Teacher notes

1 From patterns to generalizations:

sequences, series and proofs
Essential understanding
Number and algebra allow us to represent patterns, show equivalencies and make generalizations
which enable us to model real-world situations. Algebra is an abstraction of numerical concepts
and employs variables which allow us to solve mathematical problems.

Content-specific conceptual understandings

This chapter leads to the following content-specific conceptual understandings listed in the subject
guide:

 Modelling real-life situations with the structure of arithmetic and geometric sequences and
series allows for prediction, analysis and interpretation.

 Different representations of numbers enable equivalent quantities to be compared and used

in calculations with ease to an appropriate degree of accuracy.

 Numbers and formulae can appear in different, but equivalent, forms, or representations,
which can help us to establish identities.

 Formulas are a generalisation made on the basis of specific examples, which can then be
extended to new examples.

 Patterns in numbers inform the development of algebraic tools that can be applied to find
unknowns.

 The binomial theorem is a generalization which provides an efficient method for expanding
binomial expressions.

 Proof serves to validate mathematical formulae and the equivalence of identities.

We have taken these suggested content-specific conceptual understanding statements and, as

recommended in the Teacher Support Manual, developed our own conceptual understandings.
Students are led step-by-step through the investigations to arrive at one or more of these
conceptual understandings:

Conceptual understandings Investigation

Patterns in numbers inform the development of algebraic Investigation 2

expressions and equations that can be applied to find unknowns.

Patterns in numbers inform the development of algebraic tools that Investigation 3

can be applied to find unknowns.

Patterns in numbers inform the development of algebraic tools that Investigation 4

can be applied to find unknowns with speed and accuracy.

Modelling allows for prediction, analysis, and interpretation. Investigation 5

The sum of an infinite geometric series tends to a finite number Investigation 6

when the individual terms tend to zero.

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Conceptual understandings Investigation

The common ratio of a geometric series allows us to determine Investigation 7

whether the series converges to a finite value or diverges to infinity.

Modelling allows for prediction, analysis, and interpretation which Investigation 8

enable critical decision making.

The growth model allows you to determine whether an Arithmetic Investigation 9

sequence or a Geometric sequence grows faster.

Proof allows conclusions to be reached more elegantly than by Investigation 13

alternative cumbersome ways.

The binomial theorem uses combinations to calculate the coefficients Investigation 18

in the expansion and these coefficients display symmetry about the
centre.

Numbers and formulae can appear in different but equivalent forms Investigation 19
or representations to establish identities.

Syllabus sections covered in this chapter:

 SL1.2*
 SL1.3*
 SL1.4*
 SL1.6
 SL1.8
 SL1.9
 AHL1.10
 AHL1.15

Cognitive academic language proficiency

The academic language used in this chapter is listed as "microconcepts" at the start of the chapter.
Moreover, when specific terminology is introduced it is defined clearly and then used in context to
deepen students’ understanding.

Cognitive activators
The stimulus questions, developing inquiry skills, before you start activities, investigations and
modelling activities are cognitive activators. They get students ready to learn and engage with the
subject, providing opportunities for collaborative and peer-to-peer learning, and to develop of
inquiry, investigative and modelling skills.

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Digital resources

Prior learning Animated worked GDC skills and Additional

support example support exercises
Page 24: Example 21 Page 19: Example 15

Page 39: Example 32 Page 20: Example 18

Page 3: Solving linear
equations, algebraic Page 43: Example 37 Page 25: Example 23 Pages 9, 31, 65
fractions, surds
Page 59: Example 48 Page 52: Example 43

Page 64: Example 53 Page 56: Example 47

Assessment opportunities

End of chapter test Mixed review exercise Exam practice

Page 65 N/A N/A

1.1 Sequences, series and sigma notation

Investigation 1
1, 121, 12321, 1234321
1 The answers are palindromic numbers, i.e. when written backwards they give the same
number. Also the digits represent the first positive integers in order.
2 Yes it will continue up to a certain limit

111112  123454321, 1111112  12345654321, etc.

3 The pattern would break when you have a string longer than nine 1s. This happens because we
are working in base 10, and the middle sum will be bigger than 9 when this happens.

International-mindedness

Where did numbers come from?

Answer: The history of number from Sumerians and its development to the present Arabic
system is a fascinating development to trace. You might want to go back to the Ishango bone,
evidence of counting from 20 000 years ago.

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Investigation 2 – Curious numbers

Conceptual understanding:
Patterns in numbers inform the development of algebraic expressions and equations that can be
applied to find unknowns.
1 When there are 9 tiles along the diagonals

9  5  4  5  5 square
So when there are13 tiles alongdiagonals
13  7  6  7  7 square

2 49 tiles
3 15  8  7  8  8 square

4 135  68  67  68  68 square

5 When the number of tiles along the diagonal is 4 you have a 2  2 square .

You cannot have a square with 6 tiles along a diagonal.

When there are 8 tiles along a diagonal you have a 4  4 square .

No square with 10 tiles along a diagonal is possible.

When there are 12 tiles along a diagonal you have a 6  6 square .

6 Students’ own answers.

7 For odd number of tiles along a diagonal:

2n  1  (n  1)  n  (n  1)2 tiles are required.

For even number of tiles along a diagonal:

2n  n  n  n2 tiles are required.

8 (This is the conceptual understanding): Patterns in numbers inform the development of

algebraic expressions and equations that can be applied to find unknowns

TOK

Do the names that we give things impact how we understand them?

Answer: For instance, palindromic numbers.

Some large numbers are named, the google and the googolplex, while others are represented
in this form.

How important is the language used to describe mathematics?

TOK

Is mathematics a language?

Answer: You will see the use of several alphabets in mathematical notation (e.g., the use of
capital sigma for the sum). One point of view is that mathematics is not only a language but is
the only language shared by humans around the world. For example, pi is 3.14159… regardless
of what culture, language, nationality or religion you have.

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A counterclaim might be whether or not we can communicate our ideas without the use of
another spoken tongue.

Developing Inquiry skills

Now go back to the opening question. Suppose the length of each side of the first triangle is 81
cm. Can you work out the length of each side of the figure in each iteration? Tabulate your results
and try to find a pattern and then make a conjecture.
Answer: To construct a new iteration, each side is divided into three. Therefore, if the side
length of the first iteration is 81 cm, then the side length of the second iteration will be 27
cm, the third iteration 9 cm, and the fourth 3 cm.
1𝑢−1
The sequence follows the formula 81 ×
3

1.2 Arithmetic and geometric sequences and series

Investigation 3
Conceptual understanding:
Patterns in numbers inform the development of algebraic tools that can be applied to find
unknowns.

