J Food Sci Technol (November 2014) 51(11):2896–2906

DOI 10.1007/s13197-012-0833-6

REVIEW

Recent developments on new formulations based

on nutrient-dense ingredients for the production
of healthy-functional bread: a review
Somayeh Rahaie &
Seyed Mohammad Taghi Gharibzahedi &
Seyed Hadi Razavi & Seid Mahdi Jafari

Revised: 29 June 2012 / Accepted: 3 July 2012 / Published online: 1 September 2012
# Association of Food Scientists & Technologists (India) 2012

Abstract Bread is one of the oldest functional foods which related diseases (Abdul-Hamid and Luan 2000). Meanwhile,
its health effects have been investigated in many studies. functional bakery products are becoming increasingly popular
The current communication presents a review of published and are normally consumed with adjuncts in households,
studies in recent years on the topic and looks at possible industrial canteens, restaurants, etc (Indrani et al. 2007). These
future trends in the improved nutritional and health qualities products are less developed than dairy products. For example,
which have been applied in the bakery industry, directing it in Germany, production of new functional products was began
further to the formulation design and production of func- in 2001 by about 20–21 % relating to dairy products and
tional breads. The results show that many beneficial ingre- confectionery and about 13 % to bakery industry (Siro et al.
dients such as dietary fibers, phenolic antioxidants, marine 2008). These differences are deeper in Spain, as in 2006,
ingredients, and n-3 fatty acids can be used in the bread approximately 45 % of functional foods were dairy products
industry to increase its functionality and result in healthy and only 13 % were related to functional bakery products
products, low in calories, cholesterol and celiac disease. (Siro et al. 2008). In 2003, the first white functional bread
Moreover, the use of psyllium seed, amaranth seed, chestnut called “Blue Band Goede” was produced by a British-Dutch
flour and prebiotics in gluten-free bread (GFB) baking may company with bio-available essential ingredients including
be the promising frontier to improve overall appearance, fiber, vitamins B1, B3, B6, iron, zinc and inulin (Siro
quality, sensory properties, and shelf-life of GFB. et al. 2008).
Cereal grains and sprouts are good sources of different
Keywords Functional bread . Nutritional fibers . phytochemicals including phenolic acids, flavones, flavo-
Antioxidants . Gluten free bread noids, coumarins, and terpenes (HoltekjØlen et al. 2008).
Cereal sprouts are considered as an excellent source of
ferulic acid, glutathione and plant sterols. They also have
Introduction vitamins E, B1, B2, B3, and minerals such as phosphorus,
potassium, magnesium, calcium, zinc, and manganese. Due
Functional foods can be used not only to solve consumer to the high content of nutrients, cereal sprouts have an
starvation and provide health needs by having the necessary essential role in enriched foods to produce functional prod-
nutrients, but also they can prevent nutrient shortages- ucts (Sidhu and Kabir 2007; Penella et al. 2008; Das et al.
2011). Currently, available cereals to produce bakery prod-
S. Rahaie (*) : S. M. T. Gharibzahedi : S. H. Razavi ucts are rye, corn, oat and rice. Also, grain-like seeds such as
Department of Food Science, Engineering and Technology, buckwheat, amaranth and quinoa can be used (Gawlik-Dziki
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, University of
et al. 2009).
Tehran,
P.O. Box 4111, Karaj 31587-77871, Iran Functional and nutritional values of these products can be
e-mail: [email protected] improved by alternative dietary fibers and protein sources of
cereals, tubers, corn gluten, corn germ and rice bran (Lima
S. M. Jafari
et al. 2002). Moreover, addition of marine foods (Kadam
Department of Food Science and Technology, Gorgan University
of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, and Prabhasankar 2010), natural antioxidants (Ak and Gulçin
Gorgan, Iran 2008; Lim et al. 2011), plant extracts such as green tea (Wang
J Food Sci Technol (November 2014) 51(11):2896–2906 2897

