberg & Berg (in press). Blended Language Learning: A Thematic Overview of the Most Highly Cited Research. In A.
Palalas (Ed.), Blended language learning: International perspectives on innovative practices.
Whittaker, C., & Tomlinson, B. (2013). Blended learning in English language teaching: course design and
implementation. London: British Council.

20 16
 167

Using Technology in Blended Learning

Chair:
Joe Ganci
eLearningJoe, LLC, USA
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
Bring your questions for our panel of experts! We will be asking our experts when technology makes sense and when it
does not. Furthermore, incorporating certain technological solutions promotes learning and interaction in some settings
and not others. In other words, technology can help people learn but it can also distract learners from engaging with the
material and with others in an effective way. Come learn and ask about:

1. When it makes sense to introduce eLearning, online training, video and other media into a blended learning course.
2. When and how to introduce eLearning: what are its advantages and disadvantages?
3. What works best in a classroom, in one-on-one mentoring and synchronous online and in asynchronous eLearning.
4. Anything else you care to ask.

Keywords
learning, eLearning, video, classroom, training, synchronous, asynchronous

21 17
 168

Pedagogy Shift in Blended Learning - Trends and

Challenges
Chair:
Avgoustos Tsinakos
Eastern Macedonia and Thrace Institute of Technology, Greece
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
Topics to be discussed:

• New trends in technology-enhanced learning

• Pedagogy challenges when employing blended learning in the classroom
• Guidelines for successful blended learning sessions (do and don't)
• Best practices of blended learning classes

Keywords
pedagogy, blended learning, technology-enhanced learning

22 18
Posters
 169

The Secret is in the Blend - Promoting Digital Literacy

Through the Use of a Global Project
Tal Levy Karen Eini
Ruppin Academic Center Ruppin Academic Center
Israel Israel
[email protected] [email protected]

ABSTRACT
In our college preparation courses, in EAP (English for Academic Purposes), many students lack computer literacy.
These students often come from homes in which there are no computers and therefore need knowledge of digital tools,
blended learning experience as well as English skills. We ensure that they gain access to all via a unique program we
have developed for this matter in cooperation with our (EAP) department.
Among the most effective digital materials, we use is the 100 People Project. This project focuses on ten global issues,
which affect the lives of all global citizens: food, water, transportation, energy, health, shelter, education, economy,
waste, and war. "Having digital literacy requires more than just the ability to use software or to operate a digital device; it
includes a large variety of complex skills such as cognitive, motoric, sociological, and emotional that are necessary for
the effective use of digital environments (Eshet-Alkali & Amichai-Hamburger, 2004, p. 421). We have developed a
semester-long teaching program based on these focal issues, and require students to choose one issue, research and
present it. Technology, in general, today, is acknowledged as a key element to learners' autonomy and mobile devices are
not less important in this respect. As Peacock writes, “…teachers now adapt…empowering students by giving them
access to a wide range of web-based tools that allow them to publish work and engage with live audiences in real
contexts.”
We have found that the focus on relevant global issues is extremely motivating. Our students gain proficiency in digital
skills as well as the English language. Moreover, they receive an opportunity to study in a blended learning environment,
an experience which will serve them throughout their academic journey. The learning experience becomes more
meaningful, as students are empowered in this learner-centered approach as they focus on their particular areas of interest
and select their own reading materials in English.
In our poster presentation, we illustrate the process of this student-centered project. We demonstrate how the students
develop skills to learn autonomously via blended learning assignments, as well as the profound process students,
undergo. We will show samples of students' projects as well as their reflections on the entire process.

Keywords
blended learning, learner autonomy, digital literacy, language proficiency, global issues

REFERENCES
Eshet-Alkali, Y. & Amichai-Hamburger, Y. (2004). Experiments in Digital Literacy. Cyber Psychology & Behavior,
7(4), 421-429.
Peacock, M. (2013). Forward. In G. Motteram (Ed.), Innovations in learning technologies for English language teaching.
British Council, p. 2. Retrieved from
http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/sites/teacheng/files/C607%20Information%20and%20Communication_WEB%20ON
LY_FINAL.pdf
Warschauer, M. (2007). The paradoxical future of digital learning. Learning Inquiry, 1, 41-49.

24159
 170

Adult Literacy Mobile Learning Solution in a Blended

Learning Context
Przemyslaw Pawluk Agnieszka Palalas
George Brown College Athabasca University
Toronto, Canada Athabasca, Canada
[email protected] [email protected]

Norine Wark
Athabasca University
Athabasca, Canada
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
Recognizing the risks of pervasive low adult literacy levels amongst Canadians and globally, our research project aims to
design a mobile learning solution to support literacy training for adult learners in a blended learning context. This mobile
solution will equip such learners with language and digital literacy skills needed to thrive in their communities and
workplaces. After providing a short background on the current state of adult literacy in Canada, this poster introduces the
SSHRC-funded Design-Based Research project that our team of mobile learning, adult literacy, and mobile technology
experts is currently engaged in to produce this mobile learning solution. Part of this solution includes the development of
an app prototype, PowerUP Literacy. The poster summarizes findings from initial rounds of study incorporating
literature reviews, interviews with global literacy and mobile learning experts, and focus group discussions with adult
literacy learners and experts. New findings from the latest round of data gathered from adult literacy learners and experts
who tested the first PowerUP Literacy app prototype include mobile end-user and mobile learning profiles, the most and
least appreciated features of the app, future app options that might enhance app features or extend learning opportunities,
and any logistical or technical issues that need to be addressed. Salient findings from this new round of study are
juxtaposed in this poster presentation with previous findings from earlier rounds of study to offer the most current
cumulative report on the project to date. The poster also provides a succinct review on the definitions for mobile literacy
design principles derived from research activities undertaken thus far. This includes the identification of three
pedagogical design themes, principles, and key concepts. Relevant findings from the latest round of study are also
considered within the context of these design themes, principles, and concepts. The final section of the poster summarizes
project findings to date and discusses plans for further research. Literacy experts at various types of post-secondary
institutions are now completing a final review of the first PowerUP Literacy app prototype, which will yield further
recommendations for developing a mobile literacy solution that meets the needs of mobile adult literacy learners within
their unique situational learning contexts. Future rounds of study with larger groups of literacy learners and experts will
review the second PowerUP Literacy app prototype, and enable the project to draw significant conclusions about mobile
adult literacy learners, their instructors, and this mobile literacy solution.
Keywords
blended learning, adult literacy, mobile learning, Design-Based Research

REFERENCES

25160
 I
NTERNATI
ONALASSOCI
ATI NG ht
ONFORBLENDEDLEARNI tp:
//
www.
iabl
.or
g

SPONSORS&PARTNERS