1 Number of people ahead Distance of your first tray Waiting time, T (s)
of you to machine, d (m)

0 0 0

1 1.8 18

2 3.6 36

. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .

n 1.8n 18n

2 Both the second and third column are linear relations.

3 Number of people ahead Distance of your first tray Waiting time, T (s)
of you to machine, d (m)

0 0.30 3

1 2.4 24

2 4.5 45

. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .

n 2.1n + 0.3 21n + 3

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4 The patterns are still linear, however a constant is added; i.e. relations are not directly
proportional.

5 50 cm 60 cm 80 cm

Number Distance of Waiting Distance of Waiting Distance of Waiting

of your first time, T your first time, T your first time, T
people tray to (s) tray to (s) tray to (s)
ahead machine, d machine, d machine, d
of you (m) (m) (m)

0 0.5 5 0.6 6 0.8 8

1 2.8 28 3 30 3.4 34

2 5.1 51 5.4 54 6 60

. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .

n 2.3n + 0.5 23n + 5 2.4n + 0.6 24n + 6 2.6n + 0.8 26n + 8

6 The patterns are still linear but the coefficient of n and the constant terms have changed.
7 Factual: What do you notice about consecutive terms in the second and third columns?
Answer: Consecutive numbers in the second and third columns differ by a constant.
8 Factual: How would you generalize the relationship between the distance from the machine to
your first tray and the number of people ahead of you?
Answer: The pattern observed gives d  (3  0.6  k)n  k where k is the distance between
trays of individuals.
9 Factual: Write down the relationship between the waiting time and the number of people
ahead of you.
Answer: Since time = distance ÷ speed, it follows that
(3  0.6  k )n  k
T   10 (3  0.6  k )n  k 
0.1

10 Conceptual: What common patterns generate the relationships developed in this

investigation?
Answer: Linear patterns or linear relations.
(this leads to the conceptual understanding): Patterns in numbers inform the
development of algebraic tools that can be applied to find unknowns.

Investigation 4
Conceptual understanding:
Patterns in numbers inform the development of algebraic tools that can be applied to find
unknowns with speed and accuracy.
1 28th card
2 56  27  28  1540

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3 500  1001  500500

4 Factual: Explain the importance of the actual number of terms added.

Answer: If the number of terms is even there is no card left over when pairing, whereas if
the number of cards is odd when pairing first and last cards, a middle card is left over.
5 a First even number is 2, and 100th even number is 200. There are 50 even numbers that are
less than 100.
50  202  10100

b First multiple is 3 and the last multiple is 999. There are 333 multiples of 3 that are less
than 1000.
(166  1002)  (167  3)  166833

6 Conceptual: How was Michela’s and Grisha’s method more efficient?

Answer (this is the conceptual understanding): Patterns in numbers inform the
development of algebraic tools that can be applied to find unknowns with speed and
accuracy.

Reflect: Why can n not be a rational or a negative number?

Answer: There can only be a positive, integer number of terms in a series.

TOK

How is intuition used in mathematics?

Answer: Gauss’ method for adding up integers from 1 to 100. You might want to look at
inductive and deductive methods of proof.

Is there a body of knowledge called intuitive mathematics? If so, how do these intuitions hinder
or facilitate problem solving?

Try questions such as:

- How many lines pass through any given two points?

- A coin is tossed 12 times. The first 11 all come up heads. What would you expect the next
toss to give? Why?

- Which set has more members, the set of rational numbers or the set of irrational
numbers?

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Investigation 5
Conceptual understanding:
Modelling allows for prediction, analysis, and interpretation
1

2 Stage 0 1 2 3

Number of green triangles 1 3 9 27

Length of one side of one green 1 1 1 1

triangle 2 4 8

Area of each green triangle 1 1 1 1

4 16 64

3 Factual: What patterns emerge from each of the three rows of the table?
Answer:
Along the first row you multiply previous term by 3

1
Along the second row you multiply the previous term by
2

1
Along the third row you multiply the previous term by
4

4 Factual: What do these three patterns have in common?

Answer: To obtain the next term you multiply by a constant number in each case.
5 Number of green triangles in stages 4 to 6 would be stage 4: 27  3  81
stage 5: 81  3  243
stage 6: 243  3  729

1 1 1
Length of side in stages 4 to 6 would be stage 4:  
8 2 16
1 1 1
stage 5:  
16 2 32
1 1 1
stage 6:  
32 2 64

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1 1 1
The areas in stages 4 to 6 would be stage 4:  
64 4 256
1 1 1
stage 5:  
256 4 1024
1 1 1
stage 6:  
1024 4 4096

6 Conceptual: How would you compare the sets of numbers obtained?

Answer (this is the conceptual understanding): Modelling allows for prediction,
analysis, and interpretation.

TOK

Is all knowledge concerned with identification and use of patterns?

Answer: Consider Fibonacci numbers and connections with the Golden ratio.

An opportunity to use a TOK mantra “how do we know what we know?”

Questions might include:

- To what extent do ways of knowing prevent us from deluding ourselves?

- Is a pattern only useful if it simplifies things?

- What is the role of an anomaly in discovery?

- What does it take to know something?

- Is it enough for knowledge to be shared by your teacher or do you need to discover it for
yourself?

Investigation 6
Conceptual understanding:

The sum of an infinite geometric series tends to a finite number when the individual terms tend to
zero.

1
Line segment Length of string segment Total length of segments
(cm) (cm)

CD 50 50

DE 25 75

EF 12.5 87.5

FG 6.25 93.75

2 Factual: As this process continues indefinitely, what do you notice about the length of the line
segments? What about the total length of segments?
Answer: The length of the line segments tend to zero, whilst the total length of the
segments tend to 100.
3 Factual: What type of sequence is this?

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Answer: This is a geometric sequence.