et al. 2007; Bajerska et al. 2010), and grape seed extracts Breads are considered as the main source of the dietary
(Liang et al. 2004; Peng et al. 2010), and prebiotics (Harmsen fiber (Penella et al. 2008). Moreover, important resources
et al. 2002; Korus et al. 2006) to bakery products due to for improving fiber content of bread are cereals, chicory,
existence of many potential neutraceuticals has been proposed gums, fruits and vegetables (Rosell et al. 2006; Penella et al.
to increase functionality of these products especially bread. 2008). Whole wheat flour is a very cheap micronutrients and
Regarding bakery products, efforts are mainly directed toward dietary fiber source for human. It is used to make some
their reformulation by modifying the gluten content, and/or by foods with lower glycemic index and calorie (Demir and
adding a series of functional ingredients (Brites et al. 2010; Elgun 2011). High fiber breads have favorable physiological
Elleuch et al. 2011). Therefore, the main objective of this and metabolic effects and are considered as effective com-
study was to present recent researches in relation to functional pounds in health to deal with cardiovascular diseases, di-
ingredients and their beneficial effects to produce functional gestive system, reduction of blood cholesterol levels,
bread, as understood from recently published scientific articles. diabetes, and colon cancer (Penella et al. 2008; Elleuch et
al. 2011). Also, it has been illustrated that higher intake of
cereal fiber can improve insulin sensitivity and reduce risk
Dietary fibers to produce functional bread of diabetes (Pereira et al. 2002).
The functionality increase of breads by replacing dietary
Dietary fibers as a group of compounds contains a mixture of fiber with a percentage of flour can lead to breaking of
oligosaccharides and polysaccharides such as resistant gums, gluten-starch matrix, limiting the gas cells and the increase
inulin and hemicelluloses which may be associated with lignin of dough plasticity (Rosell et al. 2006). Recent studies on
and other non-carbohydrate components (Sabanis et al. 2009; production of mixtures of flour-hydrated fiber have shown
Elleuch et al. 2011). Table 1 shows some of the various sources that they could be a suitable viscoelastic profile for formu-
of dietary fibers for production of functional breads with their lated bread doughs and final bread could have acceptable
practical applications. Increase of water and oil holding capac- sensory properties and a favorable shelf life (Penella et al.
ities, modification of textural properties, reduction of syneresis 2008). Sangnark and Noomhorm (2004) indicated that
(separation of liquid from a gel caused by contraction), pre- fibers can modify bread loaf volume, bread crumb softness,
vention of lipid oxidation, emulsification and/or gel formation, bread springiness and the firmness of the loaf, but the extent
stabilization of high fat food and emulsions, slowing down the of modification depends on the fiber source (Laurikainen et
retrogradation of starch, and improving shelf-life are some al. 1998). Sabanis et al. (2009) have shown that addition of
functional properties of dietary fibers, when incorporated into dietary fiber from maize and oat into gluten free formula-
food products like bakery ones (Sanchez-Alonso et al. 2007; tions gives bread a higher loaf volume and crumb softness
Sabanis et al. 2009; Elleuch et al. 2011). compared with the control non fiber bread along with

Table 1 Different sources of dietary fiber for production of functional breads with useful technological applications

Dietary fiber sources Technological and functional properties References

Buckwheat Improvement of antioxidant properties and functional composition Lin et al. (2009)
Enrichment of antioxidant and antiradical activities Gawlik-Dziki et al. (2009)
Maize and oat flour Enhancement of loaf volume, crumb softness and overall acceptability Sabanis et al. (2009)
Rice bran (B-type hemicellulose) Higher ability to bond water and fat Hu et al. (2009)
Rice bran fiber Acceptable level of dietary fibers and development of favorable rice taste Abdul-Hamid and Luan (2000)
Rye flour Improvement of digestion and digestive issues Grasten et al. (2000)
Increase of antioxidative properties Horszwald et al. (2009)
Barley flour Increase of antioxidant properties HoltekjØlen et al. (2008)
Soybean flour and barley flour Improvement of protein, total lysine, dietary fibre, β-glucan, phytic acid, Dhingra and Jood (2001)
polyphenol contents, Increase of trypsin inhibitor activity
Soy flour Increase of moisture, protein, fat, crude fibre contents, Decrease in Ndife et al. (2011)
carbohydrate and energy contents, Decrease in bread volume, Best overall
quality acceptability
Decrease of bread volume, Increase of moisture and protein contents, Tariqul Islam et al. (2007)
Improving of crumb and crust color, Having good flavor
Increase of organoleptic characteristics score such as bendability, appearance, Mashayekh et al. (2008)
flavour, taste, crust texture and overall acceptability properties of bread
Hydrocolloids and prebiotic Higher resistant starch, Lower digestible starch and glycaemic index, Angioloni and Collar (2011)
oligosaccharides Higher sensory scores, Longer keepability
2898 J Food Sci Technol (November 2014) 51(11):2896–2906