3, 4, 5
 1 
n
 1 
n
 1 
n

1     1     1    
n
50  (1  (0.5)n ) 200   3   300   4   400 
 5 
  5 1 
(1  0.5) 3 1 4 1
1  1   1  
  5  
3 4 

1 50 66.66666667 75 80

2 75 88.88888889 93.75 96

3 87.5 96.2962963 98.4375 99.2

4 93.75 98.7654321 99.609375 99.84

5 96.875 99.58847737 99.90234375 99.968

6 98.4375 99.86282579 99.97558594 99.9936

7 99.21875 99.95427526 99.99389648 99.99872

8 99.609375 99.98475842 99.99847412 99.999744

9 99.8046875 99.99491947 99.99961853 99.9999488

10 99.90234375 99.99830649 99.99990463 99.99998976

11 99.95117188 99.9994355 99.99997616 99.99999795

12 99.97558594 99.99981183 99.99999404 99.99999959

13 99.98779297 99.99993728 99.99999851 99.99999992

14 99.99389648 99.99997909 99.99999963 99.99999998

15 99.99694824 99.99999303 99.99999991 100

16 99.99847412 99.99999768 99.99999998 100

17 99.99923706 99.99999923 99.99999999 100

18 99.99961853 99.99999974 100 100

19 99.99980927 99.99999991 100 100

20 99.99990463 99.99999997 100 100

21 99.99995232 99.99999999 100 100

22 99.99997616 100 100 100

23 99.99998808 100 100 100

24 99.99999404 100 100 100

25 99.99999702 100 100 100

26 99.99999851 100 100 100

27 99.99999925 100 100 100

28 99.99999963 100 100 100

29 99.99999981 100 100 100

30 99.99999991 100 100 100

6
Factual: Why were you asked to change the length of the string cut?

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Answer: This helped show that the fraction cut determines how fast the total length gets
closer to 100 cm.
Conceptual: How has this process help you analyse the situation?
Answer: By modelling for various lengths we could better analyse the situation.
Conceptual: How can the sum of an infinite series converge to a finite number?
Answer (this is the conceptual understanding): The sum of an infinite geometric series
tends to a finite number when the individual terms tend to zero.

Investigation 7
Conceptual understanding:
The common ratio of a geometric series allows us to determine whether the series converges to a
finite value or diverges to infinity.

1 n 3n (2)n (1.5)n (0.5)n (0.2)n (0.75)n

1 3 -2 1.5 0.5 -0.2 -0.75

2 9 4 2.25 0.25 0.04 0.5625

3 27 -8 3.375 0.125 -0.008 -0.421875

4 81 16 5.0625 0.0625 0.0016 0.316406

5 243 -32 7.59375 0.03125 -0.00032 -0.237305

6 729 64 11.39063 0.015625 0.000064 0.177979

7 2187 -128 17.08594 0.007813 -1.28E-05 -0.133484

8 6561 256 25.62891 0.003906 2.56E-06 0.100113

9 19683 -512 38.44336 0.001953 -5.12E-07 -0.075085

10 59049 1024 57.66504 0.000977 1.02E-07 0.056314

11 177147 -2048 86.49756 0.000488 -2.05E-08 -0.042235

12 531441 4096 129.7463 0.000244 4.1E-09 0.031676

13 1594323 -8192 194.6195 0.000122 -8.19E-10 -0.023757

14 4782969 16384 291.9293 6.1E-05 1.64E-10 0.017818

15 14348907 -32768 437.8939 3.05E-05 -3.28E-11 -0.013363

16 43046721 65536 656.8408 1.53E-05 6.55E-12 0.010023

17 129140163 -131072 985.2613 7.63E-06 -1.31E-12 -0.007517

18 387420489 262144 1477.892 3.81E-06 2.62E-13 0.005638

19 1162261467 -524288 2216.838 1.91E-06 -5.24E-14 -0.004228

2 Factual: What is the value of the common ratio?

Answer: The common ratio is the number that is raised to the power n in each case.
3 Conceptual: What role does the value of the common ratio play in a geometric series?
Answer (this is the conceptual understanding): The common ratio of a geometric
series allows us to determine whether the series converges to a finite value or diverges to
infinity. If r  1 then the series converges.

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4 a Consider series for 3n

b Consider series for (0.5)n

c Consider series for (2)n

d Consider series for (0.2)n or (0.75)n

e Compare series for (0.2)n and (0.75)n , or consider another sequence

a 
n
where a  1 but a is close to 1 .


u1 1  r n  u1
f
n 
 
When 1  r  1 , lim r n  0 so then Sn 
1r 1r

Developing inquiry skills

Go back to the original question about Koch’s snowflake and try to address the following,
assuming that the length of each side of the original triangle is 81 cm:
Calculate the perimeter of the snowflake at each iteration.
Answer: 243 cm, 324 cm, 432 cm, 576 cm
Calculate the area of the snowflake at each iteration.
2 2 2 2
Answer: 2841 cm , 3788 cm , 5050.67 cm , 6734.22 cm
Tabulate the results and explain the number patterns that you observe.
1
Answer: The perimeter and area increase by with each iteration.
3

Create a model that helps you to generalize the perimeter and area at any iteration.
4 𝑢−1 4 𝑢−1
Answer: 243 + ( ) ; 2841 + ( )
3 3

TOK

How do mathematicians reconcile the fact that some conclusions conflict with intuition?

Answer: Consider for instance that a finite area can be bounded by an infinite perimeter.

Investigation 8
Conceptual understanding:
Modelling allows for prediction, analysis, and interpretation which enable critical decision making.
Answers to questions 1-4 are contained in the table.

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 Teacher notes

Provider B Provider A
Cost price Cost price
Number Number per Number Number per
Number of of 3 packs of packs Notebook Selling of 6 packs of packs Notebook
Notebooks of 100 of 100 Cost Price (cents) Price (45c) Profit of 20 of 20 Cost Price (cents) Profit

500 1 2 192 0.384 225 33 4 1 170 0.34 55

600 2 0 192 0.32 270 78 5 0 200 0.333333 70
700 2 1 240 0.342857 315 75 5 5 250 0.357143 65
800 2 2 288 0.36 360 72 6 4 280 0.35 80
900 3 0 288 0.32 405 117 7 3 310 0.344444 95
1000 3 1 336 0.336 450 114 8 2 340 0.34 110
1100 3 2 384 0.349091 495 111 9 1 370 0.336364 125
1200 4 0 384 0.32 540 156 10 0 400 0.333333 140
1300 4 1 432 0.332308 585 153 10 5 450 0.346154 135
1400 4 2 480 0.342857 630 150 11 4 480 0.342857 150
1500 5 0 480 0.32 675 195 12 3 510 0.34 165
1600 5 1 528 0.33 720 192 13 2 540 0.3375 180
1700 5 2 576 0.338824 765 189 14 1 570 0.335294 195
1800 6 0 576 0.32 810 234 15 0 600 0.333333 210
1900 6 1 624 0.328421 855 231 15 5 650 0.342105 205
2000 6 2 672 0.336 900 228 16 4 680 0.34 220
2100 7 0 672 0.32 945 273 17 3 710 0.338095 235
2200 7 1 720 0.327273 990 270 18 2 740 0.336364 250
2300 7 2 768 0.333913 1035 267 19 1 770 0.334783 265
2400 8 0 768 0.32 1080 312 20 0 800 0.333333 280
2500 8 1 816 0.3264 1125 309 20 5 850 0.34 275
2600 8 2 864 0.332308 1170 306 21 4 880 0.338462 290
2700 9 0 864 0.32 1215 351 22 3 910 0.337037 305
2800 9 1 912 0.325714 1260 348 23 2 940 0.335714 320
2900 9 2 960 0.331034 1305 345 24 1 970 0.334483 335
3000 10 0 960 0.32 1350 390 25 0 1000 0.333333 350

The cheapest rate from provider A would be if the stationer orders the following numbers: 600, 1200, 1800, 2400, 3000
The cheapest rate from provider B would be if the stationer orders the following numbers: 600, 900, 1200, 1500, 1800, 2100, ...
The offer from provider A is cheaper if the stationer orders any of the following numbers: 500, 800, 1100, 1400, 1700
This list forms a finite arithmetic sequence whereas the previous ones would be infinite should we go beyond 3000 notebooks
600 notebooks from A and 900 from B would minimise his cost.

Total Cost Price = 488

Total Selling Price = 675

Provider B Provider A
% Profit 38.31967 40.625 32.35294

5 This work would help the stationer to choose which suppliers to use, and how much product to
buy.
6 The selling price is more likely to vary with demand of notebooks; the price may increase at
‘back to school’ time!

Investigation 9
Conceptual understanding:
The growth model allows you to determine whether an Arithmetic sequence or a Geometric
sequence grows faster.

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1-3

Shipments
worldwide in
Year billions d r Year Model A Model B
2011 0.52 2011 0.52 0.52
2012 0.74 0.22 1.423077 2012 0.785 0.738919
2013 1.05 0.31 1.418919 Av d Av r 2013 1.05 1.050002
2014 1.32 0.265 1.420998 2014 1.315 1.492051
2015 1.46 2015 1.58 2.120201
2016 1.51 2016 1.845 3.012802
2017 2017 2.11 4.281185
2018 2018 2.375 6.083555
2019 2019 2.64 8.644719
2020 2020 2.905 12.28413
2021 2021 3.17 17.45572
2022 2022 3.435 24.80454
2023 2023 3.7 35.2472
2024 2024 3.965 50.0862
2025 2025 4.23 71.17239

From the graph it looks like both models are equally accurate for the years 2011 to 2013 which
justifies the reasoning for choosing these models. However as we extrapolate further it can be
seen that model A is more accurate up to 2016

4 By looking at the charts it is seems that linear growth as predicted by model A seems more
realistic. However if one looks at the actual numbers of shipments up to 2016 growth seems to
be faster than arithmetic but slower than geometric. It seems that Arithmetic growth seems
more realistic because technology is making rapid advancement and by 2025 smartphones may
become obsolete. Also, the geometric model starts growing slowly but then grows very fast and

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 Teacher notes

it would eventually exceed the world population. Presently the world population for 2018 is
predicted to reach 7.6 billion. The model predicts shipments of about 6 billion.
However by 2020 the model predicts shipments of more than 12 billion which is very
unrealistic.

1.3 Proof

TOK

Do all societies view investment and interest in the same way? What is your stance?

Answer: Students could research the reason as to why we charge interest on a loan and
compare this with the perspectives in other societies such as where money in Islam is not
regarded as an asset from which it is ethically permissible to earn a direct return. The Qur’an
(2:279) sees interest as inequitable, as implied by the word “zulm” in Arabic which translates
as oppression, exploitation, and the opposite of justice. There is no real loaning in Islam since
lenders achieve ownership in the estates that they finance.

This allows students to view the perspectives of other societies and decide to what extent they
agree with the charging of interest.

Investigation 10a
Note: There is no conceptual understanding for this investigation as it is meant to give an in
context introduction to proof and reinforce the distinction between equations and identities.

Area ABCD Area APTS Area BPQT Area STRD Area TQCR

(3  4)² 4² 3X4 3X4 3²

(8  3)² 8² 8X3 8X3 3²

(7  5)² 7² 7X5 7X5 5²

1 The area of square ABCD is the sum of the areas of square APTS, rectangles BPQT and STRD
and square TQCR
2 (3  4)²  4²  2(3  4)  3²
(8  3)²  8²  2(8  3)  3²
(7  5)²  7²  2(7  5)  5²

3 (a  b)²  a²  2(a  b)  b²

4 Factual: What do you call this relationship? Why?

Answer: This is called an identity because the relationship holds for any value of a and b.

Investigation 10b
Area ABCD Area Area PBQ Area PQRS + 4  Area PBQ
PQRS

(3  4)²  49 x² 6 x2  24

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(5  11)²  256 x² 55 x2  110

2

(7  24)²  961 x² 84 x2  336

1 The area of square ABCD is the same as the sum of the areas of square PQRS and four
triangles.

2 x 2  49  24
x 2  256  110
x 2  961  84
3 Factual: What do you call each of these relationships? Why?
Answer: These are called equations because in each case we can solve for x
4 5, 11, 25

 ab 
5 x²  (a  b)²  4  
 2 

6 Conceptual: What do you call this relationship? Why?

Answer: This is called an identity because the relationship holds for any value of a and b .

7 Conceptual: How would you describe the difference between an equation and an identity?
Answer: An equation is true for particular values but an identity is true for all values.

TOK

What is the role of the mathematical community in determining the validity of a mathematical
proof?

Answer: Knowledge claims in mathematics: Do proofs provide us with completely certain

knowledge?

Can we talk about universal truth in mathematics?

Nature of mathematics and science: What is the difference between the Inductive method in
Science and proof by induction in mathematics?

Investigation 11
The students are walked through this investigation by the student book.

Investigation 12
Note: This investigation allows students to distinguish the difference between a direct proof and
proof by contradiction and so has no Conceptual understanding.
1 5n  2  2k where k 

 5n  2(k  1)
 5n is even

But the product of two odd numbers is always odd as proved in Ex 1E question 2
Therefore since 5 is odd n must be even.