improving their acceptability. The quality of bread with Influence of rice bran on bread properties
additional dietary fiber can also be improved by differ-
ent options such as enzymatic treatment of fibers, use Rice bran is a by-product from the outer layers of rice grains
of different milling fractions and alkaline hydrogen and is considered as a rich source of protein, minerals, fatty
peroxide treatment of fibers (Laurikainen et al. 1998; acids and dietary fiber. It can be used for fortifying different
Elleuch et al. 2011). food products particularly, breads (Mccaskill and Zhang
1999). Hu et al. (2009) found that insoluble part of rice bran
Addition of buckwheat to bread has high amounts of dietary fiber (62.73 %) and protein
(8.35 %), while B-type hemicellulose of rice bran has higher
Buckwheat is an important functional food in some levels of dietary fiber (82.94 %) and lower protein amounts
countries including China, Japan and Taiwan which is used (2.69 %). Addition of different levels of rice bran flour (0–
in prepared noodles (Lin et al. 2009). This cereal which 9 %) to two types of wheat flour (with 82 and 88 % extrac-
belongs to the polygonacea family can be a good alternative tion rate) revealed the effect of rice bran flour addition on
to rice or potato meal (Sensoy et al. 2006). The amino acid dough rheological and textural properties of Barbary bread.
composition of buckwheat proteins is well balanced and of a Results showed that blending the rice bran flour (6 %) with
high biological value. Buckwheat grains are an important the wheat flour (82 % extraction rate) received the best
source of microelements such as Zn, Cu, Mn and macro scores, in the aspect of sensory evaluation (khoshgozaran-
elements such as K, Na, Ca, Mg (Das et al. 2011). In Abras et al. 2012). The B-type hemicellulose of rice bran
general, there are two types of common buckwheat and has important biological activities such as increasing faecal
Tartary buckwheat (grown in mountain areas). Carbohydrate bulk, lowering blood cholesterol, and preventing colon can-
content in buckwheat flour is lower than wheat flour, but the cer (Lima et al. 2002; Hu et al. 2009). Functional character-
fiber composition is contrary because, buckwheat is rich in istics of rice bran have been applied to develop fortified
fiber (Jiang et al. 2007). Buckwheat contains flavonol gly- breads with fiber (Hu et al. 2009). Some studies have
cosides with high antioxidant properties including rutin, revealed that B-type hemicellulose of rice bran compared
quercetin, kaemferol-3-rutinoside and also small amounts with standard dietary fiber with commercial name of Fibrex
of flavonol triglyceride (Lin et al. 2009). Tartary buckwheat had a higher ability to bind water and fat. The produced
has a bitter taste, small grain size, hard shell, but a higher breads with high fiber content had a lower loaf volume and
rate of rutin (Jiang et al. 2007; Lin et al. 2009). Many studies softer texture than control ones, thus on the market were
have shown that buckwheat compared with most fruits, comparable. However, the nutritional value of fiber in the
vegetables and grain products, have higher levels of rutin final product was lower than expected, which could be
which can contribute to reduced risk of coronary heart hydrolyzed by the enzymatic activity of yeast or decom-
disease, decrease of blood glucose levels and cancer types posed by baking at high temperatures (Hu et al. 2009;
(Jiang et al. 2007; Lin et al. 2009). The amount of fiber in Elleuch et al. 2011). Sensory evaluations have shown that
wheat flour is more than buckwheat flour. Lin et al. (2009) bread crumb color was darker and had lower acceptance
produced new bread by mixing high-gluten wheat flour, when 10 % of each type of fiber was added. Taste and smell
milk powder, sugar, salt, eggs, bread improver, shortening, of these breads were significantly different than control
and buckwheat flour with or without 15 % husk. Husky breads as those with 10 % rice bran fiber showed a taste
buckwheat has higher content of insoluble β-glucan, a poly- of rice which was clear to understand for most panelists.
saccharide stimulating immune system (Hozová et al. 2007). Further analysis also showed that the acceptable level of
Therefore, husky buckwheat bread with high β-glucan has dietary fibers can remain in the range of bread products and
further functionality and health effects for consumers have healthy-functional effects (Abdul-Hamid and Luan
(Hozová et al. 2007; Lin et al. 2009). 2000; Hu et al. 2009).
Gawlik-Dziki et al. (2009) determined antioxidant activ-
ity of new functional bread enriched with 2.5 % and 5 % Rye bread and improvement of intestine function
extract from the green parts of Tartary buckwheat plant.
Their results showed that higher the buckwheat, lower the Rye is often consumed as a whole grain product and is a
volume of obtained bread. Crust and crumb color of good source of dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals, and differ-
enriched bread was darker, while its taste and smell had less ent biologically active compounds (Karppinen et al. 2003).
aromatic compounds. Maximum of the phenolic compounds Total arabinoxylan and soluble arabinoxylan of rye varies
and antiradical activity were observed in the breads fortified from 6.5 to 12 %, and 1.5 to 3 %, respectively (Vinkx and
with 5 % buckwheat. However, the 2.5 % extract was the Delcour 1996). Other compounds are including β-glucan,
best level to achieve optimum taste, smell, elasticity and the cellulose, fructan, and lignin (Karppinen et al. 2003). By
appropriate volume of bread. consumption of rye, the amounts of dietary fiber increases in
J Food Sci Technol (November 2014) 51(11):2896–2906 2899