© Oxford University Press 2019 16

 Teacher notes

2 5(2m  1)  2, m 

3 5(2m  1)  2  10m  7  2(5m)  7

The sum of an even and odd number is always odd, so if n is an odd number 5n  2 cannot be
even.
4 In the second method we started by assuming that the statement was false and we ended up
with a contradiction.

Investigation 13
Conceptual understanding:
Proof allows conclusions to be reached more elegantly than by alternative cumbersome ways.
1 a  b  c  Triangle ABC becomes line segment ACB
a  c  b  Triangle ABC becomes line segment ABC
b  c  a  Triangle ABC becomes line segment BAC

2 2  4  AC  AC  6

3 AC  3  10  AC  7

4 The two results contradict each other

2  3  BD  BD  5 
5  contradiction
BD  4  10  BD  6

2  3  PR  PR  5 
 contradiction
PR  4  10  PR  6 
2  4  SQ  SQ  6 
 contradiction
SQ  3  10  SQ  7

7 Factual: What do you conclude from this investigation?

Answer: No matter what order we use for arranging the sides it is impossible to create a
quadrilateral with sides of length 2,2,4 and 10 as shown by the contradictions in the
answers above.
8 Conceptual: How else could you have come to the same conclusion?
Answer: Students could try to construct such a quadrilateral but that would be too
cumbersome and this method of using the triangle inequality to prove by contradiction is
more elegant.
This leads to the conceptual understanding: Proof allows conclusions to be reached
more elegantly than by alternative cumbersome ways.

© Oxford University Press 2019 17

 Teacher notes

TOK

What do mathematicians mean by mathematical proof, and how does it differ from good reasons
in other areas of knowledge?

Answer: In this section we have looked at proof, now we can compare mathematical proof to
other areas of knowledge such as the natural sciences and the scientific method.

Is proof necessary in all areas of knowledge?

Which areas use proof? When is proof, or even reasoning, not necessary in other areas of
knowledge?

International-mindedness

How did the Pythagoreans find out that √2 is irrational?

Answer: Root 2 was the hypotenuse of a right triangle of sides 1. Research what happened to
Hippasus, and why.

Investigation 14
Note: This investigation is meant to give an in-context introduction to proof by induction and
therefore has no conceptual understanding.

1 1  2  1  4  22 ; 1  2  3  2  1  9  32 ;1  2  3  4  3  2  1  16  42

1  2  3  4  5  4  3  2  1  52
2 1  2  3  4  5  6  5  4  3  2  1  62
1  2  3  4  5  6  7  6  5  4  3  2  1  72

3 1  2  3  ...  (n  1)  n  (n  1)  ...  3  2  1  n2

4 LHS

 1  2  3  ...  (n  1)  n  (n  1)  ...  3  2  1
 2(1  2  3  ...  (n  1))  n
(n  1)
2 nn
2
 n(n  1)  n
 n2  n  n
 n2
 RHS

© Oxford University Press 2019 18

 Teacher notes

1.4 Counting principles and the binomial theorem

Investigation 15
Note: This investigation introduces factorial notation and so has no conceptual understanding.
1 a (2  1)

b 3  (2  1)  6

c 5  4  3  2  1  120

d 8  7  6  5  4  3  2  1  40320

2 The number of cups is represented by 1+2+3+…+6=21

3 The number of marbles in the last cup numbered 21 would be
21  20  19  ...  3  2  1

4 As the number of cups increases the number of marbles placed in each cup grows big very
quickly.
5 n  (n  1)  (n  2)  ...  3  2  1

Investigation 16a
1 6 arrangements
2 Students would probably list all the ways at this stage
3 24 ways
4 6 + 24 =30
5 She would have to send an invitation that is a duplicate of one of the 24 invitations sent to
friends because there are no other arrangements of the four objects. i.e. there is no other
permutation.

TOK

How many different tickets are possible in a lottery?

What does this tell us about the ethics of selling lottery tickets to those who do not understand the
implications of these large numbers?

Answer: You might want to use stimuli to start a discussion that might result in a class debate
or a blog post such as:

Are lotteries marketed to people who don’t have an emergency fund, are low on finances and
are bad at math?

Is it ethical to sell hope if the odds are 1 in 45 million?

You are probably not going to win, but winning the lottery is not the point, it is the thrill?

Does the thrill generate and addiction to gambling?

Is gambling a tax on the less intelligent?

© Oxford University Press 2019 19

 Teacher notes

Investigation 16b
1 She now can choose the first photo in five ways.
2 The second photo can be chosen in four ways.
3 She can choose 2 photos out of 5 in 10 ways.
4 Students may not realize that there is a difference, but they can be guided to think about the
condition that there is no preference as to which goes on which invitation. The number of ways
of Choosing 2 photos out of 5 is called a combination of 2 out of 5.

Investigation 16c
1 Although there are 10 permutations there are only five combinations as shown by the five
different colours
2 One would obtain 10 permutations but again only five combinations.
3 If all the permutations are considered then for every combination of three letters six
permutations are possible.
4 There are 5 ways of choosing the first letter, 4 ways of choosing the second letter and 3 ways
5! 5!
of choosing the third letter giving 5  4  3 which can be written as  . But since for
3! (5  3)!
each distinct group of 3 letters there are 3! ways of arranging the letters we need to divide by
3!

5!
So the number of ways of choosing 3 letters out of 5 will be  10
3!(5  3)!

Investigation 17

1  x 
i
Constant Coefficient Coefficient Coefficient Coefficient Coefficient
of x of x 2 of x 3 of x 4 of x 5
1 - - - - -
1  x 
0

1 1 - - - -
1  x 
1

1 2 1 - - -
1  x 
2

1 3 3 1 - -
1  x 
3

1 4 6 4 1 -
1  x 
4

1 5 10 10 5 1
1  x 
5

1 The constant term is always 1

The coefficients of x in the second column are the positive integers

The coefficients of x 2 in the third column are the triangle numbers encountered in investigation
4.
2

© Oxford University Press 2019 20

 Teacher notes

1 1

1 2 1

1 3 3 1

1 4 6 4 1

1 5 10 10 5 1

3 There is a line of symmetry going down the middle of the numbers

Each row starts with and the next number is the sum of the two numbers above it to either
side.
4 1 6 15 20 15 6 1

1  x 
6
 (1  5x  10x 2  10x 3  5x 4  x5 )(1  x)
5
 1  6 x  15x 2  20x 3  15x 4  6 x5  x 6

Investigation 18
Conceptual understanding:
The binomial theorem uses combinations to calculate the coefficients in the expansion and these
coefficients display symmetry about the centre.
1 The constant term is obtained by multiplying all the 1’s and not choosing any x's

2 By choosing one of the x's from the three factors 1  x  and multiply it by the 1’s in the other
factors. There are three ways of choosing the x and each time you multiply it by the 1’s from
the other factors.
3 This time you choose two x's from the three factors and multiply by the 1 in the other factor.
There are three ways of choosing two x's out of three.