intestinal microbial fermentation, which are converted fur- increasing the viscosity of the dough (Delcour et al. 1991;
ther to phytochemicals such as lignin and finally to micro- Das et al. 2011). It is considered that β-glucans may play a
bial metabolites (Grasten et al. 2000). Epidemiological tests role in the improvement of bread crumb structure by stabi-
have shown that the dietary fiber of cereals could have a lizing air cells in the dough and preventing their coalescence
protective role against colon cancer risk. Therefore, there is (Wang et al. 1998). Also, the antioxidant properties and
a reasonable relationship between dietary fiber absorption sensory profiles of breads with 40 % of barley flour instead
and decreased symptoms of colon cancer (McIntosh et al. of wheat flour have been studied (HoltekjØlen et al. 2008).
2003). Moreover, positive effects of rye on gut function and The results of chemical and sensory evaluations showed that
its microbial metabolic activity at several studies have been incorporation of barley flour increased the bread antioxidant
investigated (Grasten et al. 2000; McIntosh et al. 2003). It properties, while sensory attributes were differed depending
has been recognized that the rye bread and other products on the barley variety. Also, the sensory evaluation corre-
with increased stool weight, stool frequency rates, shorten sponded well with the content of phenolics.
the intestinal transit time, reduce the concentration of sec- Soybean flour is more commonly used in the bakery
ondary bile acids and increase the concentrations of plasma products because of its functional properties. It has high
enterolactone or lignin production by intestinal bacteria in protein (38–40 %), fat (18–20 %) and lysine (5–6 %)
women and men, improving bowel function (Grasten et al. contents, which have great potentials in overcoming
2000; McIntosh et al. 2003). protein-calorie malnutrition. Dhingra and Jood (2001)
Major determinant of plasma enterolactone concentration found that soy flour (full fat and defatted) and barley
is the amount of plant lignin in a food (Elleuch et al. 2011). flour could be added to bread flour up to levels of 10
Composition or activity of intestinal microbes is important and 15 %, respectively, separately and in combinations
in lignin metabolism. Enterolactones have a protective role without any significant changes in organoleptic charac-
against colon cancer although enterolactone plasma concen- teristics. Moreover, the breads containing barley and
tration is a biological marker of good nutritional health. defatted soy flours (up to 15 % level) were considered
Whole rye flour bread or other products containing rye as most acceptable, organoleptically and nutritionally as
increase fecal butyrate concentration in the average age of they contained an appreciable amount of protein, total
men, but women are not affected. Butyrate is an important lysine, dietary fiber, β-glucan and minerals.
compound in normal function of intestinal epithelial cells
and provides protection against colon cancer (Grasten et al.
2007). Effects of cereal fibers on composition of human Addition of natural antioxidants to bread
intestinal microbes are unknown, although rye caused an
increased growth of Bifidobacterium longum. Therefore, Phenolic components are found frequently in food products
arabinoxylan and fructan in rye can affect the human fecal such as fruits, vegetables and grains. Natural antioxidants
microbes (Crittenden et al. 2002). Grasten et al. (2007) are phenolic compounds that have different biological ac-
revealed that the whole grain rye bread improved bowel tivities including anti-allergic, anti-viral, anti-inflammatory,
function and increased intestinal enterolactone concentra- anti-mutation and anti-cancer properties (Yao et al. 2004).
tions in women and men, while other health effects such Nanditha and Prabhasankar (2008) reported that antioxi-
as increased butyrate and decreased enzyme activity of dants are used as food additives with the aim of prevention
intestinal bacterial observed only in men. Absorption of oxidative deterioration of fats and oils in processed foods.
total dietary fiber, soluble and insoluble fiber from rye bread However, due to limitation on the use of synthetic antiox-
was 36.4, 6 and 30.4 gram, respectively. The enterolactone idants and enhanced public awareness of health issues, there
plasma concentration during consumption of rye bread, is an increasing need to use health-promoting natural anti-
increased from 27.1 to 53.6 nmol/L, but by consumption oxidants in foods like bakery products. There are several
of wheat bread decreased from 32.8 to 22.7 nmol/L. plant sources which have important antioxidants capable of
scavenging free radical (Table 2) and they are preferred over
Barley and soybean flours synthetic and toxic antioxidants such as butylated hydroxy
toluene (BHT) and butylated hydroxyl anisole (BHA) (Lean
Barley has a high acceptance in human nutrition, when its and Mohamed 1999). For example, antioxidant property and
new functional and nutritional properties are recognized. quality of breads containing Auricularia auricular polysac-
Barley is used as flour, semolina and as whole-dehulled charide (AAP) flour was evaluated by Fan et al. (2007). The
grain. Barley flour has a high concentration of total β-D- results showed that with addition of AAP to bread, the
glucans (especially soluble β-glucan). β-glucan rich frac- antioxidant activity considerably increased. The following
tions from barley may result in increased loaf volumes when sections discuss the production of functional breads by
used at certain concentrations in wheat flour, probably by supplementing some natural antioxidant sources.
2900 J Food Sci Technol (November 2014) 51(11):2896–2906

Table 2 The functional breads formulated with natural antioxidants, gluten replacements and marine ingredients with useful technological
applications