4 There is only one way of obtaining this coefficient and that is by choosing all the x's and
multiplying them.

1  x   1  x 1  x  1  x   3C0  1  3C1  x  3C2  x2  3C3  x3

3
5

a  x   a  x  a  x  a  x   3C0  a3  3C1  a2  x  3C2  a  x 2  3C3  x 3

3
6

a  x   a  x   a  x   a  x  ...  a  x 
n

7 n factors
n n n n 1
 C0  a  C1  a  x  nC2  an 2  x 2  ...  nCr  an  r  x r  ...  nCn 1  a  x n 1  nCn  x n

8 Conceptual: How does the binomial theorem use combinations to obtain a binomial expansion?
Answer (this is the conceptual understanding): The binomial theorem uses
combinations to calculate the coefficients in the expansion and these coefficients display
symmetry about the centre.
9 Conceptual: How is binomial theorem related to Pascal's triangle?
Answer: The coefficients in the binomial theorem for power n are the numbers in nth row of
pascal’s triangle (assuming top row is row 0).

© Oxford University Press 2019 21

 Teacher notes

Investigation 19
Conceptual understanding:
Numbers and formulae can appear in different but equivalent forms or representations to establish
identities.

1 (1  x)n  nC0 x 0  nC1x  nC2 x2  ...  nCr x r  ...  nCnx n

2 a 5, 7, 11
b the number of terms for a power 2n is 2n+1
c 4, 6, 8
d The number of terms for a power 2n-1 is

1  x   5C0 x 0  5C1x  5C2 x2  5C3 x3  5C4 x 4  5C5x5

5

3 a, c
1  x   6C0 x 0  6C1x  6C2 x2  6C3 x3  6C4 x 4  6C5x5  6C6 x 6
6

To show symmetry

5 5! 5 5!
C1   5, C4  5
5!(5  1)! 4!(5  4)!

5 5! 5 5!
C2   10, C3   10
2!(5  2)! 3!(5  3)!

6 6! 6 6!
C1   6, C5  6
1!(6  1)! 5!(6  5)!

6 6! 6 6!
C2   15, C4   15
2!(6  2)! 4!(6  4)!

To show each line starts and ends with 1

5 5! 5 5! 6 6! 6 6!
C0   1, C5  1 C0   1, C6  1
0!(5  0)! 5!(5  5)! 0!(6  0)! 6!(6  6)!

To show: 6C1x  5C0 x 0  5C1x

LHS: =6

5! 5! 5! 5  5! 5!(1  5)
RHS =    6
0!5! 1!4! 5! 5!

Similarly 6C2 x2  5C1x  5C2 x2

LHS = 15

5! 5! 2  5! 4  5! 5!(2  4) 5  6
RHS =      15
1!4! 2!3! 2!4! 2!4! 2

Similarly 6C3 x3  5C2 x2  5C3 x3

LHS = 20

5! 5! 5! 54
RHS =   2  2  20 etc…
2!3! 3!2! 3!2! 2!

1  x   nC0 x 0  nC1x  nC2 x2  .....  nCr 1x r 1  nCr x r  ...  nCn x n

n

b, c
1  x   n1C0 x 0  n1C1x  n1C2 x2  .....  n1Cr x r  ...  n1Cnx n
n 1

© Oxford University Press 2019 22

 Teacher notes

n n! (n  1)!
C0  1  n 1C0
0!(n  0)! 0!(n  1  0)!
n n! (n  1)!
Cn x n  1  n 1
Cn 1
n !(n  n)! (n  1)!(n  1  n  1)!

To prove symmetry we need to show that nCr  nCnr  nCr  nCnr  0

n n! n! n! n!
Cr  nCn r     0
r !(n  r )! (n  r )!(n  (n  r ))! r !(n  r )! (n  r )! r !
n 1
We are now required to show that Cr x r n
 Cr 1x r 1  nCr x r

n n! n!
Cr 1x r 1  nCr x r  
(r  1)!(n  (r  1))! r !(n  r )!
n! n!
 
(r  1)!(n  r  1)  (n  r )! r  (r  1)!(n  r )!
n ! r  n ! (n  r  1)

r !(n  r  1)!
n !(r  n  r  1) (n  1)! n 1
   Cr x r
r !(n  r  1)! r !(n  1  r )!

d Conceptual: How can you explain the patterns in Pascal’s triangle by considering the
general expansion of the binomial expansion?

Answer: The above answers using the expansions for 1  x  and 1  x 

n n 1
and algebra
have allowed us to prove the three properties seen in Pascal’s triangle.
(This leads to the conceptual understanding): Numbers and formulae can appear in
different but equivalent forms or representations to establish identities

TOK

Why do we call this Pascal’s triangle when it was in use before Pascal was born?

Are mathematical theories merely the collective opinions of different mathematicians, or do such
theories give us genuine knowledge of the real world?

Answer: Blaise Pascal is credited with Pascal’s Triangle after he wrote about in a treatise called
“The Arithmetic triangle”, but the properties of “Pascal’s Triangle” have been known in a
number of different cultures long before Pascal. (e.g the Chinese mathematician

Yang Hui, the Indian mathematician Pangala and Persian poet and mathematician Omar
Khayyam).

TOK

Is it possible to know things about which we can have no experience, such as infinity?

Answer: Consider the debate over the validity of the notion of “infinity”.

Investigation 20
n(n  1) 2 n(n  1)(n  2) 3 n(n  1)(n  2)...(n  r  1) r
1  x 
n
1  1  nx  x  x  ...  x  ...
2! 3! r!

© Oxford University Press 2019 23

 Teacher notes


Required to show that (1  x) n   0
n  r 1
Cr x r

n 1 (n  1)!
When r  0, RHS  C0 x 0  1
0!(n  1  0)!