Functional ingredients Technological and functional properties References

Natural antioxidants
Auricularia auricular Increase of antioxidant activity Fan et al. (2007)
polysaccharide flour
Turmeric powder Increase of total phenolic contents, antioxidant activities and color values Lim et al. (2011)
Grape seed extract Increase of antioxidant activity, Better color of bread Peng et al. (2010)
Green tea extract Stability of green tea catechins during storage Wang and Zhou (2004)
Significant effect on bread volume and softness Wang et al. (2007)
Increase of antioxidant properties Bajerska et al. (2010)
Gluten free bread
Psyllium fiber Keeping color, odor, taste and texture characteristics Zandonadi et al. (2009)
Decrease of energy and fat
Amaranth flour Improvement of physical, rheological and nutritional properties Mariotti et al. (2009)
Quinoa and buckwheat Significantly higher levels of protein, fat, fiber and minerals Alvarez-Jubete et al. (2009)
Inulin, chicory flour Positive change of bread quality depend on prebiotic type Korus et al. (2006)
and oligofructose syrup
Marine ingredients
Fish oil Increase in plasma omega-3 fatty acids and HDL-cholesterol Liu et al. (2001)
Increase of omega-3 in diet (Omega bread) Neilsen (1992)
Tuna oil Increase of DHA fatty acid Yep et al. (2002)
Sodium alginate & κ-carrageenan Reduce the loss of moisture content during bread storage, Anti-staling effect Guarda et al. (2004)

Application of turmeric in bread Addition of grape seed extract to bread

Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.), a member of the Zingiber- Grape seed extract is a rich source of catechins and proan-
aceae family, is one of the most popular spices having thocyanidins with a strong antioxidant and free radicals
natural antioxidants. Curcuminoids are the major biologi-
cally active components of turmeric which contain curcu-
min, bis-demethoxy curcumin, and demethoxy curcumin.
Curcumin or phenolic pigment is an effective antioxidant
that can absorb free radicals and its use as an antioxidative
and antimycotic agent in butter cakes has been reported
(Lean and Mohamed 1999; Hirun et al. 2012). Ak and
Gulçin (2008) reported that it had other medicinal properties
such as anti-protozoal, anti-tumour, anti-inflammatory and
anti-venom activities.
Lim et al. (2011) used turmeric powder to substitute 0 %,
2 %, 4 %, 6 % and 8 % of wheat flour for making breads.
The results showed that up to 4 % turmeric powder could be Breads containing turmeric powder
accepted in a bread formulation without any significant
hindrance in sensory acceptability of bread. Total phenolic
contents and antioxidant activities of bread increased with
turmeric powder (Fig. 1a). The crumb hardness and color
values of breads also increased with turmeric powder as an
additive but bread specific volume decreased (Fig. 1b). The Fig. 1 Increase of antioxidant activities of breads containing the
level of 4 % turmeric powder showed good potentials for different concentration of turmeric powder (TB) in comparison with
control bread. Cross-sections of the breads prepared with turmeric
antioxidant and sensory properties in comparison with powder replacement for wheat flour. Control, TB2, TB4, TB6 and
wheat bread. Therefore, breads with turmeric powder can TB8 are breads prepared with 0 %, 2 %, 4 %, 6 % and 8 % replacement
be developed as healthy functional bread. of wheat flour with turmeric powder, respectively (Lim et al. 2011)
J Food Sci Technol (November 2014) 51(11):2896–2906 2901

scavenging activities (Liang et al. 2004). Other activities are stability was detected among the individual phenolics and
noted such as anti-inflammatory activity, anti-ulcer activity 83 % to 91 % of the total phenolics were retained (Wang and
and prevention of blood platelets accumulation (Peng et al. Zhou 2004). Considering how much the green tea catechins
2010). Also, the ability of important phenolic compounds can be associated with sensory characteristics of bread qual-
such as catechin and proanthocyanidin to scavenge reactive ity, a study by Wang et al. (2007) on quality of the fortified
carbonyl species (such as glyoxal, methylglyoxal) in non- bread with green tea extract was carried out at different
enzymatic browning reaction has been proved (Lo et al. levels of 1.5 and 5 g/kg of flour. The results indicated that
2006; Peng et al. 2008). In a study, grape seed extract was bread lightness declined with increasing level of extract.
mixed with other ingredients of to the bread formulation, Green tea extract was a water-soluble powder and brown
and its antioxidant properties after the thermal process in in appearance. Therefore, it could be expected that color of
comparison with standard solutions of grape seed extract bread with extract was different from control bread. At the
was evaluated (Peng et al. 2010). The effect of extract on the same time, bread density increased and volume decreased
formation of N-carboxymethyl lysine in bread (CML) was by adding the extract to bread. The results also showed that
also studied. CML is one of the final products of Millard the formation of gas cells in dough can be affected by
reaction and its content in crust was reported to be much adding the extract in mixing stage at two different levels.
higher than in crumb. Recently, it is considered as a toxic Application of 5 g/kg level of extract reduced sweet flavor
substance in foods and a biological marker associated with of bread and the most astringency established. Tea catechins
oxidative stress, diabetes and atherosclerosis in humans are responsible for creating astringent taste of tea, especially
(Sebekova and Somoza 2007). The results showed that the EGCG are very involved. Based on texture analysis, firm-
antioxidant activity of bread increased by adding different ness of bread increased at higher extract concentration.
levels of the extracts. The thermal process of bread produc- Also, by the addition of extract, the viscosity increased
tion may reduce extract antioxidant capacity. This phenom- while dough with 1.5 g per kg of extract was similar to
enon could be related to thermophilic reactions of extract control bread. Total amount of tea catechins were 533 and
proanthocyanidins with food ingredients such as proteins or 1,775 μg/g dough on 1.5 and 5 g/kg of extract, respectively.
starches to form larger molecules. Heat process can also Therefore, it is likely to have lower yeast activity in bread
cause decomposition of extract proanthocyanidins leading dough partially by green tea extract in an effective level of
to reduced antioxidant capacity of bread. Sensory evaluation about 1.5 g/kg flour, followed by reduced gas ability and the
of bread did not show certain differences compared with produced bread had less volume. The enriched bread by
control bread. Despite color changing of bread, 70 % of green tea extracts can be used as a functional food and
panelist reported a better color for bread containing extracts health effects are considered (Wang et al. 2007).
than control one. Moreover, with addition of two levels of Bajerska et al. (2010) studied the effect of green tea
600 and 1,000 mg extract to bread, carboxymethyl lysine in extract at three levels of 0.5, 0.8 and 1.1 % on catechin
bread crust decreased to 30 % and 50 % levels, respectively stability, antioxidant properties and sensory evaluation in
(Peng et al. 2010). rye breads. They developed a novel formulation as a source
of polyphenols. The results showed that antioxidant properties
Addition of green tea extract to bread increased with addition of higher levels of the extract. However,
due to changes in sensory properties, the level of green tea
Tea and its products contain polyphenols, mainly catechins extract introduced to rye bread should be limited to 0.8 %.
which are considered as natural antioxidants (Bajerska et al.
2010). In recent years, the health effects of tea especially green
tea have attracted much attention. Green tea contains a number Gluten free bread
of biologically active compounds including epicatechin (EC),
epigallatocatechin (EGC), epicatechin gallate (ECG) and epi- Celiac disease is a genetic disease that sick persons have a
gallatocatechin gallate (EGCG) (Wang and Zhou 2004). Wu long intolerance to wheat gliadin components; rye prolamin,
and Wei (2002) reported green tea had cathecin polyphenols barley hordein and oat avidin, and nearly 1 % of the world’s
around 35 % of its dry weight. These compounds exhibit population are involved (Kiskini et al. 2007). Gluten
considerable anti-oxidative, anti-cancer and anti-microbial digested by sick people leads to inflammation of small
properties (Wiseman et al. 1997). Moreover, the human intake intestine and lack of important nutrients like iron, folic acid,
of green tea decreases total cholesterol, increases the high- calcium and fat-soluble vitamins. Disease-related symptoms
density lipoprotein (HDL) fraction, and decreases lipoprotein are including diarrhea, anemia, and nausea, mouth sore and
oxidation (Ferrari and Torres 2003). psychological symptoms such as headache, nervous depres-
After a green tea extract was added to the bread dough by sion and osteoporosis (Niewinski 2008). The only effective
the levels of 50, 100, and 150 mg/100 g flour, varied process on celiac disease is preparation of food without
2902 J Food Sci Technol (November 2014) 51(11):2896–2906