When r  0, RHS 
 n  r  1  n  r  2 ....(n)(n  1)! x r
r !(n  r  1  r )!


 n  r  1  n  r  2 ....(n  1)(n)(n  1)! x r
r !(n  1)!


 n  r  1  n  r  2 ....(n  1)(n) x r
r!
n(n  1)(n  2)...(n  r  1) r
 x
r!

Which corresponds to the general term in the expansion given.

Now we can enter values for r to obtain:

n n(n  1) 2 n(n  1)(n  2) 3

(1  x)n  1  x x  x  ...
1! 2! 3!

2
1 1(1  1) 2 1(1  1)(1  2) 3 1(1  1)(1  2)(1  3) 4 1(1  1)(1  2)(1  3 )(1  4) 5
(1  x)1  1  x x  x  x  x  ...
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
 1  x  x 2  x 3  x 4  x 5  ...

2 2(2  1) 2 2(2  1)(2  2) 3 2(2  1)(2  2)(2  3) 4 2(2  1)(2  2)(2  3)(2  4) 5
(1  x)2  1  x x  x  x  x  ...
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
 1  2x  3x 2  4x 3  5x 4  6 x 5  ...

3 3(3  1) 2 3(3  1)(3  2) 3 3(3  1)(3  2)(3  3) 4 3(3  1)(3  2)(3  3)(3  4) 5
(1  x)3  1  x x  x  x  x  ...
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
 1  3x  6 x 2  10x 3  15x 4  21x 5  ...

4 4(4  1) 2 4(4  1)(4  2) 3 4(4  1)(4  2)(4  3) 4 4(4  1)(4  2)(4  3)(4  4) 5
(1  x)4  1  x x  x  x  x  ...
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
2 3 4 5
 1  4x  10x  20x  35x  56 x  ...

1  x   1  ( x)
1 1

Using the result for the first expansion we obtain:

(1  x)1  1    x     x     x     x     x   ...
2 3 4 5

 1  x  x 2  x 3  x 4  x5  ...

3 Constant Coefficient Coefficient Coefficient Coefficient Coefficient

1  x 
i

of x of x 2
of x 3
of x 4
of x 5

1 1 1 1 1 1…
1  x 
1

1 1 3 4 5 6…
1  x 
2

1 3 6 10 15 21
1  x 
3

© Oxford University Press 2019 24

 Teacher notes

1 4 10 20 35 56
1  x 
4

1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
1  x 
1

 (  1)  (  1)(  2)  (  1)(  2)...(  r  1)

1  x 

 1  x  x2  x 3  ...  x r  ...
2! 3! r!

Required to show that (1  x)   C x
r 0
r
r

!
When r  0, RHS   C0 x 0  1
0!(  0)!

!    1 ...   r  1
When r  0, RHS  xr 
r !(  r )! r!

Which corresponds to the general term of the expansion given.

5

1 11  11 1  11 1 1 

1 2  2   2  1  2   2  1  2  2   2   2  1  2  2   2  3 
(1  x)  1  x   1 2   x     2
x        3
x          x4
1! 2! 3! 4!
11 1 1 1 
 2   2  1  2  2   2  3   2  4 
       x 5  ...
5!
 1  x  1   1  x2  1   1   3  x3  1   1   3   5  x 4  1   1   3   5   7  x5
 1                         
 2  1!  2   2  2!  2   2   2  3!  2   2   2   2  4!  2   2   2   2   2  5!
1 1 1 3 5 7
 1 x  x2  x  x4  x 5  ...
2 8 16 128 256
1 11  11 1  11 1 1 
1 2  2   2  1  2   2  1  2  2   2   2  1  2  2   2  3 
 
(1  x)  1    x  2  1  
1!

 x     
2!

x  
2   
3!
  
x  
3     
4!
   x 4
 
11 1 1 1 
 2   2  1  2  2   2  3   2  4 
        x 5  ...
 
5!
 1  x  1   1  x2  1   1   3  x3  1   1   3   5  x 4  1   1   3   5   7  x5
 1                           ...
 2  1!  2   2  2!  2   2   2  3!  2   2   2   2  4!  2   2   2   2   2  5!
1 1 1 3 5 7
 1 x  x2  x  x4  x 5  ...
2 8 16 128 256

TOK

"Mathematics may be defined as the economy of counting. There is no problem in the whole of
mathematics which cannot be solved by direct counting." (E. Mach)

To what extent do you agree with this quote?

Answer: You might want to view the extraordinary links between Pascal’s Triangle and the
coefficients of polynomials and if this is this just a coincidence.

Is the nature of mathematics more profound than we realise?

© Oxford University Press 2019 25

 Teacher notes

Developing inquiry skills

Return to the chapter opening problem. The enclosed area of the Koch snowflake can be found
using the sum of an infinite series.
1
In the second iteration, since the sides of the new triangles are the length of the sides of the
3
1 2 1
original triangle, their areas must be ( ) = ( ) of its area.
3 9

If the area of the original triangle is 1 square unit, then the total area of the three new triangles is
1
3( ).
9

i Find the total area for the third and fourth iterations.
2
1
Answer: The total area for the third iteration is 12   .
9
2
1
The total area for the fourth iteration is 48   .
9

ii How can you use what you have learned in this section to find the total area of the Koch
snowflake?
2 2
1 1 1
Answer: This makes the series: 1  3    12    48    
9
  9
  9

1
Since this is a converging geometric series with r  ,
9

u1
S  1 
1r

1
S  1  3
4
1
9

1
S  1  3
5
9

3
S  1 
5

8
S 
5

iii How does the area of a Koch snowflake relate to the area of the initial triangle?
Answer: So, no matter the size of the initial triangle, the total area of the Koch Snowflake is
8
its area.
5

Modelling and investigation activity: The Tower of Hanoi

Approaches to Learning: Thinking Skills, Communicating, Research
Exploration Criteria: Mathematical communication (B), Personal engagement (C), Use of
mathematics (E)
IB Topic: Sequences
Introduction

© Oxford University Press 2019 26

 Teacher notes

The Towers of Hanoi problem is a challenging ancient puzzle that prompts students to engage in
problem solving. Students should understand that struggling with a problem, and possibly having
to rethink their approach, is the nature of mathematics and a normal part of learning. Persevering
with a challenging problem will grow new connections in the brain and, over time, makes difficult
tasks easier.
In terms of preparing for an exploration - for the teacher and student this should start from
chapter 1. This chapter on sequences and series, proof and binomial expansions is a great base for
explorations. The earlier the IA and the IA criteria are introduced the better, as this will encourage
students to start to think of ideas and to make connections. The Tower of Hanoi problem is a
‘classic’ mathematics problem. This could be an issue, as students could simply use what is
already available online and in books. With this in mind the problem is approached here by
encouraging personal engagement with the problem (Criterion C) rather than seek a solution
online. Students should consider the possible approaches to answer a challenging mathematical
problem like this. They are also required to consider how they communicate mathematically
(Criterion B) and then are asked to think about possible extensions and to research other avenues
of exploration (Criterion E: Use of mathematics).