gluten. Global average of patient people is estimated to properties of the modified bread. The sensory evaluation of
increase 10-fold factor and has caused a growing in the bread revealed that resulted bread had an overall acceptability
market of bakery products without gluten (Siro et al. similar to white bread. The modified bread dough achieved a
2008). In Canada, gluten free products have less than 93.0 % acceptance rate for individuals with celiac disease and
20 mg gluten/kg according to standard, while in other up to 97.0 % for individuals without celiac disease. Chemical
countries this value is 200 mg/kg. Recently, many studies analysis showed that levels of energy and fat in bread dough
have been conducted to assess the nutritional adequacy of reduced to 32.1 % and 42.3 %, respectively. Overall results
gluten-free diets including gluten-free bread (GFB). In general, showed that psyllium can be a suitable alternative to gluten in
there are two types of new and old compounds to produce bread dough (Zandonadi et al. 2009).
breads without gluten. Old ingredients include rice, corn, soy,
beans, peas, and other hydrocolloids, while new compounds Use of amaranth to produce gluten free bread
are divided into two categories including grains without gluten
such as sorghum and teff and pseudo cereals like amaranth, Lysine is one of the essential amino acids which is low in
quinoa and buckwheat fibers (Table 2) (Gallagher et al. 2004). cereals, but legumes have high levels of this amino acid
There are many available products (for example pasta, noodles (Iqbal et al. 2006). In addition to soy proteins, pea proteins
and biscuits) containing pseudo cereals as composites with can be successfully used in bakery products and improve the
wheat flour (Gallagher et al. 2003, 2004). New compounds nutritional value of these products (Tömsközi et al. 2001;
have many benefits such as high amount of protein and amino Mohammed et al. 2012). Another ingredient applied in the
acids and better digestibility than cereals. Also, they have production of GFB is amaranth flour which has 11.7–18.4 %
bioactive compounds such as fructooligosaccharides, antioxi- protein, higher than wheat protein and has acceptable levels
dants, resistant starch, fibers and mineral resources and other of essential amino acids, especially lysine, tryptophan and
nutrients (Gallagher et al. 2003). Alvarez-Jubete et al. (2009) methionine (Tömsközi et al. 2001; Avanza et al. 2005; Iqbal
studied viability of the pseudo cereals (amaranth, quinoa and et al. 2006; Sudha and Leelavathi 2011). Structural proper-
buckwheat) as ingredients in gluten free baking with regard to ties of these proteins affect their functional characteristics.
improvement of nutritional value of GFBs. The results showed Amaranth fat content is also considered which has high
that nutritional aspects of pseudo cereal grains and breads are levels of unsaturated fatty acids, with large percentage of
applicable to the general population and not especially limited linoleic acid (Avanza et al. 2005). Mariotti et al. (2009)
to celiac disease patients. However, the bread formulation prepared the gluten-free dough with different levels of corn
without gluten will cause bakery problems and creates unstable starch, amaranth flour (increased nutritional value), pea
dough. The resulting bread has a firm texture, unsuitable color isolate (to increase protein) and psyllium flour (as thickener
and other quality defects (Gallagher et al. 2003). and fiber source) and evaluated their rheological properties.
Two levels of amaranth flour (0 or 40 %), pea protein isolate
Production of gluten free bread with psyllium (1 % or 6 %) and psyllium fiber (0 % or 2 %) were used
while corn starch levels based on values of other compounds
Psyllium (Plantago ovata Forsk) seed shell contains func- were variable. Overall results showed that addition of pro-
tional hydrocolloids which is a rich source of natural soluble tein and fiber source (pea isolate and amaranth) improved
fibers, almost eight times higher than soluble fiber found in physical, rheological and nutritional properties of gluten
oat bran (Guo et al. 2009). In addition, psyllium hydrocol- free dough. Presence of psyllium fiber increased physical
loid as an emulsifier or thickener has considerable benefits properties of dough due to formation of a network structures
including reduction of cholesterol, reduced risk of cardio- like films. Also, experimenting more complex formulations
vascular diseases and diabetes, laxative properties, treating (with starch, corn flour and pea isolate, amaranth flour and
colds, coughs, and other respiratory problems (Fischer et al. psyllium fiber) showed that these ingredients can improve
2004; Guo et al. 2009). The shell of psyllium seed can be a technological and nutritional qualities of final bread com-
valuable source of minerals to balance other minerals in pared with commercially mixtures available in the market
foods (Fischer et al. 2004). The psyllium fiber due to its (Mariotti et al. 2009).
stability at different temperatures and pH levels is similar to
gluten, and can be considered as a good alternative in bakery Chestnut flour in gluten-free bread
products (Zandonadi et al. 2009). Similar approaches to
produce physical structures like gluten in the dough is Turkey is an important producer of chestnut with its pro-
application of dietary fiber with complex carbohydrates, duction around 49,000 tons per year. Chestnut flour includes
lignin, and resistant starch (Gallagher et al. 2004). Zandonadi high quality proteins with essential amino acids, adequate
et al. (2009) evaluated the effect of replacing gluten with amount of sugar (13.9–32.6 %), starch, dietary fiber (4–
psyllium on sensory, chemical, nutritional and technological 10 %), low amount of fat, vitamins E and B group and
J Food Sci Technol (November 2014) 51(11):2896–2906 2903

essential elements such as potassium, phosphorous and company), bitter-free chicory flour and oligofructose syrup
magnesium (Chenlo et al. 2007). This flour can be used in in three addition levels of 3, 5 and 8 % were used. The
GFBs leading to good nutritional quality and health bene- results showed that the lowest dose of inulin decreased
fits. However, it creates several defects including low vol- bread volume about 10 %, but the volume increased about
ume and unacceptable dark color. Therefore, blending 4 and 9 %, respectively, by adding 5 and 8 % of inulin in
chestnut flour with other types of flours seems to be a better comparison with control bread. The oligofructose syrup
method. Rice (Oryza sativa) is one the most important crops changed bread volume ranging from 5 % to 9 %. Adding
in the world in addition to wheat and maize. Among the the lowest dose of chicory flour to formulation caused an
chemical components of rice grains, amylase and protein increase of bread volume about 10 % but it reduced to 4 %
contents are very important factors influencing the eating in higher doses. The best yield of bread was observed when
quality of rice (Rai et al. 2011). Demirkesen et al. (2010) inulin was added, chicory flour and syrup set in secondary
developed GFB formulations using chestnut and rice flours grade. This could be due to the linkage of water to probiotic
at different ratios (0/100, 10/90, 20/80, 30/70, 40/60, 50/50 additives, which was indicated by values of total baking
and 100/0). Moreover, the effects of different hydrocolloids loss, inversely related to the bread yield. Bread with 8 %
such as xanthan-locust bean gum, xanthan-guar gum blends of oligofructose syrup as second-quality bread was classi-
and emulsifier on the rheological properties of dough for- fied because of non-uniform and large holes. Also, addition
mulations and quality of bread were determined. of 8 % inulin to bread led to produce bread as secondary due
Due to rigid and compact structure of chestnut fibrous, to crust shrinkage. Crust color of all bread was darker than
the bread formulated only with chestnut flour had the hard- control bread. According to quality evaluation, most favor-
est structure and the lowest volume. The loaf volume de- able additives were chicory flour and inulin. Among the
creased when the chestnut flour content increased. This may practical level, the most beneficial effect on quality of bread
be due to the fact that high sugar content of chestnut flour depended on about 5 % of inulin intake (increased bread
led to reduced starch gelatinization and result in low specific volume, reduced hardening rate and positive evaluation)
volume and hardness of breads. Moreover, delay of starch (Korus et al. 2006).
gelatinization by reducing the water activity with incorpo- Harmsen et al. (2002) reported intake of 9 g inulin/day
ration of sugar in formulation was reported by Sumnu et al. after two weeks caused an increase of 2.3 fold in Bifidobac-
(1999). Therefore, an optimum flour ratio between chestnut teria amount and reduction of 1.4 fold in E.rectale and E.
and rice flour was needed to gain desired quality parameters. coccoides fecal microorganisms in small intestine. More-
The best ratio in terms of color, hardness, texture and flavor over, the inulin led to a certain increase in calcium absorp-
attributes was chestnut/rice flour at 30/70 with addition of tion in the gastrointestinal tract and digested to ionized form
the blends of xanthan-guar and emulsifier. When higher during colon. This performance especially for celiac disease
ratios was used, undesirable dark color of breads was ob- is important due to greater sensitivity to osteoporosis (Korus
served due to increasing Millard and caramelization reac- et al. 2006).
tions with increasing sugar content. However, increased
levels of chestnut flour caused to some deteriorations in
quality parameters (low volume, harder texture and darker Marine foods as novel healthy food ingredients in bread
color) regardless of gum blend and emulsifier addition
(Demirkesen et al. 2010). Marine foods are excellent sources of many healthy food
ingredients and biological components as fish oils, bioactive
Effect of prebiotics on quality of gluten free bread peptides and microalgae. These foods contain omega-3 fatty
acids, chitin and chitosan, algal ingredients, antioxidants,
Prebiotics are defined as non-digestible food ingredients that minerals and vitamins like calcium, carotenoids and bioac-
beneficially affect the host by stimulating the growth and/or tive compounds. Bread is an excellent product in which
activity of one or a limited number of bacteria such as incorporation of marine functional ingredients especially
probiotic bacteria in the colon, thus increasing host health omega-3 fatty acids is attempted (Kadam and Prabhasankar
(O’Riordan et al. 2001; Siro et al. 2008). These compounds 2010). Encapsulation approach could help to incorporate
include fructooligosaccharides, isomalto-oligosaccharides, better omega-3 fatty acids into bread and the stability en-
inulin, resistant starch, polyols (lactitol, mannitol, sorbitol, hancement of omega-3 lipids (Liu et al. 2001). Liu et al.
xylitol), and modified dextrins (Siro et al. 2008). The effect (2001) showed that hyperlipidemic patients had a significant
of prebiotic additives on GFB quality and their loss during increase in plasma omega-3 fatty acids and in HDL-
the production of bread has been investigated by Korus et al. cholesterol as they fed with bread containing fish oil (Ta-
(2006). In this study, three prebiotic substances including ble 2). Yep et al. (2002) also demonstrated that bread
Frutafit standard inulin (inulin produced by a Dutch enriched with microencapsulated tuna oil increases DHA
2904 J Food Sci Technol (November 2014) 51(11):2896–2906

fatty acid. The enrichment of white bread with omega-3 levels and preventing cardiovascular diseases, cancers and
fatty acids in the form of fish oil was previously studied inflammation, but also had a positive effect on the sensory
by Neilsen (1992). Moreover, supplementation of several properties of breads. The functional compounds such as
marine hydrocolloids to the bread making process in several shell of psyllium seeds and prebiotics are consumed in
experiments has been studied and physical properties such as GFB and have a good effect on their quality, safety and
hardness, moisture and volume and sensory evaluation of acceptability. Also, recent studies have shown that marine
bread loaf have been assessed (Table 2). These hydrocolloids foods, flaxseeds and quinoa seeds can be used as a rich
were able to reduce the moisture loss during the storage or had source of omega-3 fatty acids and can be incorporated in
an anti-staling effect on bread (Guarda et al. 2004). bakery products, especially breads without much interven-
tion in sensory quality. Further research is needed to under-
stand interactions of functional ingredients with breads
Effect of flaxseed and quinoa flours on bread constituents and thus to improve their safety in potential
functionality industrial applications.

Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) or linseed is a dark

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