The problem
The Tower of Hanoi problem, also called Towers of Hanoi or Towers of Brahma, involves three
vertical pegs and a set of different sized disks with holes through their centres. The Tower of Hanoi
problem is widely believed to have been invented in 1883 by the French mathematician Édouard
Lucas (though his role in its invention has been disputed). Ever popular, made of wood or plastic,
the Tower of Hanoi can be found in toy shops around the world.
Lucas apparently spread the legend that helped popularize the game by including a written
account in each of the toy boxes sold of the Brahmin monks moving 64 golden disks between
three poles for many centuries with the legend saying that when they completed the puzzle the
world would end! The legend varies over time and place, being set either in a temple or a
monastery in Vietnam or India. In some versions of the legend the monks are only allowed to
make one move per day.
The history of the problem is interesting as it gives context and often a rationale for studying the
problem.
To encourage students to engage with the problem, you could ask:
What is the history and legend behind the problem?
What is the significance of the 64 disks to the legend?
Why research the history of the problem?

Explore the problem

The first thing for students to do is to have a ‘play’ with the problem. From this, since 64 disks
makes the problem too time consuming, one possible approach is to start with smaller numbers of
disks and build up a sequence so as to develop a formula. This can lead to either finding a
recursive formula, an explicit formula or a graphical solution.
Suggestions of simulations that could be used are:
Mathsisfun (https://www.mathsisfun.com/games/towerofhanoi.html)
Webgamesonline (http://www.webgamesonline.com/towers-of-hanoi/)
haubergs (http://haubergs.com/hanoi)
If online simulations are not available, then a physical representation of the problem could be
used.
When n = 3 the minimum number of moves required is 7.
When n = 4 the minimum number of moves required is 15.
To encourage discussion, you could ask:
How do you know these are minimum values?
© Oxford University Press 2019 27
 Teacher notes

This could be established through multiple students finding the same answer.

As part of the exploration, you could ask students to think about what representations (diagram,
table or other form of representation) they could use to display the individual moves needed to
solve the problem. They could then try to represent the moves made using their chosen method.
Possible methods of representation involve diagrams of the different moves, a table that
represents the moves of individual disks, a graph theory approach, etc.

Try and test a rule

If the solution is arithmetic, then you could use the result for n = 4 and the common difference to
find the result for n = 5.
The common difference between the number of moves for n = 3 and n = 4 is 15 - 7 = 8, so the
common difference between n = 4 and n = 5 would also be 8.
The number of moves for n = 5 would be 15 + 8 = 23.
Using a simulator, the minimum number of moves when n = 5 is 31, not 23.
The solution does not follow an arithmetic sequence.

Find more results

For n = 1 the minimum number of moves is 1.
For n = 2 the minimum number of moves is 3.
To put the results into context, you could encourage students to talk about the method being used
to solve the problem.
The method is to move the disks so that all but the largest disk have been assembled in their
correct order on peg B. The largest disk is then moved to peg C from peg A and then the
remaining disks are assembled on top of this piece using the same number of moves as before.

n (the number of disks) Mn (the minimum number of moves needed for n

disks)

1 1

2 3

3 7

4 15

5 31

Some students may be able to spot the formula (𝑀𝑛 = 2𝑛 − 1) from this data. Others may require
more work.
As an extension, you could ask students to use a graphing package to graph the data from their
table, with the number of disks, n, on the horizontal axis, and the minimum number of moves, M,
on the vertical axis.
You could ask:
How could you use the graph to find a formula?

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 Teacher notes

Students may be able to spot the type of expression that could be used to fit through the points on
the graph.

Try a formula
To give students further guidance, you could ask:
What must happen before the largest disk can be moved to peg C?
Before the largest disk can be moved to peg C, the other disks need to be assembled in order on
peg B.
It would take a minimum of 7 moves to get the 3 pieces on peg B as shown.
It would then take 1 move to move the largest disk from peg A to peg C.
As the pieces need to reassemble as they are it would take another 7 moves to move the 3 smaller
disks to peg C.
Therefore, the total number of moves is 7 + 1 + 7 = 15.
This method will set up the recursive formula of the solutions:

𝑀𝑛−1 = 2 × 𝑀𝑛 + 1
Where 𝑀𝑛 is the minimum number of moves needed for n disks.
Make sure that students carefully consider the notation in the formula and that the variables in
their formula are well defined.
This is a recursive formula. It uses the minimum number of moves needed to solve an n disk
puzzle to find the minimum number of moves needed for an (n + 1) disk puzzle.
To check that the formula works, students could try to solve n = 6 and check the result against
the formula.
The problem with a recursive formula is that you need to have solved all previous iterations of the
problem in order to solve the next one.

Try another formula

The relationship is not geometric because there is not a common ratio between terms.
Some students may spot the relationship to 2𝑛 . Others may not. Adding 1 to each term might help
students to recognize the relationship.
2, 4, 8, 16, 32
The formula could be written as 𝑀𝑛 = 2𝑛 − 1
An explicit formula differs from a recursive formula because it does not require you to know the
previous terms. It is possible just to substitute in the value of n.
For n = 64, the minimum number of moves needed is:
𝑀64 = 264 − 1 = 18,446,744,073,709,600,000.
Even if the monks take one second per move this would take more than 584.9 billion years, which
is longer than the history of our known universe (approximately 13.8 billion years).

Extension
The suggested extension activities look at different versions of the Towers of Hanoi problem, as
well as exploring recursive formulae.
There are many classic puzzles like this that involve sequences and series and these can lead to
starting points for explorations. However, with this and other classic problems it is important that
students do not simply regurgitate what is already available, but that they instead engage with the
problem. You could also consider extensions and additional research on top of the regular problem.

© Oxford University Press 2019 29

 Teacher notes

You could ask students what other ‘classic problems’ in mathematics they know and ask them to
explore these problems.

© Oxford University Press 2019 30